AERODYNAMICS 1. Air is not an ideal fluid since it has internal friction and it is compressible as well, although below 0.

4M it may be considered nearly incompressible and in viscid. 2. A compressible fluid when brought to rest generates greater pressure than an incompressible fluid. 3. Air at lower density is more compressible than air at higher density and therefore compressibility error increases with increase in altitude. 4. Water vapour is lighter than air and it is present only in the lower layers of the atmosphere. 5. ISA atmosphere assumes : (a) A mean sea lvl temperature of 15 deg C, a lapse rate of 6.5 deg C/Km upto 11 Kms after which it is constant at -56.5 deg C. (b) A mean sea level pressure of 1013.2 Hpa. (c) A surface density of 1.225 Kg per metre cube. (d) The air is completely dry. 6. The speed of sound is directly proportional to the square root of the absolute temperature. 7.In the atmosphere the fairly rapid drop in pressure with increase in altitude has the dominating effect on density as against the effect of reducing temperature which tends to increase the density. 8.Boundary layer behaviour has a profound effect on the lift produced at high angles of attack though its effect is nearly insignificant at normal operating angles of attack. 9. RN = Density x velocity x Size Viscosity

10. Kinematic viscosity is the ratio of absolute viscosity to density. It increases with increase in altitude. 11. The greatest contribution to overall lift comes from the upper surface of the aerofoil. 12. Centre of pressure is a point on the aerofoil chord line through which the resultant aerodynamic force acts. 13. The forward movement of the centre of pressure with an increase in angle of attack is an unstable movement and the rearwards movement at the point of stall is a stable movement. 14.Aerodynamic centre is that fixed point on the aerofoil around which the coefficient of pitching moment is a constant and does not change with changes in angle of attack. It usually lies ahead of the C of P. 15.Airflow pattern and therefore lift depends upon the following: (a) Angle of attack. (b) Shape of the aerofoil (thickness/chord ratio, camber). (c) Density of air. (d) Viscosity. (e) Size. (f) Speed. 16.Coefficient of lift depends upon: (a) Angle of attack. (b) Shape of the wing section and planform. (c) Condition of the wing surface. (d) Reynolds Number. (e) Speed of Sound. 17.Measurement of Speed IAS - the reading on the ASI. RAS - IAS corrected for px error and inst error. EAS - RAS corrected for compressibility error. TAS - EAS divided by the square root of the relative air density 18.Mach No has no compressibility or density errors because the machmeter has an altitude compensating device inside it.

19.With drop in temperature at constant M No the TAS reduces. 20.Chord line is the straight line joining the centre of the leading edge to the centre of the trailing edge. 21.Mean camber line is a curved line joining the centre of the leading edge to the centre of the trailing edge and is equidistant from the top and the bottom surfaces of the aerofoil. 22.The sum of the static and dynamic pressure is called total head pressure and it remains constant. 23.The measure of the lifting effectiveness of a wing under a given set of conditions is called the coefficient of lift, and is defined as the ratio of the lift force to the dynamic px. 24.Increase in camber increases the lift coefficient at the same angle of attack. 25.With a reduction in the aspect ratio only the slope of the CL vs AOA graph changes. The value of CL max remains largely unchanged though the CL max can be obtained only at a much greater AOA. 26.Wing tip vortices would form only when the wing is producing lift and would disappear when the wing is not producing lift. eg . Vertical climb/Dive 27.The movement of centre of pressure with changes in angle of attack is greater if the camber of the aerofoil is greater. 28.Symmetrical aerofoils have virtually no movement of centre of pressure over the working ranges of angles of attack at subsonic speeds. 29.Zero lift drag increases because of the forward movement of the transition and separation points with increase in lift. 30.Boundary layer is a layer of retarded air in contact with the surface of the wing. Its thickness varies between 1/16th to 1/4th of an inch. 31.Skin friction drag is caused due to the effect of the boundary layer and it increases with increase in speed.

32.The boundary layer changes from Laminar to turbulent at the transition pt & it breaks away from the surface at the separation pt 33.In a linear flow streamlines more or less follow the contour of the body and there is no separation of the flow. Conversely in an unsteady flow, the flow parameters vary with time and the flow cannot be represented by streamlines. 34.Fineness ratio is the ratio of the length to breadth of any streamlined body. C/t 35.Zero lift drag comprises of surface friction drag, form drag and interference drag. 46.Coefficient of drag is dependent upon the following factors: (All factors same as for CL) (a) Angle of attack. (b) Shape, i.e. section and planform. (c) Surface condition. (d) Reynolds Number. (e) Speed of sound. *47.In level flight Lift = CL 1/2 VS. Therefore whenever the velocity reduces the CL must be increased and vice versa for obtaining same lift. 48.In straight and level flight if it is required to fly at a particular angle of attack, e.g. the angle of attack for best L/D, the speed must be reduced as the weight of the aircraft reduces. 49.Provided weight remains constant the relationship between EAS and angle of attack remains unchanged with altitude. 50.A propeller driven aircraft suffers a gradual loss of propeller efficiency at both ends of its speed range.

51.Thrust, of a jet engine remains virtually constant at a given altitude, irrespective of forward speed. T = m (v-u); v = exhaust velocity of gas, u = ac velocity. 52.The thrust horse power of both jet and piston engines decreases with increase in altitude. 53.For an aeroplane in a given condition if the angle of glide and the angle of climb is the same, the lift produced in both conditions would be the same. The greater the angle of glide or climb, lesser is the requirement of lift and if the aircraft is in a true vertical climb or glide the lift requirement is zero. 54.In a true vertical climb or glide there are no wing tip vortices and therefore no induced drag. 55.While gliding if the angle of attack for best L/D is maintained it would result in the aircraft having the flattest glide giving it maximum range. 56. In the absence of an angle of attack indicator in the cockpit the best L/D angle of attack for a particular AUW can be maintained by maintaining a particular IAS. This IAS should be varied by half the percentage change in weight upto a maximum change of 20% in AUW. 57.Changes in AUW would require the best glide speed to be changed. Higher the AUW higher would be the best glide speed. 58.Though the range in a glide would not be affected by changes in AUW the endurance in a glide would reduce with increase in weight since the aircraft would have to maintain a higher speed during glide. 59.To get maximum endurance in a glide the aircraft would have to be flown at the

minimum power required speed which is the speed at which the value of (CL 3/2)/CD is maximum. 60.If gliding at a constant IAS, the TAS at higher altitudes would be higher and therefore the rate of descent would also be more at higher altitudes. 61.Since L = W cos theta, both during glide and climb where theta is the angle of glide or the angle of climb it follows that the lift required during glide or climb at the same angle is also the same. 62.Angle of climb depends upon the excess of thrust. Angle of climb = (Thrust - Drag) Weight 63.Rate of climb depends upon excess power. Rate of climb = (Power available - Power required) Weight 64.The best climb angle in a propeller driven aircraft is obtained at a minimum safe speed above the unstick speed since the thrust available in a propeller driven ac reduces with increase in speed. 65.The best climb angle in a jet aircraft is achieved at the speed for minimum drag since the thrust of the jet engine is nearly constant and does not change with changes in forward speed. 66.The maximum rate of climb for both propeller and jet aircraft would be at a speed at which maximum reserve of power is available. 67.For a propeller driven aircraft with increase in altitude the following would take place : (a) The rate of climb would reduce. (b) Minimum speed in level flight would increase. (c) Maximum speed in level flight would reduce.

