1

U.S. Department
Advisory
of Transportation
Federal Aviation
Administration
Circular
DATE: 5/24/95

AC NO: 90-89A

AMATEUR-BUILT AIRCRAFT AND ULTRALIGHT

FLIGHT TESTING HANDBOOK

Initiated by: AFS-340

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U.S. Department
Advisory
of Transportation
Federal Aviation
Administration
Circular
Subject: AMATEUR-BUILT AIRCRAFT Date: 5/24/95 AC No: 90-89A
& ULTRALIGHT FLIGHT Initiated by: AFS-340 Change:
TESTING HANDBOOK

1. PURPOSE. This advisory circular (AC) sets 5. DEFINITIONS. The following terms are
forth suggestions and safety related recommenda- defined for use in this AC.
tions to assist amateur and ultralight builders in
developing individualized aircraft flight test plans. a. Amateur-built aircraft means an aircraft
issued an Experimental Airworthiness Certificate
2. CANCELLATION. AC 90-89, Amateur- under the provisions of Federal Aviation Regulations
Built Aircraft Flight Testing Handbook, dated (FAR) § 21.191 (g).
September 18, 1989, is cancelled.
b. The term ultralight means a vehicle that
3. RELATED READING MATERIAL. A list meets the requirements of FAR § 103.1.
of selected reading material on amateur-built/
ultralight flight testing and first flight experience c. The term ultralight in this AC also means
may be found in appendix 3. a two-place training vehicle of 496 pounds or less,
operating under an EAA or USUA exemption to
4. BACKGROUND. FAR Part 103.
a. The Federal Aviation Administration d. For the purpose of this AC, both an ama-
(FAA), the Experimental Aircraft Association teur-built aircraft and a ultralight vehicle will be
(EAA), and the United States Ultralight Association referred to as an ‘‘aircraft.’’
(USUA) are concerned and committed to improving
the safety record of amateur-built and ultralight air- 6. DISCUSSION.
craft. a. This AC’s purpose is the following:
b. The FAA Administrator, T. Allen McArtor,
(1) To make amateur-built/ultralight air-
and EAA President, Paul H. Poberezny, signed a
craft pilots aware that test flying an aircraft is a criti-
Memorandum of Agreement on August 1, 1988,
cal undertaking, which should be approached with
which addressed the need for educational and safety
thorough planning, skill, and common sense.
programs to assist amateur-builders in test flying
their aircraft. In accordance with that agreement, this (2) To provide recommendations and
AC provides guidelines for flight testing amateur- suggestions that can be combined with other sources
built aircraft. on test flying (e.g., the aircraft plan/kit manufactur-
c. As part of the FAA’s continuing efforts to er’s flight testing instructions, other flight testing
improve the safety record of all types of general avia- data). This will assist the amateur/ultralight owner
tion aircraft, this AC has been revised to include to develop a detailed flight test plan, tailored for their
flight testing recommendations for canard-type and aircraft and resources.
ultralight aircraft.
AC 90-89A 5/24/95

b. The flight test plan is the heart of all profes- vehicles of less than 496 pounds empty weight
sional flight testing. The plan should account for operating under an exemption to FAR Part 103.
every hour spent in the flight test phase and should
b. Because of the large number of existing
be adhered to with the same respect for the unknown
amateur-built/ultralight aircraft designs and new
that all successful test pilots share. The time allotted
designs being introduced each year, the FAA encour-
for each phase of a personalized flight test plan may
ages public participation in updating this document.
vary, and each phase may have more events or
Send comments, suggestions, or information about
checks than suggested in this AC. The goals, how-
this AC to the following address:
ever, should be the same.
U.S. Department of Transportation
c. The two goals for an amateur builder/ Federal Aviation Administration
ultralight owner should be as follows:
Flight Standards Service (AFS-340)
(1) At the end of the aircraft’s flight test 800 Independence Ave, SW.
phase, the aircraft will have been adequately tested Washington, DC 20591
and found airworthy and safe to operate within its c. Suggestions also may be sent to AFS-340
established operational envelope. by FAX (202) 267-5115.
(2) Incorporation of the flight test oper- d. After a review, appropriate comments,
ational and performance data into the aircraft’s flight suggestions, and information may be included in the
manual so the pilot can reference the data prior to next revision of this AC.
each flight.
8. TO OBTAIN COPIES OF THIS AC. Order
7. REQUEST FOR INFORMATION. AC 90-89A from:
a. This AC is designed as a reference docu- U.S. Department of Transportation
ment to assist in preparing a flight test plan for an Property Use and Storage
amateur-built or ultralight aircraft. Section, M-45.3
(1) The suggestions and recommendations Washington, DC 20590.
in chapters 1 through 6 are for conventionally-
designed aircraft with an air-cooled, 4-cycle, recip-
rocating engine that develops less than 200 horse-
power with a fixed pitch propeller.
(2) Chapter 7 deals with flight testing rec-
ommendations for canard aircraft.
(3) Chapters 8 through 10 address flight
testing considerations for ultralight vehicles under
FAR Part 103 and two-seat ultralight training William J. White
Deputy Director, Flight Standards Service

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5/24/95 AC 90-89A

THIS PAGE IS INTENTIONALLY LEFT BLANK, SO THAT THE TOC CAN BE ON PAGE iii
PER PLACEMENT IN DOCUMENT.

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THIS PAGE IS INTENTIONALLY LEFT BLANK, SO THAT THE TOC CAN BE ON PAGE iii
PER PLACEMENT IN DOCUMENT.

CONTENTS
Page
CHAPTER 1. PREPARATION
Section 1. Homework ............................................................................................................................... 1
Section 2. Airport Selection ..................................................................................................................... 2
Figure 1 - Runway Length Chart ................................................................................................. 3
Section 3. Emergency Plans and Equipment ........................................................................................... 4
Section 4. Test Pilot ................................................................................................................................. 6
Section 5. Medical Facts For Pilots ......................................................................................................... 7
Section 6. Transporting The Aircraft To the Airport .............................................................................. 9
Section 7. Assembly and Airworthiness Inspection ................................................................................ 10
Section 8. Weight and Balance ................................................................................................................ 14
Figure 2 - Empty Weight CG ....................................................................................................... 15
Figure 3 - Take Off CG ................................................................................................................ 16
Figure 4 - Additional Equipment Added ...................................................................................... 17
Section 9. Paperwork ................................................................................................................................ 18
Section 10. Powerplant Tests ..................................................................................................................... 19
Section 11. Additional Engine Tests ......................................................................................................... 22
Section 12. Propeller Inspection ................................................................................................................ 25
Figure 5 - Propeller Tracking ....................................................................................................... 26
CHAPTER 2. TAXI TESTS
Section 1. Low Speed Taxi Tests ............................................................................................................ 29
Section 2. High Speed Taxi Tests ........................................................................................................... 30
CHAPTER 3. THE FIRST FLIGHT
Section 1. General .................................................................................................................................... 33
Section 2. The Role of the Chase Plane .................................................................................................. 34
Section 3. Emergency Procedures ............................................................................................................ 35
Section 4. First Flight ............................................................................................................................... 36
Section 5. First Flight Procedures ............................................................................................................ 37
CHAPTER 4. THE FIRST 10 HOURS
Section 1. The Second Flight ................................................................................................................... 41
Section 2. The Third Flight ...................................................................................................................... 41
Section 3. Hours 4 through 10 ................................................................................................................. 41
CHAPTER 5. EXPANDING THE ENVELOPE
Section 1. General .................................................................................................................................... 45
Section 2. Hours 11 through 20 ............................................................................................................... 45

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Figure 6 - Climb Airspeed and Altitude Graph ........................................................................... 47

Figure 7 - Best Rate of Climb Speed Graph ............................................................................... 48
Section 3. Hours 21 through 35: Stability and Control Checks ............................................................. 49
Figure 8 - Static Stability .............................................................................................................. 49
Figure 9 - Time ............................................................................................................................. 50
Section 4. A Word or Two About Flutter ............................................................................................... 52

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AC 90-89A 5/24/95

CONTENTS—Continued
Page

Section 5. Spins ........................................................................................................................................ 54

