WOOD & PLYWOOD IN PACKAGING

By C.S.Purushothaman
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A wooden box is a container made of wood for storage or shipping. Wood is basically a strong and good raw material for packaging, provided its strength and economy is utilized correctly.

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Wooden boxes are often used for packing when high strength is needed for heavy and difficult loads long term warehousing needed. large size is required rigidity and stacking strength is critical

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Wooden boxes and crates are not the same. If the sheathing of the container (plywood, lumber etc) can be removed, and a framed structure will remain standing, the container would likely be termed a crate. If the sheathing is in place, the container would likely be termed a wooden box.

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The strength of a wooden box is rated based on the weight it can carry. "Skids" or thick bottom runners, are sometimes specified to allow forklift trucks access for lifting.

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Performance is strongly influenced by the specific design, type of wood, type of fasteners( nails, straps) workmanship, etc. This calls for a certain basic knowledge about wooden structures, assembling methods, etc., which unfortunately, is nonexistent in most cases.

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GENERAL ISSUES
Moisture Content of wood are seldom proper Quality of wood used has defects like knots Improper treatment Hard wood is often used, Nails are not of the correct sizes, etc. All this, unfortunately, has a disastrous effect on strength and economy of wooden packages as they are used today for transport packaging purposes.
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TYPES OF WOOD USED FOR PACKAGING

In principle, there are no particular specifications for what kind of wood should be used for a specific type of package. The choice of the species to be used will be determined, above all, by the quantity available and its price. The actual strength characteristics of the package, however, are greatly related to the type of wood, its quality, its thickness, and the workmanship in the construction and assembly of the package.
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In this context, different types of woods have often vastly different properties, such as: Density or unit weight (expressed in lbs./cub.ft; kg/m3) Bending strength (lbs./sq.in.; kg/cm2); Compressive strength (lbs./sq.in.; kg/cm2); Nail holding power Resistance to splitting Ease of working; Resistance to decay, etc
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All wood falls into two general categories:

Softwood Hardwood

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SOFTWOOD
which comes from coniferous or needle-bearing trees

HARDWOOD
which comes from deciduous, broad-leafed trees. A number of further classifications of species have been made for packaging purposes, largely on the basis of density ( 400 to 750 kg/m3)and nail holding power.

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Group I: Varieties of both softwoods and hardwoods; Do not split easily when nailed, Moderate nail-holding capacity, Moderate strength as a beam, Moderate shock resisting capacity. Soft, light in weight, easy to work, hold their shape, and are usually easy to dry.

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Group II: Heavier coniferous species Greater nail-holding capacity than Group I wood But are also more inclined to split. Hard bands of summer wood tend to deflect nails and cause them to run out at the sides of the cleats.

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Group III Hardwoods of medium density. Have same nail-holding capacity and strength as Group II But are less inclined to split or shatter at impacts. They are the most suitable woods for box ends and cleats and they are also widely used for in wire bound boxes.

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Group IV: Heavy hardwood species with highest densities. Have greatest capacity both to resist shocks and to hold nails, But because of their hardness they are difficult to nail and also have the greatest tendency to split at the nails. Particularly suited for load-bearing members, skids.

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DENSITY OF WOOD The density of the wood is an important characteristic because it gives a good indication of the strength of the wood and its resistance to the extraction of nails. Density also indicates how much shrinkage - and hence, distortion - is likely to take place during drying. Wood with a density of over 750 kg/m3 should not be used for packaging and, on the other hand, it is not advisable to use densities of less than 400 kg/m3, since these woods will not have sufficient mechanical strength.

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DENSITY OF WOOD
Although very tough and resistant, wood with a density of over 750 kg/m3 has a marked tendency for distortion. It holds nails well, but they are very difficult to drive in properly as the wood splits or the nails bend. This type is also unnecessarily heavy for packaging applications and should, therefore, be avoided for use as a packaging material.
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High-density woods (600 - 750 kg/m3) are used for e.g.: edge planks and spacers of pallets; load-bearing members of crates; skids, upright and outer lengthwise members of crates; cleats and battens of nailed wooden, plywood and wirebound boxes, etc.

