User’s Guide

Mathsoft Engineering & Education, Inc.

US and Canada All other countries

101 Main Street Ground Floor, Norwich House

Cambridge, MA 02142 Knoll Road
Camberley, Surrey
Phone: 617-444-8000 GU15 3PR
FAX: 617-444-8001 United Kingdom

http://www.mathsoft.com/ Phone: +44 (0) 1276 692345

FAX: +44 (0)1276 605130
Mathsoft Engineering & Education, Inc. owns both the Mathcad software program and
its documentation. Both the program and documentation are copyrighted with all rights
reserved by Mathsoft. No part of this publication may be produced, transmitted,
transcribed, stored in a retrieval system, or translated into any language in any form
without the written permission of Mathsoft Engineering & Education, Inc.
© 1986-2005 Mathsoft Engineering & Education, Inc. All rights reserved.
Mathsoft and Mathcad are registered trademarks and Calculation Management Suite
and Designate are trademarks of Mathsoft Engineering & Education, Inc. U.S. Patents
5,469,538; 5,526,475; 5,771,392; 5,844,555; and 6,275,866. MKM (Mathsoft Kernel
Maple) © 1994 Waterloo Maple Software. Microsoft Internet Explorer © 1995-2005
Microsoft Corporation. Web Help © 2004 by eHelp Corporation, a subsidiary of
Macromedia, Inc. Portions of the Mathcad Solver © 1990-2002 by Frontline Systems,
Inc. Microsoft, Windows, Windows NT, JScript and the Internet Explorer logo are
registered trademarks of Microsoft Corporation. All other trademarks are the property
of their respective owners.

Mathsoft Engineering & Education, Inc.

101 Main Street
Cambridge, MA 02142
USA

Printed in the United States of America. January, 2006

Contents
1: Welcome to Mathcad 1
What Is Mathcad? 1
Highlights of the Mathcad 13 Release 2
System Requirements 4
Installation 4
Technical Support 6
2: Getting Started with Mathcad 7
The Mathcad Workspace 7
Regions 9
A Simple Calculation 9
Definitions and Variables 10
Graphs 12
Saving, Printing, and Exiting 13
3: Online Resources 15
Mathcad Resources 15
User Forums 19
Other Resources 21
4: Working with Math 23
Inserting Math 23
Building Expressions 25
Editing Expressions 29
Math Styles 33
5: Range Variables and Arrays 37
Creating Arrays 37
Iterative Calculations 38
Accessing Array Elements 41
Displaying Arrays 43
Working with Arrays 45
6: Working with Text 49
Inserting Text 49
Text and Paragraph Properties 51
Text Styles 53
Equations in Text 55
Text Tools 56
7: Worksheet Management 59
Worksheets and Templates 59
Rearranging Your Worksheet 61
Layout 65
Safeguarding an Area of the Worksheet 67
Worksheet References 69
Hyperlinks 70
Distributing Your Worksheets 72

iii
 8: Calculating in Mathcad 77
Defining and Evaluating Variables 77
Defining and Evaluating Functions 86
Units and Dimensions 88
Working with Results 91
Controlling Calculation 96
Error Messages 97
9: Solving 99
Solving and Optimization Functions 99
10: Inserting Graphics and Other Objects 105
Overview 105
Inserting Pictures 105
Inserting Objects 108
Inserting Objects Computationally Linked to Your Worksheet 110
11: 2D Plots 113
Overview of 2D Plotting 113
Graphing Functions and Expressions 115
Plotting Vectors of Data 118
Formatting a 2D Plot 121
Modifying a 2D Plot’s Perspective 123
Animations 125
12: 3D Plots 127
Overview of 3D Plotting 127
Creating 3D Plots of Functions 128
Creating 3D Plots of Data 130
Formatting a 3D Plot 135
13: Symbolic Calculation 139
Overview of Symbolic Math 139
Live Symbolic Evaluation 140
Using the Symbolics Menu 144
Examples of Symbolic Calculation 145
Index 151

iv
Chapter 1
Welcome to Mathcad
 What Is Mathcad?
 Highlights of the Mathcad 13 Release
 System Requirements
 Installation
 Technical Support

What Is Mathcad?
Mathcad is the primary piece of the Mathsoft Calculation Management Suite. Together
the suite enables engineers to simultaneously design and document their work while
centrally managing it for reuse, auditing, publishing and collaboration throughout the
entire development process.
Mathcad delivers all the solving capabilities, functionality, and robustness needed for
calculation, data manipulation, and engineering design work. Mathcad allows you to
document your calculations in the language of mathematics, because Mathcad
combines a powerful computational engine, accessed through conventional math
notation, with a full-featured word processor and graphing tools.
You can type equations as you’re used to seeing them on paper.
Simply type in your equations, then see them display with an
instant result, along with as much text you want to accompany
the math. Mathcad makes it easy to communicate the rationale and assumptions behind
your calculations enabling design quality assurance.
You can use Mathcad equations to solve both symbolical and numerical equations. You
can place text anywhere on the worksheet and add two- and three-dimensional graphs
to the page. You can even illustrate your work with images taken from another
application. Mathcad takes full advantage of Microsoft’s OLE 2 object linking and
embedding standard to work with other applications, supporting drag and drop and in-
place activation as both client and server.
Mathcad lets you easily mix and convert between unit systems, catching unit mistakes
by checking your worksheets for dimensional consistency. You can work in your
preferred unit system or switch to another system for a particular set of equations.
Mathcad’s powerful programming and scripting capabilities are not introduced in this
introductory User’s Guide. Visit online Help, the Programming tutorial, and the
Developer’s Reference for learning how to program in Mathcad.
Mathcad comes with online Tutorials; QuickSheets showing working examples of
Mathcad functions and applications; and Reference Tables with math, science, and
engineering formulas. These live worksheets are found under the Help menu or from

1
2 / Chapter 1 Welcome to Mathcad

the Resources Toolbar. Online Help includes the Author’s Reference and Developer’s
Reference for more advanced usage.
Mathcad simplifies and streamlines documentation, critical to communicating and to
meeting business and quality assurance standards. By combining equations, text, and
graphics in a single worksheet, Mathcad makes it easy to keep track of the most complex
calculations. By saving your worksheets in XML format, you can reuse the information
in other text-based systems or search and report on worksheets without needing to
reopen them in Mathcad.

Highlights of the Mathcad 13 Release

Mathcad 13 features a number of improvements and added capabilities designed to
increase your productivity. For more in-depth details and live examples see New
Features under Tutorials in the Help menu.
New Features
• Autosave: You can choose to automatically save files, with user-specified time
settings and dialogs to help you recover recently autosaved versions in the event of
a crash.
Unit Features
• Affine and “function-based” units: Non-multiplicative units (functions) can now
be placed in the units placeholder. Use function/inverse pairs built into Mathcad or
define your own in any worksheet.
• Celsius and Fahrenheit conversions: New temperature unit functions °F and °C
are built in.
• User-defined default units: You can create custom unit systems with your choice
of base and extended units using a new Worksheet Options dialog.
• Custom built-in units: You can define your own built-in units.
• New Units: Degrees-Minutes-Seconds (DMS), Hours-Minutes-Seconds
(hhmmss), and Feet-Inches-Fractions (FIF).
Math Enhancements
• Program debugging: The new Trace window lets you track intermediate values
in a program using the new functions trace and pause. The debugging toolbar allows
you to view and hide the window, turn debugging on or off, and step through
iterative calculations. Results from the Trace window can be copied for reuse
elsewhere.
• Explicit calculation: A new symbolic keyword displays numeric replacement
values before combining them in final calculations, improving traceability and
reporting for validation. The explicit keyword also allows you to create print-
ready reports with automatic calculations in a standard presentation format or to
mask numerical definitions in live symbolic calculations.
• Fitting function improvements: The genfit function’s new optimized Levenberg-
Marquardt algorithm choice is faster and more accurate in many cases. Function
 Highlights of the Mathcad 13 Release / 3

setup for genfit is also simplified — you can use individual names for parameters,
and built-in numerical derivatives rather than analytical expressions.
• Linear algebra function improvements: Linear algebra functions for eigenvalues,
linear system solving, determinants, matrix inversion, and matrix multiplication are
faster and have additional functionality for solving a wider variety of problems.
• Compatibility switches: Settings in Worksheet Options allow you to specifically
control the interpretation of certain Mathcad expressions by version. The new
switches allow backwards compatibility until version-neutral expressions can be
constructed.
Usability Features
• 2D Graph enhancements: A new Traces tab for 2D graphs provides more options
for colors, markers, symbols, and lines in a easy-to-use visual format. A full
Windows color palette gives you more options for differentiating traces. Symbol
weight and frequency settings can be controlled independently from settings for
lines.
• Enhanced unit error messages: Error messages now point out the expected unit
and type of values, making it easier to identify and correct mistakes.
• Literal subscripts are more clearly differentiated from array subscripts.
• Area names can be as long as needed.
• 1x1 matrices can be created directly from the matrix dialog box.
• The path or file for a Referenced worksheet can be edited directly by right-clicking
on it and choosing Properties.
• You can switch the display of symbolic evaluation arrows to = and hide the left-
hand-side or keywords on a live symbolic expression.
• Metadata enhancements: Mathcad 12 introduced provenance in that copying
equations from one file into another automatically creates an electronic audit trail
of metadata. Now provenance is created on results and referenced files, as well as
entire documents.
• You can save a file directly to DesignateTM or other Web-based repository.
New Documentation
• A new Programming tutorial and revised Help on programming get you started
with the programming operators.
• The new Migration Guide discusses math constructs that have been upgraded and
any incompatibilities with older versions. The guide gives specific instructions on
migrating documents efficiently to take advantage of new functionality. It shows
best practices to optimize documents and work with the latest Mathcad technology.
• An expanded tutorial on arrays shows you how to iterate and calculate difference
equations. New Mathcad QuickSheets cover topics in sampling and fitting ODE
solutions, waterfall plots, and parametric fitting. A performance QuickSheet in
Techniques shows you how to maximize Mathcad processing.
4 / Chapter 1 Welcome to Mathcad

System Requirements
To run Mathcad 13, the following are recommended or required:
Hardware
• PC with Pentium/Celeron processor, 400 MHz or higher; 700+ MHz recommended.
• 256 MB of RAM; 512 MB or more recommended.
• 550 MB of hard disk space (250 MB for Mathcad, 100 MB for prerequisites, 200
MB temporary space during installation).
• CD-ROM or DVD drive (for CD installation only).
• SVGA or higher graphics card and monitor.
• Keyboard and mouse or compatible pointing device.
Software
• Windows 2000 SP4, Windows XP SP2 or later.
The following requirements are available on the Mathcad CD:
• Microsoft .NET Framework® 1.1.
• MSXML 4.0 SP2 or later.
• Microsoft Data Access Components 2.6 or later.
• Internet Explorer version 6.0. (IE does not need to be your default browser.)
• Adobe Acrobat Reader 7.0.

Installation
Instructions in this section are intended for all editions of Mathcad 13. Network users
should check with their network administrators for network installation and licensing
information.
To Install Mathcad
1. Insert the Mathcad CD into your CD-ROM drive. If the installation program does
not start automatically, you can start it by choosing Run from the Start menu and
typing D:\SETUP (where “D:” is your CD-ROM drive).
2. Click the “Mathcad 13” button on the main installation page.
3. When prompted, enter your product code, located on the back of the CD envelope.
4. Follow the remaining on-screen instructions.
To install other items from the Mathcad CD, such as Internet Explorer or Acrobat
Reader, click the Other Software button on the main installation page.
 Installation / 5

Activating Your Installation

Activation is for single-user copies of Mathcad. When you finish installing Mathcad,
you will be prompted to activate your installation. When you opt to do so, Mathcad
launches to activate your installed copy. Activation ensures that you have purchased a
valid licensed copy of Mathcad and can be done automatically if you have an active
Internet connection. If you do not have an active Internet connection, you should initiate
one before attempting activation.
If you opt to activate Mathcad manually, you will need to provide the following
information to Mathsoft Engineering and Education, Inc. by using the form provided
in contact.txt, available from the Activation Wizard:
• Your email address.
• The product you are registering (in this case, Mathcad 13).
• Your License Number.*
• Your Product Code.
• Your Request Code.*
Entries marked with an “*” are available only from the Activation Wizard. Information
submitted during activation is used only to process your request and is not stored or
used for any other purposes.
Once you fill out your copy of contact.txt, submit the information to Mathsoft. Users
in the U.S. and Canada may do so by either:
• Faxing a copy of contact.txt to 1-617-444-8001.
• Emailing a copy of contact.txt to activation@mathsoft.com.
• Phoning 1-800-827-1263 (U.S. only) or 617-444-8105 (U.S. and Canada) and
supplying the information from contact.txt when prompted.
If you purchased Mathcad outside the U.S. and Canada, please contact your local
authorized Mathcad distributor for your activation code. Contact information for
Mathcad distributors is available at:
http://www.mathcad.com/purchase/international_distributors/
If you do not have Web access you can contact Mathsoft International for assistance at:
• Email: activation@Mathsoft.co.uk
• Fax: +44 (0)1276 605130
• Telephone: +44 (0)1276 692345
Once you receive your Activation Key, return to the Activation Wizard and attempt a
manual activation. Click “Next” until you reach the Enter Your Activation Key page,
then enter the Activation Key you received. Once the Activation Key is accepted, your
installation of Mathcad will be activated and ready to use.
Questions about Activation
Mathsoft has implemented activation to ensure that you have purchased a valid licensed
copy of Mathcad.
6 / Chapter 1 Welcome to Mathcad

Activation does not transfer any other personal information from your computer.
Mathsoft product activation is completely anonymous and is only used to authenticate
your license.
Activation allows you to install Mathcad on both your work computer and a home
computer or laptop used for work. Most hardware and software upgrades to your
computer will not require reactivation, and you can reinstall Mathcad on the same
machine without using up an additional activation.

Note Activation installs a C_DILLA folder on your C-drive with your license for Mathcad use. If you
delete the C_DILLA folder you may have to contact Mathsoft to restore your activation.

If your computer’s hardware has changed substantially you may have to contact
Mathsoft to reactivate.

Technical Support
Mathsoft provides free online support resources for all of our registered users, including
a searchable knowledge base. Mathsoft provides free technical support for individual
users of the current version of Mathcad and one version prior for 30 days, commencing
with your first recorded contact with technical support. You must be registered in order
to receive technical support. After that, you can purchase a support subscription. Please
check the Support area of www.mathcad.com for more information regarding our
support policies.
U.S. and Canada
• Web: http://support.mathsoft.com
• Email: support@mathsoft.com
• Automated solution center: 617-444-8102
• Fax: 617-444-8101
International
If you reside outside the U.S. and Canada, please contact your local authorized Mathcad
distributor for technical support. Their contact details can be found at:
http://www.mathcad.com/purchase/international_distributors/.
If you do not have internet access you can contact Mathsoft International directly for
assistance at:
• Email: support@mathsoft.com
• Fax: +44 (0)1276 605130
• Telephone: +44 (0)1276 692345
Site Licenses
Contact Mathsoft or your local distributor for information about technical support plans
for site licenses.
Chapter 2
Getting Started with Mathcad
 The Mathcad Workspace
 Regions
 A Simple Calculation
 Definitions and Variables
 Graphs
 Saving, Printing, and Exiting

The Mathcad Workspace

When you start Mathcad, you see a window like that shown in Figure 2-1.

Figure 2-1: Mathcad with various toolbars displayed.

7
8 / Chapter 2 Getting Started with Mathcad

Each button in the Math toolbar, shown in the table below, opens another toolbar of
operators or symbols. You can insert many operators, Greek letters, and plots by
clicking these buttons.
Button Math toolbar

Calculator: Arithmetic operators.

Graph: Two- and three-dimensional plot types and graph tools.

Matrix: Matrix and vector operators.

Evaluation: Equal signs for evaluation and definition.

Calculus: Derivatives, integrals, limits, and iterated sums and products.

Boolean: Comparative and logical operators for Boolean expression.

Programming: Programming constructs.

Greek: Greek letters.

Symbolic: Symbolic keywords.

The Standard toolbar provides quick access to many menu commands.

The Formatting toolbar contains scrolling lists and buttons to specify font
characteristics for both equations and text.

Tip To learn what a button on any toolbar does, hover the mouse over the button until a tooltip
appears with a brief description.

You can choose to show or hide each toolbar from the View menu. To detach and drag
a toolbar around your window, place your cursor on the edge of the toolbar. Then hold
down the mouse button and drag.

Tip You can customize the Standard, Formatting, and Math toolbars. To add and remove buttons,
right-click on the toolbar and choose Customize from the menu.
 Regions / 9

Working with Worksheets

When you start Mathcad, you open a Mathcad worksheet. You can have as many
worksheets open as your available system resources allow.
If you are working with a longer worksheet, use Go to Page from the Edit menu to
move quickly through the worksheet.

Regions
Mathcad lets you enter equations, text, and plots anywhere in the worksheet. Each
equation, piece of text, or other element is a region. A Mathcad worksheet is a collection
of such regions. To start a new region in Mathcad:
1. Click anywhere in a blank area of the worksheet. You see a small crosshair.
Anything you type appears at the crosshair.
2. If the region you want to create is a math region, just start typing anywhere you put
the crosshair. By default Mathcad understands what you type as mathematics. See
“A Simple Calculation” below for an example.
3. To create a text region, choose Text Region from the Insert menu or simply press
[“] and then start typing. See Chapter 6, “Working with Text,” for a complete
description.

Tip To add a border around a region or regions, select the region(s), then right-click and choose
Properties from the menu. Click on the Display tab and check the box next to “Show Border.”

A Simple Calculation
Although Mathcad can perform sophisticated mathematics, you can easily use it as a
simple calculator. To try your first calculation, follow these steps:
1. Click in the worksheet. You see a small crosshair.

2. Type 15-8/104.5=. When you type the equal sign or

click on the Calculator toolbar, Mathcad computes
the result.
This calculation demonstrates the way Mathcad works:
• Mathcad sizes fraction bars, brackets, and other symbols to display equations the
same way you might see them in a book.
• Mathcad understands which operation to perform first. Mathcad knew to perform
the division before the subtraction and displayed the equation accordingly.
• As soon as you type the equal sign, Mathcad returns the result. Mathcad processes
each equation as you enter it.
• As you type each operator (in this case, - and /), Mathcad shows a small black
rectangle called a placeholder. Placeholders hold spaces open for numbers or
10 / Chapter 2 Getting Started with Mathcad

expressions not yet typed. If you click at the end of an equation, you see a
placeholder for units and unit conversions.
Once an equation is on the screen, you can edit it by clicking in it and typing new letters,
numbers, or operators. You can enter many operators and Greek letters by using the
math toolbars. Chapter 4, “Working with Math,” explains how to edit Mathcad
equations.

Definitions and Variables

Mathcad’s power and versatility quickly become apparent once you begin to use
variables and functions. By defining variables and functions, you can link equations
together and use intermediate results in further calculations.
Defining Variables
These steps show you how to define a variable:
1. Type the variable name.

2. Type the colon key [:] or click on the Calculator toolbar to insert the definition
symbol.
3. Type the value to be assigned to the variable. The value can be a single number or
a more complicated combination of numbers and previously defined variables.
If you make a mistake, click on the equation and press [Space] until the entire
expression is between the two blue editing lines. Then delete it by choosing Cut from
the Edit menu ([Ctrl]X). Or use Mathcad’s Undo ([Ctrl]Z) and Redo ([Ctrl]Y)
commands from the Edit menu to step back and forth through the equation.
Variables in Mathcad worksheets are defined from top to bottom and left to right on a
page. Once you have defined a variable like t, you can compute with it anywhere below
and to the right of the definition.
Now enter another definition:

1. Press [Enter]. This moves the crosshair below the first

definition.
2. To define acc as –9.8, type: acc:–9.8.

Calculating Results
Now that the variables acc and t are defined, you can use them in other expressions:
1. Click the mouse below the two definitions.
2. Type acc/2[Space]*t^2. The caret symbol (^)
represents raising to a power, the asterisk (*) is
multiplication, and the slash (/) represents division.
3. Press the equal sign [=].
 Definitions and Variables / 11

This equation calculates the distance traveled by a falling body in time t with
acceleration acc. When you press the equal sign [=], Mathcad returns the result.
Mathcad updates results as soon as you make changes. For example, if you click on the
10 on your screen and change it to another number, Mathcad changes the result as soon
as you press [Enter] or click outside of the equation.
Defining a Function
To add a function definition to your worksheet:

1. First define the function d(t) by typing d(t):

2. Complete the definition by typing this expression:

1600+acc/2[Space]*t^2[Enter]

The definition you just typed defines a function. The function name is d, and the
argument of the function is t.
You can use this function to evaluate the expression for different values of t. To do so,
simply replace t with an appropriate number. For example:
To evaluate the function at a particular value, such as 3.5,
type d(3.5)=. Mathcad returns the correct value as shown.
Formatting a Result
You can set the display format for any number that Mathcad calculates and displays.
In the example above, the result is in exponential notation. Here’s how to change the
result so it is displayed differently:
1. Click in the result.
2. Choose Result from the Format menu to open the Result Format dialog box. These
dialog settings affect how results are displayed, including the number of decimal
places, the use of exponential notation and trailing zeros, and so on.
12 / Chapter 2 Getting Started with Mathcad

3. The default format scheme is “General” with “Exponential Threshold” set to 3.

Only numbers greater than or equal to 103 are displayed in exponential notation.
Click the arrows to the right of the 3 to increase the Exponential Threshold to 6.
4. After you click “OK,” the number changes to reflect the
new result format. (See “Formatting Results” on page 91.)

Note When you format a result, only the display of the result is affected. Mathcad maintains full
precision internally (up to 17 digits).

Graphs
Mathcad provides a variety of two-dimensional x-y and polar graphs plus three-
dimensional contour, scatter, and surface plots. This section describes how to create a
simple two-dimensional graph showing the points calculated in the previous section.
Creating a Basic Graph
To create an X-Y plot:
1. Click in a blank area of your worksheet.
2. Choose Graph > X-Y Plot from the Insert menu
or click on the Graph toolbar. Or type [@].
Mathcad inserts a blank X-Y plot.
3. Fill in the x-axis placeholder (bottom center) with
t, and the y-axis placeholder (left center) with d(t).
These placeholders can contain a function, an
expression, or a variable name.
4. Click outside the plot or press [Enter].
Mathcad automatically chooses axis limits for you. To specify the axis limits yourself,
click in the plot and type over the numbers in the placeholders at the ends of the axes.
Mathcad also creates the plot over a default range. For detailed information on graphs,
ranges, and expressions in plots, see Chapter 11, “2D Plots.”
Formatting a Graph
The default characteristics of a Mathcad graph are numbered linear axes, no grid lines,
and points connected with solid lines. You can change these characteristics by
formatting the graph. To format the graph you just created:
1. Double-click the graph to bring up the Formatting dialog box. To learn more about
these settings, see Chapter 11, “2D Plots.”
2. Click the Traces tab.
3. Double-click “trace 1” in the table cell under “Legend Label.” Type a name for the
trace, for example, Displacement.
 Saving, Printing, and Exiting / 13

4. Click the table cell in the “Line” column and choose a dotted line. Choose a line
weight of 3 from the next column, and the color blue in the “Color” column.
5. Uncheck the “Hide Legend”
check box, and select the
“Bottom-left” position for the
legend.
6. Click “OK.”
7. Mathcad shows the graph as a
dotted line. Note that the
sample line under the d(t) now
reflects the new formatting, as
does the legend.
8. Click outside the graph to
deselect it.

Saving, Printing, and Exiting

After you’ve created a worksheet, the next step is to save or print it.
Saving a Worksheet
To save a worksheet:
1. Choose Save from the File menu, [Ctrl]S. If the file has never been saved before,
the Save As dialog box appears.
2. Type the name of the file in the text box provided. To save to another folder, locate
the folder using the Save As dialog box.
By default Mathcad saves the file in a native Mathcad format — Mathcad XML (.XMCD)
or compressed Mathcad XML (XMCDZ). You also have the option of saving in other
formats — HTML, RTF for Microsoft Word, or XMCT as templates for future Mathcad
worksheets, or in Mathcad 2001i, 11, or 12 versions, including MCD for the earlier
versions. To save as HTML, you can also choose Save as Web Page under the File
menu.

Note If you save a Mathcad file as HTML or RTF, you can not reopen the file back into Mathcad.

Printing

To print, choose Print from the File menu or click on the Standard toolbar. To
preview the printed page, choose Print Preview from the File menu or click on
the Standard toolbar.
Exiting Mathcad
To quit Mathcad, choose Exit from the File menu. If you have moved any toolbars,
Mathcad remembers their locations for the next time you open the application.
Chapter 3
Online Resources
 Mathcad Resources
 User Forums
 Other Resources

Mathcad Resources
Help Menu Resources
• Tutorials includes Getting Started Primers, Migration Guide, and Features In-
Depth.
• QuickSheets are live examples that you can manipulate to see how to use Mathcad
functions, graphs, and programming features.
• Reference Tables provide you with physical constant tables, chemical and physical
data, and mathematical formulas.
• Mathcad Help contains complete help on every feature and function in Mathcad
with links to live Mathcad examples.
• The Author’s Reference covers creating E-books in Mathcad and exporting
Mathcad files in RTF for Microsoft Word, HTML for distribution to non-Mathcad
audiences.
• The Developer’s Reference describes using and developing Mathsoft custom
Scriptable Object components, Mathsoft Custom Controls, and the Data
Acquisition component. The Developer’s Reference guides advanced users through
Mathcad’s Object Model, allowing access to Mathcad functionality from another
application or OLE container. It also explains how to create your own functions in
Mathcad in the form of DLLs.
Resources Window and E-books
If you learn best from examples, want information you can put to work immediately in
your Mathcad worksheets, or wish to access any page on the Web from within Mathcad,
open the Resources toolbar or open Tutorials, QuickSheets, or Reference Tables from
the Help menu. The Resources window and Mathcad E-books appear as custom
windows with their own menus and toolbar, as shown in Figure 3-1.

Note A number of Mathcad E-books and articles, which you can download and use, are available in
the Resources section on http://www.mathcad.com. In addition, a variety of Mathcad E-books
are available from the Mathsoft Webstore at http://www.webstore.mathsoft.com or your local
distributor or software reseller. E-books install to a Handbook folder within the Mathcad
program folder. Once you have restarted Mathcad, they will be listed under E-books in the Help
menu, or you can browse to find unlisted E-books (HBK). If you create your own E-books, you
may have to create a Handbook folder.

15
16 / Chapter 3 Online Resources

Figure 3-1: E-book window and toolbar.

Finding Information in an E-book
As in other hypertext systems, you move around a Mathcad E-book simply by clicking
on icons or underlined text. You can also use the buttons on the toolbar at the top of
the E-book and Resources window to navigate within the E-book:
Button Function

Links to the home page or welcome page for the E-book.

Opens a toolbar for entering a Web address.

Backtracks to the document last viewed or reverses backtrack.

Goes backward or forward one section.

Displays a list of documents most recently viewed.

Searches the E-book.

Copies selected regions.

Saves current section of the E-book.

Prints current section of the E-book.

Displays Help for the current function, dialog, or command.

 Mathcad Resources / 17

E-book Search
In addition to using hypertext links to find topics in an E-book, you can search for topics
or phrases. To do so:

1. Click to open the Search Book dialog box.

2. Type a word or phrase in the “Search for” text box. Select a word or phrase and
click “Search” to see a list of topics containing that entry and the number of times
it occurs in each topic.
3. Choose a topic and click “Go To.” Mathcad opens the section containing the entry.
Click “Next” or “Previous” to see other occurrences of the entry.
Annotating an E-book
A Mathcad E-book is made up of fully interactive Mathcad worksheets. You can freely
edit any math region in an E-book to see the effects of changing a parameter or
modifying an equation. You can also enter text, math, or graphics as annotations in any
section of your E-book.
Saving Annotations
Changes you make to an E-book are temporary: your edits disappear when you close
the E-book. To save your edits, first check Annotate Book on the Book menu, then
choose to save changes to the current section, save all changes, or restore the original
E-book section.
Copying Information from an E-book
There are two ways to copy information from an E-book into your Mathcad worksheet:
• You can select text or equations then copy and paste them into your worksheet.
• You can drag regions from the E-book window into your worksheet. Select the
regions, click and hold down the mouse button over one of the regions while you
drag the group into your worksheet, then release the mouse button.
18 / Chapter 3 Online Resources

Web Browsing
You can also use the Resources window to browse to any location on the Web and open
Web pages, in addition to Mathcad worksheets and E-books posted on the Web.
Mathcad Web Resources contains hundreds of useful worksheets and E-books.