Section 6. Accelerated Stalls .................................................................................................................... 56
CHAPTER 6. PUTTING IT ALL TOGETHER: 36 HOURS TO ———?
Section 1. Maximum Gross Weight Tests ............................................................................................... 57
Section 2. Service Ceiling Tests .............................................................................................................. 58
Section 3. Navigation, Fuel Consumption, and Night Flying ................................................................. 59
CHAPTER 7. THOUGHTS ON TESTING CANARD TYPE AMATEUR-BUILT AIRCRAFT
Section 1. Canards .................................................................................................................................... 63
CHAPTER 8. ULTRALIGHT AIRFRAME INSPECTION
Section 1. Differences .............................................................................................................................. 67
Section 2. The Test Pilot .......................................................................................................................... 68
Section 3. Pre-flight Airframe Inspection ................................................................................................ 68
CHAPTER 9. ULTRALIGHT ENGINE/FUEL SYSTEM INSPECTION
Section 1. Engine Inspection .................................................................................................................... 71
Section 2. Fuel Systems ........................................................................................................................... 72
CHAPTER 10. ULTRALIGHT TEST FLYING RECOMMENDATIONS
Section 1. Three Recommendations ......................................................................................................... 75
Section 2. Airport Selection ..................................................................................................................... 75
Section 3. Taxiing ..................................................................................................................................... 76
Section 4. First Flight Differences ........................................................................................................... 76
Section 5. Emergency Procedures ............................................................................................................ 77
Appendix 1. Sample Checklist for a Condition Inspection .................................................................
(7 pages) ........................................................................................................................................................ 1
Appendix 2. Addresses for Accident/Incident Information .................................................................
(1 page) .......................................................................................................................................................... 1
Appendix 3. Additional References on Flight Testing .........................................................................
(4 pages) ........................................................................................................................................................ 1

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5/24/95 AC 90-89A

CHAPTER 1. PREPARATION
‘‘The Laws of Aerodynamics are unforgiving and the ground is hard.’’ Michael Collins (1987)

SECTION 1. HOMEWORK
‘‘If you have no plan--you have no goal.’’ Harold Little, Aircraft Manufacturer (1994)

1. OBJECTIVE. A planned approach to flight flight test plan be developed and completed
testing. BEFORE the aircraft’s first flight.

a. The most important task for an amateur- b. The objective of a FLIGHT TEST PLAN
builder is to develop a comprehensive FLIGHT is to determine the aircraft’s controllability through-
TEST PLAN. This PLAN should be individually tai- out all the maneuvers and to detect any hazardous
lored to define the aircraft’s specific level of operating characteristics or design features. This data
performance. It is therefore important that the entire should be used in developing a FLIGHT MANUAL
that specifies the aircraft’s performance and defines
its operating envelope.

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AC 90-89A 5/24/95

SECTION 2. AIRPORT SELECTION

‘‘An airport should be chosen with the same care and consideration as getting a second doctor’s opinion.’’
Fred Wimberly, EAA Flight Test Advisor (1994)

1. OBJECTIVE. To select an airport to test fly b. To determine an appropriate runway, use

the aircraft. the chart in figure 1 (sea-level elevation), or the fol-
lowing rule-of-thumb:
a. The airport should have one runway
aligned into the prevailing wind with no obstructions c. The ideal runway at sea-level elevation
on the approach or departure end. Hard surface run- should be at least 4,000 feet long and 100 feet wide.
ways should be in good repair and well maintained For each 1,000 feet increase in field elevation, add
to avoid foreign object damage (FOD) to the propel- 500 feet to the runway length. If testing a high
ler and landing gear. Grass fields should be level performance aircraft, the airport’s runway at sea-
with good drainage. Avoid airports in densely popu- level should be more than 6,000 feet long and 150
lated or developed areas and those with high rates feet wide to allow a wider margin of safety. Other
of air traffic. The runway should have the proper considerations, such as power to weight ratio, wing
markings with a windsock or other wind direction design, and density altitude, also should be factored
indicator nearby. into the equation for picking the best runway for
the initial flight testing.

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5/24/95 AC 90-89A

Take-off Distance in Feet

FIGURE 1. Runway Length Chart

d. Identify emergency landing fields located f. The FAA recommends airport selection cri-
within gliding distance from anywhere in the airport teria include the availability of hangar space and
pattern altitude. Since engine failures are second only ramp areas. These facilities will provide protection
to pilot error as the major cause of amateur-built from inclement weather and vandalism while the air-
aircraft accidents, preparations for this type of emer- craft is being tested, maintained, and inspected.
gency should be a mandatory part of the FLIGHT
TEST PLAN. g. The airport should have a telephone and
fire fighting equipment, the latter being in compli-
e. It is advisable to perform flight tests from ance with relevant municipal codes (e.g., fire codes).
an airport with an active unicom or tower, even if
the aircraft does not have an electrical system or h. Explain the Flight Test Program and
is not equipped with a radio. Even at an uncontrolled EMERGENCY PLANS to the airport manager or
field, a communications base should be improvised. owner. They may be able to assist the amateur-
For both situations, a hand held radio with aviation builder in obtaining temporary hangar space, provid-
frequencies and a headset with a mike and a push- ing ground/air communications, and supplying emer-
to-talk switch on the stick/yoke is recommended. gency equipment for use during the flight test.
Good radio communications improves the overall
level of safety and reduces cockpit workload.

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AC 90-89A 5/24/95

SECTION 3. EMERGENCY PLANS AND EQUIPMENT

‘‘The object of the game, gentlemen, is not to cheat death: the object is not to let him play.’’ Patrick
Poteen, Sgt. U.S. Army

1. OBJECTIVE. To develop a FLIGHT TEST (2) The pilot’s shoulder harness/seat belt
PLAN which contain two sets of emergency plans; release procedure
one for IN-FLIGHT emergencies and another for
(3) The location and operation of the fuel
GROUND emergencies.
shut-off valve
a. The IN-FLIGHT emergency plan should
(4) The master switch and magneto/igni-
address the following:
tion switch location and OFF position
(1) Complete engine failure or partial fail-
(5) Engine cowling removal procedures to
ure, especially after take off
gain access to the battery location or for fire fighting
(2) Flight control problems and severe out-
(6) The battery location and disconnect
of-rig conditions
procedures
(3) Fire in the engine compartment or
(7) Fire extinguisher application and use
cockpit
(8) How to secure the ballistic parachute
b. The GROUND EMERGENCY plan should
system
be developed to train the ground crew and/or the
airport fire department crash crew on the following: c. Ground Crew. Every test of an amateur-
built aircraft should be supported by a minimum
(1) The airplane canopy or cabin door
ground crew of two experienced individuals. The
latching mechanism
ground crew’s function is two-fold:

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5/24/95 AC 90-89A

(1) To ensure that the aircraft is in air- protruding components/sharp edges, NOMEX cloth-
worthy condition for safe operation ing, smoke goggles, and a memorized emergency
plan ensure safety during flight testing.
(2) To provide assistance to the test pilot
in an emergency i. Parachute. The decision to wear a parachute
depends on the type of aircraft being tested. Some
d. The Airport.
aircraft have forward hinged canopies that are not
(1) If the airport does not have a fire rescue equipped with quick release pins or have pusher
unit, it is suggested the ground crew have a four propellers which increase the chance of injury to the
wheel drive vehicle equipped with a portable radio, pilot while exiting the aircraft. Other aircraft designs
first aid kit, metal-cutting tools, and a fire extin- may pose no exit problems. If the decision is made
guisher. A minimum of one person should be trained to wear a parachute, check that it has been recently
in first-aid. packed (within 120 days) by a qualified parachute
rigger. Ensure that the chute has not been exposed
(2) If the airport provides a fire rescue unit,
to rain/moisture and when worn, does not interfere
the test pilot should ensure the rescue unit and the
with cockpit management. The test pilot should be
ground crew are trained and competent in performing
thoroughly trained on how to exit the aircraft and
ground emergency functions as identified in the
deploy the parachute.
FLIGHT TEST PLAN.
j. Ballistic Chutes. Ballistic chutes are the lat-
(3) Suggestion. For a small donation,
est development in dealing with in-flight emer-
some local volunteer fire and rescue companies will
gencies. A ballistic chute is attached to the aircraft
provide the amateur-builder with a standby crew dur-
and when activated, lowers the whole aircraft and
ing the initial critical portions of the flight test phase.
the pilot to the ground at the rate of descent of
e. Hospital Location. The ground crew should approximately 20 feet per second.
know the location and telephone numbers of the hos-
pitals and fire rescue squads in the vicinity of the (1) Deployment Scenarios:
airport AND the flight test area. If the test pilot is (i) structural failure
allergic to specific medications, or has a rare blood
type, a medical alert bracelet or card should be car- (ii) mid-air collision
ried or worn to alert medical personnel of the condi- (iii) stall/spin
tion.
(iv) loss of control/icing
f. Fire Extinguisher. Fire extinguisher’s
should be available to the ground crew, and a fire (v) engine failure over bad terrain
extinguisher should be securely mounted in the cock- (vi) pilot incapacitation
pit within easy reach of the test pilot. A fire axe,
or other tool capable of cutting through the canopy, (2) Installation Considerations: The
also should be positioned in the cockpit. builder should consider the following when installing
a ballistic chute:
g. Fire Protection. There is always danger of
a flash fire during test flights. To prevent burns, the (i) Matching the chute with the air-
pilot should wear an aviation/motorcycle helmet, craft’s size, weight, and Vne speed (check with the
NOMEX coveralls/gloves and smoke goggles. If chute manufacturer)
NOMEX clothing is not available, cotton or wool (ii) How the chute will be positioned
clothing will offer some protection from heat and and mounted
flames. Pilots should never wear nylon or poly-
ester clothing because synthetic materials melt (iii) The chute’s effect on the air-
when exposed to heat and will stick to the skin. craft’s weight and balance before deployment and
aircraft’s touchdown attitude after deployment
h. Pilot Protection. A modern aviation/motor-
cycle helmet, a properly installed shoulder harness, (iv) Compatibility of the opening
a well designed seat, a clean cockpit design free of loads and the aircraft’s structural design limits