(d) The speed for maximum rate of climb would increase. (e) The speed for maximum angle of climb would increase. 68.For a jet engined aircraft with increase in altitude the following would take place : (a) The rate of climb would reduce. (b) Minimum speed in level flight would increase. (c) Maximum speed in level flight would reduce, though the rate of reduction is negligible till the tropopause. (d) The speed for max rate of climb would increase marginally. (e) The speed for maximum angle of climb would increase. 69.For both piston engined aircraft and jet engined ac with increase in weight climb performance would be affected in the following manner: (a) Rate of climb would reduce since the reserve of power would reduce. (b) Angle of climb would also reduce since thrust required would reduce. (c) Minimum speed in level flight would increase. (d) Maximum speed in level flight would decrease. 70.Service ceiling is specified as the altitude which produces a rate of climb of 100 ft/min. Combat ceiling is specified as the altitude which produces a rate of climb of 500 ft/min. 71.Boundary layer separation is produced as a result of the adverse pressure gradient developed around the body. 72.A laminar boundary layer separates more easily in the presence of an adverse pressure gradient than a turbulent boundary layer. 73.A turbulent boundary layer is more desirable to prevent separation and for obtaining better stalling characteristics, although it has the penalty of giving moire drag than a laminar

boundary layer. 74.Factors affecting stalling speed are : (a) Weight. (b) Manoeuvre (Load Factor). (c) Configuration (Use of flaps slats etc). (d) Power and slip stream effect. 75.Stalling characteristics where a wing stalls progressively from the root to the tip are more desirable because : (a) It gives early buffet symptoms on the tail plane. (b) Aileron effectiveness is retained upto the point of stall. (c) Large rolling moments due to asymmetric stalling of the wing tips is avoided. 76.Methods of preventing wing tip stalling on unswept subsonic wings are : (a) Avoidance of high local CL near the wing tips. (b) Reducing the angle of incidence twds the wing tips (washout) (c) Using aerofoil sections towards the wing tips that have a more gradual stalling characteristic. (d) Using devices that increase the stalling angle on the outer portions of the wings towards the wing tips. (e) Fitting of spoilers on the inboard leading edges of the wing. 77.Increase in Reynolds No increases the CL max and the stalling angle of attack. 78.On a tapered or swept back wing the tips tend to stall first because the flow has a low Reynolds No at the tips (short chords); whereas on a rectangular wing the roots stall first. 79.Swept back wings have a greater tendency towards tip stalling because firstly the outer portions produce more lift than the inner portion of the wing and secondly because of the outward flow of the boundary layer.

80.Methods of preventing wing tips stalling on swept back wings are : (a) Boundary layer fences. (b) Leading edge slots. (c) Boundary layer suction. (d) Boundary layer blowing. (e) Vortex generators. (f) Leading edge extension. 81.Pitch up is a longitudinal instability phenomenon resulting in a nose up pitching moment. On a swept back wing or a delta wing it occurs when the angle of attack is increased to the angle of attack for tip stall. 82.The causes of pitch up on a swept back planform are : (a) Forward movement of the centre of pressure. (b) Changed down wash over the tail plane. (c) Washout due to wing flexure. 83.Pitch up may occur on aircraft with low aspect ratio, short span, straight wings, due to the effect of wing tip vortices over the tail plane at high angles of attack. 84.Stalling speeds for a given wing loading are not seriously affected by a reduction in the aspect ratio. 85.In a true vertical climb the lift is zero and therefore no buffet symptoms would be there even if the IAS is zero. 86.The autorotational properties of a wing are due to the negative slope of the CL verses alpha curve when alpha is greater than the stalling angle of attack. *87.Aspect Ratio = Span or Span2 or Area Chord Area Chord2 Induced Drag = (KCL) x 1/2VS (Pi)AR

CL2 = Coefficient of Induced drag (Pi)AR K = Span Efficiency Factor 88.To generate a given lift at a given airspeed a wing with a shorter span has to impart a greater down wash to the air it meets as compared to a wing with a longer span and therefore a shorter span wing will have a greater value of induced drag as compared to a wing of longer span. 89.Taper ratio is the ratio of the tip chord length to the root chord length. 90.An elliptical wing section has a constant lift coefficient throughout its span from the root to the tip and is therefore the most efficient planform. 91.An crescent wing planform combines variable sweep back with a changing thickness/chord ratio. The wing is thickest where the sweep back is maximum. The advantages of crescent wings are : (a) The critical drag rise Mach No is increased. (b) The peak drag rise is reduced. (c) Due to the lack of outflow of the boundary layer at the tips, tip-stalling tendency is reduced. 92.The main lift augmentation devices are : (a) Slats. (b) Flaps. (c) Boundary layer control. 93.Flaps increase the CL at all angles of attack by increasing the effective camber and/or area of the wing. 94.Trailing edge flaps reduce the stalling angle and attitude whereas leading edge flaps increase the stalling angle and attitude.

95.Flaps change the pitching moment because of the changes in the pressure distribution and changes in the downwash over the tail plane. Due to this the aircraft attitude needs to be adjusted whenever flaps are deflected. 96.Use of flaps always affects the L/D ratio adversely. 97.Boundary layer control implies controlling the boundary layer to prevent its separation. It can be achieved primarily by blowing the air tangentially to the wing surface or by having a strong suction through suitably positioned holes in the wing surface thereby removing the slow moving boundary layer. 98.Boundary layer control also reduces skin friction drag. 99.Slats are more effective at higher angles of attack and although they increase the stalling angle of attack the stall is more vicious when the wing eventually stalls. 100.Control effectiveness depends upon : (a) Size and shape of the control surface. (b) Deflection angle of the control surface. (c) EAS2. (D) Moment arm (the distance of the C of P of the control surface from the C of G of the aircraft). 101.Sweep back reduces the effectiveness of the trailing edge control surfaces and trailing edge flaps. 102.Mass balancing of control surfaces is done to reduce flutter whereas aerodynamic balancing is done to reduce the loads required to move the control surfaces in flight. 103.Mass balancing is generally achieved by fixing weights to the leading edge of the

control surface so as to bring the C of G of the control surface close to the hinge line. 104.Aerodynamic balancing is done by hinging the control about a line set back from the leading edge so as to reduce the hinge moment required for moving the control surface. 105.The most common forms of aerodynamic balance are : (a) Inset hinge. (b) Horn balance. (c) Internal balance. (d) Various types of tab balance. 107.Onset of overbalance can be detected by the pilot as a decrease of the control loads instead of an increase in the progressive force required to move the control surface. 108.Control harmony is the overall handling characteristics of the control surfaces with respect to each other. One method often used is to arrange for the aileron, elevators and the rudder forces to be in the ratio of 1:2:4. 109.Aileron drag occurs when the drag of the down going aileron is appreciably more than the drag of the upgoing aileron and it tends to yaw the aircraft in a direction opposite to which bank has been applied. 110.Aileron drag is minimised by having differential, ailerons frise ailerons, coupling of controls and by the use of spoilers instead of ailerons. 111.Aileron snatch is caused by rapid shifting of the centre of pressure over the aileron surface at low speeds at or near the stall, or could be the result of its movement in the transonic range of flight. 112.If speed is increased in level flight the rate of roll for a given aileron deflection increases, because firstly the aileron rolling moment increases because of the

increased IAS and secondly the aerodynamic damping moment decreases due to the increased TAS. 113.Aero-elastic distortion of the wing may cause the wing to twist when the ailerons are deflected and lead to an effect that is known as `aileron reversal'. 114.At speeds where the increment of CL produced by the deflection of the ailerons is completely nullified by the wing twisting in the opposite sense the rate of roll reduces to zero inspite of the ailerons being deflected. This speed is known as 'reversal speed'. At speeds higher than reversal speed the direction of roll will be opposite to that applied by the pilot. 115.A progressive lessening of the rudder foot loads with an increase of rudder deflection angle is called rudder overbalance. If design weakness causes the centre of pressure over the rudder to move ahead of the hinge line of the rudder at increased deflection angles of the rudder than the rudder would move to its full deflection angle without any effort being applied by the pilot. This is called 'rudder overbalance'. 116.The onset of rudder overbalance may be shown by a fluctuation in the rudder foot loads and is known as 'rudder tramping'. 117.At high speeds or Mach Nos an all moving tail plane or a slab tail is used because the conventional tail plane and elevator combination loses much of its effectiveness. 118.A variable incidence tail plane is used on some aircraft as an alternative to or in addition to elevator trimming tabs.