Note When the Resources window is in Web-browsing mode, Mathcad is using a Web-browsing OLE
control provided by Microsoft Internet Explorer.

To browse to any Web page from within the Resources window:

1. Click on the Resources toolbar. As shown below, an additional toolbar with

an “Address” box appears below the Resources toolbar:

2. In the “Address” box type a Uniform Resource Locator (URL) for a document on
the Web. To visit the Mathsoft Web Resources, for example, type
http://www.mathcad.com/resources/ and press [Enter]. If you do not have a
supported version of Microsoft Internet Explorer installed, you must launch a Web
browser.
The remaining buttons on the Web toolbar have the following functions:
Button Function

Bookmark submenu: add or edit bookmarks or open a bookmarked page.

Reload the current page.

Interrupt the current file transfer.

Note When you are in Web-browsing mode and right-click on the Resources window, Mathcad
displays a menu with commands appropriate for viewing Web pages. Many of the buttons on the
Resources toolbar remain active when you are in Web-browsing mode, so that you can copy,
save, or print material you locate on the Web, or backtrack to pages you previously viewed.
When you click , you return to the Home page for the Resources window or E-book.

Help
Mathcad provides several ways to get support on product features through an extensive
online Help system. To see Mathcad’s online Help at any time, choose Mathcad Help
from the Help menu, click on the Standard toolbar, or press [F1]. To run Help,
you must have Internet Explorer 5.5 or higher installed. However, IE does not need to
be set as your default browser.
 User Forums / 19

To know what Mathcad menu commands do, hover over the command and read the
status bar at the bottom of your window. For toolbar buttons, hold the pointer over the
button momentarily to see a tool tip.
You can also get more detailed help on menu commands, toolbars, built-in functions
and operators, and error messages. To do so:
1. Click an error message, a built-in function or variable, or an operator.
2. Press [F1] to bring up the relevant Help screen.
To get help on menu commands, dialogs, or on any of the toolbar buttons:
1. Press [Shift][F1]. Mathcad changes the pointer into a question mark.
2. Click a command from a menu. Mathcad opens the relevant Help screen.
3. Click any toolbar button. Mathcad displays the operator’s name and a keyboard
shortcut in the status bar.
To resume editing, press [Esc]. The pointer turns back into an arrow.

User Forums
The Mathcad User Forums allow you to contribute Mathcad or other files and post
messages, and to download files and read messages contributed by other Mathcad users.
You can search the User Forums for messages containing a key word or phrase, be
notified of new messages in specific forums, and view only the messages you haven’t
yet read. The User Forums combine some of the best features of an online news group
with the convenience of sharing Mathcad worksheets.
Logging in
To open the User Forums, choose User Forums from the Help menu, or you can open
an Internet browser and go directly to the User Forums:
http://collab.mathsoft.com/~mathcad2000/
The User Forums login screen appears in a browser window.
The first time you come to the login screen of the User Forums, click “New User.” This
brings you to a form for entering required and optional information.

Note Mathsoft does not use this information for any purposes other than for your participation in the
User Forums.

Click “Create” when you are finished filling out the form. Check your email for a
message with your login name and password. Go back to the User Forums, enter your
login name and password given in the email message and click “Log In” to open the
main page of the User Forums. (See Figure 3-2.)
A list of forums and messages appears on the left side of the screen.

Tip After logging in, you may want to change your password to one easy to remember. To do so,
click “More” on the toolbar at the top of the window, then go to “Edit User Profile.”
20 / Chapter 3 Online Resources

Figure 3-2: Opening the User Forums from the Resources window.

Note Mathsoft maintains the User Forums as a free service, open to all in the Mathcad community. Be
sure to read the Agreement posted in the top level of the User Forums for important information
and disclaimers.

Communicating with Other Mathcad Users

Reading Messages
When you enter the User Forums, you will see how many messages are new and how
many are addressed to your attention. Messages that you have not yet read are shown
in italics. You may also see a “new” icon next to these messages.
Posting Messages
After you enter the User Forums, you can post a new message or reply to existing
messages. To do so:
1. Choose “Post” from the toolbar to post a new message. To reply to a message, click
Reply at the top of the message in the right side of the window.
2. Click on the boxes below the title to preview a message, spell check a message, or
attach a file.
3. Type your text in the message field.
4. Click “Post” after you finish typing. Depending on the options you selected, the
User Forums either posts your message immediately or allows you to preview it.
 Other Resources / 21

5. If you chose Attach File, a new page appears. Specify the file type and browse to
the file then click “Upload Now.”
To delete a message that you posted, click on it to open it and click “Delete” in the
small toolbar just above the message on the right side of the window.
Searching
You can search the User Forums for messages containing specific words or phrases,
messages within a certain date range, or those posted by a specific user.
Changing Your User Information
You may want to change your login name and password or hide your email address.
To update this information or change the User Forums defaults:
1. Click “More” on the top toolbar.
2. Choose “Edit Your Profile” and fill out the changed information.
Other Features
To create an address book, mark messages as read, view certain messages, or request
automatic email announcements when specific forums have new messages, choose
More from the toolbar.

Other Resources
Web Resources
Accessible at http://www.mathcad.com/resources/, Mathcad Web Resources contain
user-contributed documents, past issues of the Mathcad Advisor Newsletter, E-books,
printed books, Web sites, graphics, and animations created in Mathcad. Files are
categorized as application files, education files, graphics, and animations. You can
choose a listing by discipline from Mathcad files, or you can search for files by keyword,
author, or title.
If you wish to contribute files to the resources, please email author@mathsoft.com.
Release Notes
Release notes are available through the Resources Window. They contain the latest
information on Mathcad, updates to the documentation, and troubleshooting
instructions. The most up-to-date Release notes are posted on the technical support site
at http://support.mathsoft.com/KB/.
Technical Support
The Technical Support Knowledge Base contains frequently asked questions, sample
files, and support resources. These are posted on the Web at
http://support.mathsoft.com.
Downloads on Mathcad.com
Registered users can download updates, Mathcad modules, E-books and other useful
tools from the http://www.mathcad.com/download/ site. Look for Inside Mathcad:
Programming for a tutorial on programming in Mathcad.
Chapter 4
Working with Math
 Inserting Math
 Building Expressions
 Editing Expressions
 Math Styles

Inserting Math
You can place math expressions anywhere you want in a Mathcad worksheet.

1. Click to place the crosshair.

2. Type numbers, letters, and math operators, or insert
them by clicking buttons on Mathcad’s math toolbars,
to create a math region.
Mathcad by default understands anything you type at the crosshair cursor as math. If
you want to create a text region instead, see Chapter 6, “Working with Text.”
You can also type math expressions in any math placeholder that appears.
Numbers and Complex Numbers
A single number in Mathcad is called a scalar. To enter groups of numbers in arrays,
see “Inserting an Operator” on page 24.
Types of Numbers
Anything beginning with a digit is interpreted as a number by Mathcad. As a general
rule, you enter numbers by simply typing the digits from the keyboard, using a period
as the decimal point.

Note When you enter numbers greater than 999, do not use either a comma or a period to separate
digits into groups of three. Simply type the digits one after another. For example, to enter ten
thousand, type 10000.

Imaginary and Complex Numbers

To enter an imaginary number, follow it with i or j, as in 1i or 2.5j.

Note You cannot use i or j alone to represent the imaginary unit. You must always type 1i or 1j.
Otherwise, Mathcad thinks you are referring to a variable named either i or j. When the cursor
is outside an equation that contains 1i or 1j, however, Mathcad hides the 1.

Mathcad normally displays imaginary numbers followed by i. To have Mathcad display

imaginary numbers with j, choose Result from the Format menu, click on the Display
Options tab, and set “Imaginary value” to “j(J).” See “Formatting Results” on page 91
for a full description.

23
24 / Chapter 4 Working with Math

Mathcad accepts complex numbers of the form a + bi (or a + bj), where a and b are
ordinary numbers.
Exponential Notation
To enter very large or very small numbers in exponential notation, just multiply a
number by a power of 10. For example, to represent the number 3 ⋅ 10 8 , type 3*10^8.

Greek Letters
There are two ways to enter a Greek letter:

• Click the letter on the Greek toolbar. Click on the Math toolbar or choose
Toolbars > Greek from the View menu.
• Type the Roman equivalent of the Greek symbol and then press [Ctrl]G. For
example, to enter φ, press f[Ctrl]G.

Note Although many uppercase Greek letters look like ordinary capital letters, they are not the same.
Mathcad distinguishes between Greek and Roman letters, even if they appear the same.

Tip The Greek letter π can also be typed by pressing [Ctrl][Shift]P.

Inserting an Operator
Operators are symbols like “+” and “−” that link variables and numbers together to
form expressions. The variables and numbers linked together by operators are called
operands. For example, in an expression like:

ax + y
the operands for the “+” are x and y.
You can use standard keystrokes like [*] and [+] to insert operators or insert operators
from the math toolbars. For example, you can insert a derivative operator by clicking
on the Calculus toolbar or by typing [?]. Choose Toolbars from the View menu
to open the math toolbars. Online Help contains a complete listing of operators, their
keystrokes, and descriptions.

Tip You can find the keyboard shortcut for an operator by hovering the mouse pointer over a button
in a math toolbar and reading the tooltip.

When you insert a Mathcad operator into a blank space, a mathematical symbol with
empty placeholders appears. You must enter a valid math expression in each
placeholder of an operator in order to calculate a result.
Here is a simple example:

1. Click in a blank space and click on the Calculator toolbar or

simply type [+]. The addition operator with two placeholders
appears.
2. Enter 2 in the first placeholder.
 Building Expressions / 25

3. Click in the second placeholder or press [Tab] to move the blue

editing lines, and enter 6.

4. Press [=] or click on the Calculator toolbar to get the result.

Building Expressions
You can create many mathematical expressions by simply typing.
For example, you type these characters: 3/4+5^2= to get the
result at the right.

Mathcad’s equation editor is designed to work within the structure of a mathematical

expression so that expressions are not so much typed as built.
Mathcad assembles the parts that make up an expression using the rules of precedence
plus some additional rules to simplify entering denominators, exponents, and
expressions in radicals. For example, when you type [/] or click on the Calculator
toolbar to create a fraction, Mathcad stays in the denominator until you press [Space]
to select the entire expression.
Typing in Names and Numbers
When you type in names or numbers, Mathcad behaves very much like a standard word
processor. As you type, you see the characters you type appear behind a vertical editing
line. The left and right arrow keys move this blue insertion line to the left or to the right
a character at a time. There are, however, two important differences:
• As it moves to the right, the blue insertion line leaves behind a blue
underline, the horizontal editing line.
• Unless the equation you’ve clicked in has an operator in it already,
pressing [Space] turns the math region into a text region. It is not possible to turn
a text region back into a math region.
Controlling the Editing Lines
Click in an expression:
• To move the blue insertion line from one side of the expression to the other, press
[Insert].
• Use the left and right arrow keys to move the vertical editing line one character at
a time. If your expression contains built-up fractions, you can also use the up and
down arrow keys.
• Press [Space] to select larger parts of the expression. Each time you press
[Space], the editing lines enclose more and more of the expression, until they
enclose the entire expression. Pressing [Space] one more time brings the editing
lines back to where they started.

Tip You can drag-select parts of an expression to work on them. The selected part is highlighted with
a dark background. Whatever you type next overwrites the highlighted part.
26 / Chapter 4 Working with Math

The following example walks you through a short cycle of using [Space]:

1. The two editing lines hold just the single variable “d.”

2. Pressing [Space] makes the editing lines grow to hold the entire
denominator.

3. Pressing [Space] again makes the editing lines grow so that they now
hold the entire expression.

4. At this point, the editing lines can’t become any longer. Pressing
[Space] brings the editing lines back to the starting point of the cycle.

Notice there never was an intermediate step in which the editing lines held just the
numerator. Nor was there ever a step in which the editing lines held just the a or just
the b in the numerator. The sequence of steps the editing lines go through as you press
[Space] depends on where you start.
The arrow keys move the editing lines through the expression in the indicated direction.
Keep in mind that the idea of “up” and “down” or “left” and “right” may not always
be obvious, particularly when the expression becomes very complicated or if it involves
summations, integrals, and other advanced operators.
Typing in Operators
The key to working with operators is learning to specify what variable or expression is
to become an operand. There are two ways to do so:
• You can type the operator first, then fill in the placeholders with operands, or
• You can use the editing lines to specify what variable or expression you want to
select.
The first method is like building a skeleton and filling in the details later. This method
may be easier to use for very complicated expressions, or when you have operators like
summation that require many operands but don’t have a natural typing order.
The second method is more like straight typing, so it can be much faster when
expressions are simple. You may find yourself switching back and forth between these
two methods as the need arises.
Here’s how to create the expression ax + y using the first method:

1. Press [^] to create the exponent operator or click on the Calculator

toolbar. You see two placeholders. The editing lines “hold” the exponent
placeholder.

2. Click in the lower placeholder and type a.

3. Click in the upper placeholder and type [+].

 Building Expressions / 27

4. Click in the remaining placeholders and type x and y.

To use the editing lines to create the expression ax + y proceed as follows:

1. Type a. The editing lines hold the a indicating that a becomes the first
operand of the next operator you type.
2. Press [^] to create the exponent operator. a becomes the first operand of
the exponent. The editing lines now hold another placeholder.

3. Type x+y in this placeholder.

Note that you can type the expression the same way you’d say it out loud. However,
even this simple example contains an ambiguity. When you say “a to the x plus y”
there’s no way to tell if you mean ax + y or ax+ y.
Although you can always resolve ambiguities by using parentheses, doing so can
quickly become cumbersome. A better way is to use the editing lines to specify the
operands. The following example illustrates this specification by describing how to
create the expression ax+ y instead of ax + y.
1. Enter a^x as you did in the previous example. Note how the editing
lines hold the x between them. If you were to type [+] at this point, the
x would become the first operand of the plus.

2. Press [Space]. The editing lines now hold the entire expression ax.

3. Now type [+]. Whatever was held between the editing lines now
becomes the first operand of the [+].

4. In the remaining placeholder, type y.

Multiplication
When writing, expressions like ax or a(x + y) are easily understood to mean “a times
x” and “a times the quantity x plus y,” respectively.
This cannot be done with Mathcad variables for the simple reason that when you type
ax, Mathcad has no way of knowing whether you mean “a times x” or “the variable
named ax.” Similarly, when you type a(x+y), Mathcad cannot tell if you mean “a
times the quantity x plus y” or whether you mean “the function a applied to the argument
x + y.”
To avoid ambiguity in math expressions, we recommend that you always press [*] to
explicitly indicate multiplication, as shown below:
1. Type a followed by [*]. Mathcad inserts a small dot after the “a” to
indicate multiplication.
2. In the placeholder, type the second factor, x.
28 / Chapter 4 Working with Math

Note In the special case when you type a numerical constant followed immediately by a variable
name, such as 4x, Mathcad interprets the expression to mean the constant multiplied by the
variable: 4 ⋅ x . Mathcad displays a space and a dot between the constant and the variable to
indicate that the multiplication is implied, enabling you to closely approximate the notation in
books. However, Mathcad reserves certain letters, such as “i” for the imaginary unit and “o” for
octal, as suffixes for numbers, and in these cases does not attempt to multiply the number by a
variable name but rather treats the expression as a single number with a suffix.

Tip You can change the display of the multiplication operator to an x, a thin space, or a large dot. To
do so, right-click on the multiplication operator and choose View Multiplication As. Or to
change all the multiplication operators in a worksheet, choose Worksheet Options from the
Tools menu, click on the Display tab, and choose from the selections next to “Multiplication.”

An Annotated Example
An equation is really two-dimensional, with a structure more like a tree with branches
than like a line of text. As a result, Mathcad has to use a two-dimensional editing cursor.
That’s why there are two editing lines: a vertical line and a horizontal line.
Suppose, for example, that you want to type the slightly more complicated expression

x – 3 ⋅ a2
---------------------------------------
–4+ y+1+π
Watch what happens to the editing lines in the following steps:
1. Type x-3*a^2. Since the editing lines contain just the “2,”
only the “2” becomes the numerator if you press the [/].
2. Press [Space] three times to enclose the entire expression so
that the whole expression becomes the numerator.
3. Now press [/] to create a division bar. Note that the numerator
is whatever was enclosed between the editing lines when you
pressed [/].

4. Now type -4+ and click on the Calculator toolbar. Then

type y+1 under the radical to complete the denominator.

5. Press [Space] twice to make the editing lines hold the radical.

6. Press [+]. Since the editing lines hold the entire radical, the
entire radical becomes the first operand when you press [+].

7. Click on the Calculator toolbar or press

[Ctrl][Shift]P.
 Editing Expressions / 29

Editing Expressions
Changing a Name or Number
To edit a name or number:
1. Click on it. The blue insertion line appears.
2. Move the blue insertion line by pressing the left and right arrow keys.
3. If you type a character, it appears just to the left of the blue insertion line. Pressing
[Backspace] removes the character to the left. Pressing [Delete] removes the
character to the right.
Inserting an Operator
The easiest place to insert an operator is between two characters in a name or two
numbers in a constant. To insert a plus sign between two characters:

1. Place the editing lines where you want the plus sign to be.

2. Press the [+] key, or click on the Calculator toolbar.

Note Mathcad inserts spaces automatically around operators when needed. If you press [Space] in a
math region, Mathcad assumes you meant to type text rather than math and converts your math
region into a text region or moves the blue editing lines to enclose more of an expression.

When you insert a division sign, Mathcad moves everything that comes after the
division sign into the denominator. To insert a division sign:

1. Click in the expression.

2. Press the [/] key or click on the Calculator toolbar. Mathcad reformats
the expression.

Some operators require only one operand, such as the square root, absolute value, and
complex conjugate operators. To insert one of these, place the blue insertion line on
either side of the operand and press the keystroke or button from a math toolbar. For
example, to turn x into x :

1. Click next to the x, either preceding or following the character.

2. Press [\] to insert the square root operator or click on the Calculator
toolbar.

Applying an Operator to an Expression

If you want to apply an operator to an entire expression:
• Surround the expression in parentheses, or
• Use the editing lines to specify the expression.
30 / Chapter 4 Working with Math

Although the first method may be more intuitive, it is slower since you need to type a
pair of parentheses. See “Inserting Parentheses” on page 31.
The editing lines consist of a horizontal blue underline and a vertical blue insertion line
that moves left to right along the blue underline. To make an operator apply to an
expression, select the expression by placing it between the two editing lines. The
following examples show how typing *c results in different changes depending on
what you select first.

• The two editing lines hold only the numerator. Any operator you
type applies only to the numerator.

• Typing *c applies the operation to the numerator only.

• The editing lines hold the entire fraction. Any operator you type
applies to the entire fraction.

• *c applies to the whole fraction.

• The editing lines hold the entire fraction.

• Typing *c puts the c before the fraction because the blue insertion
line was on the left side.

Deleting an Operator
To delete an operator that connects two variable names or constants:

1. Click after the operator.

2. Press [Backspace], or if the blue insertion line was before the
operator, press [Delete].
You can then insert a new operator just by typing it in.
Fractions behave the same way. Since we naturally say “a over b,” putting the editing
lines “after” the division bar means putting them just before the b.
Here’s an example:

1. Place the vertical editing lines after the division bar.

2. Press [Backspace].
 Editing Expressions / 31

To delete an operator having only one operand (for example, x , x or x! ):

1. Position the editing lines just after the operator.

2. Press [Backspace].

For certain operators, it may not be clear where to put the editing lines. For example,
it is not clear when looking at x or x what “before” and “after” mean. Mathcad
resolves this ambiguity by using the spoken form of the expression. For example, since
you read x as “x conjugate,” the bar is treated as being after the x.

Replacing an Operator
To replace an operator after deleting it, simply type the new operator.
To replace an operator between two expressions:

1. Position the editing lines just after the operator.

2. Press [Backspace]. An operator placeholder appears.

3. Type the new operator.

Inserting a Minus Sign

The minus sign that means “negation” uses the same keystroke as the one that means
“subtract.” To determine which one to insert, Mathcad looks at where the blue insertion
line is. If it’s on the left, Mathcad inserts the “negation” minus sign. If it’s on the right,
Mathcad inserts the “subtract” minus sign. To move the blue insertion line from one
side of the blue underline to the other, use [Insert].
The following example shows how to insert a minus sign in front of “sin(a).”
1. Click on the sin(a). If necessary, press [Space] to select the entire
expression.
2. Press [Insert] to move the vertical editing line all the way to the
left.

3. Type [-] or click on the Calculator toolbar to insert a minus sign.

Inserting Parentheses
Mathcad places parentheses automatically to maintain the order of operations. You may
want to place parentheses to clarify an expression or to change the overall structure of
the expression. You can either insert a pair of parentheses all at once or insert one
parenthesis at a time. We recommend you insert a pair since this avoids the possibility
of unmatched parentheses.
32 / Chapter 4 Working with Math

To enclose an expression with a pair of parentheses:

1. Click on the expression and press [Space] one or more times to

place it between the editing lines.

2. Type the single-quote key [‘], or click on the Calculator

toolbar. The expression is now enclosed by parentheses.

It is sometimes necessary to insert parentheses one at a time using the [(] and [)] keys.
For example, to change a – b + c to a – (b + c):
1. Click just to the left of the b. Make sure the blue insertion line is
on the left as shown. Press [Insert] if necessary to move it over.
2. Type [(] and click to the right of the c. Make sure the blue insertion
line is to the right as shown. Press [Insert] if necessary to move
it over.
3. Type [)].

Deleting Parentheses
Whenever you delete one parenthesis, Mathcad deletes the matched parenthesis. This
prevents you from inadvertently creating an expression having unmatched parentheses.
To delete a matched pair of parentheses:

1. Move the editing lines to one side of the “(”.

2. Press [Backspace] or [Delete].

Moving Parts of an Expression

The menu commands Cut, Copy, and Paste from the Edit menu are useful for editing
complicated expressions. Copy and Paste can be used to move parts or all of an
expression from one place to another.
Suppose you want to build the expression:
cos ( wt + x ) + sin ( wt + x )
1. Drag-select the argument to the cosine
function.
2. Select Copy from the Edit menu, or right-click
on the highlighted argument and select Copy.

3. Click on the placeholder for the sin function.

4. Select Paste from the Edit menu, or right-click

on the placeholder and select Paste.
 Math Styles / 33

Tip You can drag and drop expressions, or even entire math regions, into placeholders in other
expressions or into any blank space. If you’re trying to drop the expression into a placeholder,
be sure to position the pointer carefully over the placeholder.

Deleting Parts of an Expression

If you want to remove part of an expression and replace it with what is currently on the
Clipboard, do not use Cut because doing so puts the removed part on the Clipboard.
To delete part of an expression without placing it on the Clipboard:

1. Drag-select the part of the expression (in this case, the

numerator) so that it is highlighted in reverse video.

2. Press [Delete] or [Backspace]. This removes the

numerator and leaves behind a placeholder.

To recover the deleted part press [Ctrl]Z to Undo.

Note If you select an expression with the editing lines instead of drag-selecting as shown above, you
must press [Backspace] or [Delete] twice to remove it.

Math Styles
You can use math styles to assign particular fonts, font sizes, font styles and effects,
and colors to your math expressions.
Mathcad has predefined math styles that govern the default appearance of all the math
in your worksheet, but you can define and apply additional styles.
Mathcad’s predefined math styles are:
• Variables: for all variables, letters, and operators in math regions.
• Constants: for all numbers in math regions.
• Math Text Font: for title and axes labels in graphs.
Editing Math Styles
To change Mathcad’s default style for all
variables:
1. Click on a variable name in your worksheet.
2. Choose Equation from the Format menu.
The style name “Variables” is selected.
3. Click “Modify” to change the font
associated with the “Variables” style. You
see a dialog box for changing fonts.
4. Any changes you make in the dialog box
apply to all variables in your worksheet.
34 / Chapter 4 Working with Math

If you change the Variables style, you may also want to change the style used for
numbers so that the two match.
1. Click on a number.
2. Choose Equation from the Format menu to see the Equation Format dialog box
and select the style name “Constants.”
3. Follow the procedure given above for modifying the Variables style.
You can also use the Formatting toolbar to change the font, font size, or font style
associated with a math style. For example, click on a variable, then click on the
appropriate Formatting toolbar button to make variables bold, italic, or underlined or
to specify the font or point size in the drop-down lists.

Note Changing font characteristics, particularly font sizes, may cause regions to overlap. You can
separate overlapping regions by choosing Separate Regions from the Format menu.

To change the default color of all equations in your worksheet:

1. Choose Equation from the Format menu.
2. Select a color in the “Default Equation Color” drop-down list.
Applying Math Styles
The “Variables” and “Constants” styles govern the default appearance of all math in
your worksheet. These two style names cannot be changed. You may, however, create
and apply additional math styles.
To see what math style is currently assigned to a name or number, simply click on the
name or number and look at the style window on the Formatting toolbar.
Alternatively, click the name or number and choose Equation from the Format menu.
The math style appears in the drop-down list in the Equation Format dialog box.
You can apply a variety of math styles to:
• individual variable names in an expression, or
• individual numbers in a math expression (but not in computed results, which always
display in the “Constants” style).
For example, you may want to show vectors in a bold, underlined font:
1. Choose Equation from the Format menu.
 Math Styles / 35

2. Click the down arrow beside the name of the current math styles to see a drop-down
list of available math styles.
3. Click on a math style name like “User 1” to
select it. The name “User 1” should now
appear in the “New Style Name” text box.
Click in this text box and change the name
to “Vectors.”
4. Click “Modify” to change this style to a
bold, underlined font.

Now you have a math style called “Vectors” with the desired appearance.
Now rather than individually changing the font, font size, and font style for names of
vectors, you can simply change the math style for all vectors.

Note All names, whether function names or variable names, are style sensitive. This means that x and
x refer to different variables, and f(x) and f(x) refer to different functions. In deciding whether
two variable names are the same, Mathcad actually checks math styles rather than fonts. To
avoid using distinct variables that look identical, don’t create a math style with exactly the same
font, size, and other characteristics as another math style.

Saving Math Styles

You can reuse math style information by saving a worksheet as a template. Choose
Save As from the File menu and select “Mathcad XML Template (*.XMCT)” as the
file type in the Save As dialog box.
To apply math style information to another worksheet, open your template from the
File menu and copy the contents of the worksheet to the template. See “Worksheets
and Templates” on page 59.
Chapter 5
Range Variables and Arrays
 Creating Arrays
 Iterative Calculations
 Accessing Array Elements
 Displaying Arrays
 Working with Arrays

Creating Arrays
This section describes creating and working with arrays of numbers and math
expressions.
Vectors and Matrices
In Mathcad a column of numbers is a vector and a rectangular array of numbers is called
a matrix. The general term for a vector or matrix is an array. The term vector refers to
a column vector. A column vector is simply a matrix with one column. You can also
create a row vector by creating a matrix with one row and many columns. You may
wish to distinguish between the names of matrices, vectors, and scalars (single
numbers) by font. Names of vectors could be set in bold while setting scalars in italic.
See “Math Styles” on page 33.
Insert Matrix Command
To insert a vector or matrix:
1. Click in either a blank space or on a math placeholder.

2. Choose Matrix from the Insert menu, or click

on the Matrix toolbar to open the Insert
Matrix dialog box.
3. Enter the number of elements for “Rows” and
“Columns.” For example, to create a three-
element vector, enter 3 and 1.

4. An array with blank placeholders appears in

your worksheet.

Next, fill in the array elements. You can enter any math expression into the placeholders
of an array. Simply click in a placeholder and type a number or expression. Use the
[Tab] key to move from placeholder to placeholder.