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AC 90-89A 5/24/95

(v) The routing of the bridle and (ix) The deployment time, from
activation to full chute opening
harness
(vi) The routing of the activating (3) If a ballistic chute is installed, the
housing builder should add the appropriate ballistic chute
inspection items to the aircraft’s pre-flight inspec-
(vii) The placement of the activating tion check list. The builder also should add the
handle in the cockpit ballistic chute manufacturer’s repack/refitting sched-
(viii) Incorporation of chute deploy- ule and maintenance inspections to the flight manual
ment procedures in the in-flight emergency plan and and the conditional annual inspection check list.
emergency check list

SECTION 4. TEST PILOT

‘‘We are looking for a few good Men and Women!’’ Marine Corps advertisement (1991)

1. OBJECTIVE. To select a qualified individual an unproven aircraft, someone who is qualified must
to be the test pilot. be found.
2. GENERAL. The test pilot should be com- (1) 100 hours solo time before flight test-
petent in an aircraft of similar configuration, size, ing a kit plane or an aircraft built from a time-proven
weight, and performance as the aircraft to be tested. set of plans
If the aircraft’s builder is the test pilot, the costs (2) 200 hours solo time before flight test-
involved in maintaining pilot competence should be ing for a ‘‘one of a kind’’ or a high performance
budgeted with the same level of commitment and aircraft
priority that is assigned to plans and materials to
complete the project. (3) A minimum of 50 recent takeoffs and
landings in a conventional (tail wheel aircraft) if the
3. TEST PILOT REQUIREMENTS. aircraft to be tested is a tail dragger
a. A test pilot should meet the following mini- c. The test pilot should:
mum qualifications:
(1) Be familiar with the airport and the
(1) Physically fit: Test flying an aircraft is emergency fields in the area
a stressful and strenuous task
(2) Talk with and, if possible, fly with a
(2) No alcohol or drugs in the last 24 hours pilot in the same kind of aircraft to be tested
(3) Rated, current, and competent in the (3) Take additional instruction in similar
same category and class as the aircraft being tested type certificated aircraft. For example, if the aircraft
(4) Current medical and biennial or flight to be tested is a tail dragger, a Bellanca Citabria
review as appropriate, or a current USUA certifi- or Super Cub is appropriate for training. For testing
cation and flight review an aircraft with a short wing span, the Grumman
American Yankee or Globe Swift is suitable for
b. Suggested Test Pilot Flight Time Require- training.
ments. The following suggested number of flight
hours are only an indication of pilot skill, not an (4) Be considered competent when they
indicator of pilot competence. Each test pilot must have demonstrated a high level of skill in all planned
assess if their level of competence is adequate or flight test maneuvers in an aircraft with performance
if additional flight training is necessary. If an individ- characteristics similar to the test aircraft
ual determines they are not qualified to flight test

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5/24/95 AC 90-89A

(5) Study the ground and in-flight emer- (9) Review the FAA/National Transpor-
gency procedures developed for the aircraft and prac- tation Safety Board (NTSB)/EAA accident reports
tice them in aircraft with similar flight characteristics for the same make and model aircraft to be aware
of problems the aircraft has experienced during pre-
(6) Have logged a minimum of 1 hour of vious operations (see appendix 2 for the address).
training in recovery from unusual attitudes within
45 days of the first test flight (10) Memorize the cockpit flight controls,
switches, valves, and instruments. A thorough
(7) If appropriate, have logged a minimum knowledge of the cockpit will result in controlled
of 10 tail wheel take-off and landings within the past and coordinated mental and physical reactions during
30 days emergencies.
(8) Study the performance characteristics NOTE: The EAA has developed a Flight
of the aircraft to be tested. Refer to the designer’s Advisor Program which offers builders/
or kit manufacturer’s instructions, articles written by pilots assistance in performing a self evalua-
builders of the same make and model aircraft, and tion of the flight test program and/or selec-
study actual or video tape demonstrations of the air- tion of the test pilot. To obtain additional
craft. information, contact a local EAA Chapter
or EAA Headquarters, (414) 426-4800.

SECTION 5. MEDICAL FACTS FOR PILOTS

‘‘If the pilot is unairworthy, so is the airplane!’’ Bill Chana, Aeronautical Engineer

1. OBJECTIVE. To identify some of the well d. Carbon Monoxide (CO). CO is a colorless,

known medical causes for aircraft accidents and to odorless, tasteless gas that is always present in
stress the importance of a personal pre-flight check- engine exhaust fumes. Carbon monoxide prevents
list in addition to an aircraft pre-flight checklist. oxygen absorption by the blood, and exposure to the
gas creates vision problems, headaches, disorienta-
a. Alcohol. FAR Part 91, ‘‘General Operating tion, and blurred thinking (see chapter 1, section 7,
and Flight Rules,’’ § 91.17 requires that 8 hours paragraph 3 (g) for testing the aircraft for CO
must elapse from the last drink to the first flight. contamination).
Test flying an aircraft, however, places additional
mental and physical demands on the pilot. The FAA e. Drugs. Similar to alcohol, drugs will reduce
strongly recommends a minimum of 24 hours or impair judgement and affect reflexes and hand/
between the last drink and the test flight. This is eye coordination. It is a given that the use/abuse of
because small amounts of alcohol in the blood stream illegal drugs is dangerous and against the law.
can affect judgement, reaction time, and decrease a Prescription drugs and over-the-counter remedies,
pilot’s tolerance to hypoxia. however, also may be dangerous when combined
with flying. The FAA recommends all pilots who
b. Anesthetics. Local and dental anesthetic can must take medication consult with an Aviation Medi-
affect a pilots performance in many adverse ways. cal Examiner (AME) to understand the medication’s
It is recommended that a minimum of 48 hours affects on their ability to think and react while in
elapse from the time of anesthesia to the time the the cockpit.
pilot climbs into the cockpit.
c. Blood Donations. Do not fly for 3 weeks f. Ear and Sinus Pain.
after donating blood. The body needs approximately
three weeks for a complete physiological recovery. (1) Ear and sinus pain is usually caused
Although the physical affects may not be noticeable by the eardrum or sinuses failing to equalize the air
at sea level, they will become apparent when flying pressure during a descent. The blocked ears and
at higher altitudes. sinuses can be caused by a head cold. The pain can
be considerable and is most noticeable during