119.The effectiveness of airbrakes varies as the square of the spd. 120.At high altitude the effectiveness of air brakes is much reduced, since drag which is low in proportion to the TAS, would now take longer to achieve a required loss of speed, i.e. the rate of deceleration is reduced. 121.Trim tabs are pilot operated tabs & used to trim out any holding forces encountered during flight. Their sensitivity & eff-ectiveness varies with spd in the same way as normal control surfaces. 122.Some other methods of trimming are : (a) Spring-bias trimmers. (b) Variable incidence tailplane and all flg (slab) tailplane. (c) Variable - incidence wings. 123.Balance tabs are used to completely or partially balance the aerodynamic loads on the control surfaces thus reducing the stick loads. 124.A geared tab is linked to the fixed surface ahead of the control surface and is geared to move at a set ratio in the opposite direction to the movement of the control. 125.Servo tabs are connected directly to the cockpit controls and the tab can be made to apply the hinge moment required to move the control surface. As such the pilot's control input deflects the tab only and the moment the tab produces about the hinge line of the control surface causes the control surface to float to its position of equilibrium. Servo tabs lose much of their effectiveness at low speeds. 126.Spring tabs are modifications of the geared tabs in which the spring is incorporated in the linkage permitting the tab gearing to be varied according to the applied stick forces. 127.The roll helix angle gives the rolling performance of an aeroplane. The helix angle in a roll can be given by the formula : Helix angle in roll = pb 2V Where p is the rate of roll, b is the span, and V is the TAS.

128.All other parameters remaining the same an ac with a shorter span would have a higher rate of roll as compared for an ac with a longer span. 129.If the roll helix angle is held constant, the rate of roll at a particular TAS will not be affected by altitude. 130.Specific air range (SAR) is the distance flown for unit fuel consumed. SAR = Distance Fuel Flow 131.Gross fuel consumption (GFC) is the fuel consumed in unit time. GFC = TAS x 1 SFC Thrust 132.Specific fuel consumption (SFC) is the fuel consumed to produce unit thrust in unit time per engine. 133.Range equation for jet engined aircraft SAR = Distance (Divide both by numerator & denominator by time) Fuel flow = Velocity GFC [But in a jet engined aircraft GFC = SFC x Thrust which can also be written as GFC = c x D (because T=D)] =TAS x 1 (In level flight T=D) Drag SFC =TAS Drag x 1 x L c W

= 1 x L x TAS c D W

(From the formula L=W = 1/2 ro Vsquared S V = Whole underroot 2W ro Cl S = 1 x L x underroot W x 1 c D W CL1/2 ro S = 1 x CL x 1 x 1 x 1 c CD underroot W underroot CL underroot 1/2 ro S (If you multiply both the numerator & denominator by underroot W) = 1 x underroot CL x 1 x 1 x 1 C CD underroot W underroot 1/2 ro underroot S =1 x underroot CL x 1 x 1 x underroot W C CD W underroot 1/2 ro underroot S This equation gives the requirements for max SAR in a jet engined ac. For max SAR: (a) SFC should be minimum. (b) The valve of underroot CL/CD should be maximum. (c) Weight should be minimum. (d) The value of ro should be min, or the altitude should be max 134.In range flg for jet engined aircraft `m' (little m) is the ratio of the Cruise IAS to the Min drag IAS. For constant altitude cruise the value of m = 1.32 times min drag speed, and for cruise climb technique the value of m = 1.19 times min drag speed. 135.Range equation for piston engined aircraft. SAR = Distance Fuel Flow (But fuel flow for a piston engined aircraft = SFC x Power) = V x 1

SFC BHP (But BHP = THP/Propeller Efficiency(n)) =V x 1 x n SFC THP (But THP= Drag x Velocity i.e. THP = DV) =V x1 xn SFC DV =1 x 1 x n SFC D (but D=CD/CL x W, and therefore 1/D = CL/CD x I/W) = 1 x n x CL x 1 SFC CD W This equation gives the requirements for maximum SAR in a piston engined aircraft. For maximum range : (a) SFC should be minimum. (b) Propeller efficiency should be maximum. (c) The valve of CL/CD should be maximum. (d) Weight should be minimum. 136.Endurance equation for a jet engined aircraft. Total fuel Endurance = GFC (But in a jet engined aircraft GFC = SFC x Thrust which can also be written as GFC = c x D [because T=D] Endurance = Fuel x 1 x 1 x L D c W = Fuel x CL x 1 x 1 CD c W This equation gives the requirement for max endurance in jet engined ac. Max endurance is obtained when: (a) Total fuel is maximum.

(b) CL/CD or L/D is maximum. (c) SFC is minimum. (d) Weight is minimum. 137.Endurance equation for a piston engined aircraft. Endurance = Total fuel GFC (But fuel flow for a piston engined aircraft = SFC x Power) Endurance = fuel x 1 x 1 x n BHP c = Fuel x 1 x 1 x n DV c = Fuel x 1 x 1 x 1 x n D V c (But D = (CD/CL)W, and From the formula L = W = 1/2 `ro'V squared S V = whole underroot ro CL S 2W

= Fuel x 1 x 1 x 1 xn (CD/CL)W whole underroot W CL1/2 ro S

= Fuel x CL x 1 x 1 x underroot CL`ro'S x n CD W C 2W' = Fuel x CL3/2 x 1 x 1 x underroot `ro'S x n CD W 3/2 C 2 This equation gives the requirement for maximum endurance in a piston engined aircraft. Maximum endurance is obtained when : (a) Total fuel is maximum. (b) (CL 3/2)/CD is maximum.

(c) SFC is minimum. (d) Weight is minimum. (e) `ro' is maximum (fly at low altitudes). (f) Propeller efficiency is maximum. 138.For a turbo -prop aircraft considering only engine considerations for range the factors are : (a) Mc rpm for better value of SFC. (b) High altitude for better thermal efficiency. (c) TAS between 300-400 kts is the best for maximum use of ram effect along with a high propeller efficiency. 139.The recommended range speed (RRS) should be 1.1 times V IMD similar to that in a piston engined aircraft. 140.Altitude to fly would be determined by the height at which the Mc rpm power is sufficient to give the RRS. 141.Reduction in weight requires an increase in altitude for best range for a turbo prop aircraft because with a decrease in weight lesser power is required and an increase in altitude results in reduced power even with the Mc rpm being maintained. 142.Maximum altitude with reduction in weight would be limited to the altitude at which the RRS results in cruise limit M No. 143. Turbo prop endurance is best at medium altitudes where a compromise between the engine and airframe requirement is obtained. 144. To make any changes in spd or dirn an acceleration is reqd. 145. To keep an ac turning an accelerating force is required towards the centre of the turn & this force is called the centripetal force. 146. During a steady turn the ac is not in equilibrium since an out of balance force is required to keep the aircraft in the turn. 147. The centripetal force during a turn is provided by tilting the lift vector so that it gives a component towards the centre of the turn.