37
38 / Chapter 5 Range Variables and Arrays

Note Arrays created using the Matrix command on the Insert menu are limited to 600 elements. Use
subscripted expressions, data import functions, or Data Tables to create larger arrays. The
effective array size limit depends on the memory available on your computer, but is usually at
least 1 million elements. For more information see online Help.

Changing the Size of a Vector or Matrix

You can change the size of a matrix by inserting and deleting rows and columns:
1. Click on one of the matrix elements to place it between the
editing lines. Mathcad begins inserting or deleting with this
element.
2. Choose Matrix from the Insert menu. Type the number of
rows and/or columns you want to insert or delete. Then
press either “Insert” or “Delete.” For example, to delete the
column that holds the selected element in this example, you
type 1 in the box next to “Columns,” 0 in the box next to
“Rows,” and press “Delete.”

Iterative Calculations
Mathcad can do repeated or iterative calculations as easily as individual calculations
by using a special variable called a range variable.
Range variables take on a range of values, such as all the integers from 0 to 10.
Whenever a range variable appears in a Mathcad equation, Mathcad calculates the
equation not just once, but once for each value of the range variable.
Creating a Range Variable
To compute equations for a range of values, first create a range variable. In the problem
below, for example, you can compute results for a range of values of t from 10 to 20
in steps of 1.
To do so:

1. First, type t:10. Click on the 10 in the equation t:=10.

2. Type,11. The next number in the range is 11, and the step size
is 1.

3. Type [;] for the range variable operator or click on the

Matrix toolbar, and then type the last number, 20. The last
number in the range is 20. Mathcad shows the range variable
operator as a pair of dots.
 Iterative Calculations / 39

4. Now click outside the equation for t. Mathcad begins to

compute with t defined as a range variable. Since t now takes
on eleven different values, there must be eleven different
results, which are displayed in an output table as shown.

You can use one or more range variables to fill up the elements of an array. If you use
two range variables in an equation, for example, Mathcad runs through each value of
each range variable. This is useful for defining matrices. For example, to define a 5 × 5
matrix whose i,jth element is i + j, enter the equations shown in Figure 5-1.

Enter the subscript operator by clicking on the Matrix toolbar or by pressing the
[[] key.
The xi,j equation is evaluated for each value of each range variable, for a total of 25
evaluations. The result is the matrix shown at the bottom of Figure 5-1, with 5 rows
and 5 columns. The element in the ith row and jth column of this matrix is i + j.

Figure 5-1: Defining a matrix using range variables.

Note When used to define an array element, an array subscript can only take on integer values.

For more details on range variables, see “Range Variables” on page 82.
Entering a Matrix as a Data Table
You can use a data table to get the convenience of a spreadsheet-like interface for
entering data:
1. Click in a blank spot in your worksheet and choose Data > Table from the Insert
menu.
40 / Chapter 5 Range Variables and Arrays

2. Enter the name of the Mathcad variable to which the data will be assigned in the
placeholder.
3. Click in the data table and enter numbers into the cells. Each row must have the
same number of columns. If you do not enter a number into a cell, Mathcad inserts 0.
Figure 5-2 shows two data tables. Notice that when you create a data table, you’re
actually assigning elements to an array that has the name of the variable you assigned.

Figure 5-2: Using data tables to create arrays of data.

When you click the table, you can edit the values in it using the scroll bars. To resize
the table, move the cursor to one of the handles along the sides of the region so that the
cursor changes to a double-headed arrow. Press and hold down the mouse button and
drag the cursor to change the table’s dimensions.

Note A data table can be used to import from a data source or another application containing data.
Right-click on the top-left corner and choose Import from the menu. The imported data can be
edited in Mathcad as described above.

Tip You can copy data from a data table as follows: first select the data, then right-click on the data
table and choose Copy from the menu. You can paste a single number into the table by right-
clicking a cell and choosing Paste from the menu. Choosing Paste Table from the menu
overwrites the entire table.
 Accessing Array Elements / 41

Accessing Array Elements

You can access all the elements of an array simply by using its variable name, or you
can access the elements individually or in groups.
Subscripts
You access individual elements of a vector or matrix by using the subscript operator.
Insert the subscript operator by clicking on the Matrix toolbar or by typing [[].
To access an element of a vector, enter one number in the subscript. To access a matrix
element, enter two numbers separated by a comma. To refer to the ith element of a
vector, type v[i. In general, to refer to the element in the ith row, jth column of matrix
M, type M[i,j.
Figure 5-3 shows examples of how to define individual matrix elements and how to
view them.

Figure 5-3: Defining and viewing matrix elements. Since the array ORIGIN
is zero, there is a zeroth row and a first row, but no second row.

Note When you define vector or matrix elements, you may leave gaps in the vector or matrix. For
example, if v is undefined and you define v3 as 10, then v0, v1, and v2 are all undefined. Mathcad
fills these gaps with zeros until you enter specific values for them, as shown in Figure 5-3. Be
careful of inadvertently creating very large vectors and matrices by defining individual elements.

You can use this kind of subscript notation in Mathcad to perform parallel calculations
on the elements of an array. See “Performing Calculations in Parallel” on page 45.

Tip If you want to define or access a group of array elements at once, you can use a range variable
in a subscript.

Accessing Rows and Columns

Although you can use a range variable to access all the elements in a row or column of
an array, Mathcad provides a column operator for quickly accessing all the elements
42 / Chapter 5 Range Variables and Arrays

in a column. Click on the Matrix toolbar for the column operator. Figure 5-4 shows
how to extract the third column of the matrix M.

Figure 5-4: Extracting a column from a matrix. Note ORIGIN is 0. Thus, the
superscript 2 refers to the third column of the matrix M.

To extract a single row from a matrix, transpose the matrix using the transpose operator
(click on the Matrix toolbar) and then extract a column using the column operator.
This is shown on the bottom of Figure 5-4.
Changing the Array Origin
When you use subscripts to refer to array elements, Mathcad assumes the array begins
at the current value of the built-in variable ORIGIN. By default, ORIGIN is 0, but you
can change its value. See “Built-in Variables” on page 79 for details.
Figure 5-5 shows a worksheet with the ORIGIN set to 1. If you try to refer to the zeroth
element of an array in this case, Mathcad displays an error message.

Figure 5-5: Arrays beginning at element one instead of at element zero. Since
the ORIGIN is set to 1, there is no longer a zeroth row or column in either the
matrix or the vector.
 Displaying Arrays / 43

Displaying Arrays
Mathcad automatically displays matrices and vectors having more than nine rows or
columns as output tables rather than as matrices or vectors. Smaller arrays are displayed
by default in traditional matrix notation. Figure 5-6 shows an example.

Figure 5-6: The top results display as a matrix while the bottom results display
as an output table.

Note An output table displays a portion of an array. To the left of each row and at the top of each
column, there is a number indicating the index of the row or column. Right-click on the output
table and select Properties from the menu to control whether row and column numbers appear
and to choose the font. If your results extend beyond the table, you can scroll through the table
using scroll bars.

To resize an output table:

1. Click the output table. Handles appear along the sides of the table.
2. Move the mouse pointer to one of these handles so that it changes to a double-
headed arrow.
3. Press and hold down the mouse button and drag the table in the direction you want
the dimensions to change.

Tip You can change the alignment of the table with respect to the expression on the left-hand side of
the equal sign. Right-click on the table, then choose one of the Alignment options from the
menu.

Changing the Display of Arrays — Table versus Matrix

You can prevent Mathcad from displaying large matrices as output tables. You can also
change matrices to output tables. To do so:
1. Click on the output table or matrix.
2. Choose Result from the Format menu.
3. Click on the Display Options tab.
4. Choose Matrix or Table in the “Matrix display style” drop-down box.
44 / Chapter 5 Range Variables and Arrays

To display all the results in your worksheet as matrices or as tables regardless of their
size, click “Set as Default” in the Result Format dialog box rather than “OK.”

Note Mathcad cannot display extremely large arrays in matrix form. You should display a large array
as an output table.

Changing the Format of Displayed Elements

To format the numbers in the array, just click on the displayed array and choose Result
from the Format menu, then modify the settings. When you click “OK,” Mathcad
applies the selected format to all the numbers in the table, vector, or matrix. It is not
possible to format the numbers individually.
Copying and Pasting Arrays
You can copy an array of numbers directly from a tabular application, such as Excel,
or an ASCII file that contains rows and columns, into a Mathcad array. All data
characteristics, including text, numerics, complex numbers, or empty cells are
preserved. Once you’ve performed computations or manipulations on the data, you can
paste or export the resulting array of numbers back to its source or into another
application.
To copy just one number from a result array, click the number and choose Copy from
the Edit menu. Copying multiple numbers from a vector or matrix result differs
depending on whether the array is displayed as a matrix or as an output table.
To copy a result array displayed as a matrix:
1. Drag-select the array to the right of the equal sign to place the entire array between
the editing lines.
2. Choose Copy from the Edit menu.
3. You may only paste an array into a math placeholder or into a blank space in
Mathcad.
4. You can also paste the array into another application.
To copy some or all of the numbers from a data table:
1. Click on the first number you want to copy.
2. Drag the mouse over the other values you want to copy while holding down the
mouse button.
3. Right-click the selected values, then choose Copy Selection from the menu.
To copy all the values in a row or column, click on the column or row number shown
to the left of the row or at the top of the column. Then choose Copy from the Edit menu.
After you have copied one or more numbers from an output table, you can paste them
into another part of your worksheet, a blank Data Table, or into another application.
Figure 5-7 shows an example of a new matrix created by copying and pasting numbers
from an output table.
 Working with Arrays / 45

Figure 5-7: Copying and pasting results from an output table. Column
numbers run across the top row, while row numbers run down the left edge.
The highlighted numbers are selected to be copied. Type y:, then paste the
copied results from the output table.

Tip When you display an array as an output table, you can export data directly from the table. Right-
click on the output table, choose Export from the menu, and enter the name of the file, the
format, and the columns and rows to export.

Working with Arrays

There are many operators and functions designed for use with vectors and matrices;
see “Matrix Toolbar and Operators” and “Vector and Matrix Functions” in online Help.
This section highlights the vectorize operator, which permits efficient parallel
calculations on the elements of arrays. You can also display the values of an array
graphically or export them to a data file or another application.
Performing Calculations in Parallel
Any calculation Mathcad can perform with single values, it can also perform with
vectors or matrices of values. There are two ways to do this:
• Iterate over each element using range variables. See “Iterative Calculations” on
page 38.
• Use the vectorize operator to perform the same operation on each element of a
vector or matrix individually.
46 / Chapter 5 Range Variables and Arrays

Mathematical notation often shows repeated operations with subscripts. For example,
to define a matrix P by multiplying corresponding elements of the matrices M and N,
you write:
P i, j = M i, j ⋅ N i, j

Note that this is not matrix multiplication, but multiplication element by element. It is
possible to perform this operation in Mathcad using subscripts, but it is faster to perform
the same operation with a vectorized equation. The notation is also more compact.
To apply the vectorize operator to an expression like M ⋅ N :
1. Select the expression by clicking inside it and pressing [Space]
until the right-hand side is surrounded by the editing lines.
2. Click on the Matrix toolbar to apply the vectorize operator.
Mathcad puts an arrow over the top of the selected expression.
For example, suppose you want to apply the quadratic formula to three vectors
containing coefficients a, b, and c. Figure 5-8 shows how to use the vectorize operator.
The vectorize operator, appearing as an arrow above the quadratic formula in Figure
5-8, is essential in this calculation. Without it, Mathcad would interpret a ⋅ c as a vector
dot product and also flag the square root of a vector as illegal. But with the vectorize
operator, both a ⋅ c and the square root are performed element by element.

Figure 5-8: Quadratic formula with vectors and the vectorize operator. First
set up the three coefficients. Then compute a root. The result should be zero.

Note While vectorization is faster than element-by-element operations for those operations which
require it, it will be slower than natively vectorized operations. Many operations are already
performed on an element-by-element basis, such as the addition of two arrays. For such
operations, adding an unnecessary vectorization operator will give the same result, but much
more slowly.
 Working with Arrays / 47

Graphical Display of Arrays

In addition to looking at the actual numbers making up an array, you can also see a
graphical representation of those same numbers. There are several ways to do this:
• For an arbitrary array, you can use the various three-dimensional plot types
discussed in Chapter 12, “3D Plots.”
• For an array of integers between 0 and 255, you can look at a grayscale image by
choosing Picture from the Insert menu and entering the array’s name in the
placeholder.
• For three arrays of integers between 0 and 255 representing the red, green, and blue
components of an image, choose Picture from the Insert menu and enter the arrays’
names, separated by commas, in the placeholder.
See Chapter 10, “Inserting Graphics and Other Objects,” for more on viewing a matrix
(or three matrices, in the case of a color image) in the picture operator.
Chapter 6
Working with Text
 Inserting Text
 Text and Paragraph Properties
 Text Styles
 Equations in Text
 Text Tools

Inserting Text
This section describes how to add text to your worksheets. Mathcad ignores text when
it performs calculations, but you can insert working math equations into text regions
as described in “Equations in Text” on page 55.
Creating a Text Region
To create a text region, follow these steps. First, click wherever you want the text region
to begin. Then:
1. Choose Text Region from the Insert menu or press the
double-quote ["] key. You can also just start typing and
once you type a space Mathcad begins a text region. The
crosshair changes into a text cursor and a text box appears.
2. Now begin typing. Mathcad displays the text and surrounds
it with a text box. As you type, the text cursor moves and
the text box grows.
3. When you finish typing, click outside the text region. The
text box disappears.

Note You cannot leave a text region simply by pressing [Enter]. You must click outside the region,
press [Ctrl][Shift][Enter], or repeatedly press one of the arrow keys until the cursor leaves
the region.

To insert text into an existing text region:

• Click anywhere in a text region. A text box now surrounds your text. Anything you
type gets inserted at the text cursor.
To delete text from an existing text region, click in the text region and:
• Press [Backspace] or [Delete] just as you would in any other word processor.
To overtype text:
1. Place the text cursor to the left of the first character you want to overtype.
2. Press [Insert] to begin typing in overtype mode. To return to the default insert
mode, press [Insert] again.

49
50 / Chapter 6 Working with Text

You can also overtype text by first selecting it (see “Selecting Text” below). Whatever
you type next replaces your selection.

Tip To break a line or start a new line in a text region, press [Enter]. Mathcad inserts a hard return
and moves the text cursor down to the next line. Press [Shift][Enter] to start a new line in
the same paragraph. When you rewrap the text by changing the width of the text region, Mathcad
maintains line breaks at these spots in the text. We recommend adjusting the width of the text
box rather than using returns to shorten a text region.

Selecting Text
To select text within a text region:

1. Click in the text region.

2. Drag across the text holding the mouse button

down.

Mathcad highlights the selected text, including any full lines between the first and last
characters you selected.

Online Help You can also select text using arrow keys and multiple clicks of the mouse button. For more
information, refer to the topic “Selecting text” in online Help.

Once you select text, you can delete it, copy it, cut it, check the spelling, or change its
font, size, style, or color.
To select and move an entire text region or group of regions, follow the same steps that
you would use with math regions, described in “Regions” on page 9.
Greek Letters in Text
To type a Greek letter in a text region, either:

• Click on the appropriate letter on the Greek toolbar. To see this toolbar, click
on the Math toolbar, or choose Toolbars > Greek from the View menu, or
• Type the Roman equivalent of the Greek symbol and then press [Ctrl]G. For
example, to enter φ, press f[Ctrl]G.

Tip Typing [Ctrl]G after a letter in a math region also converts it to its Greek equivalent. In
addition, [Ctrl]G converts a non-alphabetic character to its Symbol font equivalent. For
example, typing [@][Ctrl]G in a text region produces the “≅” character.

Changing the Width of a Text Region

When you start typing in a text region, the region grows as you type, wrapping only
when you reach the right margin or page boundary. (Choose Page Setup from the File
menu to set the location of the right margin.) To set a width for your whole text region
and have lines wrap to stay within that width as you type:
1. Type normally until the first line reaches the width you want.
 Text and Paragraph Properties / 51

2. Type a space and press [Ctrl][Enter].

All other lines break to stay within this width. When you add to or edit the text, Mathcad
rewraps the text according to the width set by [Ctrl][Enter].
To change the width of an existing text region, do the following:
1. Click anywhere in the text region. A selection box encloses the text region.
2. Move the pointer to the middle of the right edge of the text region until it hovers
over the “handle” on the selection rectangle. The pointer changes to a double-
headed arrow. You can now change the size of the text region the same way you
change the size of any window — by dragging the mouse.

Tip You can specify that a text region or regions occupy the full page width by selecting them and
choosing Properties from the Format menu. Click the Text tab and check “Occupy Page
Width.” As you enter more lines of text into a full-width text region, any regions that are below
are automatically pushed down in the worksheet.

Text and Paragraph Properties

This section describes how to change various font properties and the alignment and
indentation of paragraphs within a text region.
Changing Text Properties
To change the font, size, style, position, or color of a portion of the text within a text
region, first select the text. Then choose Text from the Format menu to open the Text
Format dialog box or right-click and choose Font from the menu.

Many of the options of the Text Format dialog box are also available via the buttons
and drop-down lists on the Formatting toolbar:
52 / Chapter 6 Working with Text

When you first insert text, its properties are determined by the style called “Normal.”
See “Text Styles” on page 53 to find out how to create and modify text styles. Any
properties that you change for selected text override the style for that paragraph.

Tip If you place the text cursor in text and then change the text properties, any new text you type at
that text cursor inherits the new properties.

You can change the following properties of selected text:

• Font
• Font style such as bold and italic
• Font size
• Effects such as subscripts and superscripts
• Color
Font sizes are in points. Remember that if you enlarge the font size, the text region
you’re in may grow and overlap nearby regions. Choose Separate Regions from the
Format menu if necessary.

Tip You can specify that a text region or regions automatically push down following regions as they
grow longer by choosing Properties from the Format menu. Click the “Text” tab and select
“Push Regions Down As You Type.”

Tip As a shortcut for creating subscripts and superscripts in text, use the “Subscript” and
“Superscript” buttons on the Formatting toolbar. These buttons work in both math and text
regions. The subscript button in a math region produces an array subscript, not a literal subscript.

Changing Paragraph Properties

A paragraph in a text region is any stream of characters followed by a hard return, which
you create when you type [Enter]. You can assign distinct properties to each
paragraph, including alignment, indenting for either the first or all lines in the
paragraph, tab stops, and bullets or numbering. You can also select multiple paragraphs
or text regions to apply settings to more than one paragraph at a time.
When you type [Shift][Enter], Mathcad inserts a new line within the current
paragraph; it does not create a new paragraph.
To change the properties for a paragraph:

1. Select the paragraph by clicking in

it, by drag-selecting it, or by triple-
clicking it.
2. Choose Paragraph from the
Format menu, or right-click and
choose Paragraph from the menu,
to open the Paragraph Format
dialog box.
 Text Styles / 53

You can change the following paragraph properties:

Indent
To indent every line in the paragraph the same amount, enter numbers in the “Left” and
“Right” text boxes. To indent the first line of the paragraph a different amount than the
rest of the lines, select “First Line” or “Hanging” from the “Special” drop-down list
and enter a value below.
You can also set indents using the text ruler. Click in a paragraph and choose Ruler
from the View menu. Move the top or bottom markers in the ruler to set a different
indent for the first line or move both markers to indent all the lines in the paragraph.
Bullets and Numbered Lists
To begin the paragraph with a bullet, select “Bullets” from the “Bullets” drop-down
list. Select “Numbers” from the drop-down list to have Mathcad number successive
paragraphs in the region automatically. Or click or on the Formatting toolbar.
Alignment
To align the paragraph at either the left or right edge of the text region or to center the
text within the text region, use the three alignment buttons in the Paragraph Format
dialog box. Or click one of the three alignment buttons on the Formatting toolbar: ,

, or .
Tab Stops
To specify tabs, click the “Tabs” button in the Paragraph Format dialog box to open
the Tabs dialog box. Enter numbers into the “Tab stop position” text box. Click “Set”
for each tab stop, then click “OK.”
You can also set tab stops using the text ruler. Click in a paragraph and choose Ruler
from the View menu. Click in the ruler where you want a tab stop to be. A tab stop
symbol appears. To remove a tab stop, click on the tab stop symbol, hold the mouse
button down, and drag the symbol away from the ruler.

Tip To change the measurement system used in the Paragraph Format dialog box or in the text ruler,
choose Ruler from the View menu to show the text ruler. Then right-click the ruler and choose
Inches, Centimeters, Points, or Picas from the menu.

Text Styles
Text styles give you an easy way to create a consistent appearance in your worksheets.
Rather than individually setting specific text and paragraph properties for each
paragraph, you can apply an available text style.
Every worksheet has a default “Normal” text style with a particular choice of text and
paragraph properties. You can modify existing text styles, create new ones of your own,
and delete ones you no longer need.
54 / Chapter 6 Working with Text

Applying a Text Style to a Paragraph in a Text Region

When you create a text region in your worksheet, the region is tagged by default with
the “Normal” style. You can, however, apply a different style to each paragraph:
1. Click in the paragraph.
2. Choose Style from the Format menu or
right-click on the paragraph and choose
Style from the menu to see a list of the
available text styles. Available text styles
depend on the template used.
3. Select a text style and click “Apply.” Your
paragraph acquires the text and paragraph
properties associated with that style.

Tip You can apply a text style to a text paragraph simply by clicking in the paragraph and choosing
a style from the left-most drop-down list in the Formatting toolbar. To apply a text style to an
entire text region, first select all the text in the region.

Modifying an Existing Text Style

You can change the definition of a text style by modifying it:
1. Choose Style from the Format menu to open the Text Styles dialog box listing
available text styles.
2. Select the text style you want to modify and click “Modify.”
3. The Define Style dialog box displays the definitions of that text style.

4. Click “Font” to modify text formats such as the font, font size, font styling, special
effects, and color. Click “Paragraph” to modify the indenting, alignment and other
paragraph properties.
Any text regions previously created with the text style in that worksheet are modified
accordingly.
Creating and Deleting Text Styles
You can create new text styles or delete ones you no longer use; any text style changes
are saved with your worksheet. You can base a new text style on an existing text style,
such that it inherits text or paragraph properties. For example, you may want to base a
new “Subheading” style on an existing “Heading” style, but choose a smaller font size.
keeping other properties the same.
 Equations in Text / 55

Creating a Text Style

To create a new text style:
1. Choose Style from the Format menu to open the Text Styles dialog box.
2. Click “New” to open the Define Style dialog box.
3. Enter a name for the new style in the “Name” text box. If you want to base the new
style on one of the existing styles, select a style from the “Based on” drop-down list.
4. Click the “Font” button to make choices for text formats for the new style. Click
the “Paragraph” button to choose paragraph formats for the new style.
Your new style now appears in the Text Styles dialog box and you can apply it to any
text region. When you save the worksheet, the new text style is saved with it. To use
the new text style in future worksheets, save your worksheet as a template as described
in Chapter 7, “Worksheet Management.” You may also copy the text style into another
worksheet simply by copying and pasting a styled region into the new worksheet.

Note If you base a new text style on an existing text style, any changes you later make to the original
text style are reflected in the new text style as well.

Deleting a Text Style

To delete a text style:
1. Choose Style from the Format menu to open the Text Styles dialog box.
2. Select a text style from the list and click “Delete.”
Any text regions whose text and paragraph properties were defined by that text style
continue to display the properties of the style.

Equations in Text
This section describes how to insert equations into your text regions. Equations inserted
into text have the same properties as those in the rest of your worksheet.
Inserting an Equation into Text
You can place an equation into text either by creating a new equation inside a text region
or by pasting an existing equation into a text region.
To add a new equation into text:

1. Click to start the equation.

2. Choose Math Region from the

Insert menu or press
[Ctrl][Shift]A to insert a
math placeholder.
3. Type in the equation.
56 / Chapter 6 Working with Text

4. When you’ve finished typing,

click on any text to return to the
text region. Mathcad adjusts
the line spacing in the text
region to accommodate the
embedded math region.

You can also paste an existing equation into a text region or right-click to start an
equation.

Text Tools
Mathcad’s text tools are similar to those in word processors.
Find and Replace
Mathcad’s Find and Replace commands on the Edit menu are capable of working in
both text and math regions. By default, however, Mathcad finds and replaces text in
text regions only.
Searching for Text
To find a sequence of characters:
1. Choose Find from the Edit menu to open the Find dialog.

2. You can specify whether Mathcad should search in only text or only math regions
or search in both.

Online Help The Help topic “Finding and Replacing” details the characters you can find in math and text
regions. Many special characters, including Greek characters, punctuation, and spaces, can be
located only in text or only in math.
 Text Tools / 57

Replacing Characters
To find and replace text:
1. Choose Replace from the Edit menu to bring up the Replace dialog box.

2. You can specify whether Mathcad should search and replace in only text or only
math regions or in both.
Spell-Checking
Mathcad can search the text for misspelled words and suggest replacements. You can
also add commonly used words to your personal dictionary.

Note Mathcad only spell-checks text regions.

You can spell-check over a range of selected text or spell-check an entire worksheet:

1. Choose Spelling from the Tools menu or click on the Standard toolbar.

2. When Mathcad finds a misspelled word, it opens the Check Spelling dialog box.
The misspelled word is shown along with suggested replacements. If Mathcad does
not have a suggestion, it shows only the misspelled word.
After the Check Spelling dialog box appears:
• Click “Change” to change the word to the suggested replacement or to another word
that you can select from the list of possible replacements.
• Type a new word into the “Change to,” then click “Change.”
• Click “Ignore” or “Add” to leave the word as is. If you click “Ignore,” Mathcad
leaves the word alone, continues spell-checking, and ignores all other occurrences
of the word. If you click “Add,” the word is added to your personal dictionary.
58 / Chapter 6 Working with Text

Foreign Language Spell-Check Dictionaries

You can load any of eleven different language dictionaries from the Language tab of
the Preferences dialog under the Tools menu. Under the “Spell Check Dialect” on the
same tab, you can choose three different English dialects, two Portuguese dialects, and
two German dialects.
Chapter 7
Worksheet Management
 Worksheets and Templates
 Rearranging Your Worksheet
 Layout
 Safeguarding an Area of the Worksheet
 Worksheet References
 Hyperlinks
 Distributing Your Worksheets

Worksheets and Templates

As you use Mathcad you create a worksheet file. Mathcad uses XMCD as the file
extension for worksheets.
When you create a new worksheet in Mathcad, you can start with Mathcad’s default
choices, or you can use a template that contains customized formats. Mathcad comes
with a variety of predefined templates. You can extend this set by saving any of your
Mathcad worksheets as a new template.
Creating a New Worksheet
When you first open Mathcad or click on the Standard toolbar, you see an empty
worksheet based on the worksheet template (Normal.xmct). You can enter and format
equations, graphs, text, and images in the worksheet, as well as modify worksheet
attributes such as numerical format, headers and footers, and text and math styles.
To create a new worksheet based on a template:
1. Choose New from the File menu.
Mathcad displays a list of
available worksheet templates.
2. Choose a template other than
“Blank Worksheet.” By default
Mathcad displays worksheet
templates saved in the Template
folder within the Mathcad
program folder. Click “Browse”
to find a template in another
folder.