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AC 90-89A 5/24/95

descents. For ear blockages try yawning, swallowing, cause of fatigue, but family and business problems
or chewing gum which may give some relief. The can create mental fatigue which can have the same
Valsalva procedure can be effective: pinch the nose, effects on the pilot as lack of sleep.
close the mouth, and try to force air through the
nostrils. h. Flicker Vertigo. Light, when flashing at a
frequency between 4 to 29 cycles per second, can
(2) If ear blockage occurs during flight, try
cause a dangerous physiological condition in some
climbing back to a higher altitude (lower air pres-
people called flicker vertigo. These conditions range
sure) until the pain lessens. Then begin a gradual
from nausea and dizziness to unconsciousness, or
rate of descent, allowing the ears and sinuses time
even reactions similar to an epileptic fit. When head-
to adapt to the increasing pressure.
ing into the sun, a propeller cutting the light may
(3) After landing, nasal sprays will give produce this flashing effect. Avoid flicker vertigo,
some sinus pain relief. To relieve ear pain, try wet- especially when the engine is throttled back for land-
ting paper towels with hot water, put the towels in ing. To alleviate this when the propeller is causing
the bottom of a plastic or dixie cup and then hold the problem, frequently change engine revolutions
the cups over the ears. The warmth will help ease per minute (rpm). When flying at night and the rotat-
the inflamed tissues and reduce the pain. If pain ing beacon is creating flicker vertigo, turn it off.
continues, see a doctor.
i. Underwater Diving. Never fly immediately
NOTE: The best way to avoid this problem after SCUBA diving. Always allow 24 hours to
is not to fly with a head cold, upper res- elapse before flying as a pilot or a passenger in order
piratory infection, or nasal allergic condi- to give the body sufficient time to rid itself of exces-
tion. Be advised that some nasal and oral sive nitrogen absorbed during diving.
decongestants could be ineffective at altitude
and have side effects such as drowsiness that j. Stress. Stress from the pressures of a job
can significantly impair pilot performance. and everyday living can impair a pilot’s perform-
Again, consult with an Aviation Medical ance, often in subtle ways. A test pilot may further
Examiner to understand the affects of medi- increase the stress level by setting unreasonable test
cation before flying.
flying schedules in order to meet an arbitrary ‘‘be
g. Fatigue. Fly only when healthy, fit, and done by date.’’ Stress also may impair judgement,
alert. Mental and physical fatigue will generally slow inducing the pilot to take unwarranted risks, such
down a pilot’s reaction time, affect decision making, as flying into deteriorating weather conditions or fly-
and attention span. Lack of sleep is the most common ing when fatigued to meet a self imposed deadline.

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5/24/95 AC 90-89A

SECTION 6. TRANSPORTING THE AIRCRAFT TO THE AIRPORT

‘‘Best laid plans of mice and men are often stuck in traffic.’’ Ben Owen, EAA Executive Director (1994)

1. OBJECTIVE. To reduce damaging the air- e. Use heavy moving pads used for household
craft in transit. The following suggestions may pre- moves to protect wings and fuselage. Most rent-a-
vent this from happening: truck firms offer them for rental.
a. Use a truck or flat bed truck/trailer large f. During the planning stage, obtain
enough to accommodate the aircraft and the addi- applicable permits and follow the local ordinances
tional support equipment. for transporting an oversized load. Ask the local
b. If the aircraft wings are removable, build police if they can provide an escort to the airport.
padded jigs, cradles, or fixtures to hold and support g. Brief the moving crew thoroughly before
them during the trip to the airport. loading and unloading the aircraft.
c. Secure the fixtures to the truck/trailer, then h. Ensure the designated driver has recent
secure the wings to the fixture. experience driving a truck/trailer and is familiar with
d. Use two or more ropes at each tie down the roads to the airport.
point.

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AC 90-89A 5/24/95

SECTION 7. ASSEMBLY AND AIRWORTHINESS INSPECTION

‘‘Complacency is one of the major causes of accidents, no matter how well things are going, something
can go wrong’’ Art Scholl

1. OBJECTIVE. To determine the airworthiness plished even if the aircraft has just been issued a
of the aircraft and its systems. special airworthiness certificate by the FAA. Even
if a builder was 99 percent perfect and performed
2. GENERAL. 10,000 tasks building the aircraft, there would still
a. If the aircraft must be reassembled after be a hundred items that would need to be found and
being moved to the airport -- take time to do so corrected before the first flight.
carefully. This is a critical event because mistakes 3. FITNESS INSPECTION - AIRFRAME.
can easily be made due to the builder’s preoccupation The following additional safety check list items may
with the impending first flight of the aircraft. One
not be applicable to all amateur-built make and
of the most common and deadly mistakes is to
model aircraft, but are presented for consideration
reverse the rigging on the ailerons. To prevent errors
and review:
in reassembling the aircraft, follow the designer’s
or kit manufacturer’s instructions, or use a written a. Control stick/wheel: The control stick/
check list specifically designed as part of the wheel should have a free and smooth operation
FLIGHT TEST PLAN. At the completion of each throughout its full range of travel. There should be
major operation, have another expert check the work. no binding or contact with the sides of the fuselage,
seat, or instrument panel. There should be no free-
b. When the aircraft is reassembled, perform
play (slack) in the controls, nor should the controls
a pre-flight ‘‘fitness inspection.’’ This inspection
be tight as to have stick-slip movement.
should be similar in scope and detail to an annual
inspection. The fitness inspection should be accom-

10
5/24/95 AC 90-89A

b. Rudder pedals: Move the rudder pedals tension. This will cause high wear rate on the pulleys
through the full range of travel. The pedal movement and prevent good control feel, especially at low air-
should be smooth with no binding. The test pilot speeds.
should ensure that their shoes will not catch on
f. Instrument panel: All the instruments
exposed metal lines, fixtures, or electrical wire har-
should be properly secured in the panel and have
ness.
preliminary markings on them. Airspeed indicator
c. Brakes: Hand and/or toe brake pressure and engine tachometer should be marked with the
should be firm with no tendency to bleed down or EXPECTED performance range markings. Oil
lock up. Spongy brakes that must be ‘‘pumped up,’’ temperature and oil pressure must have the engine
or show a drop in the level of brake fluid in the manufacturer’s recommended operating range
reservoir after a few brake applications, indicate a marked. If the markings are on the instrument glass
brake fluid or air leak in the system. face, paint a white slippage mark on both the glass
and on the instrument case to alert the pilot in case
d. Main landing gear: Ensure that the gear
the glass/range marks have moved. Attach a tem-
attach points, shimmy dampener, bungees, wheels,
porary placard to the instrument panel with the
brakes, and wheel fairings are airworthy. If
expected stall, climb, and glide speeds. It is a handy
applicable, check that the tail wheel pivot point is
reference in times of emergency.
centered and vertical in relation to the longitudinal
axis of the aircraft. It is critical that the main landing g. Behind the instrument panel: Very few
gear alignment toe in/toe out is zero or matches the amateur-built aircraft of the same make and model
specifications for fuselage/landing gear alignment have the same instrument panel design. Each ama-
called out in the plans. Even one landing gear wheel teur-builder should inspect this area to ensure that
out of alignment can cause a ground loop. all line connections are tight, that nothing interferes
with control travel, and there are no loose wires or
e. Control surfaces: Perform rigging checks to
fuel, oil, or hydraulic leaks.
ensure that control input for ailerons, rudder, ele-
vators, and trim tabs results in the correct amount h. Carbon Monoxide: Carbon Monoxide leaks
of travel and direction of the control movement and also can be performed. Wait until night or put the
that contact with the stops is made. Also ensure that aircraft in a dark hangar. Climb into the cockpit and
the flaps, if installed, have the proper travel, operate have a friend shine a bright flood light close to the
as a single unit, and cannot be extended beyond the fire-wall. If light leaks into the cockpit, carbon mon-
maximum extended position. It is important to ensure oxide can seep in. Mark it and seal it.
that the control cable tension is correct by checking
i. Engine and propeller controls: All controls
it with a calibrated tensiometer and confirming that
should be visually inspected, positive in operation,
all the attachment hardware is secured and safety-
and securely mounted. The friction lock on both con-
wired.
trols should be checked for operation. Each control
(1) If the cable tension is less than the should have full movement with at least a 1⁄4 inch
specifications require, the ‘‘in flight’’ air loads dur- of ‘‘cushion’’ at the full travel position. The control
ing flight will prevent full travel of the control, even cables should be firmly attached to the fuselage along
if the control has the right amount of deflection and each 24 inches of their runs to prevent whipping
hits all the stops in the cockpit/wing/tail when tested of the cable and loss of cable movement at the other
on the ground. With low cable tension, the desired end. Control cables with ball sockets should have
control movement input will be absorbed by the slack large area washers on either end of the bolt connec-
in the cables. tion. This will ensure the control will remain con-
nected, even if the ball socket fails and drops out.
(2) While checking cable tension, make
sure there is no ‘‘free play’’ in the flight control j. Static system: The best procedure to check
hinges and rod ends. Free play and loose cable ten- the altimeter for leaks and accuracy is to have the
sion combined with control mass imbalance sets the entire static system checked in accordance with FAR
stage for the onset of control surface ‘‘flutter.’’ Do Part 43, appendix E, at an FAA-approved repair sta-
not, however, rig the controls at too high a cable tion.