148. For a given radius of turn the bank angle depends upon the TAS squared and the radius of turn is independent of the aircraft AUW. 149. Load factor is defined as the ratio of the lift produced to the aircraft weight. 150. Stalling speed in a turn =Basic stalling speed xLoadFactor.* 151. Wing loading is the ratio of the aircraft weight divided by the wing surface area. 152. Higher the wing loading of an aeroplane higher would be the radius of turn. 153. Higher the value of CL lesser would be the radius of turn. 154. A reduction in density would cause the radius of turn to increase. 155. An increase in the angle of bank would cause the radius of turn to decrease. However, with the increase in angle of bank the lift vector would become more tilted and therefore the vertical component of the lift vector would reduce. To prevent the aircraft from descending the value of CL would have to increase. Radius of turn = W x 1 x 1 x 1 x 2 S CL `ro' Sin theta g 156.Rate of turn is affected by changes in wing loading, CL, density and angle of bank in exactly the same manner as the radius of turn. In addition for getting a maximum rate of turn the value of velocity should be large. Rate of turn = V x 1 x CL x `ro' x sin theta x g W/S 2 157.Maximum load factor in a turn is alpha V squared/r. 158.If for an ac the min radius of turn is at a speed ='V', then the max rate of turn would be at a speed 'Vy' which is greater than `V' and the max G load in a turn would be at a spd `Vz' which would be greater than 'Vy'. 159.A manoeuvre envelope has load factor (n), positive and negative on its y axis

and EAS on its x axis. 160. The manoeuvre envelope can give the following : (a) Basic stalling speed. (b) Available load factor at any height and speed. (c) Maximum EAS at height. (d) Stalling speed at any height and load factor. 161. In addition to the information above the manoeuvre envelope can give the following limitations directly : (a) Maximum permitted load factor. (b) Maximum EAS. (c) Compressibility Mach No. (d) Rolling g limits. 162. Just as the manoeuvre envelope shows the available range of manoeuvre for the aircraft at any height the thrust boundary shows the limitations due to the amount of thrust available. 163. Stability concerns itself with the initial tendency or the motion of the aircraft after an external force disturbing it from the trimmed position has been removed. 164. Whereas static stability is the initial response of the body after the displacing force has been removed, dynamic stability is the time history of the resultant motion after the displacing force has been removed. 165. A static stable body may be dynamically stable or unstable, but a static unstable body has got to be dynamically unstable. 166. If on removal of the displacing force the aircraft gradually regains its original trimmed position without overshooting it is said to be statically and dynamically stable and the resulting motion is called subsidence. 167. If on removal of the displacing force the aircraft continues to move away from the trimmed position, it is both statically and dynamically unstable and the resulting motion is called divergence. 168. A high degree of stability tends to reduce the controllability of the aircraft.

While the lower limits of stability may be set by the upper limits of controllability, the upper limits of stability are set by the lower limits of controllability. 169.Longitudinal stability is about the lateral axis of the ac. Positive static longitudinal stability is indicated by a negative slope of CM verses CL curve i.e. positive stability is evidenced by a decrease in CM with an increase in CL. 170.The main factors affecting longitudinal stability are : (a) Position of the C of G. (b) Movement of the C of P. (c) Design and position of the tail plane and elevators. 171.While the forward movement of the C of G makes the ac more stable any rearwards movement makes it unstable. If the C of G is too far aft the ac may first become neutrally stable longitudinally and further movement of the C of G may make the aircraft unstable. 172.The factors affecting tail plane contribution to stability are: (a) Tail area. (b) Tail volume (i.e. Tail area x Moment arm). (c) Tail planform (i.e. Taper, Aspect ratio and Sweep). (d) Wing downwash. (e) Dist betn the C of P of the tailplane to C of G of the ac. 173.Greater the camber of the aerofoil greater is the movement of the C of P on the aerofoil. 174.The function of the tailplane is to provide a countering force to any out of balance couples existing between the two main couples, namely Lift/Weight couple and the Thrust/Drag couple. 175.The aft position of the C of G where the aircraft becomes neutrally stable longitudinally is called the neutral point. 176.The distance through which the CG has to be moved to reach the neutral point is called the Static or CG margin.

177.A greater CG margin indicates a greater degree of stability. 178.CG margin stick fixed is greater than the CG margin stick free. 179.Manoeuvre stability deals with a disturbance on angle of attack and load factor occurring at a constant speed. 180.Manoeuvre stability is greater than static stability in lvl flt 181.The aft posn of the CG at which the ac is neutrally stable during manoeuvres is called manoeuvre pt & the dist the CG has got to be moved aft to reach the manoeuvre pt is called the manoeuvre margin. 182.Since manoeuvre stability is greater than static stability in level flight therefore manoeuvre margin is always greater than CG margin stick free or stick fixed. 183.Directional stability of an aeroplane is essentially its `weathercock' stability and is about the normal axis. *184. Static directional stability would exist when the curve of Cn versus B has a positive slope and the degree of stability is a function of the slope of this curve. A negative slope of this graph would indicate that the aircraft is directionally unstable. 185.Directional stability depends upon : (a) Design of the vertical stabilizer. (b) The moment arm (Distance between the C of P of the stabilizer and the C of G of the aircraft). 186.Just like the wings can stall at high angles of attack so can the fin stall at high angles of sideslip. 187.Rudder fixed static directional stability is greater than rudder free static directional stability.

188.Increase in Mach No reduces the static directional stability for an aeroplane, since supersonic flight reduces the contribution of the vertical tail to directional stability because of a reduction of the lift curve slope with Mach No. 189.Lateral static stability is taken about the longitudinal axis. Static lateral stability would exist when the curve of CL versus B has a negative slope and the degree of stability will be a function of the slope of this curve. 190.Factors affecting lateral stability are : (a) Wing contribution due to : (i) Dihedral. (ii) Sweep back. (b) Wing fuselage interference. (c) Fuselage and fin contribution. (d) Undercarriage, flaps and power effects. 191. A disturbance that initially may involve only lateral stability will, when the ac reacts involve directional stability at the same time. 192.Ac oscillations which have a long time period are usually unimportant, but the short time oscillations which have a time period equal to or less than the pilot's response time need to be damped heavily. This is necessary to prevent the pilot from getting the ac into pilot induced oscillations. 193.In those modern aircraft where sufficient damping cannot be achieved the provision of autostabilizers becomes a necessity. 194.Excessive lateral stability causes dutch roll instability whereas excessive directional stability causes spiral instability. 195.Dutch roll is an oscillation involving roll, yaw and sideslip usually with a short time period. It can generally be countered by providing yaw dampers or by reducing the lateral stability of the aircraft by designing it with an anhedral angle. 196. Inertia coupling may take place when an ac has its inertia axis & aerodynamic axis not aligned with each other. In such a case rotation about one of the axis would cause the ac to move about the other axis as well.