59
60 / Chapter 7 Worksheet Management

Opening a Worksheet
Open an existing worksheet by choosing Open from the File menu [Ctrl]O, then
browse to your files. You can also type a path directly into the File Name box, including
URLs, for example,
http://www.mathcad.com/support/item/examples/04nov/tip3.xmcd
Saving Your Worksheet
To save a worksheet, choose either Save or Save As from the File menu and enter a
file name with an XMCD file extension or one of the other extensions described below.
The XMCD files are in XML format so the content and data can be read by other
applications. You can compress this text-based format for space-savings or security by
saving as XMCDZ (compressed XML format). XMCD and XMCDZ files can be opened
and used directly in Mathcad.
You can save a worksheet in Hypertext Markup Language (HTML), so that the file can
be viewed through a Web browser, or in rich-text format (RTF), so that it can be opened
by most word processors. You can also transform the XML format to HTML or other
representations using XMLT language.
Saving Your Worksheet in an Earlier Format
Worksheets created in an earlier version of Mathcad open in the current version, but
files in the current version of Mathcad can not be opened in earlier versions. Mathcad
13 allows you to save a worksheet as one of these previous versions: Mathcad 12 (either
XMCD or MCD), Mathcad 11 (MCD), or Mathcad 2001i (MCD). In general, regions or
features that don’t work in an earlier version appear as bitmaps.
Creating a New Template
When you create a worksheet based on a template, all of the formatting information
and any text, math, and image regions from the template are copied to the new
worksheet. Templates allow you to maintain consistency across multiple worksheets.
A template specifies:
• Definitions of all math styles (Chapter 4).
• Definitions of all text styles (Chapter 6).
• Margins for printing (see “Layout” on page 65).
• Numerical result formats and values for Mathcad’s built-in variables (Chapter 8).
• Names of Mathcad’s basic units and the default unit system (Chapter 8).
• The default calculation mode (Chapter 8).
• Ruler visibility and measurement system (see “Aligning Regions” on page 63).
• Regions you’d like created by default in new worksheets (for example, a collapsed
area with extra unit definitions).
To create a new template:
1. Create a new worksheet and set the above values manually or use the Mathcad
default values.
2. Add the equations, text, and graphics you want to appear in all new files.
 Rearranging Your Worksheet / 61

Then save this worksheet as a template. To do so:

1. Choose Save As from the File menu.
2. Browse to the Template folder within the Mathcad program folder.
3. In the “Save as type” drop-down list, select “Mathcad XML Template (*.XMCT).”
4. Type a name in the “File name” box.
Your template is added to the list of templates that appears when you choose New from
the File menu. If you do not save your template to the Template folder, you can browse
to find it.
Modifying a Template
To modify an existing template:
1. Choose Open from the File menu.
2. In the “Files of type” drop-down list, select “Mathcad Templates.”
3. Type the name of the template in the “File name” box or browse to locate it.
Worksheet templates are saved by default in the Template folder.
You may now edit the template just like any Mathcad worksheet.

Tip To modify the default template for a blank worksheet, modify the template file Normal.xmct.
You may want to save the original Normal.xmct elsewhere in case you need to retrieve it.

Note When you modify a template, your changes affect only new files created from the modified
template. The changes do not affect any worksheets created with the template before the
template was modified.

Rearranging Your Worksheet

This section describes how to rearrange math, images, and text in your worksheets.

Note You can get an overall view of how your worksheet looks by choosing Zoom from the View

menu or by clicking on the Standard toolbar and choosing a magnification. Or you

can use the File > Print Preview command.

Selecting Regions
To select a single region for editing, simply click it to see a selection rectangle around
the region. To select a single region for moving, drag-select it.
To select multiple regions:
1. Press and hold down the mouse.
2. Without letting go of the mouse, move it to enclose everything you want inside the
selection rectangle.
3. Release the mouse to see dashed rectangles around the selected regions.
62 / Chapter 7 Worksheet Management

Tip You can select or deselect a single region or disconnected regions anywhere in the worksheet by
holding down the [Ctrl] key while clicking on each region. Also, if you click one region and
[Shift]-click another, you can select both regions and all regions in between.

Region Properties
The Region Properties dialog box allows you to perform different actions depending
on the type of region you’ve selected:
• Highlight the region.
• Display a border around the region.
• Automatically move everything down in the worksheet below a text region when
the region expands.
• Disable or enable evaluation of a math region.
• Turn protection on or off for the region.
You can change the properties for a region or multiple regions by selecting the regions
and either choosing Properties from the Format menu or by right-clicking on one of
the regions and choosing Properties from the menu.

Note When you select multiple regions, you may only change the properties common to the regions
selected. If you select both math and text regions, you cannot change text-only or math-only
options.

Moving and Copying Regions

Once regions are selected, you can move or copy them.
Moving Regions
You can move regions by dragging them with the mouse, nudging them with the arrow
keys, or by using Cut and Paste.
To drag regions with the mouse:
1. Select the regions.
2. Place the pointer on any selected region so that the pointer turns into a small hand.
3. Press and hold down the mouse.
4. Move the mouse. The rectangular outlines of the selected regions follow the cursor.
To move the regions into another worksheet, drag the rectangular outlines into the
destination worksheet, then release the mouse button.
Nudging Regions with Arrow Keys
You can use the arrow keys on your keyboard to nudge selected regions in different
directions. Press an arrow key once to move the region(s) one grid space. Holding down
the arrow key moves the region until the arrow is released.

Note You can layer one region on top of another. To move a particular region to the top or bottom,
right-click on it and choose Bring to Front or Send to Back from the menu.
 Rearranging Your Worksheet / 63

Tip If regions you want to copy are coming from a locked area (see “Safeguarding an Area of the
Worksheet” on page 67) or an E-book, you can copy them simply by dragging them with the
mouse into your worksheet.

Deleting Regions
To delete one or more regions:
1. Select the regions.
2. Choose Cut from the Edit menu or press [Ctrl]X.
Choosing Cut removes the selected regions from your worksheet so that you can paste
them elsewhere. If you don’t want to paste or save the regions, choose Delete from the
Edit menu or press [Ctrl]D instead.
Aligning Regions
Once you’ve inserted regions into your worksheet, you can align them vertically or
horizontally using menu commands, nudging with the arrow keys, or by using the
worksheet ruler.
Using Menu Commands
To align regions horizontally or vertically:
1. Select the regions.
2. Choose Align Regions > Across (to align horizontally) or Align Regions > Down
(to align vertically) from the Format menu. Or click and on the Standard
toolbar.
When you align the regions down, Mathcad moves the regions so that their left edges
are aligned vertically. Aligning regions across moves the regions so that their anchor
points are aligned horizontally.

Note Aligning regions may inadvertently cause regions to overlap. Mathcad warns you when this will
occur. See “Separating Regions” on page 64.

Using the Worksheet Ruler

Choose Ruler from the View menu to open the worksheet ruler at the top of the window.
If your cursor is in a text region, the ruler settings apply to that region only, otherwise
they apply to the whole worksheet. You can use alignment guidelines on the ruler to
align regions at particular measurements.
To set alignment guidelines on the ruler:
1. Click on the ruler for each position where you want an alignment guideline. A tab
stop symbol appears.
2. Right-click on a tab stop symbol and choose Show Guideline from the menu. Green
guidelines run down the worksheet so that you can align regions vertically.
You can also set tabs and guidelines by selecting Tabs from the Format menu. Type
the location, then check the “Show Guidelines” check box. You must be viewing the
Ruler for guidelines to show up.
64 / Chapter 7 Worksheet Management

Note The tab stops you insert on the ruler specify where the cursor moves when you press the [TAB]
key. To remove a tab stop, click on its symbol and drag it off the ruler.

To move a guideline, click on the tab stop on the ruler and drag it. To remove an
alignment guideline, right-click on it and uncheck Show Guideline.
To automatically place the next region you create on a guideline, press the [TAB] key
in a blank part of the worksheet. The red crosshair moves to the next tab or guideline.

Tip You can change the measurement system used in the ruler by right-clicking on the ruler and
choosing Inches, Centimeters, Points, or Picas from the menu. To change the ruler
measurement for all documents, make this change to the template, Normal.xmct.

Inserting or Deleting Blank Space

You can easily insert extra space into your worksheet:
1. Click in a blank spot and press [Enter] repeatedly.
To delete extra space from your worksheet:
1. Click in the space you want to delete. Make sure the cursor looks like a red crosshair
and that there are no regions to the right or left of the cursor.
2. Press [Delete] to remove blank space below your cursor or [Backspace] to
remove blank space above your cursor.
You can not delete any excess space if any region extends into the space you are trying
to delete.

Tip To quickly insert or delete a specific number of blank text lines from your worksheet, right-click
in a blank part of the worksheet, choose Insert Lines or Delete Lines from the menu, and enter
the number of lines in the dialog box. The dialog box default shows you the maximum number
of lines you can delete.

Separating Regions
As you move and edit regions in a Mathcad worksheet, they sometimes overlap one
another. Overlapping regions don’t interfere with each other’s calculations, but they
may make your worksheet hard to read.
A good way to determine whether regions
overlap is to choose Regions from the View
menu. Mathcad displays blank space in gray and
leaves the regions in your default background
color. To return to the default view, choose
Regions from the View menu again.
 Layout / 65

To separate all overlapping regions, choose

Separate Regions from the Format menu.
Wherever regions overlap, this command moves
the regions in such a way as to avoid overlaps.

Note Be careful with the Separate Regions command since moving regions may change the order of
calculation. You can also drag regions individually, add lines by pressing [Enter], or cut and
paste the regions so they don’t overlap.

Highlighting Regions
You can make certain regions stand out by highlighting them with a colored
background:
1. Click in a region or select multiple regions.
2. Choose Properties from the Format menu.
3. Click the Display tab.
4. Check “Highlight Region.” Click “Choose Color” to choose a highlight color other
than the default choice.
Mathcad colors the background of the region.
Changing the Worksheet Background Color
To change the color of the background of your entire worksheet:
1. Choose Color from the Format menu.
2. Choose Background to see the colors you may choose from.

Layout
Before printing a worksheet, you may want to adjust the margins, paper options, page
breaks, and headers and footers.
Setting Margins, Paper Size, Source, and Orientation
Mathcad worksheets have user-specifiable margins at the left, right, top, and bottom of
the worksheet. To set these margins, choose Page Setup from the File menu.
Use the four text boxes in the lower right of the Page Setup dialog to specify the
distances from the margin to the corresponding edge of the actual sheet of paper.
You can also use Page Setup settings to change the size, source, or orientation of the
paper. See “Printing” on page 72 for more about printing your Mathcad worksheets.
66 / Chapter 7 Worksheet Management

Tip To use the margin and other page setup settings from the current worksheet in new worksheets,
save the worksheet as a template as described in “Creating a New Template” on page 60.

Page Breaks
Mathcad provides two kinds of page breaks:
• Soft page breaks. Mathcad uses your default printer settings and your top and
bottom margins to insert these page breaks automatically. You can see these dotted
horizontal lines as you scroll down in your worksheet. You cannot add or remove
soft page breaks.
• Hard page breaks. You can insert a hard page break by placing the cursor and
choosing Page Break from the Insert menu. Hard page breaks display as solid
horizontal lines in your worksheets.
To move or delete a hard page break:
1. Drag-select the hard page break as you would select any other region in your
Mathcad worksheet. A dashed selection box appears around the page break.
2. Choose Delete from the Edit menu or press the [Delete] key.
3. To move the page break, just drag it to a new position, or delete and reenter.

Tip Any region that overlaps a soft or hard page break prints by default in pieces on successive
pages. To separate a region from a hard page break, choose Separate Regions from the Format
menu. However, this command does not separate regions from overlapping soft page breaks.
Choose Repaginate Now from the Format menu to force Mathcad to move soft page breaks
above any region that would print in pieces on successive pages.

Headers and Footers

To add or modify headers or footers choose Header and Footer from the View menu.
 Safeguarding an Area of the Worksheet / 67

To add or edit a header or footer:

1. Click the Header or Footer tab. To create a different header or footer for the first
page of your worksheet, check the “Different header and footer on first page” option
and click the Header–Page 1 or Footer–Page 1 tabs, which appear.
2. Type the header or footer information into the text boxes. Text you type into the
Left, Center, and Right text boxes appears in these positions on the page. Click
“Format” in the Tools group to change the header or footer font, font style, size, or
alignment. Click “Use full width for each section” if you want text in any of the
boxes to extend beyond the width of that third of the worksheet.
3. Click the buttons in the Tools group to automatically insert items such as the file
name, page number, current date, or time. To insert an image, click “Image” in the
Tools group and browse to locate a bitmap (BMP) file.

Tip Mathcad by default begins numbering at page 1. You can set a different starting page number in
the Options group in the Header and Footer dialog box.

Safeguarding an Area of the Worksheet

You can protect an area of your worksheet by locking it — you can still edit content in
an area even though nobody else can.
Any math regions inside a locked or collapsed area continue to affect other equations
in the document. For example, if you define a function inside a locked area, you can
still use that function anywhere below and to the right of its definition. You cannot,
however, change the function’s definition unless you unlock the area first.
Inserting an Area
To insert a lockable area into your worksheet:
1. Choose Area from the Insert menu. Mathcad
inserts the boundaries of the area into the
worksheet.
2. Select either of these boundary lines just as
you’d select any region: by dragging the mouse
across the line or by clicking the line itself.
3. Drag the boundary line to increase or decrease the area or select both lines to move
the entire area.
You can have any number of lockable areas in your worksheet. The only restriction is
that you cannot have one lockable area inside another.

Tip To name an area in your worksheet, click on an area boundary, choose Properties from the
Format menu, and enter a name on the Area tab. The Area tab also lets you modify other display
attributes of an area, such as whether a border or icon appears.

Locking and Collapsing an Area

Lock an area to preserve what’s inside of it.
68 / Chapter 7 Worksheet Management

To lock an area:
1. Click in the area.
2. Choose Area > Lock from the Format menu.

3. Enter a password if desired in the Lock Area dialog box. Type any combination of
letters, numbers, and other characters.
4. Check “Collapse area” to hide the locked regions from view. Check “Show lock
timestamp” to display the lock date and time above and below the locked area.
5. To hide the collapsed area, right-click on it and choose Properties, then the Area
tab. Uncheck all boxes to completely hide the area. If you drag over a hidden area,
you will see two dashed lines indicating its position.
The area is now locked and by default shows padlocks on the boundaries and a
timestamp. When you lock a region, you can choose to allow other users to expand and
collapse it even though it remains locked. Right-clicking on an area to open the Area
tab in the Properties dialog allows the area to be collapsed and expanded even when it
is locked.

Note If you forget the password for an area you will find yourself permanently locked out. Keep in
mind that the password is case sensitive.

To collapse an area without locking it first:

1. Click in the area.
2. Choose Area > Collapse from the Format menu.
A collapsed area appears by default as a single line in your worksheet.
Unlocking and Expanding an Area
If you want to make changes to a region inside a locked area, you have to unlock it. If
the area is collapsed, you must also expand it.
To unlock a locked area:
1. Click in the area.
2. Choose Area > Unlock from the Format menu.
3. You will be prompted for a password if it is required.
To expand a collapsed area:
1. Double-click the collapsed boundary line.
 Worksheet References / 69

Note When you lock an area without a password, anyone can unlock it by simply choosing Area >
Unlock from the Format menu.

Deleting an Area
Delete an area just as you would any other region:
1. Make sure the area is unlocked. You cannot delete a locked area.
2. Select either of the two boundary lines of the area by dragging the mouse across it.
3. Choose Cut from the Edit menu or press [Delete].
Copying and Pasting Locked Areas
Mathcad allows locked areas to be copied and pasted into new documents. The pasted
area remains locked, with the same password and timestamp information, but can be
transferred into any new Mathcad worksheet. To do so, first click on an area boundary
to select it, then copy and paste as you would for any region.
Worksheet Protection
When distributing a worksheet, you may wish to restrict user access to most regions.
Rather than locking an area, you may opt instead to protect your worksheet.
Mathcad provides three levels of worksheet protection, allowing you to prevent users
from changing only certain regions or all regions in the worksheet.

Online Help For more information see “Protecting Your Worksheets” in online Help or “Hiding Content and
Protecting Your Worksheets” in the Tutorials.

Worksheet References
Sometimes you want to use formulas and calculations from one Mathcad worksheet
inside another. Mathcad allows you to reference one worksheet from another — that
is, to access the computations in a worksheet without opening it. When you insert a
reference to a worksheet, you cannot see the formulas of the referenced worksheet, but
the current worksheet behaves as if you could.
To insert a reference to a worksheet:
1. Click the mouse in a blank part of your worksheet. The cursor should look like a
crosshair.
2. Choose Reference from the Insert menu.
70 / Chapter 7 Worksheet Management

3. Click “Browse” to locate and select a worksheet. You can also enter an Internet
address (URL) to insert a reference to a Mathcad file that is located on the Web.
To indicate that a reference has been inserted, Mathcad pastes a small icon plus the
path to the referenced worksheet. All definitions in the referenced worksheet are
available below or to the right of the icon. If you double-click the icon, Mathcad opens
the referenced worksheet in its own window for editing. You can move or delete the
icon just as you would any other Mathcad region.

Note By default, the location of the referenced file is stored in the worksheet as an absolute system
path or URL. To keep the location of the referenced file relative to the Mathcad worksheet
containing the reference, click “Use relative path for reference” in the Insert Reference dialog
box. The reference remains valid even if you move the files as long as you keep the relative
folder structure intact. To use a relative path, you must first save the file containing the reference.

To update a worksheet containing a reference, first make the change on the referenced
worksheet and save the source file. Next return to the referencing worksheet, then click
on the reference and press the [F9] key (Calculate).
You can change the referenced file by right-clicking on the reference, choosing
Properties, and choosing a new file on the Reference tab.

Hyperlinks
You can create a hyperlink from any Mathcad region, such as a text region or image,
to other regions in the same worksheet or other Mathcad worksheets, or even to other
types of files. Hyperlinks allow you to connect groups of worksheets or simply cross-
reference related areas of a worksheet or worksheets.
Creating Hyperlinks to a Mathcad File
Mathcad can follow a hyperlink to any worksheet, whether it is stored on your local
system or the Internet.
To create a hyperlink from one worksheet to another, first specify the hyperlink by
selecting a piece of text or clicking an image.

Tip The arrow cursor changes to a hand cursor when you hover over any hyperlink. When you select
text, Mathcad underlines the text to show a hyperlink.

Next specify the target worksheet:

1. Choose Hyperlink from the Insert menu. Mathcad opens the Insert Hyperlink
dialog box.
 Hyperlinks / 71

2. Click “Browse” to locate and select the target worksheet. You can also enter an
Internet address (URL).

3. Check “Use relative path for hyperlink” to store the location of the target worksheet
relative to the Mathcad worksheet containing the hyperlink. You can move these
files as long as you preserve their relative folder structure.

Note In order for “Use relative path for hyperlink” to be available, you must first save the worksheet
in which you are inserting the hyperlink.

4. Check “Display as popup document” if you want the target worksheet to open in a
small popup window.
5. Enter a message to appear on the status line at the bottom of the window when the
mouse hovers over the hyperlink.
To edit a hyperlink, click the hyperlinked item and choose Hyperlink from the Insert
menu. Make any changes you wish in the Edit Hyperlink dialog box.
To remove a hyperlink, click the hyperlink and choose Hyperlink from the Insert
menu. Click “Remove Link” in the dialog box.
Creating Hyperlinks from Region to Region
Before you can link to a specific region in a worksheet, you must mark the region with
a region tag. A tag can be words, numbers, or spaces, but not symbols.
To create a region tag:
1. Right-click on the region and select Properties.
2. In the Properties dialog box, under the Display tab, type a tag in the Tag textbox.

Note You can not include a period in the tag name such as Section1.3 — you must write Section1-3.

To create a hyperlink to a region that has been tagged:

1. Click a region or select words in your worksheet and choose Hyperlink from the
Insert menu.
2. Click “Browse” to locate and select the target worksheet or enter an Internet address
(URL). You do not have to enter the name of the target worksheet if you are creating
a hyperlink to a region within the same worksheet.
72 / Chapter 7 Worksheet Management

At the end of the worksheet path type “#” followed by the region tag. The complete
path for your target region will look like this: C:\filename#region tag. If you
are in the same file, the path to another region will look like this: #region tag. Note
that you must include the #.

Note You cannot use the popup window option when you link from region to region within or between
Mathcad worksheets.

Creating Hyperlinks to Other Files

You can create a hyperlink not only from one Mathcad worksheet to another, but also
from a Mathcad worksheet to any other file type. Use this feature to create E-books or
compound documents that can contain spreadsheets, animation files, even Web pages.

Note Double-clicking a hyperlink to another file type launches either the application that created the
file or an application associated with a file of that type in the Windows Registry. However, only
Mathcad files can be made into popup windows.

Distributing Your Worksheets

Mathcad worksheets can be distributed in a variety of media including the Internet,
through email, in print format, and, of course, as individual Mathcad documents or as
a Mathcad E-book. You can also print Mathcad worksheets to PDF files if you have
the appropriate applications.
Printing
To print a Mathcad worksheet, choose Print from the File menu. The Print dialog box
lets you control whether to print the entire worksheet, selected pages, or selected
regions. The particular dialog box you see depends on the printer you’ve selected.
Printing Wide Worksheets
Mathcad worksheets can be wider than a sheet of paper, since you can scroll as far to
the right as you like in a Mathcad worksheet and place equations, text, and graphics
wherever you like. As you scroll horizontally, however, you see gray vertical lines
appearing to indicate the right margins of successive “pages” corresponding to the
settings for your printer. The sections of the worksheet separated by the gray vertical
lines print on separate sheets of paper, yet the page number at the bottom of the Mathcad
window does not change as you scroll to the right.
 Distributing Your Worksheets / 73

You can think of the worksheet as being divided into vertical strips. Mathcad begins
printing at the top of each strip and continues until it reaches the last region in this strip.
It prints successive strips left to right. Note that certain layouts will produce one or
more blank pages.

Tip You can control whether a wide worksheet is printed in its entirety or in a single page width. To
do so, choose Page Setup from the File menu to open the Page Setup dialog box. To prevent
printing anything to the right of the right margin, check “Print single page width.”

Tip You can customize the display of some operators including the :=, the bold equals, the
derivative operator, and the multiplication operator. Before you print, choose Worksheet
Options from the Tools menu and click on the Display tab to change the appearance of these
operators for people unfamiliar with Mathcad notation.

Print Preview
To check your worksheet’s layout before printing, choose Print Preview from the File
menu or click on the Standard toolbar. The Mathcad window shows the current
section of your worksheet in miniature, as it will appear when printed, with a strip of
buttons across the top of the window:

Tip You can use the “Zoom In” and “Zoom Out” buttons to magnify the worksheet or you can
magnify the worksheet by moving the cursor onto the page so that the cursor changes to a
magnifying glass then click the mouse. Click again to magnify your worksheet even more. Once
you’re at the maximum magnification, clicking on the page de-magnifies it.

You cannot edit the current page or change its format in the Print Preview screen. To
edit the page or change its format, return to the normal view by clicking “Close.”
74 / Chapter 7 Worksheet Management

Saving to Designate
If you use Mathsoft’s Designate Web repository for storing and managing your
Mathcad files, you can upload your worksheet directly into Designate using the Save
to Designate option under the File menu.
Creating PDF Files
You can also save documents in Adobe’s Portable Document Format (PDF). Once a
PDF printer driver is installed, choose Print and select the PDF driver from your list of
printers. Then choose “Print to File” in the Print dialog box to create a PDF file that can
be distributed as is or further manipulated in Acrobat Distiller.
Creating E-books
As described in Chapter 3, “Online Resources,” an E-book is a hyperlinked collection
of Mathcad worksheets. When you open an E-book in Mathcad, it opens in its own
window. An E-book has a table of contents, an index, a browse order, and search
features accessible through buttons on the toolbar in the E-book window. The
worksheets in an E-book are live, so a reader can experiment directly within the book.

Online Help For details about each step of creating a Mathcad E-book, see the online Author’s Reference
under the Help menu. It includes tips and techniques for turning a collection of worksheets into
a navigable book.

After you have created an E-book, others can open it in Mathcad and navigate through
it using the toolbar buttons of the E-book window. For more information on E-books
and the navigation tools, refer to Chapter 3, “Online Resources.”
Creating Web Pages and Sites
Mathcad worksheets can be output as HTML files for viewing in a Web browser. There
are a variety of options for specifying how worksheet regions are represented in HTML
files. All Mathcad text regions are output as standard HTML, but you must choose the
format in which you would like equations, graphs, and other types of regions to be
stored on a Web page.
Choose Save as Web Page from the File menu to save a file in HTML format. Once
you have chosen a file name and location to store your file, click Save, and a dialog
presents you with a set of options for saving your file:
 Distributing Your Worksheets / 75

Preferences for Web Page Output

Choose a format for image export, either JPEG or PNG. PNG is a lossless format and
may result in clearer images for graphs and drawings, while JPEG format may create
smaller files or be more compatible with older browser versions. All graphs, embedded
images, tables, and equations are displayed as images in the output HTML document.
Fixed or Relative Positioning and Templates
Choose whether a document uses relative or fixed layout when exported to HTML.
When Save Layout As is set to Relative, regions are stored in an HTML table that
attempts to retain the relative horizontal and vertical placement of your regions. This
arrangement makes it possible to edit the Web page outside of Mathcad to include
additional HTML content — navigation links, images, and so on. This attribute must
be selected to use HTML templates.
When the Relative button is selected, you can browse for an HTML template file.
Templates are used to wrap HTML content exported from a Mathcad file. You can use
them to add headers, footers, navigation links, and images, creating a uniform layout
for many files that facilitate large Web site production. Template files must be saved
with MLT extensions and use the same structure as the HTMLtemplate.mlt sample file
that appears in your Template folder within the Mathcad program folder. Note that MLT
templates are output templates.
If you choose the Fixed option, each Mathcad region image or block of text is precisely
positioned on a Web page, mimicking the original Mathcad document as closely as
possible, but making it difficult to add new items to the page outside of Mathcad. For
further instructions and tips on publishing Web sites with Mathcad, see the online
Author’s Reference under the Help menu in Mathcad.
Finally, you can choose a new title for your page, then open the page immediately in
your default Web browser.
You can also save Mathcad documents in HTML by choosing Save As from the File
menu and selecting “HTML File (*.htm)” from the “Save as type” drop-down list. You
will not see the special properties dialog shown above. Options for HTML can be set
76 / Chapter 7 Worksheet Management

by choosing Preferences from the Tools menu, and modifying choices on the “HTML
Options” tab.

Note When you save a Mathcad worksheet in HTML format, an HTM file is created plus a folder with
the name “[filename]_images” that contains all the associated image files. When copying files
to your server, don’t forget to include the associated image folder.

Saving Your Worksheet to Microsoft Word

To save a worksheet so you can distribute it in Microsoft Word:
1. Scroll to the bottom of your worksheet to update all calculated results or choose
Calculate > Calculate Worksheet from the Tools menu or press [Ctrl][F9].
2. Choose Save As from the File menu.
3. In the Save As dialog box, choose “Rich Text Format File (.rtf)” from the “Save as
type” drop-down list.
4. Enter a file name and then click “Save.”
When you open an .RTF file with Microsoft Word, you can edit the text. However, you
are no longer able to edit math regions and graphs, which have become pictures. The
regions do not appear in their correct position across the page unless you choose Print
Layout from Word’s View menu.

Tip Any regions that are to the right of the right margin in Mathcad are not visible in Microsoft
Word. For optimal conversion to Word, you should set your margins in Mathcad to the same
defaults as Word (1.25” on left and right, and 1” top and bottom) or start with the Mathcad
template, “Microsoft Word,” from File > New.

Dragging and dropping a region or regions from Mathcad to Microsoft Word inserts a
Mathcad object into Word. See “Inserting Objects” on page 108.
You can also simply select text in a Mathcad text region, copy the text in Mathcad, then
Paste into Microsoft Word to move your text to Word.
Mailing
If you use a Microsoft’s Mail API (MAPI)-compatible email application, you can create
email messages from within Mathcad. Clicking File > Send launches an email message
with a copy of the active Mathcad worksheet as an attachment.

Tip The settings in your mail system determine how Mathcad worksheets are attached to or encoded
in the mail message.
Chapter 8
Calculating in Mathcad
 Defining and Evaluating Variables
 Defining and Evaluating Functions
 Units and Dimensions
 Working with Results
 Controlling Calculation
 Error Messages

Defining and Evaluating Variables

Variables allow you to define values to be used to evaluate expressions and solve
equations.
Defining a Variable
A variable definition defines the value of a variable everywhere below and to the right
of the definition. To define a variable:

1. Type the variable name.

2. Press the colon [:] key, or click on the Calculator toolbar.

The definition symbol (:=) appears with a blank placeholder to
the right.
3. Type an expression to complete the definition. This expression
can include numbers and any previously defined variables and
functions.
The left-hand side of a “:=” can contain any of the following:
• A simple variable name like x.
• A subscripted variable name like vi.

x
• A matrix whose elements are either of the above. For example, . This technique
y1
allows you to define several variables at once: each element on the right-hand side
is assigned simultaneously to the corresponding element on the left-hand side.
• A function name with an argument list of simple variable names. For example,
f(x, y, z). Names are described further in the next section.
〈 1〉
• A superscripted (column) matrix name like M .