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Woods of longer density (400 - 600 kg/m3) should be used for package components that are not so susceptible to stresses, such as: intermediate upright and lengthwise members of crates cleating material; panels of box ends and sides; wirebound and light wooden packages, etc.

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The wood of living trees contains a large amount of water - green or newly sawn wood can have a moisture content of over 200 per cent. For most uses of wood as a packaging material, most of this moisture has to be removed, and the wood seasoned by air or kiln drying. The moisture content of wood is one of the principal factors affecting its strength.

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Generally, as wood dries, most of its important strength characteristics increase. This increase in strength, however, does not occur until the drying has reached the fibre-saturation point, which is the condition in which the water has evaporated from the cell cavities but the cell walls are still fully saturated with water.

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For practical purposes, the fibre-saturation point is considered to be approximately 30 per cent moisture for most species. Material dried to 12 per cent moisture content may be twice as strong in bending compared to green material, and if the lumber is kiln dried to 5 per cent, its bending strength may be tripled. The resistance to extraction of nails may be as much as 30 per cent greater for dry wood than for green wood.

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However, as wood dries its toughness and shock resistance might decrease. This is because dried wood will not bend as far as green wood before failure, although it will sustain a greater load. When the moisture of wood falls below its saturation point, the wood begins to shrink. The wood stops drying when it has reached an equilibrium with the temperature and the relative humidity conditions of the surrounding air.

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This equilibrium point varies from 10 - 25 per cent, depending on climatic conditions. Shrinking of a wooden package, made out of green wood, considerably weakens the strength of its construction by distortion, checking, splitting, cupping of the timber used, and reduces the holding power of nails, etc.

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It is therefore important to use only seasoned materials, with a moisture content never exceeding 20 per cent (12 18 per cent is ideal), for wooden packages. This should be well below the fibre-saturation point and close to the equilibrium point, also taking into particular consideration the climatic conditions (temperature and relative humidity) in the target markets for the export packages.

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Another important point in this context, is the possible savings in freight through a reduction of shipping weights. A wooden package might have a tare weight of 20 lbs. (9 kg) when made of wood having a moisture content of 80 per cent, but if made of well-seasoned wood with e.g. 15 per cent moisture, the box itself would weigh approximately 13 lbs. (6 kg). The saving of 7 lbs. (3 kg) in tare weight will result in a direct saving in freight charges. A similar effect can be achieved through reducing lumber dimensions (less tare weights) for seasoned wood with strength values equal to those of previously used green wood.
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There are two additional disadvantages of using wood which is too moist in packaging. Firstly, it substantially increases risk for corrosion or moulding of contents of the package. Secondly, the wet wood itself is more likely to be attacked by wood destroying fungi, leading to decay, loss of strength, and possible negative side effects for the packed product inside.

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DEFECTS IN LUMBER For economical reasons, it will obviously not be possible to use first-class lumber as a raw material for wooden packaging. Certain defects might therefore be allowed, but should not materially reduce the structural strength nor interfere with the most effective nailing methods or patterns. There are two types of defects which have a major impact on package strength:
CROSS GRAIN/ SLAT GRAIN KNOTS

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Cross or slanting grain: The slope of the grain is the direction of the wood fibres with respect to the longitudinal axis of a piece of wood. When the fibres are not parallel to this axis, the wood is said to have a slanting grain (cross grain). The slope represented by the angle between the direction of the grain and the longitudinal axis of the piece of wood is expressed as a percentage. Slight local deviations in the grain are usually ignored. However, a grain slanting more substantially causes a considerable reduction in strength.

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Thus, for instance, a slope of 10 per cent causes a reduction of 40 per cent in the bending strength, and a slope of 15 per cent, a reduction of 60 per cent. Cross grain with a slope of more than 5 per cent should, therefore, be avoided. In addition to the loss of strength, cross grain wood has a marked tendency to warp when subjected to variations in humidity, and the risk for the wood splitting by nailing is increased.