11
AC 90-89A 5/24/95

4. FIELD CHECK. Two people are needed to c. Fuel system: Since 1983, more than 70 per-
accomplish the following field check that will enable cent of the engine failures in amateur-built aircraft
an amateur-builder to detect if the aircraft’s were caused by fuel system problems. Many times
instrument system is leaking: (Note: This field check the direct cause of engine failure was dirt and debris
is not an accuracy check.) in the fuel tank and lines left behind during the manu-
facturing process.
a. Airspeed check: Slip a long rubber hose
over the pitot mast (surgical tubing is recommended). (1) Before the aircraft’s fuel tanks are
As one person reads the airspeed, the other should filled, the amateur-builder should vacuum any manu-
very slowly roll up the other end of the tubing. This facturing debris from each tank and wipe them down
will apply pressure to the instrument. When the air- with a ‘‘tack’’ cloth (available from a paint supply
speed indicator needle reaches the aircraft’s approxi- store). Next, the system should be flushed with avia-
mate recommended cruise speed, pinch the hose shut, tion grade gasoline several times in order to remove
and hold that reading. The airspeed needle should any small or hard to reach debris from the tanks
remain steady for a minute if the system is sound. and lines. The fuel filter/gasolator screen/carburetor
A fast drop off will indicate a leak in the instrument, finger screen should also be cleaned. The amount
fittings, lines, or the test hose attachment. NEVER of time spent ‘‘sanitizing’’ the fuel system will pro-
force air in the pitot tube or orally apply suction vide big safety dividends for the life of the aircraft.
on a static vent. This will cause damage to the (2) When filling the tanks, place the air-
instruments. craft in the straight and level cruise position. Add
b. Altimeter/vertical speed check. fuel in measured amounts to calibrate the fuel tank
indicators. While allowing the aircraft to sit for a
(1) To check the static side, apply low suc- short time to observe for possible leaks, inspect the
tion at the end of the static vent port. The easiest fuel tank vents to see if they are open and clear.
way to gain access to the static system is to remove Check that the fuel tank caps seal properly. If there
the static line at the static port. If there are two static are no leaks and the fuel system has an electric boost
ports, tape the unused port closed. Next, get two feet pump, pressurize the system and again check for
of surgical tubing, seal one end, and tightly roll it leaks. The fuel selector, vents and fuel drains should
up. Attach the open end to the static line and slowly be properly marked and tested for proper operation.
unroll the tubing. This will apply a suction, or low
pressure, to the static system. NOTE: Many amateur-built aircraft take 5
to 8 years to build. During that time, many
(2) The altimeter should start to show an rubber-based oil and fuel lines and cork gas-
increase in altitude. The vertical speed indicator also kets that were installed early in the building
should indicate a rate of climb. The airspeed may process may have age hardened, cracked,
show a small positive indication. When the altimeter and/or turned brittle. The builder should
reads approximately 2,000 feet, stop and pinch off carefully inspect these components and
the tube. There will be some initial decrease in alti- replace as necessary to prevent a premature
tude and the vertical speed will read zero. The altim- engine failure.
eter should then hold the indicated altitude for at
d. Hydraulic system: The hydraulic system
least a minute. If altitude is lost, check for leaks.
should function dependably and positively in accord-
(3) IMPORTANT: The above airspeed and ance with the designer’s intent. Retractable landing
altimeter field checks should not be considered the gear should be rigorously cycled on the ground,
equivalent of airspeed or static system accuracy tests using both the normal and emergency landing gear
as certified by a certificated repair station, but a extension system.
check of the system for possible leaks. These checks
e. Safety belt and shoulder harness: These
do not take into consideration the pitot tube and static
items should be checked for condition and proper
ports located on the airframe. The FAA recommends
installation. A review of amateur-built aircraft
the builder not deviate from the designer’s original
accidents has disclosed a significant number of
plans when installing the pitot and static system.
accidents in which the seat belt mounting hard points

12
5/24/95 AC 90-89A

failed. Each seat belt and shoulder harness mounting that the battery is properly vented to the outside of
hard point should be built to the designer’s specifica- the aircraft. Check the condition of the engine to
tions to ensure that it will hold the harness and pilot airframe bonding (grounding) wire. Ensure that all
in the aircraft at the ultimate design ‘‘G’’ load speci- electrical instruments operate properly.
fication, both positive and negative, for the aircraft.
g. Cowling and panel checks: Ensure that all
f. Avionics and electrical checks: Test the avi- inspection panels are in place, the cowling is secured,
onics systems. Perform an operational check to and cowl flap operation is satisfactory. Inspect the
ensure the radio(s) transmit and receive on all fre- propeller spinner and its backing plate for cracks.
quencies. Inspect circuit breakers/fuses, micro-
h. Canopy/door locks checks: Ensure the can-
phones, and antennas for security and operation. Test
opy or doors on the aircraft work as advertised. Dou-
the ELT for proper operation and battery life. Elec-
ble check the canopy or door lock(s) so the canopy
trical systems can be checked for operation of lights,
and doors will not open in flight and disturb the
instruments, and basic nav/comm performance.
airflow over the wings and stall the aircraft. If a
Other electrical systems, such as generator/alternator
canopy jettison system is installed, check for proper
output can be checked during the engine run-ins, taxi,
operation when the aircraft on the ground and when
and flight tests. Check the battery and the battery
it is on jacks. (Jacks will simulate flight loads on
compartment for security and if applicable, ensure
the aircraft.)

13
AC 90-89A 5/24/95

SECTION 8. WEIGHT AND BALANCE

‘‘Never argue with your spouse or a mathematician’’ Phil Larsh, Accident Prevention Counselor,
Colfax IN (1994)

1. OBJECTIVE. To discuss the importance of for each flight is critical to conducting a safe flight
developing an accurate weight and balance calcula- test.
tions for both test and recreational flights. Additional
b. An aircraft should be level when weighed,
information on weight and balance can be found in
spanwise and fore and aft in accordance with the
AC 91-23A, Pilot’s Weight and Balance Handbook.
manufacturer’s instructions, and should be in the
a. A good weight and balance calculation is level flight position. It is highly recommended that
the keystone of flight testing. Accurately determining the weighing be done in an enclosed area, using three
the aircraft’s take-off weight and ensuring that the calibrated scales. Bathroom scales are not rec-
center of gravity (CG) is within the aircraft’s design ommended because they are not always accurate.

14
5/24/95 AC 90-89A

ITEMS WEIGHT (LBS) ARM (INCHES) MOMENT (IN-LBS)

Left Wheel 101 60 6060

Right Wheel 99 60 5940

Tail Wheel 42 180 7560

TOTALS 242 80.8 19560

TOTAL MOMENT = Empty weight CG or 19560 = 80.8

TOTAL WEIGHT 242

FIGURE 2. EMPTY WEIGHT CG

2. DETERMINING EMPTY WEIGHT CG. in the weight block along side the appropriate wheel.
This process is done with an empty fuel tank.
a. The sample airplane for determining empty
weight is a single seater, which the kit manufactur- (3) Measure in inches the distance from the
er’s design empty weight of 253 pounds and a gross datum line, or imaginary point identified by the
weight limit of 500 pounds. The datum line is located manufacturer (e.g., nose of the aircraft), to the center
at the nose of the aircraft and the CG range is line (C/L) of the three wheels. Record the distance
between 69 to 74 inches from the datum. of each wheel and place it in the moment arm block
beside the appropriate wheel (see figure 2).
b. To work a CG problem, figure the EMPTY
WEIGHT CG first. On a piece of paper draw four (4) Multiply the number of inches (arm)
blocks. Title each block from left to right as shown by the weight on each wheel to get the moment (inch-
in figure 3. pounds) for each wheel. Add the weight on the three
gears and the three moments in inch pounds and
(1) Under the block titled item, vertically divide the total weight into the total moment. The
list ‘‘left wheel,’’ ‘‘right wheel,’’ and ‘‘nose/tail sum is the ‘‘EMPTY WEIGHT CENTER OF
wheel.’’ GRAVITY’’ in inches. In the sample case, the empty
(2) Place a calibrated scale under each weight CG is 80.8.
wheel and record the weight on each gear, in pounds, NOTE: All calculations should be carried
out to two decimal places.

15
AC 90-89A 5/24/95

ITEMS WEIGHT (LBS) ARM (INCHES) MOMENT (IN-LBS)

A/C 242 80.8 19560

Pilot 170 65 11050

Fuel 30 70 2100

TOTALS 442 74 32710

TOTAL MOMENT = Takeoff CG or 32710 = 74

TOTAL WEIGHT 442

FIGURE 3. TAKE-OFF CG

3. DETERMINING TAKE-OFF WEIGHT CG. c. Again, all measurements are made from the
datum to the center line of the object that has been
a. Since the aircraft’s empty weight and empty
added. Weight multiplied by inches from the datum
weight CG are fixed numbers, the only way an air-
equals moment. Add the weights and moments to
craft’s CG can be changed is by adding weight in
find the take-off CG for that particular flight.
other locations.
d. Loaded in this configuration, the aircraft
b. For example, in figure 3, the aircraft’s
is within the CG flight envelope and is safe to fly.
empty weight has been written in the appropriate
blocks. The pilot weighs 170 pounds and fuel (5 gal-
lons) weighs 30 pounds.