77
78 / Chapter 8 Calculating in Mathcad

Names
A name in Mathcad is simply a sequence of characters you type referring to a variable
or function used in computations.
Built-in Names
Mathcad’s built-in names include built-in variables and built-in functions.
• Some predefined or built-in variables either have a conventional value, like π
(3.14159…) or e (2.71828…), or are used as system variables to control how
Mathcad performs calculations. (See “Built-in Variables” on page 79.)
• In addition to these predefined variables, Mathcad treats the names of all built-in
units as predefined variables. For example, Mathcad recognizes the name “A” as
the ampere, “m” as the meter, “s” as the second, and so on. Choose Unit from the
Insert menu or click on the Standard toolbar to see Mathcad’s predefined
units. (See “Units and Dimensions” on page 88.)

• Choose Function from the Insert menu or click on the Standard toolbar to
see Mathcad’s built-in functions.
User-defined Variable and Function Names
Names in Mathcad can contain any of the following characters:
• Uppercase and lowercase letters.
• The digits 0 through 9, although they cannot start a name.
• The underscore [_].
• The prime symbol [']. Note that this is not the same as an apostrophe. You can
press [Ctrl][F7] to insert it.
• The percent symbol [%].
• Greek letters. To insert a Greek letter, click a button on the Greek toolbar or type
the equivalent Roman letter and press [Ctrl]G. (See “Greek Letters” on page 24.)

• The infinity symbol [∞]. Insert it by clicking on the Calculus toolbar or by

typing [Ctrl][Shift]Z.
• The following are examples of valid names:
alpha b
xyz700 A1_B2_C3_D4%%%
F1' a%%x

Note Mathcad distinguishes between uppercase and lowercase letters. For example, diam is a different
variable from DIAM. Mathcad also distinguishes between names in different fonts, as discussed
in “Math Styles” on page 33. Thus, Diam is also a different variable from Diam.

Online Help See “Variable and Function Names” in online Help for restrictions and other details for names
in Mathcad.
 Defining and Evaluating Variables / 79

Literal Subscripts
If you include a period in a variable name, Mathcad displays whatever follows the
period as a subscript. You can use these literal subscripts to create variables with names
like velinit and uair.
To create a literal subscript:

1. Type the text that appears before the subscript.

2. Type a period [.] followed by text that is to become the subscript.

Tip Do not confuse literal subscripts with array subscripts, which you generate with the left bracket

key [[] or by clicking on the Matrix toolbar. They appear similar, but behave quite
differently in computations. A literal subscript is simply a cosmetic part of a variable name. An
array subscript represents a reference to an array element. When you click on a name with a
literal subscript, a period [.] displays in front of the subscript. See Chapter 5, “Range Variables
and Arrays.”

Built-in Variables
Some built-in variables have conventional values, like π and e, and some are system
variables that control how Mathcad works.

Note Mathcad treats the names of all built-in units as predefined variables. See “Units and
Dimensions” on page 88.

Although Mathcad’s predefined variables already have values when you start Mathcad,
you can still redefine them. For example, if you want to use a variable called e with a
value other than the one Mathcad provides, enter a new definition, like e := 2. The
variable e takes on the new value everywhere in the worksheet below and to the right
of the new definition. Or create a global definition for the variable as described in
“Global Definitions” on page 81.

Note Mathcad’s predefined variables are defined for all fonts, sizes, and styles. This means that if you
redefine e as described above, you can still use e, for example, as the base for natural logarithms.
80 / Chapter 8 Calculating in Mathcad

You can modify some of Mathcad’s built-in variables without having to explicitly
define them in your worksheet. To do so, choose Worksheet Options from the Tools
menu, and click the Built-In Variables tab.

You can enter new values for any of these variables. Then choose Calculate >
Worksheet from the Tools menu to ensure that all existing equations use the new
values.
The numbers in brackets to the right of the variable names represent the default values
for those variables.
Evaluating Expressions Numerically
To evaluate an expression numerically:
1. Type an expression containing any valid combination of
numbers, variables, and functions. Any variables or
functions should be defined earlier in the worksheet.
2. Press the “=” key or click on the Calculator toolbar.
Mathcad computes the value of the expression and shows
it after the equal sign.

Tip Whenever you evaluate an expression, Mathcad shows a final placeholder at the end of the
equation. This placeholder is for unit conversions, as explained in “Working with Results” on
page 91. As soon as you click outside the region, Mathcad hides the placeholder.

Figure 8-1 shows some results calculated from preceding variable definitions.
How Mathcad Scans a Worksheet
Mathcad scans a worksheet from left to right and top to bottom. This means that a
variable or function definition involving a “:=” affects everything below and to the
right of it.
To see the placement of regions more clearly in your worksheet, choose Regions from
the View menu. Mathcad displays blank space in gray and leaves regions in your
background color.
 Defining and Evaluating Variables / 81

Figure 8-1: Calculations for motion at constant speed based on simple

variable definitions.

Figure 8-2 shows examples of how placement of equations in a worksheet affects the
evaluation of results. In the first evaluation, both x and y are highlighted (Mathcad
shows them in red on screen) to indicate that they are undefined. This is because the
definitions for x and y lie below where they are used. Because Mathcad scans from top
to bottom, it doesn’t know the values of x and y when it gets to the first equation.
The second evaluation, on the other hand, is below the definitions of x and y. By the
time Mathcad gets to this equation, it has already assigned values to both x and y.

Figure 8-2: Mathcad evaluates equations from top to bottom in a worksheet.

You must define variables above the place where you use them.

Note You can define a variable more than once in the same worksheet. Mathcad simply uses the first
definition for all expressions until the variable is redefined, then uses the new definition.

Global Definitions
Global definitions work exactly like local definitions except that they are evaluated
before any local definitions. If you define a variable or function with a global definition,
that variable or function is available to all local definitions in your worksheet, regardless
of whether the local definition appears above or below the global definition.
82 / Chapter 8 Calculating in Mathcad

To create a global definition, follow these steps:

1. Type a variable name or function.

2. Press [~] (tilde), or click on the Evaluation toolbar.

3. Type an expression. The expression can involve numbers or
other globally defined variables and functions.
You can use global definitions for functions, subscripted variables, and anything else
that normally uses the definition symbol “:=.”

Note A global definition of a variable can be overridden by a local definition of the same variable
name with the definition symbol “:=.”

Figure 8-3 shows the results of a global definition for the variable R which appears at
the bottom of the figure.

Figure 8-3: Using the global definition symbol. The first set of definitions are
used to solve for P. Since R is defined globally at the bottom of the worksheet,
its definition applies everywhere in the worksheet. When the local definitions
for V and T are changed, there is a new result for P.

Tip It is good practice to allow only one definition for each global variable. Defining a variable with
two different global definitions or with one global and one local definition may make your
worksheet difficult to revise or understand in the future.

Range Variables
Iterative processes in Mathcad worksheets depend on range variables. For a description
of more advanced iterative operations made possible by the programming operators in
Mathcad, go to the Programming section of online Help.
Using Range Variables
To define a range variable see “Creating a Range Variable” on page 38. To define a
range variable that changes in steps other than 1, see the section “Types of Ranges” on
page 83. Once you define a range variable, it takes on its complete range of values every
time you use it.
 Defining and Evaluating Variables / 83

You cannot define a variable in terms of a range variable. For example, if after having
defined j as shown in Figure 8-4 you now define i := j + 1, Mathcad assumes you are
trying to set a scalar variable equal to a range variable and marks the equation with an
appropriate error message.
One application of range variables is to fill up the elements of a vector or matrix. You
can define vector elements by using a range variable as a subscript. For example, to
define xj for each value of j:

Type x[j [Shift]; j [Shift]6 2[Space]+1.

Figure 8-4 shows the vector of values computed by this equation. Since j is a range
variable, the entire equation is evaluated once for each value of j. This defines xj for
each value of j from 0 to 15.

Figure 8-4: Using a range variable to define the values of a vector.

Tip Mathcad takes longer to compute equations with ranged expressions since there may be many
computations for each equation. While Mathcad is computing, the mouse pointer changes its
appearance. See “Interrupting Calculations” on page 96.

Types of Ranges
The definition of j in the previous section, ranging from 0 to 15, is an example of the
simplest type of range definition. But Mathcad permits range variables with values
ranging from any number to any other number, using any constant increment or
decrement.
84 / Chapter 8 Calculating in Mathcad

To define a range variable with a step size other than 1, type an equation of the form:
k:1,1.1;2

It appears in your worksheet window as:

In this range definition:

• The variable k is the name of the range variable itself.
• The number 1 is the first value taken by the range variable k.
• The number 1.1 is the second value in the range. Note that this is not the step size.
The step size in this example is 0.1, the difference between 1.1 and 1. If you omit
the comma and the 1.1, Mathcad assumes a step size of one in whatever direction
(up or down) is appropriate.
• The number 2 is the last value in the range. In this example, the range values are
constantly increasing. If instead you had defined k := 10 .. 1, then k would count
down from 10 to 1. If the third number in the range definition is not an even number
of increments from the starting value, the range does not go beyond it. For example,
if you define k := 10,20 .. 65 then k takes values 10, 20, 30, . . ., 60.

Note You can use arbitrary scalar expressions in range definitions. However, these values must
always be real numbers.

Built-in Functions
Mathcad provides a large set of built-in functions. To insert a function:
1. Click in a blank area of your worksheet or on a placeholder.

2. Choose Function from the Insert menu or click on the Standard toolbar to
open the Insert Function dialog box.

3. Choose a Function Category or click “All” to see all functions sorted alphabetically.
4. Double-click the name of the function you want to insert from the
right-hand list or click “Insert.” The function and placeholders
for its arguments are inserted into the worksheet.
5. Fill in the placeholders.
 Defining and Evaluating Variables / 85

To apply a function to an expression you have already entered, select the expression
and follow the steps given above. See Chapter 4, “Working with Math.”
You can also type the name of a built-in function directly into a math placeholder or in
a math region.

Tip Although built-in function names are not font sensitive, they are case sensitive. If you do not use
the Insert Function dialog box to insert a function name, you must enter the name of a built-in
function in a math region exactly as it appears in the Insert Function dialog.

Note Brackets, [ ], around an argument indicate that the argument is optional.

Assistance for Using Built-in Functions

Mathcad offers several sources of assistance for using built-in functions:
• The Insert Function dialog box gives you a convenient way to look up a function
by category, to see the arguments required, and to see a brief function description.
Click “?” in the Insert Function dialog box to open the Help topic associated with
a selected function.
• Online Help (also available by clicking on the Standard toolbar) provides
details on the syntax, arguments, algorithms, and behavior of all of Mathcad’s built-
in functions, operators, and keywords.
• QuickSheets under the Help menu include working examples of many functions.
Applying a Function to an Expression
To turn an expression into the argument of a function:
1. Click in the expression and press [Space] until the entire
expression, w ⋅ t – k ⋅ z , is held between the editing lines.

2. Type the single-quote key [‘] or click on the Calculator

toolbar to enclose the selected expression by parentheses.

3. Press [Space] so that the editing lines hold the parentheses.

4. If necessary, press the [Insert] key so that the vertical

editing line switches to the left side.
5. Now type the name of the function. If the function is a built-
in function, you can choose Function from the Insert menu
or click on the Standard toolbar and double-click the
name of the function.
86 / Chapter 8 Calculating in Mathcad

Defining and Evaluating Functions

You define a function in much the same way as you define a variable. The name goes
on the left, followed by a definition symbol, then an expression on the right. The main
difference is that the name includes an argument list. The example below shows how
to define a function called dist(x, y) that returns the distance between the point (x, y)
and the origin.
To make a function definition:

1. Type the function name.

2. Type a left parenthesis followed by one or more names separated by

commas. Complete this argument list by typing a right parenthesis.

Note It makes no difference whether or not the names in the argument list have been defined or used
elsewhere in the worksheet. What is important is that these arguments must be names. They
cannot be more complicated expressions.

3. Press [:] or click on the Calculator toolbar to enter

the definition symbol (:=).
4. Type an expression to define the function. The
expression can contain a name or any previously defined
functions and variables.
Once you have defined a function, you can use it anywhere below and to the right of
the definition.
When you evaluate an expression containing a function, as shown in Figure 8-5,
Mathcad:
1. evaluates the arguments you place between the parentheses,
2. replaces the dummy arguments in the function definition with the actual arguments
you place between the parentheses,
3. performs the computation specified by the function definition,
4. returns the result as the value of the function.

Figure 8-5: A user-defined function. First define the points. Next define the
function to compute distances to the origin. Then insert arguments.
 Defining and Evaluating Functions / 87

Note As shown in Figure 8-5, if you type only the name of a function without its arguments, Mathcad
returns the type signature of the function. In this case, the function takes two arguments of the
same units (see “Units and Dimensions” on page 88) and returns a result with the units of the
arguments. Any unit is allowed here, hence the term “any.”

The arguments of a user-defined function can represent scalars, vectors, or matrices.

For example, you could define the distance function as dist ( v ) := v 02 + v 12 . This is
an example of a function that accepts a vector as an argument and returns a scalar result.
See Chapter 5, “Range Variables and Arrays” for more information.

Note User-defined function names are font and case sensitive. The function f(x) is different from the
function f(x) and SIN(x) is different from sin(x). Mathcad’s built-in functions, however, are
defined for all fonts (except the Symbol font), sizes, and styles. This means that sin(x), sin(x),
and sin(x) all refer to the same function.

Variables in User-Defined Functions

When you define a function, you don’t have to define any of the names in the argument
list since you are telling Mathcad what to do with the arguments, not what they are.
When you define a function, Mathcad doesn’t even have to know the types of the
arguments — whether the arguments are scalars, vectors, matrices, and so on. It is only
when Mathcad evaluates a function that it needs to know the argument types.
However, if in defining a function you use a variable name that is not in the argument
list, you must define that variable name above the function definition. The value of that
variable at the time you make the function definition then becomes a permanent part
of the function. See the example in Figure 8-6.

Figure 8-6: The value of a user function depends on its arguments. The value
of f depends on its argument, but not on the value of a. Since a is not an argument
of f, the value of f depends on the value of a only at the point where f is defined.

If you want a function to depend on the value of a variable, you must include that
variable as an argument. If not, Mathcad just uses that variable’s fixed value at the point
in the worksheet where the function is defined.
88 / Chapter 8 Calculating in Mathcad

Recursive Function Definitions

Mathcad supports recursive function definitions — you may define the value of a
function in terms of a previous value of the function. As shown in Figure 8-7, recursive
functions are useful for defining arbitrary periodic functions, as well as implementing
numerical functions like the factorial function.
Note that a recursive function definition should always have at least two parts:
• An initial condition that prevents the recursion from going forever.
• A definition of the function in terms of some previous value(s) of the function.

A simple recursive function definition.

Using recursion to define a periodic sawtooth wave.

Figure 8-7: Mathcad allows recursive function definitions.

Note If you do not specify an initial condition that stops the recursion, Mathcad generates a “stack
overflow” error message when you try to evaluate the function.

Online Help The programming operators in Mathcad also support recursion. See Recursion in Help.

Units and Dimensions

One of Mathcad’s strengths is units and unit conversion. Units are used just like built-
in variables. To assign units to a number or expression, just multiply it by the name of
the unit.
Mathcad recognizes most units by their common abbreviations. By default Mathcad
uses the SI unit system (the International System of Units) in the results of any
calculation, but you may use any supported units you wish in creating your expressions.
You can change the default system of units to MKS, CGS, U.S. or None under the Unit
 Units and Dimensions / 89

Systems tab of Worksheet Options in the Tools menu. See “Displaying Units of
Results” on page 93 for how to set a unit system for results.
For example, type expressions like the following:
mass:75*kg
acc:100*m/s^2
acc_g:9.8*m/s^2
F:mass*(acc + acc_g)

Figure 8-8 shows how these equations appear in a worksheet.

Figure 8-8: Equations using units. Mathcad treats the multiplication as

implied when you type an expression like mass:75kg.

Tip If you define a variable that consists of a number followed immediately by a unit name, you can
omit the multiplication symbol; Mathcad inserts a very small space and treats the multiplication
as implied. See the definition of mass at the bottom of Figure 8-8.

To insert a unit:

1. Click in the empty placeholder and choose Unit from the Insert menu or click
on the Standard toolbar. Mathcad opens the Insert Unit dialog box.
90 / Chapter 8 Calculating in Mathcad

2. The bottom list shows built-in units, along with their Mathcad names,
corresponding to the physical quantity selected in the top list. To see all available
built-in units select “Dimensionless” in the top list.
3. Double-click the unit you want to insert or click the unit you want and then click
“Insert.” Mathcad inserts the unit into the empty placeholder.

Note Mathcad performs some dimensional analysis by trying to match the dimensions of your selected
result with one of the common physical quantities in the top list. If it finds a match, all the built-
in units corresponding to the highlighted physical quantity appear in the bottom list. If nothing
matches, Mathcad simply lists all available built-in units on the bottom.

Dimensional Checking
Whenever you enter an expression involving units, Mathcad checks it for dimensional
consistency. If you add or subtract values with incompatible units or violate other
principles of dimensional analysis, Mathcad displays an appropriate error message.
For example, suppose you had
defined acc as 100 ⋅ m ⁄ s instead
of 100 ⋅ m ⁄ s 2 as shown at right.
Since acc is in units of velocity and
g is in units of acceleration, it is
inappropriate to add them together.
When you attempt to do so,
Mathcad displays an error message
that specifies how the dimensions
mismatch.
Other unit errors are usually caused by one of the following:
• An incorrect unit conversion.
• A variable with the wrong units.
• Units in exponents or subscripts (for example v 3 ⋅ acre or 2 3 ⋅ ft ).
• Units as arguments to inappropriate functions (for example, sin ( 2 ⋅ s ) ).

Defining Your Own Units

You may want to define your own units or use your own abbreviation for a unit.
Define your own units in terms of existing units in exactly the same way you define a
variable in terms of an existing variable. Figure 8-9 shows how to define new units as
well as how to redefine existing units.

Note Since units behave just like variables, you may run into unexpected conflicts. For example, if
you define the variable m in your worksheet, you cannot use the built-in unit m for meters
anywhere below that definition. However, Mathcad automatically displays the unit m in any
results involving meters. Mathcad will warn you if you redefine a built-in unit by underlining
the redefinition with a wavy, green line.
 Working with Results / 91

Figure 8-9: Defining your own units. Top half: Defining new units for a
worksheet. Bottom half: Results from the redefined units.

Note Fahrenheit and Celsius temperature units, as well as decibels and other scalings, are not
multiplicative. These scaling functions are defined in Mathcad and can be used in the units
placeholder or in the Postfix Operator on the left-hand side of an expression to create
conventional unit notation. The functions have defined inverses so can also be used in the unit
placeholder. See the QuickSheet “Custom Operators” within Mathcad Techniques and
“Temperature Units and User-Defined Default Units” within the New Features section of the
Mathcad Tutorials for samples of temperature scale calculations.

Working with Results

Formatting Results
The way that Mathcad displays answers is called the result format. You can set the
result format for a single calculated result or for an entire worksheet.
Setting the Format of a Single Result
Numerically calculated results are formatted in a worksheet according to the worksheet
default result format. To modify the format for a single result:

1. Click anywhere in the equation.

2. Choose Result from the Format

menu or double-click the result to
open the Result Format dialog box.

3. Change the desired settings. See

online Help for more details on the
various settings in the dialog box. To
display a result with six decimal
places, increase “Number of decimal
places” from 3 to 6.
92 / Chapter 8 Calculating in Mathcad

To redisplay a result using the worksheet default result format settings, delete the equal
sign and press [=] again.

Note When the format of a result is changed, only the appearance of the result changes in the
worksheet. Mathcad continues to maintain full precision up to 17 decimal places internally for
that result. Use the round function if you wish Mathcad to calculate with fewer decimal places.
If you copy a result, Mathcad copies the number only to displayed precision.

Setting Worksheet Default Format

To change the default display of numerical results:
1. Click in a blank part of your worksheet.
2. Choose Result from the Format menu.
3. Change the desired settings in the Result Format dialog box.
Mathcad changes the display of all results whose formats have not been explicitly
specified.
You can also change the worksheet default by clicking on a particular result, choosing
Result from the Format menu, changing the settings in the Result Format dialog box,
and clicking “Set as Default.”

Tip Changing the worksheet default result format affects only the current worksheet. To use your
default result formats in new worksheets, save your worksheet as a template as described in
Chapter 7, “Worksheet Management.”

The Result Format Dialog Box

Online Help Complete descriptions of options available under the Result Format dialog box can be found in
“Formatting Numerical Results” and the pages for each tab in Help.

The Number Format page lets you control the number of decimal places, trailing zeros,
exponential threshold, scientific or engineering notation, or display of your results as
fractions or mixed numbers.
The Display Options page lets you control whether arrays are displayed as tables or
matrices, whether nested arrays are expanded, and whether i or j is used to indicate
imaginary numbers. You can also specify another radix such as Binary or Octal.
The Unit Display page gives you options to format units (as fractions) or simplify the
units to derived units.
The Tolerance page allows you to specify when to hide a real or imaginary part of a
result and how small a number has to be for it to display as zero.
Figure 8-10 shows some examples of formatting options.
 Working with Results / 93

Definitions
General format, Exponential threshold = 15,
Number of decimal places = 2
Decimal format, Number of decimal places = 4

Decimal format, Number of decimal places = 5

Show trailing zeros

Scientific format

Engineering format

Engineering format, Show exponents as E ± 000

Figure 8-10: Several ways to format the same number.

Displaying Units of Results

By default, Mathcad displays results in the fundamental units of the current unit system.

Tip Check “Simplify units when possible” in the Result Format dialog box to see units in a result
expressed in terms of derived units rather than in base units. Check “Format units” to see units
in a result displayed as a built-up fraction containing terms with positive exponents only, rather
than as a product of units with positive and negative exponents.

You can have Mathcad redisplay a particular result in terms of any of Mathcad’s built-
in units. To do so:
1. Click in the result. You’ll see an empty placeholder to its right. This is the units
placeholder.
2. Click the units placeholder then choose Unit from the Insert menu or click on
the Standard toolbar to open the Insert Unit dialog box.
3. Double-click the unit in which you want to display the result.
You can also type a unit’s name directly into the units placeholder.
Unit Systems
Mathcad uses SI as the default unit system. When you use the equal sign to display a
result having units, Mathcad automatically displays the units in the result in terms of
base or derived SI units.
You can display results in units of any of the other built-in unit systems in Mathcad
(CGS, U.S., or MKS) or not use a unit system at all. To do so, choose Worksheet
Options from the Tools menu and click the Unit System tab.
Select the default unit system for display of results. The SI and US base electrical unit
(ampere) differs from the base electrical unit in MKS (coulomb), and in CGS
(statcoulomb).
94 / Chapter 8 Calculating in Mathcad

The following table summarizes the base units available in Mathcad:

Unit System Base Units
SI m, kg, s, A, K, cd, and mole
MKS m, kg, sec, coul, K, cd, and mole
CGS cm, gm, sec, statcoul, K, cd, and mole
U.S. ft, lb, sec, A, K, cd, and mole
None Displays results in terms of fundamental dimensions of
length, mass, time, charge, and absolute temperature.
All built-in units are disabled.
The standard SI unit names — such as A for ampere, L for liter, s for second, and S for
siemens — are generally available in all unit systems, except where there are conflicts
with system definitions (CGS). The Insert Unit dialog provides a complete listing of
units available for the unit system you have chosen. Mathcad includes most units
common to scientific and engineering practice. When conventional unit prefixes such
as m- for milli-, n- for nano-, and so on, are not understood by Mathcad, you can easily
define custom units such as ns as described in “Defining Your Own Units” on page 90.

Tip For examples of units with prefixes not already built into Mathcad, see the Units section of the
Tutorials under the Help menu.

If you click “None” in the Unit System tab of the Worksheet Options dialog box,
Mathcad doesn’t understand any built-in units and displays answers in terms of the
fundamental dimensions of length, mass, time, charge, and temperature. However,
even if you are working in one of Mathcad’s built-in unit systems, you can always
choose to see results displayed in fundamental dimension names rather than the base
units of the unit system. To do so:
1. Choose Worksheet Options from the Tools menu.
2. Click the Dimensions tab.
3. Check “Display dimensions” and click “OK.”
Unit Conversions
There are two ways to convert from one set of units to another:
• Use the Insert Unit dialog box, or
• Type units directly into the units placeholder.
To convert units using the Insert Unit dialog box:
1. Click the unit you want to replace.
2. Choose Unit from the Insert menu or click on the Standard toolbar.
3. Double-click the unit you want displayed.
Figure 8-11 shows F displayed both in terms of fundamental SI units and in terms of
several combinations of units.
When you enter an inappropriate unit in the units placeholder, Mathcad inserts a
 Working with Results / 95

combination of base units that generate the correct units for the displayed result. For
example, in the last equation in Figure 8-11, kW ⋅ s is not a unit of force. Mathcad
therefore inserts m-1 to cancel the extra length dimension.

Default display using fundamental SI units.

Click on result to see the “units placeholder.”

Type desired unit in the units placeholder.

You can type combinations of units in the units

placeholder.

Since kW s is not a force unit, Mathcad inserts

an extra m-1 to make the units come out right.

Figure 8-11: A calculated result displayed with different units.

Mathcad divides the value displayed by the units in the units placeholder when using
multiplicative units. This ensures that the complete displayed result — the number
times the expression you entered — is a correct value for the equation. In the case of
scaling units, the inverse scaling function is applied to the result.

Note Conversions involving an offset or nonlinear transformation, such as gauge pressure converted
to absolute pressure or degrees Kelvin to Fahrenheit, can only be performed by themselves with
Mathcad’s unit-placeholder conversion mechanism. Unlike multiplicative units, you cannot
combine these functions with other units in the placeholder.

You can enter any variable, constant, or expression in a units placeholder. Mathcad
then redisplays the result in terms of the value in the units placeholder. For example,
you can use the units placeholder to display a result as a multiple of π or in engineering
notation (as a multiple of 103, 106, and so on).

Tip You can also use the units placeholder for dimensionless units like degrees and radians. Mathcad
treats the unit rad as a constant equal to 1, so if you have a number or an expression in radians,
you can type deg into the units placeholder to convert the result from radians to degrees.

Copying and Pasting Numerical Results

You can copy a numerical result and paste it in your worksheet or into another
application.
To copy more than one number see “Copying and Pasting Arrays” on page 44.

Note The Copy command copies the numerical result only to the precision displayed. To copy the
result in greater precision, double-click it and increase “Displayed Precision” on the Result
Format dialog box.
96 / Chapter 8 Calculating in Mathcad

Controlling Calculation
Mathcad starts in automatic mode so that all results are updated automatically. The
word “Auto” appears in the message line at the bottom of the window.
You can disable automatic mode by unchecking Calculate > Automatic Calculation
from the Tools menu. The word “Auto” changes to “Calc F9” in the status line. You
are now in manual mode.

Tip The calculation mode — either manual or automatic — is a property saved in your worksheet
and template (XMCT) files.

Whenever Mathcad needs time to complete computations, the mouse pointer changes
its appearance and the word “WAIT” appears on the message line. This can occur when
you enter or calculate an equation, when you scroll, during printing, or when you
enlarge a window to reveal additional equations. In all these cases, Mathcad evaluates
pending calculations from earlier changes.
Each expression being evaluated is surrounded by a green rectangle. This highlighting
makes it easy to follow the progress of a calculation.
Calculating in Manual Mode
In manual mode, Mathcad does not compute equations or display results until you
specifically request recalculation. Therefore, you don’t have to wait for Mathcad to
calculate as you enter equations or scroll around a worksheet.
Mathcad keeps track of pending computations while you’re in manual mode. As soon
as you make a change that requires computation, the word “Calc” appears on the status
line to remind you that the results you see in the window are not up-to-date, and that
you must recalculate them to ensure accuracy.