197. A propeller is a power converting device for converting engine power into forward thrust. 198.Propeller definitions : (a) Angle of attack is the angle between the chord of the blade section and the relative air flow. (b) Blade angle is the angle between the chord of the blade section and the plane of rotation. (c) Helix angle or the angle of advance is the angle between the relative air flow and the plane of rotation. (d) Pitch like for any other screw is the distance moved forward by the blade in one revolution. 199.Because of increasing radius from the hub towards the tip a propeller blade has different linear velocity at different points along its span. This causes the helical path followed to be different for different points along the span, & to ensure that the blade has optimum angle of attack always it is given a helical twist. 200.Geometric mean pitch is the advance per revolution at 0 deg angle of attack. 201. Experimental mean pitch is the advance per revolution when the propellor is producing zero thrust. EMP is always greater than GMP. 202. Actual pitch is the advance per revolution in actual operating conditions at a given instant. 203. Slip is the difference between actual pitch and EMP and is expressed as a % of EMP. Slip = (EMP - AP) x 100 EMP 204. Efficiency of any system is defined as OUTPUT/INPUT. Propeller efficiency is given by the symbol n.(nu)

n = 1 x CT x V 2 pi CQ nD Where : CT/CQ is the ratio between the coefficient of torque to the coefficient of thrust. V/nD is a non dimensional known as the slip ratio or advance ratio, or slip function and the performance or efficiency of the propeller depends upon it. 205.A fine pitch angle is more efficient at low speeds and a coarse pitch angle is more efficient at high speed. 206.Changes is the V/nD ratio will mean changes in the angle of attack for the blade in addition to the CT/CQ ratio and therefore the propeller efficiency of the blade. To get best efficiency from the propeller blades a variable pitch propeller is used so that it can be operated at the best V/nD ratio at all times by changing the blade angle with changes in forward speed. 207.Factors which increase the power absorption for a propeller are (a) Increase in blade angle. (b) Increase in diameter. (c) Increase in camber of the blade. (d) Increase in rpm. (e) Increase in area. 208.Of the factors which increase the power absorbed by the blade the only practical alternative available is to increase the area of the blade disc. This is done by increasing the number of blades or increasing the blade chord. 209.Solidity is defined as the ratio between that part of the propeller disc covered by the blades to the total area of the disc. 210.The diagrams of forces on a propeller blade in the following conditions must be studied. (a) Normal conditions of flight.

(b) Windmilling conditions. (c) Braking propeller. 211.A rotating propeller when fitted to an aircraft gives rise to certain forces that cause the aircraft to yaw or pitch. These are : (a) Asymmetric blade effect takes place when the plane of rotation of the prop is not at right angles to the direction of flt. (b) Gyroscopic effect takes place because a rotating prop acts like a gyroscope and any force that is changing the plane of rotation of the prop also cause a force to be applied at right angles to the original force causing the ac to pitch or yaw. (c) Torque reaction is caused due to the rotating propeller causing a torque to be imparted to the aircraft that tends to rotate it in a direction opposite to the direction in which the propeller is rotating. (d) Slipstream effect is caused because the propeller imparts rotation to the slipstream which when it interacts with the fin causes the aircraft to yaw. 212. Centrifugal twisting moment tends to turn the blade to a finer pitch angle. 213. Aerodynamic twisting moment tends to turn the pitch coarse in normal conditions of flight and tends to fine the blade angle during windmilling conditions of flight. 214.Mach No is the ratio of the speed of an object or flow to the speed of sound in the same part of the atmosphere. 215.A mach wave or a mach line is a line along which there is a small change in pressure, density and temperature, though the changes are negligible. 216.A shock wave is a collection of mach waves in a very narrow region (1/10,000" in thickness) and across a shock wave there is a significant change of pressure, density and temperature. In other words some of the directed energy of the flow is converted into random energy and this loss of energy is represented as energy loss in a shock wave. 217.Behind a normal shock wave the flow is always subsonic and the flow speed can be represented by (1/M No ahead of the shock wave). 218.Free stream M No is the M No of the flow sufficiently removed from the aircraft to be unaffected by it.

219.Local M No is the ratio of the speed of flow at that point to the speed of sound at the same point. 220.Flow speed ranges are : (a) Upto M 0.4 (b) M 0.4 - MCRIT (c) MCRIT - MDET (d) MDET - M 5.0 (e) Above M 5.0

Low speed subsonic. High speed subsonic. Transonic regime. Supersonic regime. Hypersonic regime.

221.Critical Mach No (MCRIT) is that free stream M No at which for a given angle of attack the local M No at any point reaches M 1.0, normally at the point of maximum thickness. 222.Critical drag rise Mach No (MCDR) is that free stream M No at which, because of shock waves formation, the CD for a given angle of attack increases significantly. Different criteria are often used for the value of increase in drag, 0.002 rise in CD, 20 % rise in CD 223.Detachment Mach No (MDET) is that free stream M No above which there is negligible movement of the bow shock wave. At or above the MDET all values of M Local are above M 1.0 (except in the boundary layer). 224.High speed aerofoils are generally symmetrical and have their maximum thickness at or about the 50 % chord point. 225.Summarised conditions of the flow in the transonic regime is to be studied. 226.At MFS 0.75 the conditions over the wing can be summarised as follows : (a) A supersonic bubble exists ; as yet there is no shockwave. (b) CL has risen by 60 % of its low speed value for the same angle of attack. (c) The centre of pressure is at about 20 % chord. (d) Over the bottom surface the flow is still subsonic.

227.At MFS 0.81 the conditions over the wing can be summarised as follows : (a) There is a shock wave at about 70 % chord. (b) CL has risen to 100 % of low subsonic value. (c) The centre of pressure is about 30 % chord. (d) The flow under the bottom surface is first sonic. 228.At MFS 0.89 the condition over the wing can be summarised as follows : (a) The wing is in the start of shock state. (b) CL has reduced to about 70 % of its low subsonic value. (c) The centre of pressure is about 15 % chord. 229.At MFS 0.98 the conditions over the wing can be summarised as follows : (a) Both top & bottom surface shock waves are at the trailing edge. (b) The turbulent wake is at its low speed thickness. (c) CL is about 10 % above its basic value. (d) The centre of pressure has moved back to about 45 % chord. This is the rearward movement of the centre of pressure experienced by all aircraft going through the transonic range. 230.At MFS 1.40 the conditions over the wing can be summarised as follows : (a) CL is 70 % of its low subsonic value. (b) The centre of pressure is at about 50 % chord. 231.Changes in angle of attack have a marked effect on the shock waves. Increasing the angle of attack with the same MFS has the following effects : (a) The top surface shock wave forms at a lower MFS and moves forward as the angle of attack is increased. (b) Separation affects a greater length of the chord. (c) The influence of the shock wave on the boundary layer is more severe. (d) The position and intensity of the shock waves alters considerably. This erratic movement has a large effect on the total lift and drag of the aerofoil and on the centre of pressure position. The changes give rise to transonic stability and control problems during manoeuvres.

232.The limiting factor when manoeuvring supersonically is determined by the amount of tailplane movement available. 233.During transonic and supersonic flight the types of drag that predominate are as follows : (a) Interference drag. (b) Trim drag. (c) Wave drag. 234.Wave drag arises from : (a) Energy drag stemming from the irreversible nature of the changes which occur in the flow as it crosses a shockwave. (b) Boundary layer separation that occurs because of the shock wave results in turbulence due to flow separation and it represents lost energy. 235.Trim drag is that increment in drag that is caused due to aerodynamic trimming of the aircraft. As the aircraft accelerates through the transonic regime the rearwards shift in centre of pressure causes a marked nose down change in pitch. This has to be countered by a tail down load on the tailplane which in effect means that the wings have to produce extra lift by flying at in increased angle of attack incurring additional lift. Trim drag can be reduced by rearwards movement of the C of G utilising fuel transfer as in concord. 236.Most aircraft operating in the transonic regime experience a nose down pitching moment with increase in speed. This is because of the rearwards movement of the C of P and modification of the flow over the tail plane. 237.Mach trimmer is a device sensitive to M No and provides positive stability by suitably deflecting elevator/tailplane in aircraft prone to nose down pitching with increase in speed such that the effect of the rearwards movement of the C of P is virtually eliminated. 238.Lateral disturbances are often experienced in transonic flight because the shock waves over the two wings do not form at identical M Nos and identical positions, thereby causing a difference in the lift produced by the two wings. 239. Directional stability is adversely affected in the transonic and supersonic