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Knots: The weakening of the bending strength is nearly proportional to the diameter of the knot measured across the width of the board. This weakening effect is caused mainly by the cross grain wood around the knot. A distinction should, however, be made between healthy knots, strongly attached to the surrounding wood, and black, rotten, loose knots. Knots weaken the board most if they are in the middle third of the length of the board. At no time should the diameter of the knot exceed one third of the width of the board. Large size knots should be eliminated

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Checking: Caused by stresses from non-uniform shrinkage. End checking is caused by the wood drying more rapidly at the ends than away from the ends. This condition can often be avoided by painting the ends to reduce their drying, or by reducing the air circulation around the ends. Checking reduces the holding power of nails and sometimes results in splits, running the full length of the wooden piece.

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Cupping: is an excessive curvature of lumber across the grain and might happen when one side of a board dries more rapidly than the other. This condition is usually temporary, but can be permanent if sawed timber is dried with insufficient weight on it. Improper drying techniques are also responsible for the board twisting, bowing or warping. Case or surface hardening is a condition caused by too rapid surface drying and might cause warping.

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Collapse is an abnormal type of shrinkage in certain types of lumber and makes the surface of the boards look caved-in or corrugated when dried. Most of these defects do not directly affect the strength of the package but they make fabrication more difficult.

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TYPES OF WOODEN PACKAGES The types of packages made out of wooden materials can be classified into the following categories: Nailed wooden boxes Cleated wooden boxes Wirebound boxes; Skid boxes;
There is no international classification system for the different types of constructions of wooden boxes comparable to the International Case Code for corrugated boxes.

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NAILED WOOD BOX A nailed wooden box is constructed of pieces of lumber attached by nails or other suitable fasteners. It usually completely encloses the contents. This basic box design consists of the ends, sides, and the top and bottom of a single thickness of lumber, made of one or more pieces of wood. The sides are nailed into the end grain of the end, which makes the construction relatively weak. When the depth of the box necessitates the use of more than one piece of wood in the sides or ends, it is desirable to have them meet in a staggered way (at least l inch; 40 mm) in the corners. It is desirable that the sides and ends should each be in one piece, or joined together by "tongue and groove" method. This style finds applications as a returnable crate for beverages or as a field box for fruit and vegetables.
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CLEATED BOX A cleated box has five or six panel faces with wood strips attached to them. The panels can be made of plywood, solid or corrugated fibreboard etc. Wooden cleats reinforce the panels.

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WIREBOUND BOX Very thin lumber is used for a wirebound box. Wires are stapled or stitched to the girth and to wood cleats. These are sometimes used for produce and for heavy loose items for military or export use. These are lighter than wood boxes or crates. They have excellent tensile strength to contain items but not much stacking strength.

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SKID BOX A skid box is a wood, corrugated board or metal box attached to a heavy duty pallet or platform on a skid (parallel wood runners)

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BS 0

BS 0A

BS 1
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US 4

BS 1A

BS 3

BS 2

BS 4

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BS 5

US 2

BS 6
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BS 6A

DIN A6

US 3

BS 6
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BS 6A

CRATES
A crate is a large container, often made of wood, often used to transport large, heavy or awkward items. A crate has a self-supporting structure, with or without sheathing. For a container to be a crate, all six of its sides must be put in place to result in the rated strength of the container. Boxes and crates are often confused with one another; mostly when they are made of wood. Contrary to a crate, the strength of a wooden box is rated based on the weight it can carry before the cap (top, ends, and sides) is installed.
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CRATE HISTORY The first documented writings in the US about shipping crates is in a 1930 handbook (Technical Bulletin No. 171) written by C. A. Plaskett for the US Department of Agriculture although his writing imply that crates were defined before that time. C. A. Plaskett was known for his for his extensive testing and defining of various components of transport packaging.