Update the screen by choosing Calculate Now from the Tools menu, clicking on
the Standard toolbar, or pressing [F9]. Mathcad performs necessary computations to
update all results visible in the worksheet window. When you scroll down to see more
of the worksheet, the word “Calc” reappears on the message line to indicate that you
must recalculate to see up-to-date results.
To force Mathcad to recalculate all equations in the worksheet, choose Calculate
Worksheet from the Tools menu or press [Ctrl][F9].
Interrupting Calculations
To interrupt a computation in progress:

1. Press [Esc]. The dialog box shown at right appears.

2. Click “OK” to stop the calculation or “Cancel” to resume
calculation.

If you click “OK,” the equation that was being processed when you pressed [Esc] is
marked with an error message (see “Error Messages” on page 97) indicating that
 Error Messages / 97

calculation has been interrupted. To resume an interrupted calculation, first click in the
equation with the error message, then press [F9] or click on the Standard toolbar.

Tip If you find that you frequently interrupt calculations to avoid having to wait for Mathcad to
recalculate as you edit your worksheet, you should switch to manual mode.

Disabling Equations
You can disable a single equation so that it no longer calculates. Disabling an equation
does not affect Mathcad’s equation editing, formatting, and display capabilities.
To disable calculation for a single equation in your worksheet:
1. Click on the equation.
2. Choose Properties from the Format menu and click the Calculation tab.
3. Under “Calculation Options” check “Disable Evaluation.”
4. Mathcad shows a small rectangle after the equation to indicate
that it is disabled.

Tip An easy shortcut for disabling evaluation is to right-click on an equation and select Disable
Evaluation from the menu.

To re-enable calculation for a disabled equation:

1. Click on the equation.
2. Choose Properties from the Format menu and click the Calculation tab.
3. Remove the check from “Disable Evaluation.”

Error Messages
If Mathcad encounters an error when evaluating an expression, it marks the expression
with an error message and highlights the offending name or operator in red.

An error message is visible only when you click on the

associated expression, as shown to the right.

Mathcad cannot process an expression containing an error. If the expression is a

definition, the variable or function remains undefined. Any expressions that reference
that variable become undefined as well.

Online Help Click on an error message and press [F1] for an explanation of the message.
98 / Chapter 8 Calculating in Mathcad

Finding the Source of an Error

When an expression depends upon one or more existing definitions, an error you receive
in your expression may actually originate in one of those definitions.
For example, in the figure above, the error appears on the third region, f(0). However,
f(x) is based on the definition of g(x). When x is zero, g(x) is the first region that exhibits
the error.
You can try to find the source of an error by examining your worksheet, or you can
trace the error back through your worksheet. To find the source of an error:
1. Right-click on the region showing
the error and choose Trace Error
from the menu or click on the region
and choose Trace Error from the
Tools menu.
2. Use the buttons in the Trace Error
dialog box to navigate through the
regions associated with the region
showing the error. For example,
click “Previous” to step back to the
previous dependent region.

3. Or click “First” to jump to the region

causing the error.

Fixing Errors
Once you have determined which expression caused the error, edit that expression to
fix the error or change the variable definitions that led to the error. Mathcad first
recomputes the edited expression and then recomputes any expressions affected by the
fixed expression.

Note When you define a function, Mathcad does not try to evaluate it until you subsequently use it in
the worksheet, although it does compile and unit-balance it. If there is an error, the use of the
function is marked in error, even though the real problem may lie in the definition of the function
itself, possibly much earlier in the worksheet. Evaluating the function name and looking at its
type signature may help debug the problem.
Chapter 9
Solving
Mathcad supports many functions for solving a single equation in one unknown through
large systems of linear, nonlinear, and differential equations, with multiple unknowns.
The techniques described here generate numeric solutions. Chapter 13, “Symbolic
Calculation,” describes a variety of techniques for solving equations symbolically.

Solving and Optimization Functions

Finding Roots
Finding a Single Root
The root function solves a single equation in a single unknown, given a guess value for
the unknown. Or, you can give root a range [a,b] in which the solution lies and no guess
is required. The function returns the value of the unknown variable that makes the
equation equal zero and lies in the specified range, by making successive estimates of
the variable and calculating the value of the equation.
The guess value you supply for x becomes the starting point for successive
approximations to the root value. If you wish to find a complex-valued root, start with
a complex guess. When the magnitude of f(x) evaluated at the proposed root is less than
the value of the tolerance parameter, TOL, Mathcad returns a result. Plotting the
function is a good way to determine how many roots there are, where they are, and
what initial guesses are likely to find them.

Tip As described in “Built-in Variables” on page 79, you can change the value of the tolerance, and
hence the accuracy of the solution found by root, by including definitions for TOL in your
worksheet. You can also change the tolerance by using the Built-in Variables tab when you
choose Worksheet Options from the Tools menu.

Figure 9-1: Finding roots with root and polyroots.

99
100 / Chapter 9 Solving

Note When you specify the optional arguments a and b for the root function, Mathcad only finds a
root for the function f if f(a) is positive and f(b) is negative or vice versa. (See Figure 9-1.)

If, after many approximations, Mathcad still cannot find an acceptable answer, it marks
the root function with an error message indicating its inability to converge to a result.
To find the cause of the error, try plotting the expression. A plot helps to determine
whether or not the expression crosses the x-axis and if so, approximately where. In
general, the closer your initial guess is to where the expression crosses the x-axis, the
more quickly the root function converges on an acceptable result.

Online Help For more details and issues on finding roots see “Finding Roots” in online Help.

The root function can solve only one equation in one unknown. To solve several
equations simultaneously, use Find or Minerr described in “Solve Block Functions”
on page 101.
Finding All Roots
To find the roots of a polynomial or an expression having the form:

vn x n + … + v2 x 2 + v1 x + v0

you can use polyroots rather than root. polyroots does not require a guess value and
returns all roots at once, whether real or complex. You must type the coefficients of
the polynomial into a separate vector as in Figure 9-1.

Note root and polyroots can solve only one equation in one unknown and always return numerical
answers. To solve an equation symbolically or to find an exact numerical answer in terms of
elementary functions, use the solve keyword or choose Variable > Solve from the Symbolics
menu. See Chapter 13, “Symbolic Calculation.”

Linear/Nonlinear System Solving and Optimization

Mathcad includes many other numerical solving functions.
Solving a Linear System of Equations
Use the lsolve function to solve a linear system of equations whose coefficients are
arranged in a matrix M. The argument M for lsolve must be a matrix that is neither
singular nor nearly singular. An alternative to lsolve is to solve a linear system by using
matrix inversion.
Solve Blocks
The general form for using system solving functions in Mathcad is within the body of
a solve block. There are four steps to creating a solve block:
1. Provide an initial guess for each of the unknowns. Mathcad solves equations by
making iterative calculations. The initial guesses give Mathcad a place to start
searching for solutions. If you expect your solutions to be complex, provide
complex guess values.
 Solving and Optimization Functions / 101

2. Type the word Given in a separate math region below the guess definitions, in
order to set up a system of constraint equations. Be sure you don’t type “Given” in
a text region.
3. Now enter the constraints (equalities and inequalities) in any order below the word
Given. Make sure you use the Boolean equal symbol ( on the Boolean toolbar
or press [Ctrl][=]) for any equality. You can separate the left and right sides of
an inequality with any of the symbols <, >, ≤, and ≥.
4. Enter any equation that involves one of the functions Find, Maximize, Minimize, or
Minerr below the constraints.

Tip Solve blocks cannot be nested inside each other — each solve block can have only one Given
and one Find (or Maximize, Minimize, or Minerr). You can, however, define a function like
f(x) := Find(x) at the end of one solve block and refer to this function in another solve block.

Solve Block Functions

Figure 9-2 shows a solve block with several kinds of constraints and ending with a call
to the Find function. There are two unknowns. As a result, the Find function takes two
arguments, x and y, and returns a vector with two elements.

Guess Values

Results

Check

Figure 9-2: A solve block with both equalities and inequalities. The equations
for a circle and line are entered, then the inequality constraints are set. Find
looks for the points of intersection, which are checked back in the original
equations. See the QuickSheet “Solve Blocks with Inequality Constraints.”

Note Unlike most Mathcad functions, the solving functions Find, Maximize, Minerr, and Minimize
can be entered in math regions with either an initial lowercase or an initial capital letter.

Solve blocks can be used to solve parametric systems. In Figure 9-3, the solution is cast
in terms of several parameters in the solve block besides the unknown variable.
Solve blocks can also take matrices as unknowns and solve matrix equations. (See
Figure 9-4 and Figure 9-5.)
102 / Chapter 9 Solving

Same problem,
solved for a vector
of answers...

Figure 9-3: Solving an equation parametrically.

Two methods for computing a matrix square root (nonunique)

Using eigenanalysis:

Using a solve block:

initial guess

Figure 9-4: A solve block for computing the square root of a matrix.

Note You can improve the solve block result in Figure 9-4, and those of many other sensitive
problems, by decreasing the CTOL variable.
 Solving and Optimization Functions / 103

State matrices:

Figure 9-5: A solve block for computing the solution of a matrix equation
using the Riccati Equation from control theory.

Note Mathcad solve blocks can solve linear and nonlinear systems of up to 400 variables. The Solving
and Optimization Extension Pack solves linear systems up to 1000 variables, nonlinear systems
up to 250 variables, and quadratic systems up to 1000 variables.

The table below lists the constraints that can appear in a solve block between the
keyword Given and the functions Find, Maximize, Minerr, and Minimize. x and y
represent real-valued expressions, and z and w represent arbitrary expressions.
Constraints are often scalar expressions but can also be vector or array expressions.
Boolean
Condition Toolbar Constraint

w = z Equal

x<y Less than

x>y Greater than

x≤y Less than or equal to

x≥y Greater than or equal to

¬x Not

x∧y And

x∨y Or

x⊕y Xor (Exclusive Or)

Mathcad does not allow the following between Given and Find in a solve block:
• Constraints with “≠.”
• Range variables or expressions involving range variables of any kind.
• Assignment statements (statements like x:=1).
You can include compound statements such as 1 ≤ x ≤ 3.

Note Mathcad returns only one solution for a solve block. There may, however, be multiple solutions
to a set of equations. To find a different solution, try different guess values or enter an additional
inequality constraint that the current solution does not satisfy.
104 / Chapter 9 Solving

Tolerances for Solving

Mathcad’s numerical solvers make use of two tolerance parameters in calculating
solutions in solve blocks:
• Convergence tolerance. The solvers calculate successive estimates of the values
of the solutions and return values when the two most recent estimates differ by less
than the value of the built-in variable TOL. A smaller value of TOL often results in
a more accurate solution, but the solution may take longer to calculate.
• Constraint tolerance. This parameter, the built-in variable CTOL, controls how
closely a constraint must be met for a solution to be acceptable. For example, if the
constraint tolerance were 0.0001, a constraint such as x < 2 would be considered
satisfied if, in fact, the value of x satisfied x < 2.0001.
Procedures for modifying the values of these tolerances are described in “Built-in
Variables” on page 79.

Online Help For more information on solving issues see “Find,” “Minerr” and “Solver Problems” in online
Help.

Solving Algorithms and AutoSelect

When you solve an equation, by default Mathcad uses an AutoSelect procedure to
choose an appropriate solving algorithm. The available solving methods are:
• Linear. Applies a linear programming algorithm to the problem. Guess values for
the unknowns are not required.
• Nonlinear. Applies either a conjugate gradient, Levenberg-Marquardt, or quasi-
Newton solving routine to the problem. Guess values for all unknowns must precede
the solve block. Choose Nonlinear > Advanced Options from the menu to control
settings for the conjugate gradient and quasi-Newton solvers.
To override Mathcad’s default choice of
solving algorithm:
1. Create and evaluate a solve block,
allowing Mathcad to AutoSelect an
algorithm.
2. Right-click on the name of the function
that terminates the solve block and remove
the check from AutoSelect on the menu.
3. Check another solving method on the
menu. Mathcad recalculates the solution
using the method you selected.

Note When solving overdetermined systems, such as regression problems, the Levenberg-Marquardt
method performs best if given a vector of residual values set to zero, rather than a single sum-
of-squared errors objective function.
Chapter 10
Inserting Graphics and Other
Objects
 Overview
 Inserting Pictures
 Inserting Objects
 Inserting Objects Computationally Linked to Your Worksheet

Overview
To illustrate your Mathcad calculations visually, you can add:
• 2D and 3D graphs
• Pictures based on values in a matrix, pasted from another application, or based on
an image file
• Objects created by another application (.AVI files, .DOC files, .MDI files, and so on.)
• Graphics computationally linked to your calculations

Inserting Pictures
This section describes techniques for creating and formatting pictures in your
worksheet.
Creating Pictures from Matrices
You can view any single matrix as a grayscale picture by creating a picture region:
1. Click in a blank space.
2. Choose Picture from the Insert menu or click on the Matrix toolbar.
3. Type the name of a matrix in the placeholder at the bottom of the picture region.
Mathcad creates a 256-shade grayscale representation of the data in the matrix with
each matrix element corresponding to a pixel in the picture.

Note Mathcad’s picture region assumes a 256-color model with the value 0 represented as black and
255 as white. Numbers outside the range 0–255 are reduced modulo 256, and any noninteger
value is treated as if its decimal part has been removed.

To create a color picture in Mathcad, you must define three matrices of the same size
that describe either:
• The red, green, and blue (RGB) components,
• The hue, saturation, and value (Smith’s HSV color model) components, or

105
106 / Chapter 10 Inserting Graphics and Other Objects

• The hue, lightness, and saturation (Otswald’s HLS color model) components of each
pixel in the picture.
To view any three same-size matrices as a color picture:
1. Click in a blank space and choose Picture from the Insert menu.
2. Type the names of the three matrices, separated by commas, in the placeholder at
the bottom of the picture region.
By default, Mathcad creates a 3-layer, 256-color, or RGB, representation of the data in
the matrices. This setting can be changed, however, through the Properties dialog box
and the Picture toolbar. See “Modifying a Picture” on page 107.

Online Help Since the matrices used in picture rendering may be quite large, this technique of creating a
picture is most useful when you import graphics files using File Access Functions described in
online Help. For example, you can use the READBMP function to read an external graphics file
into a matrix, then view it as a picture.

Creating a Picture by Reference to an Image File

Mathcad can create a picture directly from a number of image file formats, including
BMP, JPEG, GIF, TGA, and PCX. First, click in a blank space, then:
1. Choose Picture from the Insert menu or
click on the Matrix toolbar.
2. Create a string in the placeholder by typing
the double-quote key [“] then the name of an
image file in the current folder or the full path
to an image file.

3. Click outside the picture region. The bitmap

appears.

Each time you open or recalculate the worksheet, the image file is read into the picture
region.

Note If you modify the source image file, you must recalculate your worksheet to see the modified
image. If you move the source image file, Mathcad can no longer find the picture.
 Inserting Pictures / 107

Modifying a Picture
You can modify the orientation, view (zoom and pan factors), brightness, contrast, and
grayscale mapping of a picture in Mathcad using the Picture toolbar. To do so:

1. Click on the picture so you see hash marks around the

picture’s border, as shown at the right.
2. The Picture toolbar will pop up. Hover over each tool
briefly to see its tooltip.
3. If you resize the picture by dragging on the border, you
must right-click on it, then pick Zoom > Zoom to
Window to make it fit the resized border

Online Help See “Working with a Picture” in online Help for more details.

Importing a Picture from Another Application

You can copy an image from another application and paste it into Mathcad.

Note If you use the Paste command on the Edit menu or use drag-and-drop from another application,
you are pasting a linked OLE object into your Mathcad worksheet, (See “Inserting Objects” on
page 108.) When you double-click a linked OLE object, you activate the application that created
the object and are able to edit the object directly in your Mathcad worksheet.

You can use the Paste Special command on the Edit menu to paste an image as a
noneditable metafile or bitmap. A metafile can be resized in Mathcad without loss of
resolution, whereas a bitmap is usually viewed best only at its original size. A device-
independent bitmap, or DIB, is stored in a bitmap format that is portable to other
operating systems.
Mathcad stores the color depth — the number of colors in the image — at the time you
paste it into a worksheet. You can safely resave any worksheets that contain color
images on systems with different color displays.

Tip When you import images, the image information is stored as part of the Mathcad worksheet,
increasing the file size. You may be able to reduce the size of the file by saving it as XMCDZ
(compressed XML) format.

Formatting a Image
Resizing an Image
To resize an image region:
1. Click inside the image region to select it.
2. Move the mouse pointer to one of the handles along the edge of region so that the
pointer changes to a double-headed arrow.
3. Press and hold down the left mouse button while dragging the mouse in the direction
you want the image region to be stretched.
108 / Chapter 10 Inserting Graphics and Other Objects

Tip When you change the size of the image region, the image inside may be distorted. To preserve
the aspect ratio of the original image, drag diagonally on the handle in the lower right corner.

Choose Properties from the Format menu to open the Properties dialog box to restore
an image to its original size or place a border around it.

Inserting Objects
OLE (Object Linking and Embedding) technology in Microsoft Windows makes it
possible to insert static pictures of objects into Mathcad (or Mathcad objects into other
applications), so that they can be fully edited in their originating applications.
An object can be either embedded in or linked to a Mathcad worksheet. An object that
is linked must exist in an external saved file. An object that you embed may be created
at the time of insertion or come from an existing file. When you edit a linked object,
any changes you make to the object also update the original file. When you edit an
embedded object, any changes you make to the object affect it only in the Mathcad
worksheet. The original object in the source application is unchanged.
Inserting an Object into a Worksheet
You insert an object into Mathcad, which is an OLE 2-compatible application, by using
the Object command from the Insert menu, by copying and pasting, or by dragging
and dropping. You can edit objects in a Mathcad worksheet simply by double-clicking
them, causing in-place activation of the originating application in most cases.

Tip Use the same methods to insert a Mathcad object into another application and edit it inside that
application as you do to insert objects into a Mathcad worksheet. Double-click the Mathcad
object to edit it. If the application supports in-place activation, the menus and toolbars change to
Mathcad’s.

Insert Object Command

To insert a new or existing file:
1. Click in a blank space in your worksheet.
2. Choose Object from the Insert menu to bring up the Insert Object dialog box.
 Inserting Objects / 109

To create a new object:

1. Select an application from the “Object Type” list, which shows applications you
have installed.
2. The source application opens so that you can create the object. When you exit the
source application, the object you created becomes embedded in your Mathcad
worksheet.
To insert an existing file:
1. Click “Create from File” in the Insert Object dialog box.

2. Type the path to the object file or click “Browse” to locate it.
3. Check “Link” to insert a linked object. Otherwise, the object is embedded.
Pasting an Object into a Worksheet
You can copy an object from a source application and paste it directly into Mathcad.
This method is particularly useful when you don’t want to insert an entire file.
To insert an embedded or linked object into a worksheet by copying:
1. Open the source application containing the object and copy it.
2. Click in the Mathcad worksheet and choose Paste or Paste Special from Mathcad’s
Edit menu.
If you choose Paste, the object is pasted in your Mathcad worksheet as one of the
following:
• A matrix, if you are pasting numeric data into an empty math placeholder.
• A text region, if you are pasting text.
• A bitmap or picture (metafile), if the source application generates graphics.
• An embedded object, if the source application supports OLE.
If you choose Paste Special, you have the option of pasting the object in one of several
formats: an embedded or linked OLE object, a picture (metafile), or a bitmap.
110 / Chapter 10 Inserting Graphics and Other Objects

Dragging and Dropping an Object into a Worksheet

You can also drag an OLE object into a Mathcad worksheet directly from another
application. However, this method of copying does not allow you to create a link to the
object.
Editing an Embedded Object
Double-click an embedded object in a Mathcad worksheet, so that the menus and
toolbars change to those of the source application and a hatched border surrounds the
object. You can use in-place activation to edit objects created by applications such as
Excel and Word inside Mathcad.
If the source application does not support in-place activation inside Mathcad or the
object is linked, the behavior is different. In the case of an embedded object, a copy of
the object is placed into a window from the other application or the object is inserted
as an icon. If the object is linked, the source application opens the file containing the
object.
Editing a Link
If you’ve inserted a linked object into a Mathcad worksheet, you can update the link,
eliminate it, or change the source file to which the object is linked. To do so, choose
Links from the Edit menu.

Online Help See the online Help topic “Links dialog box” for information on each option in the dialog box.

Inserting Objects Computationally Linked to Your Worksheet

If you want to insert an object that is computationally linked to your Mathcad
worksheet, you can insert a component. A component is a specialized OLE object that
can receive data from Mathcad and return data to Mathcad, linking the object
dynamically. The SmartSketch component, for example, allows you to insert
SmartSketch drawings whose dimensions are computationally linked to your Mathcad
calculations.
An example using the SmartSketch component is shown in Figure 10-1. In addition to
the SmartSketch component, Mathcad includes several components for exchanging
data with Excel and MATLAB.

Online Help For information on using components to import and export data, as well as dynamically
connecting Mathcad and other applications, see “Accessing External Files and Applications” in
online Help.
 Inserting Objects Computationally Linked to Your Worksheet / 111

Figure 10-1: The SmartSketch component inserted into a Mathcad worksheet.

Chapter 11
2D Plots
 Overview of 2D Plotting
 Graphing Functions and Expressions
 Plotting Vectors of Data
 Formatting a 2D Plot
 Modifying a 2D Plot’s Perspective
 Animations

Overview of 2D Plotting
To visually represent a function or expression of a single variable or vectors of data in
Mathcad, you can create either a Cartesian X-Y plot or a polar plot. A typical polar plot
shows angular values, θ, versus radial values, r. Figure 11-1 shows several examples
of 2D plots.

X-Y plot of a function X-Y plot of data vectors

Polar plot Parametric plot

Figure 11-1: Examples of 2D plots.

113
114 / Chapter 11 2D Plots

Creating an X-Y Plot

To create an X-Y plot:

1. Choose Graph > X-Y Plot from the Insert

menu, click on the Graph toolbar, or type
[@]. Mathcad inserts a blank X-Y plot.
2. Fill in both the x-axis placeholder (bottom
center) and the y-axis placeholder (left center)
with a function, expression, or variable.

3. Click outside the plot or press [Enter].

Mathcad automatically chooses axis limits. To specify the axis limits, click in the plot
and type over the numbers in the placeholders at the ends of the axes.
See “Formatting a 2D Plot” on page 121 for how to modify these defaults.
Resizing a Graph
To resize a plot, click in the plot to select it. Then move the cursor to a handle along
the edge of the plot until the cursor changes to a double-headed arrow. Hold the mouse
button down and drag the mouse in the direction that you want the plot’s dimension to
change.

Note Mathcad does not graph complex points. To plot the real or imaginary part of a point or
expression, use the Re and Im functions to extract the real and imaginary parts, respectively.

Note If some points in a function or expression are valid and others are not, Mathcad plots only the
valid ones. If the points are not contiguous, Mathcad does not connect them with a line. You may
therefore see a blank plot if none of the points are contiguous. To see the points, format the trace
to have symbols. See “Formatting a 2D Plot” on page 121.

Creating a Polar Plot

To create a polar plot:

1. Choose Graph > Polar Plot from the Insert

menu or click on the Graph toolbar.
2. Fill in both the angular-axis placeholder
(bottom center) and the radial-axis placeholder
(left center) with a function, expression, or
variable.

3. Click outside the plot or press [Enter].

Mathcad creates the plot over a default range using default limits.
 Graphing Functions and Expressions / 115

Graphing Functions and Expressions

2D QuickPlots
A 2D QuickPlot is a plot created from an expression or function that represents the y-
coordinates of the plot. Mathcad automatically creates a plot over a default domain for
the independent variable, from –10 to 10 for an X-Y plot and 0° to 360° for a polar plot.
To create an X-Y QuickPlot of a single expression or function:
1. Type the expression or function of a single
variable you want to plot. Click in the
expression.

2. Choose Graph > X-Y Plot from the Insert

menu.
3. Click outside the graph or press [Enter].

To change the default domain for the independent variable in a 2D QuickPlot, change
the axis limits on the plot.
Defining an Independent Variable
You can set your own range by defining the independent variable as a range variable
before creating the plot:
1. Define a range variable. See “Range
Variables” on page 82.
2. Enter the expression or function you want
to plot using that variable. Click in the
expression.

3. Choose Graph > X-Y Plot from the Insert

menu.
4. Type the name of the variable into the x-
axis placeholder.
5. Click outside the graph or press [Enter].

Mathcad plots one point for every value of the range variable, and, unless you specify
otherwise, connects each pair of points with a straight line. To smooth out the curve,
make the step size of the range variable smaller.
116 / Chapter 11 2D Plots

Plotting Multiple 2D Curves

You can graph several traces on the same X-Y or polar plot. A graph can show several
y-axis (or radial) expressions against the same x-axis (or angular) expression. See Figure
11-3. Or it can match up several y-axis (or radial) expressions with the corresponding
number of x-axis (or angular) expressions. See Figure 11-2.
To create a QuickPlot containing more than one trace:

1. Enter the expressions or

functions of a single variable you
want to plot, separated by
commas.
2. Click in the expressions, then
choose Graph > X-Y Plot from
the Insert menu.
3. Click outside the graph or press
[Enter].

In a QuickPlot with multiple traces, you need not use the same independent variable in
every y-axis (or radial-axis) expression. Mathcad provides the appropriate
corresponding variable in the x-axis (or angular-axis) placeholder.
To create a graph containing several independent curves:
1. Choose Graph > X-Y Plot from the Insert menu.
2. Enter two or more expressions separated by commas in the y-axis placeholder.
3. Enter the same number of expressions separated by commas in the x-axis
placeholder.
If you specify more than one independent variable, Mathcad matches up the expressions
in pairs — the first x-axis expression with first y-axis expression, the second with the
second, and so on. It then draws a trace for each pair. Figure 11-2 shows an example.

Figure 11-2: Graph with multiple expressions on both axes.

 Graphing Functions and Expressions / 117

Figure 11-3: Graph with multiple y-axis expressions.

Note All traces on a graph share the same axis limits. For each axis, all expressions and limits on that
axis must have compatible units.

Creating a Parametric Plot

A parametric plot is one in which a function or expression is plotted against another
function or expression with the same independent variable. You can create either an
X-Y or polar parametric plot.
To create an X-Y parametric plot:
1. Choose Graph > X-Y Plot from the Insert menu.
2. In both the x-axis and y-axis placeholders, enter a function or expression.
3. Press [Enter].
Mathcad produces a QuickPlot over a default range for the independent variable. Figure
11-1 shows an example of a parametric plot.
If you don’t want Mathcad to use a default range for the plot, define the independent
variable as a range variable before creating the plot. Mathcad plots one point for each
value of the independent variable and connects each pair of points with a straight line.
Figure 11-4 shows two functions of θ plotted against each other. The range variable θ
was previously defined. See “Range Variables” on page 82.
118 / Chapter 11 2D Plots

Figure 11-4: Graphing one function against another. For the X-Y plot, the
independent variable, θ, is defined as a range variable. For the polar plot,
Mathcad chooses a range for the independent variable, a.

Plotting Vectors of Data

You can plot a vector of data with either an X-Y or a polar plot. You need to use the
vector subscript to specify which elements to plot. Some graphs of data vectors are
shown in Figure 11-5.
Plotting a Single Vector of Data
To create an X-Y plot of a single vector of data:
1. Define a range variable, such as i, that references the subscript of each element of
the vector you want to plot. For example, for a vector with 10 elements, your
subscript range variable is i := 0 .. 9.
2. Choose Graph > X-Y Plot from the Insert menu.
3. Enter i in the bottom placeholder and the vector name with the subscript (yi for
example) in the placeholder on the left. Type [[] to create the subscript.

Note Subscripts must be integers greater than or equal to ORIGIN, meaning that the x-axis or angular
variable used in the graphs in Figure 11-5 can run through whole number values only. If you
want to plot fractional or negative values on the x-axis, plot a function or plot one vector against
another, as described in the next section.