16
5/24/95 AC 90-89A

ITEMS WEIGHT (LBS) ARM (INCHES) MOMENT (IN-LBS)

A/C 242 80.8 19560

Pilot 170 65 11050

Fuel 30 70 2100

S/B 15 75 1125

Strobe 1.5 179 268.5

Fuel 1.5 55 82.5

TOTALS 460 74.3 34186

TOTAL MOMENT = Alteration Takeoff Weight CG or 34186 = 74.3
TOTAL WEIGHT 460
FIGURE 4. ADDITIONAL EQUIPMENT ADDED

4. ADDING ADDITIONAL EQUIPMENT. (3) To bring this aircraft back into the safe
CG range, the battery would have to be moved 9
a. During flight testing, a strobe battery and
inches forward (66 inches from the datum line).
hand held radio are added. The battery/battery box
Another alternative is to install 8 pounds of ballast
weight is 15 pounds and the location is 75 inches
in the nose (20 inches from the datum).
aft of the datum; the strobe assembly weight is 1.5
pounds and is located 179 inches aft of the datum; (4) If the sample aircraft exceeded the
the radio’s weight is 1.5 pounds and is located 55 designer’s gross weight limit (e.g., 300 pound pilot)
inches aft of the datum (see figure 4). instead of the CG limit, its climb, stall, and perform-
b. In the sample problem, the previous figures ance capability would be poor and the possibility
for take-off weight and moment are still accurate, for in-flight structural failure would be high.
hence those numbers have been listed in the appro- NOTE: In the sample weight and balance,
priate blocks. positive numbers were chosen by placing the
datum line on the nose of the aircraft. Some
(1) Add the battery, strobe, and radio num-
manufacturers prefer to use a datum located
bers in the appropriate locations and calculate the
somewhere between the aircraft’s nose and
totals. At 465 pounds, the aircraft is still 35 pounds the leading edge of the wing.
under its design gross weight limit of 500 pounds
but is out of balance because the CG has moved (5) This kind of datum will set up a system
.3 inches further aft (74.3 inches) than the allowable of positive arms (items located aft of the datum) and
rear CG limit of 74 inches. negative arms (items located forward of the datum).
(2) Since the aircraft is out of balance with (6) When working a weight and balance
an aft CG, it is no longer 100 percent stable in pitch problem with negative and positive moments, sub-
and would be dangerous to fly. In most cases, it tract the sum of all negative moments from the sum
is not the amount of weight added to the aircraft of all positive moments to reach a ‘‘total moment’’
that can cause a major safety problem but its loca- for the aircraft.
tion.

17
AC 90-89A 5/24/95

SECTION 9. PAPERWORK
‘‘It is harder to write a lie in a logbook than tell one, because your eyes see it and your fingers feel
it.’’ Bob Moorman, Ultralight Instructor (1994)

1. OBJECTIVE. To have the proper documenta- NOTE: The amateur-builder should antici-
tion and paperwork to conduct the flight test. pate several revisions to the checklists.

a. Weight and Balance: The weight and bal- d. Flight Manual: It is imperative a flight
ance for the aircraft should be carefully done. The manual describing the anticipated performance of the
gross weight and CG range should be determined aircraft be written by the aircraft builder/kit manufac-
prior to every flight. turer. The manual will be revised several times dur-
ing the flight test phase until it accurately reports
b. Airworthiness/Registration/Operating the aircraft’s performance.
Limitations/Placards/Weight and Balance: Must be
on board, or the aircraft is not legal to be operated. e. Maintenance Records (logbooks): Opera-
tors of amateur-built aircraft are required to only
c. Checklists: In addition to the assembly/air- record the yearly condition inspections in accordance
worthiness checklist previously discussed in section with the aircraft’s operating limitations. The FAA
7, the builder should prepare the following check- recommends, however, that every amateur-built air-
lists: preflight; take-off/cruise; before starting; craft/ultralight owner record in the aircraft’s
descent/before landing; starting the engine; after logbooks all inspections and maintenance performed.
landing; before takeoff; securing the aircraft; and This will create an aircraft’s maintenance history and
emergency procedures. A checklist to cover the will be invaluable in spotting trends.
above procedures may seem a tedious task, but it
will only be the size of a 5x8 card -- similar to a
checklist for a Cessna 150 or a Piper PA-28-140.

18
5/24/95 AC 90-89A

SECTION 10. POWERPLANT TESTS

‘‘Don’t short-change the engine tests or you won’t be around to give your grandkids a ride.’’ Dick Koehler,
A&P Instructor (1994)

1. OBJECTIVE. To ensure that the engine has b. New/newly overhauled engine run-in proce-
been properly run-in and is safe to operate in all dures:
rpm ranges.
(1) Most amateur-builders start with a new
a. An engine pre-oil and cold compression test or newly overhauled engine and proceed to ‘‘run it
can be conducted as follows: in’’ on the airframe. This practice is followed due
to lack of access to a test cell or a special ‘‘club’’
(1) Remove the rocker-box covers and one propeller that is specifically designed to aid in engine
spark plug from each cylinder. cooling during run-in. There are pros and cons to
(2) Using an external oil pump, or by rotat- using an airframe to run in an engine, but the best
ing the propeller in the direction of rotation, pump advice has always been to follow the engine manu-
a substantial supply of oil up from the sump into facturer’s instructions. These instructions are found
the rocker arms. either in the manufacturer’s overhaul manuals, serv-
ice bulletins, or service letters. Following the manu-
(3) When the engine is pre-oiled, run a facturer’s instructions is especially important if the
cold compression test of each cylinder. engine has chrome cylinders which require special
(4) The results will serve only as an initial run-in procedures.
bench mark for comparing other compression tests (2) Also, before running-up the engine, be
taken after the engine has been run-up to operating certain that it has the proper grade oil in the sump.
temperature. Some new and newly overhauled engines are shipped
with a special preservative oil to prevent corrosion.

19
AC 90-89A 5/24/95

Drain this out and reservice the engine with the cor- of the engine (as viewed from the cockpit) and run-
rect oil before starting. up the engine. Run the same test on the opposite
rearmost cylinder to be certain the hottest running
c. Used engine run-in procedures: Some ama-
cylinder was selected. Calibrated oil pressure and oil
teur-builders install a used engine from a flyable air-
temperature gauges also are needed to test the
craft. The same checks and adjustments used on a
accuracy of the engine instruments installed in the
new or newly overhauled engine should be con-
aircraft.
ducted. New and used engines require special
attention to engine cylinder baffling to ensure cyl- (5) The following support equipment is
inder cooling is within the engine manufacturer’s needed: 50 feet or more of tie-down rope, tie-down
cylinder head temperature specifications. stakes, two chocks for each wheel, fire extinguisher,
assorted hand tools, safety-wire, cotter-pins, ear and
d. Pre run-in checks:
eye protection, grease pencils, logbooks, clip board,
(1) Before beginning the powerplant tests, pen and paper, a watch to time the tests, rags, and
inspect the engine and propeller carefully. All fuel manufacturer’s instructions.
and oil line connections should be tight. Check the
torque on the engine mount attaching bolts. Be cer- f. Safety Precautions: Before the first engine
tain that there are no tools, hardware, or rags laying run, ensure the aircraft is tied down, brakes on, and
between the cylinders or under the magnetos. the wheels are chocked. The builder and flight test
team should wear ear and eye protection. All flight
(2) Check for the proper amount of oil in test participants should be checked out on fire extin-
the engine and that the dip stick gives an accurate guisher use and operation. During engine runs, do
reading of the oil quantity. Be advised that some not allow anyone to stand beside the engine, or in-
engines were mounted on an angle in type certifi- line or close to the propeller. Making minor adjust-
cated aircraft. These engines have a special part num- ments to a running engine, such as idle and mixture
ber oil dip stick, which corrects for the different settings, is a very dangerous procedure and should
angle of oil in the crankcase. The same engine, be done with great care by experienced individuals.
mounted level in a amateur-built aircraft with the
original dip stick, will not show the correct oil quan- g. The First Engine Run:
tity. (1) The first start of the engine is always
e. Test and Support Equipment: a critical operation. The engine should be pre-oiled
in accordance with the manufacturer’s instructions.
(1) A cylinder head temperature gauge For aircraft using other than FAA-approved oil pres-
(CHT) is needed to ensure that all cylinders are sure and temperature gauges, the FAA recommends
receiving the proper flow of cooling air. attaching an external calibrated oil temperature and
(2) On the newer aircraft engines, the cyl- pressure gauge to the 4 cycle engine in order to cali-
inders are drilled and tapped to accept a bayonet brate the engine instruments. After priming the
type of CHT thermocouple probes. For older engines, engine and completing the starting engine checklist
the thermocouple is designed like a spark plug items, the first concern is to get an oil pressure read-
washer and fits under a spark plug. It can be installed ing within the first 20 to 30 seconds. If there is no
in any cylinder, either under the top or bottom spark oil pressure reading -- shut down.
plug. (2) There are three common problems that
(3) Each type of CHT design can have would cause low or fluctuating oil pressure.
multiple thermocouples which are connected to a (i) Air in the oil pressure gauge line:
selector switch in the cockpit. The pilot then selects This is easily fixed by loosening the line connection
the cylinder he wants to monitor. This also is an near the oil pressure gauge and squirting oil into
excellent troubleshooting tool for identifying fouled the line until full. Another option is to use a pre-
plugs and bad ignition leads. oiler to provide the pressure and carefully bleed the
(4) If there is only one CHT thermocouple, air out of the line near the oil gauge by loosening
attach it to the rearmost cylinder on the right side the B-nut that connects the oil line to the gauge.