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CRATE CONSTRUCTION Although the definition of a wooden crate as compared to a wooden box is clear, construction of the two often result in a container that is not clearly a crate or a box. Both wooden crates and wooden boxes are constructed to contain unique items, the design of either a crate or box may result in the use of principles from both. In this case, the container typically will be defined by how the edges and corners of the container is constructed. If the sheathing (either plywood or lumber) can be removed, and a framed structure will remain standing, the container would likely be termed a crate.
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CRATE DESIGN There are many variations of wooden crate designs. By far the most common are 'closed', 'open' and 'framed'. A Closed Crate is one that is completely or nearly completely enclosed with material such as plywood or lumber boards. When lumber is used, gaps are often left between the boards to allow for expansion. An Open Crate is one that (typically) uses lumber for sheathing. The sheathing is typically gapped by at various distances. There is no strict definition of an open crate as compared to a closed crate.
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CRATE DESIGN CONTD Typically when the gap between boards is greater than the distance required for expansion, the crate would be considered an open crate. The gap between boards would typically not be greater than the width of the sheathing boards. When the gap is larger, the boards are often considered 'cleats' rather than sheathing thus rendering the crate unsheathed. An unsheathed crate is a frame crate. A Frame Crate is one that only contains a skeletal structure and no material is added for surface or pilferage protection.
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CRATE DESIGN CONTD Typically an open crate will be constructed of 12 pieces of lumber, each along an outer edge of the content and more lumber placed diagonally to avoid distortion from torque. When any type crate reaches a certain size, more boards may be added. These boards are often called Cleats. A cleat is used to provide support to a panel when that panel has reached a size that is may require added support based on the method of transportation. Cleats may be placed anywhere between the edges of a given panel.
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CRATE DESIGN CONTD "Skids" or thick bottom runners, are sometimes specified to allow forklift trucks access for lifting. Transportation methods and storage conditions must always be considered when designing a crate. Every step of the transportation chain will result in different stresses from shock and vibration. Differences in pressure, temperature and humidity may not only adversely affect the content of the crate, but also will have an effect on the holding strength of the fasteners (mostly the nails and staples) in the crate.
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IATA, the International Air Transport Association, for example, doesn't allow crates on airplanes because it defines a crate as an open transport container. Although a crate can be of the Open or Framed variety, having no sheathing, a Closed crate is not open and is equally as safe to ship in as a wooden box, which is allowed by IATA.

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ASTM Standards D6039 Std Specn for Crates, Wood, Open and Covered D6179 Std Test Methods for Rough Handling of Unitized Loads and Large Shipping Cases and Crates D6199 Quality of Wood Members of Containers and Pallet D6253 Treatment and/or Marking of Wood Packaging Merials D6251 Std Specn for Wood-Cleated Panelboard Shipping Boxes D6254 Std Specn for Wirebound Pallet-Type Wood Boxes D6256 Std Specn for Wood-Cleated Shipping Boxes and Skidded, Load-Bearing Bases D6573 Std Specn for General Purpose Wirebound Shipping Boxes D6880-05 Std Specification for wooden boxes

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CONSTRUCTION AND NAILING OF WOODEN BOXES/CRATES The nailing technique used in assembly and closure is one of the most important factors influencing economy and strength in the design of wooden packages. The types of nails, their sizes, the spacing and location of the nails in relation to e.g. the grain of the wood, greatly affect the durability of the package. It is wasteful to construct a wooden box or crate with wood having good strength characteristics and then fail to nail the parts together in an effective way. Too few nails, or nails that are too small, do not provide enough strength; likewise, nails that are too large may split the wood and weaken the construction.
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Types of nails Dozens of different types of nails are available in market and variations and properties differ substantially from one supplier to another. Nails are classified by the primary function, special shapes, coatings, gauges, sizes and types of heads and points. Some of the more frequent designations for the nails used in packaging are: A. Common or Bright nails B. Bright box or Standard box nails C. Coolers D. Sinkers E. Clout nails (for plywood constructions) F. Spirally grooved nails G. Annular grooved nails H. Barbed nails
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10 HINTS FOR THE CONSTRUCTION AND NAILING OF WOODEN BOXES AND CRATES 1. If possible, clinch the nails across the grain. Withdrawal resistance is 50-150 per cent higher in dry wood, and 250-450 per cent higher in green wood. 2. Use spirally grooved or cemented (resin treated) nails for better withdrawal resistance. British Standard 1133, Section 8, recommends a procedure for etching plain nails in a process that needs no special equipment: "Make a solution of 500 gr. (18 oz) commercial monammonium phosphate to 4.5 litres (1 imperial gallon) water. Immerse plain nails in the solution for 7 hours at 210C (700F). Remove nails, wash and dry. " . 3. Use nails with a strong and moderate sized head to prevent them from shearing off or pulling through the wood.
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4. Whenever possible, nails should be driven through the thinner piece into the thicker. It is very important to avoid end grain nailing as much as possible. 5. When nailing two pieces of timber together flatwise, the nails should be clinched if the combined thickness of the wood is less than 75 (3 inches): Length of nail Length of clinched part of nail up to 55 mm (2") 6 mm () up to 80 mm (3") 10 mm (3/8") over 80 mm 13 mm