Tip If you have a handful of data points, you can use a data table to create a vector as shown in the
second graph in Figure 11-5 or Figure 11-7. See “Entering a Matrix as a Data Table” on page 39.
 Plotting Vectors of Data / 119

Figure 11-5: Graphing a vector.

Plotting One Data Vector Against Another

To plot all the elements of one data vector against all the elements in another, enter the
names of the vectors in the axis placeholders:
1. Define the vectors x and y.
2. Choose Graph > X-Y Plot from the Insert menu.
3. Enter y in the y-axis placeholder and x in the x-axis placeholder. (See Figure 11-6.)

Figure 11-6: Graphing two vectors.

Note If the vectors being plotted are not the same length, Mathcad plots the number of elements in the
shorter vector.
120 / Chapter 11 2D Plots

If you want to plot only certain vector elements, define a range variable and use it as a
subscript on the vector names. In the example above, to plot the fifth through tenth
elements of x and y against each other:
1. Define a range variable, such as k, going from 4 to 9 in increments of 1. (Note that
the first elements of the vectors x and y are x0 and y0 by default.)
2. Enter yk and xk in the axis placeholders.

Note If you have a set of data values to plot, create a vector by reading in data from a data file, by
pasting in the data, or by typing data directly into a data table. See Chapter 5, “Range Variables
and Arrays.” See Figure 11-7 for an example showing the use of a data table.

Figure 11-7: Plotting vectors from a data table. Assign column 0 to vector x.
Assign column 1 to vector y. Use [Ctrl]6 to create the superscript.
 Formatting a 2D Plot / 121

Formatting a 2D Plot
You can override Mathcad’s default settings for axes and traces, add titles and labels,
and control other settings for a graph.
1. Double-click the graph to open the graph formatting dialog box.

2. Use the Axes tab to determine the appearance of the axes, grid lines, and markers.
Use the Traces tab to set the color, type, symbols, and width of the traces. Use the
Labels tab to insert labels on the axes (X-Y plots only) and specify a title for your
plot. Use the Defaults tab to specify the default appearance of your graphs.
3. Click “Apply” to see the effect of your changes without closing the dialog box.

Tip If you double-click an axis on a graph, a formatting dialog box for that axis alone appears.

Online Help Click Help in the bottom of the dialog box for details on particular formatting options.

Setting Axis Limits

2D graphs by default are set with Auto scale on. You can use the Axes page of the graph
formatting dialog box to turn Auto scale off:
• With Auto scale on, each axis limit is set to the first major tick mark beyond the
end of the data, so that every point being plotted is displayed.
• With Autoscale off, the axis limits are set exactly at the data limits.
Specifying Other Limits
To override Mathcad’s automatic limits by entering limits directly on the graph:
1. Click the graph to select it. You will see a number by each axis limit, enclosed in
corner symbols, as illustrated in the selected plot in Figure 11-8.
2. Click on each number and type a number to replace it.
3. When you click outside the graph, Mathcad redraws it with the new axis limits.
122 / Chapter 11 2D Plots

Figure 11-8: In the graph on the left, Mathcad has automatically generated
data limits at 0.5 and 2.499, which are visible when you select the graph. The
graph on the right displays the new y-axis limits manually set at 0.6 and 2.0.

Adding Custom Titles, Labels, and Other Annotations

To annotate your graph by moving text on top of it:
1. Create a text region or add a graphic object in your worksheet.
2. Drag the text or object onto your 2D graph and position it.
Figure 11-9 shows a graph with both a text region (“inflection pt”) and a graphic object
(an arrow) superimposed on it.

Figure 11-9: Mathcad graph with annotations.

Note If you choose Separate Regions from the Format menu, all overlapping regions in your
worksheet separate, including the annotations on top of a graph.
 Modifying a 2D Plot’s Perspective / 123

Modifying a 2D Plot’s Perspective

Mathcad allows you to zoom in on 2D graphs and trace the coordinates of any point on
a plot.
Zooming in on a Plot
To zoom in on a portion of a graph:
1. Click in the graph and choose
Graph > Zoom from the Format
menu or click on the Graph
toolbar to open the Zoom dialog box.
2. Click the button then select the
graph again.
3. Press and hold down the mouse button, then drag the mouse. A dashed selection
outline emerges from the anchor point with coordinates listed in the “Min” and
“Max” text boxes (or the “Radius” text box of the Polar Zoom dialog box).
4. When the selection outline encloses the region you want to magnify, release the
mouse button. If necessary, click on the selection outline and drag it to another part
of the plot.
5. Click Zoom to redraw the graph. The axis limits are temporarily set to the
coordinates specified in the Zoom dialog box. To make these axis limits permanent,
click “OK.”

Figure 11-10: A zoomed-in region of an X-Y plot redisplayed as an entire plot.

124 / Chapter 11 2D Plots

Getting a Readout of Plot Coordinates

To see a readout of coordinates of the specific points that make up a trace:
1. Click in the graph and choose Graph > Trace
from the Format menu or click on the
Graph toolbar to open the X-Y Trace dialog
box. Make sure “Track data points” is
checked.
2. Click and drag the mouse along the trace
whose coordinates you want to see. A dashed
crosshair jumps from one point to the next as
you move the pointer along the trace.
3. If you release the mouse button, you can use the left and right arrows to move to
the previous and next data points. Use the up and down arrows to select other traces.
4. As the pointer reaches each point on the trace, Mathcad displays the values of that
point in the “X-Value” and “Y-Value” boxes (or the “Radius” and “Angle” boxes
in the Polar Trace dialog box).
5. The values of the last point selected are shown in the boxes. The crosshair remains
until you click “Close” in the dialog box.

Tip When “Track data points” is unchecked in the Trace dialog box, you can see a readout of
coordinates for any location in a plot, not just the data points that created an individual trace.

Figure 11-11 shows an example of a plot whose coordinates are being read.

Figure 11-11: Reading coordinates from a graph.

To copy and paste a coordinate:

1. Click “Copy X” or “Copy Y” (or “Copy Radius” or “Copy Angle” in a polar plot).
2. Paste the value into your worksheet or any other application.
 Animations / 125

Animations
You can use Mathcad to create and play short animation clips by using the built-in
variable FRAME. Anything that can be made to depend on this variable can be animated.
Creating an Animation Clip
The built-in variable FRAME is used to drive animations. To create an animation:
1. Create an expression or plot, or a group of expressions, whose appearance depends
on the value of FRAME. This expression need not be a plot. It can be anything at all.
2. Choose Animation > Record from the Tools menu to bring up the Record
Animation dialog box.

3. Drag-select the portion of your worksheet you want to animate as shown in Figure
11-12.

Figure 11-12: Selecting an area for animation and seeing the animation inside
the dialog box.

4. Set the upper and lower limits for FRAME in the dialog box. When you record the
animation, the FRAME variable increments by one.
5. Enter the playback speed in the Frames/Sec box.
6. Click “Animate.” You’ll see a miniature rendition of your selection inside the dialog
box. Mathcad redraws this once for each value of FRAME. This preview does not
126 / Chapter 11 2D Plots

necessarily match the playback speed since at this point you’re just creating the
animation.
7. To save your animation clip as a Windows AVI file, suitable for viewing in Mathcad
or other Windows applications, click “Save As” in the dialog box.
Playing an Animation Clip
As soon as you’ve created an animation clip,
Mathcad opens a playback window:
To play back the animation clip, click the arrow at
the lower left corner of the window. You can also
play back the animation clip on a frame by frame
basis, either forward or backward, by dragging the
slider.

Playing a Previously Saved Animation

If you have an existing Windows AVI file, you can play it within Mathcad. To do so:
1. Choose Animation > Playback from the
Tools menu to bring up the Play
Animation dialog box. The window is
collapsed since no animation clip has been
opened.
2. Click on the button to the right of the play button and choose “Open” from the
menu. Use the Open File dialog box to locate and open the AVI file you want to play.

Online Help See “Creating Animations” in online Help for more details about creating and playing
animations.
Chapter 12
3D Plots
 Overview of 3D Plotting
 Creating 3D Plots of Functions
 Creating 3D Plots of Data
 Formatting a 3D Plot

Overview of 3D Plotting
Three-dimensional plots enable you to visually represent a function of one or two
variables and to plot data in the form of x-, y-, and z-coordinates. Mathcad renders 3D
plots with OpenGL graphics.
Inserting a 3D Plot
To create a three-dimensional plot:
1. Define a function of two variables or a matrix of data.
2. Choose Graph from the Insert menu and select a 3D plot type or click one of the
3D graph buttons on the Graph toolbar. Mathcad inserts a blank 3D plot with axes
and an empty placeholder.
3. Enter the name of the function or matrix in the placeholder.
4. Click outside the plot or press [Enter] to see the plot.
For example, the surface plot shown below was
created in Mathcad from the function:
When you create a 3D plot from a function, it’s
called a QuickPlot. A QuickPlot uses default
ranges and grids for the independent variables. To
change these settings, double-click on the graph
and use the QuickPlot Data page of the 3D Plot
Format dialog. (See “Formatting a 3D Plot” on
page 135.)

3D Plot Wizard
The 3D Plot Wizard provides more control over the format settings of the plot as you
insert it:
1. Choose Graph > Plot Wizard from the Insert menu.

127
128 / Chapter 12 3D Plots

2. Select a type of three-dimensional graph.

3. Make your selections for the appearance and coloring of the plot on subsequent
pages of the Wizard. Click “Finish” and a graph region with a blank placeholder
appears.
4. Enter appropriate arguments (a function name, data vectors, and so on) for the 3D
plot into the placeholder.
5. Click outside the plot or press [Enter].

Creating 3D Plots of Functions

You can create various 3D plots from functions using commands from the Insert menu
and changing settings through the 3D Plot Format dialog box, or you can use the 3D
Plot Wizard.

Tip To see a variety of two- and three-dimensional functions and data sets visualized in plots, visit
the Graphics Gallery section of the Mathcad Web Library at
http://www.mathcad.com/library/.

Creating a Surface, Bar, Contour, or Scatter Plot

You can visualize any function of two variables as a surface, bar, contour, or scatter
plot in three dimensions.
Step 1: Define a function or set of functions
First, define the function in your worksheet in one of the following forms:

In the plot of each function above, the x- and y-coordinates and variables will range by
default from –5 to 5 with a step size of 0.5. F(x,y) is a function of two variables. Each
z-coordinate is determined by the function using these x- and y-values.
G(u,v) is a vector-valued function of two variables. The x-, y-, and z-coordinates are
plotted parametrically according to the definitions in the three elements of the vector
using these u- and v-values.
X(u,v), Y(u,v), and Z(u,v) are functions of two variables. The x-, y-, and z-coordinates
are plotted parametrically according to the three function definitions using these u- and
v-values.

Note The function descriptions above assume that you are working in Cartesian coordinates. If your
function represents spherical or cylindrical coordinates, you can automatically convert the
function to Cartesian coordinates. Double-click on the plot, go to the QuickPlot Data page of the
3D Plot Format dialog box, and click “Spherical” or “Cylindrical” under Coordinate System.
 Creating 3D Plots of Functions / 129

Step 2: Insert a 3D plot

Choose Graph from the Insert menu and select a 3D plot type.
To create a surface plot from the functions X, Y, and Z, defined above:

1. Choose Graph > Surface Plot from the

Insert menu to display a blank 3D plot.
2. Type the name of the functions separated by
commas and enclosed in parentheses in the
placeholder. For this example, type:
(X,Y,Z)
3. Press [Enter].

To change your plot to a different plot type:

1. Double-click on the graph to bring up the 3D Plot Format dialog box.
2. In the “Display As” section on the General tab, select “Bar Plot,” “Contour Plot,”
or “Data Points” from the array of plot types.
Figure 12-1 shows a 3D scatter plot created from the function G and a contour plot
created from the function F, both defined above.

Figure 12-1: A scatter plot and a contour plot created from functions of two
variables.

Note All 3D QuickPlots are parametric curves or surfaces. In other words, all QuickPlots are created
from three vectors or matrices of data representing the x-, y-, and z-coordinates of the plot. In the
case of a single function of two variables, Mathcad internally creates two matrices of x- and y-
data over the default range –5 to 5 with a step size of 0.5 and then generates z-data using these
x- and y-coordinates.
130 / Chapter 12 3D Plots

To change the default ranges and grids for the independent variables, double-click on
the graph and select the QuickPlot Data tab on the 3D Plot Format dialog.
Creating a Space Curve
You can visualize any parametrically-defined function of one variable as a scatter plot
in three dimensions.
Step 1: Define a function or set of functions
First, define the function in your worksheet in one of the following forms:

H(u) is a vector-valued function of one variable.

R(u), S(u), and T(u) are functions of one variable.

Note A space curve often represents the path of a particle in motion through space where u is a time
parameter.

Step 2: Insert a 3D scatter plot

To create a space curve from a function or set of functions:

1. Choose Graph > 3D Scatter Plot from the

Insert menu to display a blank 3D plot.
2. Enter the name of the function or functions in
the placeholder, separated by commas. To
create a space curve from the functions R, S,
and T, defined above, type: (R,S,T).

For specific information on formatting, see “Scatter Plots” in online Help.

Creating 3D Plots of Data

You can create 3D plots from data using Insert menu commands and changing settings
through the 3D Plot Format dialog or you can use the 3D Plot Wizard.
Creating a Surface, Bar, or Scatter Plot
Surface, bar, and scatter plots are useful for visualizing two-dimensional data contained
in an array as either a connected surface, bars above and below the zero plane, or points
in space.
 Creating 3D Plots of Data / 131

To create a surface plot from data:

1. Create or import a matrix of values to plot. The row and column numbers represent
the x- and y-coordinate values. The matrix elements themselves are the z-coordinate
values plotted as heights above and below the x-y plane (at z = 0).
2. Choose Graph > Surface Plot from the Insert menu.
3. Enter the name of the matrix in the placeholder.
Figure 12-2 shows a 3D bar plot created from a matrix, M.

Figure 12-2: Defining a matrix of data and plotting it as a 3D bar plot.

In the default perspective, the first row of the matrix extends from the back left corner
of the grid to the right, while the first column extends from the back left corner out
toward the viewer. See “Formatting a 3D Plot” on page 135 to change this default view.
Creating a Parametric Surface Plot
A parametric surface plot is created from three matrices representing the x-, y-, and z-
coordinates of your points in space.
To create a parametric surface plot:
1. Create or import three matrices having the same number of rows and columns.
2. Choose Graph > Surface Plot from the Insert menu.
3. Type the names of the three matrices separated by commas and enclosed in
parentheses in the placeholder.
Figure 12-3 shows a parametric surface plot created from the matrices X, Y, and Z
defined above the plot.
132 / Chapter 12 3D Plots

Figure 12-3: Defining data for a parametric surface plot.

Note The underlying parameter space is a rectangular sheet covered by a uniform mesh. The three
matrices map this sheet into three-dimensional space. For example, the matrices X, Y, and Z
defined in Figure 12-3 carry out a mapping that rolls the sheet into a tube and then joins the ends
of the tube to form a torus.

For specific information on formatting, see “Surface Plots” in online Help.

Creating a Three-dimensional Parametric Curve
A three-dimensional parametric curve is created by passing three vectors representing
the x-, y-, and z-coordinates of your points in space to the surface plot.
To create a three-dimensional parametric curve:
1. Create or import three vectors having the same number of rows.
2. Choose Graph > Scatter Plot from the Insert menu.
3. Type the names of the three vectors separated by commas and enclosed in
parentheses in the placeholder.
Figure 12-4 shows a three-dimensional parametric curve created from the vectors P, Q,
and R, defined above the plot.

Online Help For specific information on formatting, see “Scatter Plots” in online Help.
 Creating 3D Plots of Data / 133

Figure 12-4: Defining data for a space curve.

Creating a Contour Plot

To view three-dimensional data as a two-dimensional contour map, you can create a
contour plot:
1. Define or import a matrix of values to plot.
2. Choose Graph > Contour Plot from the Insert menu to display a blank plot with
a single placeholder.
3. Type the name of the matrix in the placeholder.
Figure 12-5 shows a contour plot created from the matrix C defined above the plot.
The contour plot is a visual representation of the matrix’s level curves. Mathcad
assumes that the rows and columns represent equally spaced intervals on the axes then
linearly interpolates the values of this matrix to form level curves or contours. Each
level curve is formed such that no two cross. By default, the z-contours are shown on
the x-y plane. Mathcad plots the matrix such that the element in row 0 and column 0 is
in the lower left corner. Thus the rows of the matrix correspond to values on the x-axis,
increasing to the right, and the columns correspond to values along the y-axis,
increasing toward the top.

Online Help For information on formatting a contour plot, see “Contour Plots” in online Help.

Graphing Multiple 3D Plots

You can place more than one surface, curve, contour, bar, or scatter plot on a three-
dimensional graph.
For example, to create a 3D graph with a contour plot and a surface plot:
1. Define two functions of two variables or any combination of two acceptable
argument sets for a 3D plot (two matrices, two sets of three vectors, and so on).
134 / Chapter 12 3D Plots

Figure 12-5: Defining data for a contour plot.

2. Choose Graph > Contour Plot from the Insert menu.

3. Enter the name of the function or matrix for the contour plot into the placeholder.
Then type [,] (comma).
4. Enter the name of the function or matrix for the surface plot.
5. Press [Enter] to see two contour plots.
6. Double-click the graph to bring up the 3D Plot Format dialog box. In the “Display
As” section of the General tab, click the tab labeled Plot 2 and select Surface from
the array of plot types.
Both the contour plot and the surface plot, with default format settings, appear in a
single graph, as shown in Figure 12-6.
 Formatting a 3D Plot / 135

Figure 12-6: Two plots, one contour and one surface, shown on the same
graph.

Formatting a 3D Plot
You can change the appearance of any 3D plot by using the options available in the 3D
Plot Format dialog box.
To format a 3D plot:
1. Double-click the plot or click on the plot and choose Graph > 3D Plot from the
Format menu to open the 3D Plot Format dialog box. The General page is shown
here.

2. Make the desired changes in each tab of the dialog box.

3. Click “Apply” to see the effect of your changes without closing the dialog box.
4. Close the dialog by clicking “OK.”
136 / Chapter 12 3D Plots

The 3D Plot Format Dialog Box

Most options are available for any three-dimensional graph, although some may depend
on the plot type.
Some options in the 3D Plot Format dialog box work together to control the appearance
of a plot. For example, the choices on the Appearance page, the Lighting page, and the
Special and Advanced pages together control the color of a plot.
Fill Color
The color of a plot is primarily determined by its fill color. You can apply color to a
plot by filling its surfaces or contours with either a solid color or a colormap. A plot’s
color and shading are also affected by lighting, as described below.
Lines
Mathcad provides many ways to control the appearance of the lines on a three-
dimensional plot. You can draw the lines so they form a wireframe, or you can draw
only the contour lines. You can also control the weight and color of the lines on a plot.

Online Help For more specifics on formatting 3D plots see the online Help topic, “3D Plot Format Dialog
Box (Appearance Tab).”

Points
You can draw and format points on most three-dimensional plots, since all 3D plots
are constructed from discrete data points. (The exceptions are vector field plots, contour
plots, bar plots, and patch plots.) Points are most useful on a 3D scatter plot since points
are the main focus of the plot. Use the Point Options section of the Appearance tab of
the 3D Plot Format dialog box.
Lighting
The color of a three-dimensional plot is a result of color you use to fill its surface, lines,
and points as well as the color of any ambient light or directed lights shining on it. This
behavior is identical to the effect of light on object color in the real world. Objects
reflect and absorb light depending on their color. For example, a yellow ball reflects
mostly yellow light and absorbs others. It looks grayish under dim lighting, green under
blue lighting, and bright yellow in bright lighting.
Light is controlled using the options on the Lighting page of the 3D Plot Format dialog
box.

Online Help For details on the options available on the Lighting page, click Help at the bottom of the dialog
box.

Changing One 3D Plot to Another

You can change almost any three-dimensional plot into another kind of three-
dimensional plot by using the Display As options on the General tab in the 3D Plot
Format dialog box. Figure 12-7 shows the same matrix displayed as three different plot
types.
 Formatting a 3D Plot / 137

Surface Plot Scatter Plot

Contour Plot

Figure 12-7: The same data displayed in several different 3D plots.

Note Some three-dimensional plots cannot be converted to other forms. For example, you cannot
convert a vector field plot into any other kind of plot.

Annotations
To add text or graphic annotation to a three-dimensional plot, just drag text or bitmaps
directly onto the plot.
To edit a text annotation on a plot, select the text and drag it off the plot. Then drag the
text region back onto the plot.
Modifying 3D QuickPlot Data
When you create a 3D QuickPlot you can change the range and step size of each
independent variable by using the settings on the QuickPlot Data page of the 3D Plot
Format dialog box.
To change the range of either independent variable:
1. Set the start and end values of either range using the text boxes for each range.
2. Click “Apply” to preview.
138 / Chapter 12 3D Plots

To change the step size, the number of grids generated along each variable’s axis
between the start and end values:
1. Use the arrows next to “# of Grids” to increase or decrease the grid value for each
range. Alternatively, you can type in a value in the text box.
2. Click “Apply” to preview your changes.
The ranges you set for the independent variables in the QuickPlot Data page do not
necessarily control the axis limits of the plot, unless you are plotting a single function
of two variables in Cartesian coordinates. In all other cases, the axis limits are
determined by the x-, y-, and z-data generated for the QuickPlot by your function(s).
To perform automatic coordinate system conversions on your QuickPlot data:
1. Choose “Cartesian,” “Spherical,” or “Cylindrical” in the “Coordinate System”
section.
2. Click “Apply” to preview your changes.
Rotating and Zooming on 3D Plots
To resize a 3D plot, click on it and use the handles that appear along the edges to drag
out the edges. Mathcad provides several additional options for manipulating the display
of a 3D plot:
• You can rotate the plot to see it from a different perspective.
• You can set the plot in motion about an axis of rotation so that it spins continuously.
• You can zoom in or out on a portion of the plot.

Online Help More information can be found in “Rotating, Spinning, or Zooming a 3D Plot” in online Help.
Chapter 13
Symbolic Calculation
 Overview of Symbolic Math
 Live Symbolic Evaluation
 Using the Symbolics Menu
 Examples of Symbolic Calculation

Overview of Symbolic Math

When you evaluate an expression numerically, Mathcad returns one or more numbers,
as shown at the top of Figure 13-1. When Mathcad calculates symbolically, however,
the result of evaluating an expression is generally another expression, as shown in the
bottom of Figure 13-1.

Figure 13-1: A numeric and symbolic evaluation of the same expression. The
symbolic transformation can yield insight into the underlying expression.

There are two ways to perform a symbolic transformation on an expression.

• You can use the symbolic equal sign with keywords.
• You can use commands from the Symbolics menu.

Online Help You can make the numeric and symbolic processors work together, so that an expression is
simplified before the numeric processor calculates it. See “Symbolic Optimization” in online
Help.

Note For a computer, symbolic operations are, in general, much more difficult than the corresponding
numeric operations. In fact, many complicated functions and deceptively simple-looking
functions have no closed-forms as integrals or roots.

139
140 / Chapter 13 Symbolic Calculation

Live Symbolic Evaluation

One advantage to using the symbolic equal sign, sometimes together with keywords
and modifiers, is that it is “live,” just like numeric processing in Mathcad. That is,
Mathcad checks all the variables and functions making up the expression being
evaluated to see if they’ve been defined earlier in the worksheet. Any other variables
and functions are evaluated symbolically. Whenever you make a change to the
worksheet, the results automatically update. This is useful when the symbolic and
numeric equations in the worksheet are tied together.
Unlike the equal sign, which always gives a numeric result, the symbolic equal sign is
capable of returning expressions. You can use it to symbolically evaluate expressions,
variables, functions, or programs.
To use the symbolic equal sign:

1. Enter the expression you want to evaluate.

2. Click on the Symbolic toolbar or press

[Ctrl][.] (period) to get the symbolic equal sign,
“→.”
3. Press [Enter]. Mathcad displays a simplified
version of the original expression. If an expression
cannot be simplified further, Mathcad simply
repeats it to the right of the symbolic equal sign.
The symbolic equal sign is a live operator just like any Mathcad operator. When you
make a change anywhere above or to the left of it, Mathcad updates the result. Figure
13-2 shows some examples of how to use the symbolic equal sign, “→.” You can force
the symbolic equal sign to ignore prior definitions of functions and variables by defining
them recursively just before you evaluate them, as shown in Figure 13-5 on page 144.

Figure 13-2: The symbolic equal sign uses previous definitions. If the expression
cannot be simplified further, the symbolic equal sign does nothing. When
decimals are used, the symbolic equal sign returns decimal approximations.
 Live Symbolic Evaluation / 141

Note The symbolic equal sign, “→,” applies to an entire expression. You cannot use the symbolic
equal sign to transform only part of an expression.

Using Keywords
The “→” takes the left-hand side and places a simplified version of it on the right-hand
side. You can control how the “→” transforms the expression by using one of the
symbolic keywords.
To do so:
1. Enter the expression you want to
evaluate.
2. Press [Ctrl][Shift][.]
(period).
3. Click on the placeholder to the left
of the symbolic equal sign and type
any of the keywords from the
Symbolic toolbar. If the keyword
requires any additional arguments,
separate the arguments from the
keyword with commas.
4. Press [Enter].

You can also first enter the expression you want to evaluate. Then click on a keyword
from the Symbolic toolbar to insert the keyword, placeholders for any additional
arguments, and the symbolic equal sign, “→.” Finally press [Enter] for the result.

Online Help Online Help lists and describes all the symbolic keywords accessible from the Symbolic and
Modifier toolbars.

Many of the keywords take at least one additional argument, typically the name of a
variable with respect to which you are performing the symbolic operation. Some of the
arguments are optional. See Figure 13-3 for an example.

Note Keywords are case sensitive so they must be typed exactly as shown. Unlike variables, however,
they are not font sensitive.

Keyword Modifiers
The keyword modifiers are on a separate Modifier toolbar, accessible from the
Symbolic toolbar button “Modifiers.” To use a modifier, separate it from its keyword
with a comma. For example, to use the “assume=real” modifier with the simplify
keyword on an expression:
1. Enter the expression to simplify.
2. Press [Ctrl] [Shift][.] (period). A placeholder appears to the left of the
symbolic equal sign, “→.”
142 / Chapter 13 Symbolic Calculation

Figure 13-3: By itself the symbolic equal sign simply evaluates the expression,
but when preceded by an appropriate keyword, the symbolic equal can change
its meaning. Note that the keyword float makes the result display as a floating
point number if possible. The keyword laplace returns the Laplace transform
of a function.

3. Enter simplify from the Symbolic toolbar, and assume and real from the
Modifier toolbar into the placeholder (use [Ctrl][=] for the equal sign).
4. Press [Enter].

Online Help You can find more details about modifiers and keywords in “The Symbolic Keyword Toolbar”
in online Help.

Figure 13-4 shows some examples using the simplify keyword with and without
additional modifiers.

csgn(z) returns the sign of a

complex number.

signum(z) returns 1 if z = 0 and

z-
----- otherwise.
z

Figure 13-4: Modifiers such as “assume=real” allow you to control

simplification.
 Live Symbolic Evaluation / 143

Using More Than One Keyword

You can apply several symbolic keywords to a single expression by two different
methods.
To apply several keywords and see the results from each:

1. Enter the expression you want to evaluate.

2. Press [Ctrl] [Shift][.] (period).

3. Enter the first keyword into the placeholder

including any comma-delimited arguments
the keyword takes.

4. Press [Enter] for the first result.

5. Click on the result and press

[Ctrl][Shift][.] again. The first result
disappears temporarily. Enter a second
keyword and any modifiers from the
Modifiers toolbar into the placeholder.
6. Press [Enter]
for the second
result.
Continue applying keywords to the intermediate results.
To apply several keywords and only see the final result:

1. Enter the expression you want to evaluate.

2. Press [Ctrl] [Shift][.] (period).

3. Enter the first keyword into the placeholder,

including any comma-delimited arguments.
4. Press [Ctrl] [Shift][.] again and enter a
second keyword into the placeholder. The
second keyword is placed immediately
below the first keyword.
5. Continue adding keywords by pressing
[Ctrl] [Shift][.] after each one. Press
[Enter] for the final result.