range of speeds because of the reduction of the slope of the CL versus O curve for the find which means that the contribution from the fin with changes in the sideslip angle is reduced. 240. Important design features for high speed service aircraft are : (a) High critical drag rise M No. (b) Low drag coefficient at supersonic speeds. (c) High maximum and low minimum speeds. (d) Adequate stability and control throughout the speed range. (e) Good manoeuvrability at high speeds and altitudes. (f) Stable platform for weapon release. 241. A supercritical wing has a relatively flat upper surface and the lift lost due to this design is made up by having a more pronounced curvature on the bottom surface. This causes delayed formation of shock waves on the top surface, and therefore a higher MCDR. The advantages are increased payload and increased cruising speeds as compared to a conventional wing. 242. Swept back wings are used for supersonic aircraft because higher values of MCRIT and MCDR are achieved as compared with straight wings, since only the component of the flow that is at right angles to the leading edge has an effect on these. 243.Use of swept back wings on high speed aircraft causes certain problems at high angles of attack. These are : (a) Low slope of the CL versus Q curve. (b) Very high drag at high angles of attack. (c) Tip stall. (d) Pitch-up. (e) Wing flexure. (f) Dutch roll. 244.Deep stall is a phenomenon that can take place in T-tail aircraft where at high angles of attack the tailplane may come into the separated flow or wake of the wings thereby suffering a reduction in its effectiveness. This reduction in effectiveness may be so large that the tail plane may not have the capability to reduce the

angle of attack of the wings to unstall them. 245.The advantages of delta wings over swept back wings are : (a) Longer chords enable increased wing thickness without increasing the thickness/chord ratio. (b) More structural rigidity. (c) Reduced tip stalling tendency. (d) Increased wing area resulting in lower wing loading. 246.A crescent wing has a higher sweep at the inboard portion of the wing where the thickness is maximum and as the thickness/chord ratio is reduced spanwise so is the angle of sweep towards the outboard portion of the wing. A crescent wing has the following advantages. (a) Mcdr is raised. (b) The peak drag rise is reduced. (c) Tip stalling is prevented since the outboard sections are virtually unswept; hence there is less outflow of boundary layer which gives a more uniform spanwise loading. AIRFRAMES

1.

Attitude is the inclination of the ac axis relative to the horizon.

2. Chord is a straight line joining the centre of curvature of the leading edge to the centre of curvature of the trailing edge. 3. Mean camber line is a curved line joining the centre of curvature of the leading edge to the centre of curvature of the trailing edge and is equidistant from the top and bottom surfaces of the aerofoil. 4. Camber is the deviation of the mean camber line from the chord line. It is said to be positive if the mean camber line is above the chord line and negative if the mean camber line is below the chord line.

5. Angle of incidents is the angle which the wing chord line makes with the lateral axis of the aircraft. 6. Angle of attack is the angle which the chord line makes with the relative airflow. 7. Dihedral angle. The upward inclination towards the wing tips, i.e. the upward angle which the wing makes with the lateral axis when the aircraft is in the rigging position is called the anhedral angle. 8. Anhedral angle. The downward inclination towards the wing tips, i.e. the downward angle which the wing makes with the lateral axis when the ac is in the rigging posn is called the anhedral angle 9. Sweep back is the backward sweeping of the leading edge of the wing. Angle of sweep back is the angle that the leading edge makes with the lateral axis of the aircraft. 10. Wash in. This is an expression used to denote the decreasing angle of incidence towards the wing tips. 11. Wash out. This is an expression used to denote the increasing angle of incidence towards the wing tips. 12. Wing spar. The principle spanwise structural wing member, designed to carry all the stresses distributed through the whole area of the aircraft. 13. Longerons are the principle longitudinal members of the fuselage which run from front to rear and is usually supported at various points along its length by other structural

members. 14. Rib is a part of the fuselage structure designed to carry compression and shear loads and to give the aerodynamic surface the desired contour. 15. Form rib is non-structural member of an aerofoil whose purpose is to preserve the shape of the aerofoil. 16. Formers are transverse members which are used to give the required shape to a fabric covered fuselage or body on which the stringers rest and to support the skin of a monocoque structure. 17. Frames are transverse structural members of the fuselage supporting the longerons. 18. Semi-monocoque is a type of aircraft structure in which the skin also shares a part of the load. 19. Rigging position is the position of the aircraft when the longitudinal and the lateral axes of the aircraft are in a horizontal plane. 20. Aspect ratio is the span of the aircraft divided by the chord. Aspect ratio=Span or Area Chord Chord squared or Span squared Area

21. The tendency of an aerofoil to rotate about the relative airflow at high angles of attack is called auto rotation. 22. Buffeting is an irregular movement of any part of an aeroplane produced and maintained directly by the turbulent airflow. In buffeting the time period, amplitude and

frequency of the movement irregular; unlike in oscillation where the time period, amplitude frequency of the movement are defined. 23. Cantilever is spar or beam fixed at one end only.

24. Datum line is a line fixed by the designer from which measurements are made when rigging or truing the aeroplane. 25. Fineness ratio in a streamline section is the ratio of the maximum depth to the length. 26. 27. strut. A rapid unstable oscillation due to alternating forces is called flutter. A strut inserted to provide temporary support to a structure is called jury

28. The principal longitudinal member of the aircraft or of a control surface is called spar. 29. A body so shaped so as to offer minimum resistance to the airflow is called a streamlined body. 30. Stressed skin construction. Any construction that relies either wholly or partly on a skin (with or without reinforcement) to carry the main loads and provide stiffness is referred to as a stressed skin construction. 31. A stiffener which also assists the skin to carry direct load in the direction of its length is called stringer. 32. A structural member intended to resist compression in the direction of its length is called strut. 33. Truing is the adjustment of a component to its correct shape.

34.

Tensile load is one that which tends to stretch a member.

35. Bending load is one that tends to bend a member. It is also called a flexural load. 36. Compressive load is one that tends to shorten the member.

37. Shear load is one that tends to cause the sliding of one part of the member over the other. 38. Stress is the force exerted between two contacting bodies or between parts of a body is called stress. It is measured as load per unit area. 39. Strain is the deformation caused by stress. It is recorded as the change in size over original size. 40. Elastic limit. When stress exceeds the elastic limit of a material, the material takes up a permanent `set', and on release of the load does not return completely to its original shape it is said to have exceeded its elastic limit. 41. Rigidity is the ratio of stress over strain.

42. Ultimate strength is the point beyond which if stress is applied the material will fail. 43. 44. Stiffness is the product of rigidity and the moment of inertia. The forces acting on an aircraft structure in flight are : (a)Aerodynamic forces that are proportional to 1/2 ro' V squared (b) Inertia forces that are proportional to I. (c) Elastic forces that are proportional to strain.

45. Aileron reversal. If the wing has insufficient stiffness, the trailing edge of the wing with the down going aileron tends to twist along its torsional axis, thereby resulting in raising the trailing edge relative to the leading edge. This causes the

lift of the wing to decrease instead of increasing. The result is that this wing will tend to go down instead of going up as was intended. The opposite would take place on the other wing. This phenomenon is called aileron reversal. The remedy is to : (a) Increase torsional rigidity of the wing and the options are : (i) Sweep back. (ii) Multiple spars. (iii) Short span wings. (iv) Delta wings. (v) Tapered wings. (b) Restrict the max spd of the ac so that it is below the aileron reversal speed of the aircraft. (c) Avoiding use of ailerons at higher speeds and designing the aircraft to use spoilers or vectored thrust for roll control instead of ailerons. 46. Divergence. In extreme cases lack of torsional rigidity in the wing causes divergence. The forces on the wing structure in this phenomenon are : (a) Aerodynamic Twisting Moment due to the increase in angle of attack. (b) Elastic Restoring Moment due to the twisting of the wing structure. 47. The causes of divergence are : (a) Insufficient torsional stiffness. (b) The elastic axis of the wing being behind the aerodynamic which causes the moment arm between the two to increase with increase in angle of attack. 48. The methods of preventing divergence are : (a) Increasing the torsional stiffness of the wing. (b) Designing the wing so that the elastic axis is ahead of the aerodynamic axis. (c) Restricting the aircraft's maximum speed to keep it below the divergence speed. The three forms of flutter on a wing are : (a) Torsional aileron flutter. (b) Torsional flexural flutter. (c) Flexural aileron flutter.

axis

49.