20
5/24/95 AC 90-89A

(ii) A misadjusted oil pressure relief i. Record the engine run-in data: During the
valve: Cleaning the pressure relief ball, checking for engine run, monitor the cylinder head temperatures,
the proper number of washers, correcting spring ten- oil temperature, and oil pressure. Record the readings
sion, and re-adjusting the setting could solve the and adjustments for future reference. If the cylinder
problem. head temperatures are rising close to the red line,
reduce power and stop the test. Some causes of high
(iii) An internal problem within the
cylinder head temperatures include using spark plugs
engine (most likely the oil pump): An engine tear
with the improper heat range; cylinder head tempera-
down would be required.
ture gauges installed on the wrong cylinder; missing
(3) With good oil pressure/temperature or badly designed cylinder head cooling baffles; par-
readings and the engine running smoothly, ensure tially plugged fuel nozzles (applicable to fuel
that the engine oil pressure and temperature gauges injected engines); fuel lines of improper internal
in the cockpit match the calibrated oil pressure and diameter (creates lean mixtures); engine improperly
temperature gauges, which were attached to the air- timed either mechanically and/or electrically; and the
craft for the first run. Do not overlook this test. It carburetor fuel mixture set excessively lean.
is critical to determine the accuracy of the cockpit
j. After shut-down:
engine gauges not only for the ground engine run-
in period, but for in-flight engine cooling tests. (1) After each engine run, check for fuel
and oil leaks, loose connections, and hot spots on
(4) Work through the engine manufactur-
cylinders (burnt paint). The FAA recommends drain-
er’s run-in schedule. The majority of the engine
ing the oil and removing the oil screen/filter within
manufacturers recommend a series of engine runs
the first 2 hours of running the engine. Check the
from low rpm to maximum rpm. Each run usually
screen/filter for ferrous metal with a magnet. Wash
incorporates a 200 rpm increase and lasts no longer
and inspect the screen/filter for non-ferrous metal
than 10 minutes. The secret to a successful engine
like brass, bronze, or aluminum.
run is not to let the engine temperatures exceed
manufacture’s limits during engine runs. (2) A very small quantity of metal in the
NOTE: Engines with chrome cylinders or
screen is not uncommon in a new or newly over-
chrome rings require different high power hauled engine. It is part of the painful process of
run-in programs. Follow the manufacturer’s ‘‘running-in.’’ If subsequent oil screen checks
run-in instructions to ensure the engine will (2 hours apart) show the engine is ‘‘making metal,’’
perform satisfactorily over its lifetime. this indicates a problem inside the engine and a tear
down inspection is required.
h. Engine Cool Down: After a ground-run, the
cooling off period takes approximately an hour. This (3) It also is recommended all fuel sumps,
is because a newly overhauled engine needs time filters, and gasolators be checked for debris after
for the internal parts (e.g., rings, cylinders, valves, each engine run. Special attention should be given
bearings, and gear faces) to expand and contract sev- to the fuel system by the builder who constructed
eral times to obtain a smooth surface that retains fuel tanks out of composite or fiberglass materials.
its ‘‘memory.’’ This is a lengthy process even when Composite and fiberglass strands can be very fine,
done right, but it is important not to skip any of making visual detection difficult. Frequent cleaning
the recommended runs to save time. To do so is of the fuel filters and screens early in the flight test-
to risk increasing oil consumption and reducing over- ing phase will avoid a gradual build up of loose
all engine performance, reliability, and engine life composite fibers, which would reduce or stop the
span -- which could be costly in the long-term. flow of fuel to the engine.

21
AC 90-89A 5/24/95

SECTION 11. ADDITIONAL ENGINE TESTS

‘‘Always go with the best fix not the cheapest fix.’’ Bill Deeth, Master Mechanic (1994)

1. OBJECTIVE. To determine if the engine sup- NOTE: Some amateur-builders, after prop-
ply of fuel is adequate at all angles of attack. erly setting the idle mixture/rpm to the
manufacturer’s specification, increase the
a. Mixture and Idle Speed Check: After engine idle rpm by 100 rpm for the first 10
completing the initial engine ‘‘run-in’’ tests, check + hours of flight testing. This is to ensure
the idle speed and mixture settings. To determine that the engine will not quit when the throt-
if the mixture setting is correct, perform the follow- tle is pulled back too rapidly, or when power
ing: is reduced on the final approach to landing.

(1) Warm up the engine until all readings b. Magneto Check:

are normal (1) The magneto checks should be smooth
(2) Adjust the engine rpm to the rec- and the difference between both magnetos rpm drops
ommended idle rpm should average about 50 rpm. The builder also
should perform a ‘‘HOT MAG’’ check, to ensure
(3) Slowly pull the mixture control back against the engine, on its own, deciding when and
to idle cut-off where to start. To perform a hot mag check, run
(4) Just before the engine quits, the engine up the aircraft until the engine is warm. At idle rpm
rpm should rise about 50 rpm if the mixture is prop- turn the magneto switch off; the engine should stop
erly adjusted. If the rpm drops off without any running. If the engine continues to run, one or both
increase in rpm, the idle mixture is set too lean. If of the magnetos is hot (not grounded).
the rpm increases more than 50 rpm, the idle mixture (2) The usual causes for a hot magneto are
is set too rich. a broken ‘‘P’’ lead coming out of the magneto or
a bad magneto switch. THIS IS AN IMMEDIATE

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5/24/95 AC 90-89A

THREAT TO THE PERSONAL SAFETY OF ANY- (2) During the engine tests, make numer-
ONE NEAR THE AIRPLANE AND MUST BE ous checks of the carburetor heat system. To avoid
REPAIRED AT ONCE. overly rich mixtures from oversized carburetor heat
ducts, ensure that the carburetor heat duct is the same
c. Cold Cylinder Check: size as the inlet of the carburetor.
(1) If the engine is running rough and the (3) Be certain there is a positive reduction
builder determines it may be an ignition problem, in rpm each time ‘‘carb heat’’ is applied. If there
perform the following check: is no reduction, or the rpm drop is less than expected,
(i) Run the engine on the bad mag- check the carb heat control in the cockpit and on
neto for about 30 seconds at 1200 rpm. Without the carb heat air box for full travel. Also check for
switching the mag switch back to ‘‘both,’’ shut off air leaks in the ‘‘SCAT TUBE’’ that connects the
the engine. heat muff to the carburetor air box.
(ii) One of the test crew should e. Fuel Flow and Unusable Fuel Check: This
quickly use a grease pencil to mark an area of the is a field test to ensure the aircraft engine will get
exhaust stacks approximately an inch from the flange enough fuel to run properly, even if the aircraft is
that attaches the stacks to the cylinders. in a steep climb or stall attitude.