Ignoring Previous Definitions

To make Mathcad ignore prior definitions, you must define the variable recursively,
such as x := x. This exception is illustrated in Figure 13-5.
144 / Chapter 13 Symbolic Calculation

Mathcad substitutes the value of

3 for x before evaluating this
expression.

Although x is defined to be 3,
Mathcad ignores that definition
for symbolic evaluation because
of the recursive definition.

Figure 13-5: Defining a variable in terms of itself makes the symbolic

processor ignore previous definitions of that variable.

Using the Symbolics Menu

The Symbolics menu commands are useful when a symbolic calculation does not need
to be tied to the rest of your worksheet. These commands are not live—you apply them
to selected expressions; they do not “know” about previous definitions and do not
automatically update.
The Symbolics menu commands perform the same manipulations as many of the
keywords listed in online Help. For example, the Symbolics menu command
Polynomial Coefficients evaluates an expression just as the keyword coeffs does.
The basic steps for using the Symbolics menu are the same for all the menu commands:

1. Enter the expression you want to evaluate.

2. Surround the expression with the editing lines.

3. Choose Evaluate > Symbolically or one of the other

commands from the Symbolics menu. The location of the
result in relation to the original expression depends on the
Evaluation Style you’ve selected (see “Displaying Symbolic
Results” below).
Some commands on the Symbolics menu require that you click on or select a variable
rather than the entire expression.
Displaying Symbolic Results
You can choose Evaluation Style from the Symbolics menu to return symbolic results
either below, to the right, or in place of the original expression, and choose whether to
add text describing the symbolic method used.
 Examples of Symbolic Calculation / 145

Examples of Symbolic Calculation

As a general rule, any expression involving variables, functions, and operators can be
evaluated symbolically using either the symbolic equal sign or the menu commands.

Note Functions and variables you define yourself are recognized by the symbolic processor when you
use the symbolic equal sign. They are not recognized, however, when you use the Symbolics
menu commands. Figure 13-6 shows the difference.

Mathcad’s symbolic processor

recognizes many of its built-in
math functions and constants,

but not the ones without a

commonly accepted meaning.

Functions and variables you

define yourself are recognized
when you use the symbolic
equal sign,

but not when you use

commands from the Symbolics
menu.

Figure 13-6: The symbolic processor recognizes many built-in functions.

User-defined functions and variables are only recognized by the symbolic
equal sign.

Derivatives
To evaluate a derivative symbolically, you can use Mathcad’s derivative operator and
the live symbolic equal sign as shown in Figure 13-7.

Press & for definite integral

Press [Ctrl][Shift]Z for ∞

Press [Ctrl]i for indefinite

integral

Press [Ctrl]? for the nth

derivative operator

Figure 13-7: Evaluating integrals and derivatives symbolically.

146 / Chapter 13 Symbolic Calculation

1. Click on the Calculus toolbar or type [?] to insert the derivative operator.
Alternatively, click on the Calculus toolbar or type [Ctrl][?] to insert the nth
order derivative operator.
2. Enter the expression you want to differentiate and the variable with respect to which
you are differentiating in the placeholders.

3. Click on the Symbolic toolbar or press [Ctrl][.] (period) for the symbolic
equal sign, “→.”
4. Press [Enter].
Figure 13-8 shows how to differentiate an expression without using the derivative
operator. The Symbolics menu command Variable > Differentiate differentiates an
expression with respect to a selected variable.

Figure 13-8: Differentiating and integrating with menu commands. Click on

the x first, then choose Variable > Differentiate or Variable > Integrate from
the Symbolics menu.
If the expression is one element of an array, Mathcad differentiates only that array
element. To differentiate an entire array, differentiate each element individually: select
a variable in that element and choose Variable > Differentiate from the Symbolics
menu.

Tutorial See “Calculus” in the Mathcad tutorial Features In-Depth for examples of solving derivatives
and integrals.

Integrals
To symbolically evaluate a definite or indefinite integral:

1. Click or on the Calculus toolbar to insert the definite or indefinite integral

operator.
2. Fill in the placeholder for the integrand and the placeholders for the limits of
integration.
 Examples of Symbolic Calculation / 147

3. Place the integration variable in the placeholder next to the “d.” This can be any
variable name.

4. Click on the Symbolic toolbar or press [Ctrl][.] (period) for “→.”

5. Press [Enter].
See Figure 13-7 for examples of integrals evaluated symbolically.
Limits
Mathcad provides three limit operators, which can only be evaluated symbolically. To
use the limit operators:

1. Click on the Calculus toolbar or press [Ctrl]L to insert the limit operator. To
insert the operator for a limit from the left or right, click or on the Calculus
toolbar, or press [Ctrl][Shift]B or [Ctrl][Shift]A.
2. Enter the expression in the placeholder to the right of the “lim.”
3. Enter the limiting variables in the left-hand and right-hand placeholders below the
“lim.”
4. Press [Ctrl][.] (period) for “→.”
5. Press [Enter].
Mathcad returns a result for the limit or an error message if the limit does not exist.
Figure 13-9 shows some examples of evaluating limits.

Figure 13-9: Evaluating limits from both the right and left.

Tutorial See “Calculus” in the Mathcad tutorial Features In-Depth for examples of working with limits.

Solving an Equation for a Variable

To solve an equation symbolically for a variable, use the keyword solve:

1. Type the equation. Make sure you click on the Boolean toolbar or type
[Ctrl][=] to create the bold equal sign.
148 / Chapter 13 Symbolic Calculation

Note When solving for the root of an expression, there is no need to set the expression equal to zero.
See Figure 13-10 for an example.

2. Type [Ctrl] [Shift][.] (period). Mathcad displays a placeholder to the left of

the symbolic equal sign, “→.”
3. Type solve in the placeholder, followed by a comma and the variable for which
to solve.
4. Press [Enter] for the result.
Mathcad inserts the result to the right of the “→.” Note that if the variable was squared
in the original equation, you may get two results back, displayed in a vector. Figure
13-10 shows an example.

Figure 13-10: Solving equations, solving inequalities, and finding roots. You
don’t need to set the expression equal to 0 when finding roots.

Tip Another way to solve for a variable is to click on the variable you want to solve for and choose
Variable > Solve from the Symbolics menu.

Solving a System of Equations Symbolically: “Solve” Keyword

One way to symbolically solve a system of equations is to use the same solve keyword
used to solve one equation in one unknown. To solve a system of n equations for n
unknowns:
1. Type [Ctrl]M to create a vector having n rows and 1 column.
2. Fill in each placeholder of the vector with one of the n equations making up the
system. Make sure you type [Ctrl][=] to enter the Boolean equal sign.
3. Type [Ctrl][Shift][.] (period).
4. Type solve followed by a comma in the placeholder to the left of the symbolic
equal sign, “→.”
 Examples of Symbolic Calculation / 149

5. Type [Ctrl]M to create a vector having n rows and 1 column. Then enter the
variables you are solving for.
6. Press [Enter].
Mathcad displays the n solutions to the system of equations to the right of the symbolic
equal sign. Figure 13-11 shows an example.

Use the solve keyword by pressing [Ctrl][Shift][.] (period)

Using a solve block. (Use [Ctrl][=] to type the equal sign.)

Figure 13-11: Two methods for solving a system of equations symbolically.

Solving a System of Equations Symbolically: Solve Block

Another way to solve a system of equations symbolically is to use a solve block, similar
to numeric solve blocks:
1. Type the word Given in a math region, stating that what follows is a system of
equations. You can type Given in any combination of upper- and lowercase letters
and in any font.
2. Enter the equations below the word Given. Make sure to type [Ctrl][=] for the
Boolean equal sign.
3. Enter the Find function with arguments appropriate for your system of equations.
This function is described in “Linear/Nonlinear System Solving and Optimization”
on page 100.
4. Press [Ctrl][.] (period). Mathcad displays the symbolic equal sign.
5. Press [Enter].
Mathcad displays the solutions to the system of equations to the right of the symbolic
equal sign. Figure 13-11 shows an example.
Most of the guidelines for numeric solve blocks described earlier apply to the symbolic
solution of systems of equations. The main difference is that when you solve equations
symbolically, you do not enter guess values for the solutions.
150 / Chapter 13 Symbolic Calculation

Symbolic Matrix Manipulation

You can use Mathcad to find the symbolic transpose, inverse, or determinant of a matrix
using a built-in operator and the symbolic equal sign. To find the transpose of a matrix,
for example:
1. Place the entire matrix between the two editing lines by clicking [Space] one or
more times.
2. Press [Ctrl][|] to insert the matrix transpose operator.
3. Press [Ctrl][.] (period) for the symbolic equal sign, “→.”
4. Press [Enter].
Mathcad returns the result to the right of the “→.” Figure 13-12 shows some examples.

Figure 13-12: Symbolic matrix operations: Transposing a matrix, finding the

inverse, and finding the determinant.

You can also find the transpose, inverse, or determinant of a matrix by using the Matrix
commands on the Symbolics menu.
Index Auto (on status bar) 96
automatic calculation mode 96
autoscaling of axis limits 121
→ (symbolic equal sign) 140 AutoSelect 104
→ (vectorize operator) 45 in solving 104
( ) (parentheses) 31 overriding 104
:= (definition) 10, 77 AVI files
= (evaluating expression) 10, 80 creating 126
1x1 matrices 3 playback 126
2D Graph, enhancements 3 background color 65
2D plots, creating 12 backwards compatibility 3
3D Plot Format dialog box 135 bar plots (3D)
activation 5 formatting 135
Affine 2 base of results (decimal/octal/binary) 92
aligning base units 93
output tables 43 binary numbers 92
regions 63 bitmaps
text 53 copying from other applications 107
Animate command 125 creating pictures from 106
animation 126 blank lines, inserting or deleting 64
creating 125 blank pages in printouts 73
playback 126 BMP files 67, 106
saving 126 bookmarks 18
speed 125–126 Boolean operators 103
annotation of E-book 17 border around a region 9
Annotations built-in variables 79
saving 17 bulleted paragraphs 53
approximations C_DILLA folder, activation 6
root of expression 99 Calc on status line 96
area calculation 10
collapsing 67 controlling 96
deleting 69 disabling for individual equation 97
expanding 68 equations 10, 80
inserting 67 locking 67
locking and unlocking 67–68 order in worksheets 80
naming 67 result format 91
password protecting 67–68 Calculation Management Suite 1
Area names 3 calculator, using Mathcad as 9
arguments Celsius 95
of functions 86 CGS units 94
arrays characters, deleting or inserting in math 29
calculations by element 45 Clipboard 32
copying and pasting 44 closing Mathcad
creating 37 See exiting Mathcad
defining with range variables 38 Collaboratory 19
displaying in results 43 Collaboratory User Forums 19
extracting a row or column 41 collapsing an area 67
graphical display of 46 colon (:) as definition symbol 77
nested 92 color
ORIGIN used with 42 in equations 34
Author’s Reference 15, 74 in text 52

151
152 / Index

of worksheet background 65 default formats

color images numerical results 91
displaying 105 template 60
column vector 37 worksheet layout 59
Compatibility switches 3 defining
complex keyword 141 complex numbers 23
complex numbers 23 functions 86
display of 92 global variables 81
entering 23 multiple definitions of variable 81
imaginary unit symbol 92 numbers 23
compressed files 60 range variables 82
computing results 10, 80 See also creating
constraint units 90, 93
in solve blocks 103 variables 10, 77
tolerance 104 definite integral 146
contacting Mathsoft 6 definition symbol (:=) 77
contour plots degrees
creating 133 converting to radians 95
formatting 135 deleting
See also plots, 3D blank lines 64
copy and paste 62, 95, 108 characters in math 29
copying hard page breaks 66
expressions 32 hyperlinks 71
from E-book 17 operators 30
regions 62 parentheses 32
results 95 parts of an expression 33
copying regions 62 regions 63
creating text 49
2D plots 113, 116 derivatives
3D plots 127, 133 symbolic 145
arrays 37 Designate 3, 74
contour plots 133 determinant 150
E-book 74 Developer’s Reference 15
Portable Document Format (PDF) files 74 device-independent bitmap 107
region tags 71 dialects (spell-checker) 58
space curve 130 DIB
surface plots 128, 130 See device-independent bitmap
text regions 49 dictionaries (spell-checker) 57
variables 10 dictionaries, languages 58
worksheet templates 59 dimensions 90
creating new worksheets 59 disabling equations 97
crosshair for insertion 9 display of arrays 43
CTOL variable 80, 104 downloads 21
dashed selection rectangle 61 drag and drop 17, 32, 62, 108, 110
data dragging regions 62
entering into a table 39 drawings
data files See pictures
exporting from an array 45 e, value of 78–79
date in header or footer 67 E-books 15, 74
debugging a worksheet 98 annotating 17
debugging toolbar 2 copying information from 17
 Index / 153

creating 74 in equations 97
finding on the Web 18 tracing the source of 98
moving around in 16, 18 with units 90
searching for information in 17 Evaluate Symbolically command 144
toolbar 16, 18 exiting Mathcad 13
Edit menu, Go to Page command 9 expand keyword 141, 144
Edit menu, Links command 110 expand nested arrays 92
editing equations Explicit calculation 2
annotated example 28 explicit keyword 2
changing a number 29 exponential
changing a variable or function name 29 notation, entering 24
deleting an operator 30 exponential threshold 92
deleting parentheses 32 exporting
deleting parts of expression 33 worksheets as RTF 76
inserting an operator 29 expressions
making expression an argument to a function 85 applying a function to 85
moving parts of an expression 32 correcting errors in 98
moving/rearranging equations 61–62 deleting parts of 33
editing lines 28 error messages in 97
Electronic Books evaluating 80
See E-books expanding 141
Email 76 moving parts of 32
endpoints for ranges 84 selecting several 61
engineering notation 92 symbolic evaluation of 140–141
equal sign (=) Fahrenheit 95
in numerical calculations 80 Features In-depth 15
in solve blocks 101 File Send command 76
symbolic calculations 140, 147–148 files
equality constraints 103 opening 59
equations saving 13
as constraints in solve blocks 103 Find function 101, 149
calculating results 10, 80 Fitting function 2
color 34 fixed positioning 75
disabling calculation for 97 floating point evaluation keyword 141
dragging and dropping 32 font
effect of range variables in 82 changing in header or footer 67
errors in 97 changing in math 33
font 33 changing in text 51
global definitions 81 footers 66
in text 55 Format Style command 54
locking in area 67 formatting
order of evaluation 80, 96 2D plots 121
processing and calculating 10, 96 3D plots 135
solving for root 99 numbers in matrices 44
solving symbolically 147–149 results 91
solving with solve blocks 100 symbolic 144
styles 33 worksheets 65
units in 88 Formatting toolbar 8
variable definition 77 math styles 34
error messages 3 text styles 54
correcting 98 FRAME for animation 125
154 / Index

functions symbol for 23, 92

applying to an expression 85 imaginary value 92
defining 11, 86 implied multiplication 28, 89
optimization 99 incompatible units (error message) 90
recursive 88 increments for ranges 84
solving 99 indefinite integral 146
to find roots of expressions 99 indented paragraphs 53
user-defined 78, 86 index variables
genfit 2 See range variables
Getting Started Primers 15 inequalities
Given, in solve blocks 101, 149 as constraints in solve blocks 103
global definitions 81 infinity (∞) 78
graphics, inserting 105 in-place activation 108
graphing Input Table component 39
data 118 Insert 25
expressions 115 Insert Area command 67
functions 115, 117, 128 Insert key 49
in 2D 113, 116 Insert Math Region command 55
in 3D 127, 133 Insert Matrix command
vector 118 to create array 37
graphs to resize array 38
creating 12, 127, 133 Insert Object command 62, 95, 108
formatting 12 Insert Reference command 69
resizing 114 Insert Unit command 89, 93
See also plots, 2D inserting
Greek letters blank lines 64
in equations 78 equations in text 55
in text 50 functions 85
Greek toolbar 24, 50 graphic objects 108
guess graphics computationally linked 110
for solve blocks 100 math region 55
guidelines for aligning regions 63 minus sign in front of expression 31
hard page breaks 66 parentheses around expression 31
HBK files 15 pictures 105
headers and footers 66 text 49
Help units 89
See also Resources Window and Technical insertion point
Support text 49
HTML 60, 74 insertion point (crosshair) 9
Positioning 75 installation instructions 4
hyperlinks 70 integrals
deleting (removing) 71 indefinite 146
editing 71 symbolic evaluation of 146
to other file types 72 International System of units (SI) 88, 94
to regions 71 Internet
i (imaginary unit) 23 Collaboratory 19
image file interrupting calculations in progress 96
BMP format 106 iteration
in headers and footers 67 with range variables 38
imaginary numbers j (imaginary unit) 23
entering 23 JPEG 75
 Index / 155

keywords, symbolic 141 ORIGIN used with 42

language dictionaries 58 plotting in contour plot 133
Levenberg-Marquardt 2 start with row and column zero 42
limits subscripts 41
axis 12 matrix
default range 12 changing size 38
limits, evaluating 147 Matrix Determinant command 150
line break Matrix display style 92
in text 50 Matrix Invert command 150
linear Matrix Transpose command 150
system solver and optimizer 100 measurement for the ruler 64
systems of equations 100 metadata 3
Linear algebra function 3 metafile 107
link Microsoft Internet Explorer 18
to objects 108 Migration Guide 3
to other worksheets 69–70 minus sign
Literal subscripts 3 inserting in front of expression 31
literal subscripts 79 MKS units 94
lockable area mode
See area See manual mode
locked calculations 67–68 moving
locking and unlocking an area 67–68 crosshair 9
lsolve function 100 editing lines 29
mailing worksheets 76 insertion point 29
manual mode 96 regions 62
margins 65 moving regions 62
math region 23 multiple roots
math styles finding with polyroots 99–100
applying 34 multiplication 27
editing 33 implied 28, 89
saving 35 names of variables and functions 78
Math toolbar 8, 24 negating an expression 31
Mathcad 2001, 2001i, 11 60 nested arrays
Mathcad Web Library 21 expanding 92
Mathcad Web site 6 New Features 2
Mathcad’s Object Model 15 New Header/Footer command 66
Mathsoft home page 18 nonlinear systems of equations 100
Mathsoft, contacting 6 nonscalar value (error message) 83
matrices nudging regions 62
adding/deleting rows or columns 38 nudging with arrows 62
calculations by element 45 number format
defining by formula 38 See result format
defining with two range variables 38 numbered paragraphs 53
definition of 37 numbers 23
determinant 150 binary 92
displayed as pictures 105 complex 23
displayed as scrolling output tables 43 decimal 92
extracting a column 41 displayed as zero 92
extracting elements 41 exponential notation for 24
limits on size 38, 44 format for computed results 91
numbering elements 42 formatting 11, 91
156 / Index

imaginary 23 See also plots, 3D

octal 92 parentheses
radix (base) for results 92 deleting from expression 32
numerical methods inserting into an expression 31
root finding 99 password protecting an area
solving and optimization 100 hiding an area 67
object linking and embedding Paste command 109
See OLE Paste Special command 109
Object Model in Mathcad 15 pasting
octal numbers 92 bitmaps 107
OLE 108, 110 device-independent bitmaps 107
drag and drop 110 from Clipboard 32, 107
editing links 110 metafiles 107
in-place activation 108, 110 OLE objects 109
online resources 15 pause 2
OpenGL 127 PDF (Portable Document Format), creating 74
operator placeholder 31 pending computations 96
operators personal
defined 24 dictionary (spell-checker) 57
deleting 30 pi (π) 28, 79
derivative 145 entering 24
indefinite integral 146 value 78
inserting 29 picture operator 47, 105
replacing 31 pictures
toolbars 8 border on 107
optimizers 100 creating from bitmap file 106
ORIGIN variable 42 creating from matrix 105
output table 43 formatting 107
alignment 43 pasted from Clipboard 107
resizing 43 resizing 107
versus matrix display style 92 placeholder 9, 23
overlapping regions 64 placeholder for an operator 31
overtyping text 49 Playback command 126
page Playback, animation 126
breaks, inserting and deleting 66 plots, 2D
headers and footers 66 autoscaling of axis limits 121
length 66 changing perspective 123
numbering 67 creating 12, 114
Page Setup dialog box 65, 72 formatting 121
paragraphs 52 graphing expressions 115
bullets 53 graphing functions 115
hanging indent 53 graphing vectors 119
indenting 53 multiple traces on 116
numbers 53 read-out of coordinates 124
properties 52 resizing 114
tab stops 53 setting axis or data limits 121
text alignment in 53 titles and labels 121
parametric plot traces on 116
creating 117 tracing coordinates on 124
parametric surface plots zooming 123
creating 131–132 plots, 3D 127
 Index / 157

3D Plot Format dialog box 136 radix of displayed results 92

3D Plot Wizard 127 range variables
annotations 137 array calculations with 45
color 136 creating arrays with 38
contour plots 133 defining 38, 82–83
converting 136 how Mathcad evaluates equations with 82
creating 127, 133 setting endpoints and increments 84
fill color 136 recursion 88
fogplots, 3D Reference Tables 15
formatting 135 references
graphic annotations on 137 and relative paths 70
graphing functions 128 to other worksheets 69
lighting 136 regions 9
lines 136 aligning 63
multiple plots on 133 copying 62
OpenGL graphics 127 deleting 63
parametric surface plots 131–132 dragging 62
QuickPlot 127 dragging across documents 62
resizing 114 equation 9
rotating 138 hyperlinking to 71
space curves 130 locking 67
surface plots 128, 130 moving 62
text on 137 overlapping 64
zooming 138 properties 71
PNG 75 properties of 62
polar plots putting borders around 9
creating 114 selecting 61
formatting 121 separating 64
See also plots, 2D tags, creating 71
polynomial text 9, 49
finding the roots of 100 unlocking 68
polyroots function 100 viewing 9, 64
predefined (built-in) variables 79 region-to-region hyperlinking 71
Print Preview command 73 Relative button 75
printing 13 relative paths
blank pages in 73 for references 70
page settings for 65, 72 relative positioning 75
pagination 66, 72 Release Notes 21
print preview 73 Repaginate Now command 66
wide worksheets 72 replacing characters in math or text 57
processing equations 10, 96 replacing operators 31
results of 96 repository 3
Program debugging 2 resizing
programming 1, 3 graphs 114
properties pictures 107
region 65, 71 Resources Window 15
provenance 3 accessing worksheets on Web 18
QuickPlot 115, 127 bookmarks 18
QuickSheets 15 Web browsing in 18
radians resources, online 15
converting to degrees 95 Result Format dialog box 11, 92
158 / Index

results soft page breaks 66

calculating 10 solve blocks 100
calculating with equations 80 constraints in 103
copying 95 definition of 100
formatting 11, 91 expressions allowed in 103
rich text format (RTF) 76 finding multiple solutions 103–104
root function 99 Given in 101
roots tolerance 104
finding 99 using to solve numerically 100
finding symbolically 147–148 using to solve symbolically 149
numerical approximations used 100 solve keyword 147–148
of polynomials 100 solving equations 100
row vector 37 AutoSelect of algorithm 104
RTF file 60 linear systems 104
See also rich text format nonlinear systems 104
RTF, saving to 76 See also solve blocks
ruler with root function 99
for formatting a worksheet 63 with solve blocks 100, 149
for formatting text 53 with Solve for Variable 147
measurement system 53 with solve keyword 147
Save as 60 space curves
RTF 76 creating 130
Save as Web Page 74 See also plots, 3D
Save Layout As button 75 spaces, inserting or deleting 64
save to spell check languages 58
Microsoft Word 76 spell-checker, setting language 58
saving spell-checking 57
new file 13 stack overflow error 88
templates 60–61 step size
to Designate 74 for iteration 84
worksheets 13, 59–60 styles
scalar 23 math 33
scatter plots (3D) text 53
formatting 135 subscript button 52
See also plots, 3D subscripts
scientific notation 92 in text 52
scripting 1 literal 79
search non-numeric 79
E-book 17 ORIGIN used with 42
in equations 56 start with zero 42
in text 56 superscript
selecting to get column from matrix 41
math expression 25, 30 superscript button 52
page break 66 surface plots
regions 61 creating 128, 130
text 50 formatting 135
selection rectangle 61 parametric 131–132
Separate Regions command 65–66 See also plots, 3D
separating overlapping regions 64, 66 symbolic
simultaneous equations, solving numerically 100 equal sign 140
SmartSketch component 110 evaluation 140
 Index / 159

keywords 141 Formatting 8

Symbolics menu commands 144 Math 8
Symbolics menu, using 144 Standard 8
system requirements for Mathcad 4 toolbars
tab stops in a worksheet 63 customizing 8
tables of data 39 E-books 16
tabs in a paragraph 53 Web 18
tag Tools
region, creating 71 text 56
Technical Support 6 top-to-bottom evaluation 80
Knowledge Base 21 trace 2
temperature conversions 95 trace window 2
temperature unit 2 traces, on 2D plots 116
templates 59 tracing the source of an error 98
creating new 60 transpose of matrix 150
modifying 61 trigonometric functions 95
used to save calculation mode 96 with degrees and radians 95
using to create a worksheet 59 Tutorials
text 49 Getting Started Primers 15
alignment 53 typing over text 49
bullets in 53 U.S. Customary units 94
changing font 51 undefined variable 97
color 52 undefined variables 81
Greek letters in 50 units
inserting equations in 55 alternative definitions 93
moving 50 base units 93
Occupy Page Width option 51 CGS system 94
Push Regions Down As You Type option 52 common sources of error 90
regions 49 converting calculated results 94
selecting 50 default 88
spell-checking 57 defining 90, 93
styles 53 dimensional consistency 90
tools 56 errors in dimensions 90
text box 49 in equations 88
text regions 49 metric 94
changing width 50 MKS system 93
creating 49 placeholder 93
how to exit 49 prefixes 94
text ruler 53 SI 94
text styles 53 simplifying 92
applying 54 U.S. customary 94
creating 54 units, custom built-in 2
modifying 54 units, user-defined 2
text tools 56 update
tilde (~), used in global definitions 82 worksheet window 96
time in header or footer 67 URL
TOL variable 79–80 Mathsoft home page 18
and solve blocks 104 User Forums 19
tolerance user-defined functions 86
See TOL variable and CTOL variable evaluating variables in 87
toolbar valid names 78
160 / Index

User-Defined units 2 Web-browsing mode 18

variable Wizards
in red 81 for inserting 3D plots 127
Variable Differentiate command 145 word processor 25
Variable Integrate command 146 worksheet ruler 63
Variable Solve command 148 worksheet templates 60
variables worksheets
changing the font style of 33 creating 59
defining 10, 77 exporting as RTF 76
global definitions of 81 formatting 65
in red 97 gathering in an E-book 74
matrices 37 including by reference 69
names 78 opening 60
predefined (built-in) 79 order of evaluation 80
range variables 38, 82 printing 13, 72
undefined 97 referencing in another worksheet 69
vectors 37 saving 13, 59–60
vector saving as templates 60–61
changing size 38 saving in an earlier format 60
definition of 37 sending by Email 76
vectorize operator 45 World Wide Web
how to type 45 accessing 18
vectors bookmarks for browsing 18
calculations by element 45 Collaboratory 19
displayed as scrolling output tables 43 Mathsoft home page 18
graphing 119 toolbar 18
numbering elements 42 XMCD 60
ORIGIN used with 42 XMCD file 59
start with element zero 42 XMCDZ 60
subscripts 41 XMCT file 59
undefined elements filled with zeros 42 XML 2, 60
vectorize operator 45 XML template 61
View Animate command 125 X-Y plots
wait message 96 creating 12, 114
Web Library 21 formatting 121
Web pages See also plots, 2D
creating from worksheets 74 zero threshold 92
formatting 75 zeros of expressions or functions
Web pages preferences 75 See roots
Web pages, creating from worksheets 74 zooming
Web toolbar 18 2D plots 123
 / 161

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