50. Flexural aileron flutter is the cyclic flexing of the wing along the torsional axis due to out of phase deflection of aileron under inertial forces with increasing amplitude till structural limits are reached in a few cycles and the wing breaks. Causes and remedies are the same as for torsional aileron flutter except that this is due to insufficient flexural stiffness which can be increased as follows : (a) Low aspect ratio wings. (b) Increased thickness of wing. (c) Honey comb wing construction. (d) Inter wing struts. 51. Torsional flexural flutter is the twisting & flexing of the wing about the torsional axis with increasing amplitude till structural limits are reached in a few cycles & the wing breaks off.

52. Torsional aileron flutter is the cyclic twisting of the wing about the torsional axis due to out of phase deflection of aileron under inertial forces with increasing amplitude till structural limits are reached in a few cycles and the wing breaks away. 53. 54. The power system gives instantaneous action. A hydraulic system given instantaneous action.

55. A hydraulic system has the following advantages over a pneumatic system (a) High power handling capability. (b) Since the fluid used is incompressible there is instantaneous results. (c) It is self lubricating for all moving parts. (d) Leaks can be traced out easily. 56. A pneumatic system has the following advantages over hydraulic systems : (a) Non-inflammable working fluid. (b) Open loop circulation and therefore lesser system weight.

(c) Lesser working pressures. (c) Minor external leaks are not dangerous or hazardous. (e) It has a high fluidity. 57. Power operated controls are operated purely by the movement of hydraulic jacks and the movement of the control column serves only to govern the positions of the valves in the system. With controls fully power-operated, the whole force needed to operate the control is provided by the power system. No direct mechanical linkage is provided between the pilot and the control surface and the controls are irreversible. 58. The fundamental requirements of a powered control are : (a) Sensitivity. The system must respond as rapidly as possible to input signals initiated by the pilot. To ensure this the serve valve must be sensitive to small input movements and the input & output linkage must be free from backlash & lost motion. (b) Rigidity. Flexibility in links and anchorages must be eliminated. (c) Stability. The system must remain stable and uninfluenced by any signal that is not originated by the pilot. To maintain stability it is essential to ensure that the linkage is free from backlash and the dampers function correctly, and that the hydraulic system is free from air. (d) Failure. Manual reversion or duplication of components must be provided to main control should a power unit fail. (e) Pilot's Feel. In power operated controls feel must be provided artificially. 59. Power assisted controls are designed so that part of the effort for moving the control is by the movement of the control column and part is given by the movement of hydraulic jacks. When the pilot moves the control it causes it causes a small movement of the control surface and at the same time movement of the control rod of the servo valve. The servo valve then allows fluid under pressure to operate the hydraulic jack which follows up to provide the greater part of the movement of the control surface. 60. Advantages of maxaret brake system over disc type brakes are : (a) Full brake pressure can be applied for emergency stops where the

runway length is limited or obstructed. The maxaret units will ensure that the optimum braking is applied, varying this effort as tyre/ground conditions vary. (b) It prevents wheel locking during a normal landing run which could occur due to ice, oil patches, or surface irregularities causing wheel bounce. (c) Tyre wear and damage are minimized because shielding and wheel locking are prevented. Thus tyre life and performance are greatly improved. 61. Tare wt is the weight of an aircraft equipped to the min scale.

62. Operational load is the weight of equipment necessarily carried by an aircraft for a particular role. 63. 64. Basic wt is the tare wt of an ac plus the specified op load. Disposable load is the wt of crew, consumable load and the payload.

65. Consumable load consists of fuel, oil, deicing fluid, drinking water and armament missiles. 66. Pay load is the weight of passengers and/or cargo.

67. Overload weight is the maximum weight at which the aircraft is permitted to fly subject to ultimate flying restrictions. 68. Max Take Off Wt is the max AUW due to design or operational limitations, at which the ac is permitted to take off. 69. Max ldg Wt is the max AUW due to design or operational limitations at which the ac is permitted to land.

70.

Effect of Overloading on the performance of an aircraft are : (a) The safety factor is reduced. (b) The stalling speed is higher and this in turn entails longer take off and landing runs for the aircraft. (c) Rate of climb and the aircraft ceiling reduces. (d) Range and endurance of the aircraft reduces. (e) Asymmetric flying performance is adversely affected.

71. The moment of a force is its turning effect about a point. It is the product of the force and the perpendicular distance between the line of action of the force and the point about which the moment is being taken. By convention clockwise moments are taken as positive and anti-clockwise moments are taken as negative. 72. Aquaplaning or hydroplaning occurs while landing on a water covered runway. As an unbraked pneumatic tyre rolls along a water covered runway it contacts and displaces stationary water which reacts on the runway surface and the tyre surface creating hydrodynamic pressure. This hydrodynamic pressure tends to increase as the square of the ground speed, since with an increase in speed the inertia of the water tends to retard its escape from the tyre/ground contact are and a wedge of water form between the two which begins to lift the tyre from the ground. When the hydrodynamic lift pressure equals the tyre pressure the tyre is lifted completely form the ground and this is total aquaplaning. During aquaplaning a free rolling wheel continues rolling but the spin up torque due to friction between the when and the ground is negligible and any application of brakes results in the spin down torque stopping the rotation completely. Aquaplaning speed (V)=8.6 P where V is in kts and p is in psi. or V = 60 P where V is in kmph and p in kg/cm2. 73. Factors affecting aquaplaning are : (a) Tyre pressure. (b) Speed. (c) Water depth. (d) Tyre tread design and tyre condition. Measures to prevent aquaplaning are :

74.

(a) Rough and well drained runway surface prevents it to a certain extent. (b) Tread design with treads running along the circumference of the tyre. (c) Anti-skid devices. (d) High pressure tyres. (e) Landing at slower speeds. (f) Ensuring a firm landing so as to allow the tyre to penetrate the water film and spin up initially. 75. Once aquaplaning sets in it is likely to continue till a much lower speed than the aquaplaning speed. 76. A worn out tyre is more prone to aquaplaning since in this case it occurs with considerably less water on the runway and at much lower speeds. AEB NOTES AIRFRAME Definations 77. Chord: a straight line joining the centre of curvature of leading edge and trailing edge. Attitude: inclination of aircraft axis with horizon. Mean Camber Line: curved line joining the centre of curvature of le and te and equidistant from both top and bottom surface. Camber: deviation of mean camber line from chord line, +ve if above cl,-ve if below cl. Angle Of Incidence: angle that wing chord line makes with lateral axis of aircraft. Angle Of Attack: angle between chord line and RAF. Dihedral Angle: upward angle of wing with lateral axis when a/c is in rigging position. Anhedral Angle: downward angle of the wing with lateral axis when a/c is in rigging position.

Angle Of Sweep: angle between leading edge and lateral axis of aircraft. Wash In: increase of angle of incidence (aoi) towards wing tip. Wash Out: decrease of aoi towards wing tip. Spar: principle span wise structural member designed to carry all stress distributed through whole area of the aircraft. Longerons: principle longitudinal member of the fuselage from front to rear supported at various points. Rib: part of the fuselage deigned to carry compression and shear loads and to give the required shape to surface. Form Rib: nonstructural member of the aerofoil, to preserve the shape. Formers: transverse members to give the required shape on which the stingers rest and designed to support the skin of monocoque construction. Frames: transverse structures of the fuselage supporting the longerons. Semi Monocoque: construction wherein the skin shares a part of the load. Rigging Position: that position of a/c in which the lateral and long axis of the a/c are in horizontal plane. Aspect Ratio: the ratio of span by chord, Span Square by area or area by chord square. Autorotation: tendency of aerofoil to rotate about RAF at high aoa. Buffeting: irregular motion of any part of the a/c caused and maintained entirely due to turbulence. Oscillation: regular movement in which time period amplitude and frequency are constant. Cantilever: spar or beam fixed at one end.