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6. Nails do not have to be clinched if the combined thickness of the two pieces of timber nailed together is more than 75 mm (3 inches). 75 mm; 3" and smaller nails should penetrate into the piece for a distance of about 2 to 2 times the thickness of the piece holding the head of the nail. 83 mm; 3" and larger nails should penetrate at least 38 mm (1") into the piece that holds the point.

Too short nails

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7. Correct spacing of nails is very important. All boards up to 100 mm (4") in width should have a minimum of 2 nails driven 25 mm (1") from either edge. Boards over 100 mm should have 3 nails or more, as necessary. The position of the nails should be staggered and not along a straight line.

Correctly spaced nails

Incorrectly spaced nails

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8. If nails with a sharp point tend to split the wood, the points should be slightly blunted with the hammer before nailing. With easy-splitting hardwoods it might be necessary in some cases to drill lead holes before nailing, particularly when large size nails have to be used.

Splits caused by incorrect nail size

Typical nailing failures

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9. The way of assembling and nailing the corners is one of the most important points in the construction of wooden packages. The strongest and most efficient way is the so-called "three way corner" which gives the box or crate maximum strength.

Correct nailing of three way corner

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Incorrect corner nailing methods

10. The use of diagonal cleats or battens adds considerable strength to the construction. The following figure shows the relative resistance to diagonal distortion provided by vertical and diagonal boards.

a well constructed crate

Resistance of various types of crate elements to diagonal distortion

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SELECTION OF CORRECT TIMBER SIZES In this context it is impossible to give precise recommendations for the construction and selection of timber sizes for all types of nailed wooden packages. Some of the variable factors influencing this selection are: - Export or domestic shipment - Mode of transport - Disposable or returnable package - Type of product packed 1. Easy load 2. Average load 3. Difficult load - Weight of contents - Type of available wood (Group I-IV) - Type of box and crate construction - Types and sizes of available nails
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SOME GENERAL COMMENTS (i) Use wood species with a density of between 400-750 kg/m3; higher densities for load-bearing or otherwise structurally important elements of the package; lower densities for panels etc. (ii) Use, if possible, only air or kiln dried seasoned timber as raw material for wooden packages. A moisture content of 5-25 per cent is acceptable; 12-18 per cent is ideal. (iii) Pay particular attention to defects in the raw material, such as cross grain, knots, splits, etc., which substantially reduce the strength of the package. (iv) Select timber and nail sizes carefully, depending on package sizes, weights, and ways of transport, etc. (v) The contents should be packed tightly into the package and, if necessary, securely fixed so that the package may be placed in any position without damage to the product.
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(vi) In the design of the package, take into account the fact that substantial loads might be placed on top of it in ships' holds, etc. (vii) If the contents so permit, move the outside cleats and other reinforcing elements to the inside of the package to save on shipping volume. (viii) Mark the points where lifting slings should be placed, particularly if the centre of gravity is off-centre. (ix) Provide lining with adequate moisture-resistant material if the contents are susceptible to damage by water. (x) Use steel strapping corrugated metal fasteners or other forms of extra reinforcement, if necessary.

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PLYWOOD
TREE TRUNK IS PEELED IN THIN LAYERS

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PLYWOOD

LAYERS BONDED CRISS CROSS GRAINS ADDED LAYERS CURED

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PLYWOOD

TEA CHESTS
LIGHT WEIGHT PROCESSED(CONSISTENCY) CLEANER AESTHETICS
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SHEATHING
LIGHT WEIGHT PROCESSED(CONSISTENCY) CLEANER AESTHETICS

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