Datum Line: line fixed by the designer from which all measurements are taken. Fineness Ratio: the ratio of max depth to length. Flutter: rapid unstable oscillation due to alternating forces. Jury Strut: strut inserted to provide temporary support. Spar: principle long member of a/c control surface. Streamlined Body: a body so shaped so as to give least resistance to the airflow. Stressed Skin Construction: where skin takes the entire load and provides stiffness. Stinger: member that takes direct load along its length. Strut: structural member intended to resist compression along its length. LOADS Tensile load tends to stretch a member Compressive load tends to compress a member Bending loads tends to bend a member. Shear load causes sliding of one part over another Stress is force acting upon unit area Strain is deformation caused due to stress Rigidity is the ratio of stress to strain. Elastic limit is the limit of stress beyond which a body does not regain its original shape. Ultimate strength is the point beyond which a stressed material will fail. Stiffness is the product of rigidity and moment of inertia.

Forces On A/c Ad force prop to 1/2?v2 Inertia force prop to moment of inertia Elastic force prop to strain

Aileron Reversal: poor torsional rigidity of the wing causes this. The down going aileron experiences an upward force that tends to twist the wing along torsional axis. This reduces effective aoa and hence the lift. Opposite happens in the up going aileron. In extreme case the a/c rolls in opposite dir to the applied bank. Remedy: Improve torsional rigidity by: Sweepback, Multiple spars, Short span wing Delta wing Tapered wing Reduce the max speed of the a/c Avoid use of aileron at high speed by use of spoilers , tailerons or vectored thrust. Divergence and aileron reversals are static problems. Flutter is a dynamic aero elastic problem. Divergence: extreme lack of torsional rigidity causes divergence. It is assisted by the elastic axis being behind ad axis. A small increase in aoa on the wing increases the wing lift, due to poor torsional rigidity the wing twists about the elastic axis this further increases the aoa leading to further twist. In extreme case the wing will break

away. Prevention is by increasing torsional rigidity, by keeping elastic axis ahead of ad axis or by keeping speed below divergence speed. Flutter: Torsional aileron flutter is cyclic twisting of wing about torsional axis. Flexural aileron flutter Torsional flexural flutter is cyclic flexing of wing about torsional axis. is twist and flexing of wing about torsional axis.

TAF: insufficient torsional stiffness, cg of aileron behind hinge line, exessive play in aileron circuits, and speed above flutter speed are the causes of taf. Taf is eliminated by increasing stiffness by multi spar, short span wings and delta wings, by mass balancing to get the cg of aileron ahead of hinge line, by using powered irreversible controls, and by restricting the speed. TFF: caused by insufficient flexural stiffness, and cg of the wing lagging behind during flexing. TFF is eliminated by increasing the flexural stiffness by low aspect ratio wings , increased wing thickness,honeycomb construction ,and inter- wing struts, by keeping cg of the wing ahead of elastic axis and by keeping a/c speed below flutter speed.

Power is the product of pressure and rate of flow. Advantages of Hydraulic Systems: High pressure handling capability Instantaneous action Self lubricating Leaks easy to detect. Pneumatic systems: Open loop system so less weight, Non inflammable, Less working pressure High fluidity.

Fully powered controls: they are irreversible, sensitive, rigidity, artificial feel, stability increased. Power assisted controls part of the effort is by the pilot and the rest by fluid operated servo valves. Maxarett Units ensures more optimal braking depending on tyre condition and pressure, prevents wheel locking and reduces tyre wear and tear. Tyre life is greatly reduced. Tare Weight: wt of the a/c equipped to minimum scale. Operational Load: equipment necessarily carried for a specific role. Basic Wt: tare wt + operational load Disposable Load: wt of crew, consumable load, and payload. Consumable Load: fuel, oil, fluids and armament. Payload: wt of passengers and cargo Over Load Weight: max wt permitted to fly the a/c under ultimate flying restriction Max T/o Wt: max auw due to design or opn that the a/c is allowed to fly with. Max Landing Weight: max auw the a/c is permitted to land with. Moment: it is the product of the magnitude of the force and distance to the point of action and the centre of moment. Aquaplaning: when an unbraked tyre rolls over water covered surface the tyre displaces water. This creates a reaction force called hydrodynamic force. Hyd dyn force is prop to square of speed. Due to inertia of water with increase in speed the escape is reduced, a wedge is formed which lifts the tyre from the ground. This lifting is complete when hyd dyn force equals the tyre pressure. This reduces spin up torque greatly. Application of brake now causes wheel to lock leading to aquaplaning. V=60v tyre pressure for speed in kmph and tyre pr in kg/cm2 v=8.6v tyre pressure for speed in knots and tyre pressure in psi Factors affecting: tyre pressure, speed, depth of water, tyre condition and tread design. Prevention: rough and well drained runway, tread design with tread along the circumference of the tyre, anti skid devices, high tyre pressure, low landing speed and firm landing to ensure initial spin up. A worn out tyre is much prone to aquaplaning it happens with much less water and

much less speed. Locked wheel means 100% slip. Best braking is achieved just short of lock. Best coeff of friction is obtained at values of 0.006 to0.008. Greater the thickness of water surface the lesser the value of coeff of friction. Max braking efficiency is obtained at 16% slip. IAS tolerance is 15%. G tolerance is 1.5 Aileron drag is minimized by fraise ailerons. Hydroplaning occurs when water is more than 0.1 inch thick. In oleo pneumatic system air absorbs the shock during landing. Ribs are designed to carry compression and shear loads. Stick gearing is the ratio of stick movement to control deflection. Parachute opening shock is more at altitude. Stealth is used to reduce radar signature. Equal aileron movement on both sides leads to adverse aileron drag. Over balance occurs when cp moves ahead of hinge line. With increase in wing span the aileron power reduces. With fuel other than recommended the fuel gauge can over read by as much as 18%. At higher speeds there is download on tail plane. Adverse aileron yaw is more pronounced at low speeds. Control overbalance does not occur in power operated controls. Aerodynamic balance reduces the force required to move the control surface. Shimmy: oscilation of wheel is called shimmy. It can be reduced by mechanical wheel locking device, hydraulic or spring dampers, and self centering device. Brakes are of two types: drum brakes and disc brakes. Automatic cocking device ensures wheel will not be locked during touchdown and also automatically apply brakes during wheel retraction. Greatest stress to tyre occurs during taxiing, particularly if prolonged and if brakes are extensively used. Types of Feels: Artificial feel: it opposes the direction of motion of control stick. It is proportional to stick movement and not to IAS.

Proportional feel: used in power assisted controls. The loading is proportional to the air load on the control surface. Hydraulic accumulator acts as a go between when the controls have failed. They ensure some movement before the controls revert to manual. Hydraulic systems are of two types constant delivery and constant pressure. Constant pressure is also called live line system. Bulk Head: Any transverse partition in the fuselage which completely separates two parts from one another. Fairings: addition to any structure used to reduce drag. Main types of cold air units are turbo compressor type, brake turbine type, turbo fan type. Oil system can also be classified as wet sump and dry sump. Oil systems are of two types circulatory and total loss. Any system is of two types open looped and closed loop