(iii) Check the marks on the stacks. If (1) First, place the aircraft’s nose at an
one or more of the exhaust stacks with a grease mark angle 5 degrees above the highest anticipated climb
has NOT been burned to a grayish-white color and angle. The easiest and safest way to do this with
the mark on the stack still retains most of the original a conventional gear aircraft is to dig a hole and place
color of the grease pencil, the ‘‘cold cylinder’’ has the aircraft’s tail in it. For a nose gear aircraft, build
been identified. a ramp to raise the nose gear to the proper angle.
(2) Make sure the aircraft is tied-down and
(2) Probable causes of the cold cylinder
chocked. With minimum fuel in the tanks, disconnect
problem are defective spark plugs, ignition leads, or
the fuel line to carburetor. The fuel flow with a grav-
a cracked distributor in one of the magnetos. To
ity flow system should be 150 percent of the fuel
detect if the spark plugs are bad, switch both plugs
consumption of the engine at full throttle. With a
to another cylinder. If the grease pencil proves the
fuel system that is pressurized, the fuel flow should
problem moved to the new cylinder, the spark plugs
be at least 125 percent. When the fuel stops flowing,
are bad. If the problem remains with the original
the remaining fuel is the ‘‘unusable fuel’’ quantity.
cylinder, the ignition lead or magneto is bad.
(3) Since the fuel consumption of most
d. Carburetor Heat: modern engines is approximately .55 pounds per
(1) It is strongly recommended that all brake horsepower per hour for a 100 horsepower
amateur-builders install a carburetor heat system that engine, the test fuel flow should be 82.5 pounds (13.7
complies with the engine manufacturer’s rec- gallons) per hour for gravity feed, or 68.75 pounds
ommendation. If no recommendation is available, the (11.5 gallons) per hour for a pressurized system. The
FAA suggests a carburetor heat system for a sea- pounds per hour divided by 60 equals 1.4 pounds
level engine and a conventional venturi should be and 1.15 pounds per minute fuel rate respectively.
designed so that it will provide a 90 degrees F NOTE: Formula for fuel flow rate gravity
increase in the venturi at 75 percent power. For alti- feed is .55 x engine horsepower x 1.50 =
tude engines using a conventional venturi carburetor, pounds of fuel per hour divided by 60 to
120 degrees F increase in venturi temperature at 75 get pounds per minute, divided by 6 to get
percent power will prevent or eliminate icing. gallons per minute. For a pressurized sys-
Remember: Too little carburetor heat will have no tem, substitute 1.25 for 1.50 to determine
effect on carburetor icing, and too much carburetor fuel flow rate.
heat will cause a overly rich mixture which will f. Changing Fuel Flow or Pressure: If the
reduce power and may shut down the engine. aircraft’s fuel flow rate is less than planned, there

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AC 90-89A 5/24/95

is a volume or pressure problem. An increase in the center and with compressed air still being applied,
fuel flow volume may necessitate installation of LISTEN. If air is heard coming out of the exhaust
larger fuel line fittings on the fuel tanks, fuel selector, pipe, the exhaust valve is not seating properly. If
and carburetor in addition to larger internal diameter air is heard coming out of the air cleaner/carb heat
fuel lines. To increase fuel pressure, install an elec- air box, the intake valve is bad. When the oil dip
trically driven or engine driven mechanical fuel stick is removed and air rushes out, the piston rings
pump prior to the first flight. are the problem.
g. Compression Check: When the engine run- h. Last Check: Drain the oil and replace the
in procedures have been completed, perform an addi- oil filter, if applicable. Check the oil and screens
tional differential compression check on the engine for metal, visually inspect the engine, and do a run-
and record the findings. If a cylinder has less than up in preparation for the taxi tests. Do not fly the
60/80 reading on the differential test gauges on a aircraft if anything is wrong, no matter how small
hot engine, that cylinder is suspect. Have someone or how insignificant. The sky, like the sea, is an
hold the propeller at the weak cylinder’s top dead unforgiving and uncompromising environment.

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5/24/95 AC 90-89A

SECTION 12. PROPELLER INSPECTION

‘‘A tough decision is what a man makes when he cannot form a committee to share the blame’’ George
Lutz, Col. U.S. Air Force, Retired (1994)

1. OBJECTIVE. To help the amateur-builder/ of the blade can very quickly lead to a crack, fol-
ultralight aircraft owner develop an inspection pro- lowed by blade separation. Propeller tip failure and
gram to maintain his/her propeller. a subsequent violent, out of balance situation can
cause the propeller, engine, and its mounts to be
a. There are three kinds of propeller designs: pulled from the airframe in less than 5 seconds.
metal, wood, and composite.
c. It is essential that the make and model
(1) Because of weight considerations, propeller is carefully chosen. Always follow the
metal propellers are used more on amateur-built air- manufacturer’s recommendations.
craft than ultralight aircraft. This makes wood and
composite propellers the overwhelming choice for d. Exercise caution if experimenting with dif-
ultralight aircraft. ferent makes and models propellers. A propeller with
the wrong size and pitch will give a poor rate of
(2) Wood propellers are light, reliable, and climb, cruise, or could cause the engine to ‘‘over-
inexpensive but require frequent inspections. rev.’’
(3) Composite carbon-graphite material 2. RECOMMENDATIONS FOR ALL
props are more expensive than wood, but are stronger PROPELLERS.
and require less maintenance.
a. Never use a propeller for a tow bar when
b. All types of propellers have one thing in moving the aircraft.
common: they are constantly under high levels of
vibration, torque, thrust, bending loads, and rota- b. Never stand in front of or in-line of a rotat-
tional stress. Even small nicks in the leading edge ing propeller.

25
AC 90-89A 5/24/95

c. Never ‘‘PROP’’ an engine on uneven or i. Assume a propeller is unairworthy if it has

wet/snow covered ground. suffered any kind of impact or ground strike.
d. Always inspect the propeller before and j. After any repair or repainting, or if vibra-
after a flight. tion or roughness is noted, re-balance the propeller.
e. When working on a propeller, make sure k. Propeller blades should be balanced within
the ignition is off first. 1 gram of each other to avoid over stressing the gear
f. Always maintain the propeller to manufac- reduction system and propeller shaft.
turer’s instructions. l. Check the bolt torque on all newly installed
g. To avoid nicks and cuts, do not perform propellers every hour of operation for the first 10
run-ups near gravel/loose stones. hours and once every 5 hours thereafter.
h. Apply a coat of automotive wax once a m. After torquing the propeller, track the
month to protect the finish and keep out moisture. blades.

FIGURE 5 - Propeller Tracking

3. PROPELLER TRACKING CHECK. inder. This will make the propeller easier and safer
to turn.
a. Ensuring good powerplant operation first
starts with a properly installed propeller. Each (2) Rotate the blade so it is pointing
propeller should be checked for proper tracking straight down.
(blades rotating in the same plane of rotation). The
following procedure is simple and takes less than (3) Place a solid object (e.g., a heavy
30 minutes: wooden block that is at least a couple inches higher
off the ground than the distance between the propel-
(1) Chock the aircraft so it cannot be ler tip and the ground) next to the propeller tip so
moved. Remove one sparkplug from each cyl- it just touches.

26
5/24/95 AC 90-89A

(4) Rotate the propeller slowly to see if the is not too wide and/or deep. Before each nick is
next blade ‘‘tracks’’ through the same point (touches dressed out, each nick and surrounding area should
the block, see figure 2). Each blade should be within be inspected with a 10-power magnifying glass for
1⁄16’’ from one another. cracks. If an area looks suspicious, inspect the area
again using the propeller manufacturer’s approved
b. If the propeller is out of track, it may be
dye penetrant or fluorescent penetrant method.
due to one or more propeller blades that are bent,
a bent propeller flange, or propeller mounting bolts (2) If the nick is left unattended, the high
that are over or under torqued. An out-of-track propeller operational stresses will be concentrated at
propeller will cause vibration and stress to the engine the bottom of the nick’s V and, in time, will generate
and airframe and may cause premature propeller fail- a crack. The crack can migrate across the blade until
ure. the blade fails, producing a massive imbalance
between the propeller and the engine, ultimately
4. METAL PROPELLER INSPECTION Per-
causing structural failure. Cracks in metal blades
haps the two biggest problems affecting the air-
CANNOT be repaired. A cracked propeller must be
worthiness of metal propellers are corrosion and
marked unserviceable and discarded.
nicks on the leading edge.
a. Identifying Corrosion. c. Warning. Metal propellers are matched/
tuned to the engine and airframe resonant frequency
(1) Surface corrosion can occur on the sur- by being manufactured with a particular diameter to
face of metal blades due to a chemical or electro- minimize vibration. DO NOT SHORTEN METAL
chemical action. The oxidation product usually BLADES for any reason unless the manufacturer
appears on the surface of the metal as a white pow- specifically permits this major alteration.
der.
5. PROPELLER INSPECTION.
(2) Pitting corrosion causes small cavities
or pits extending into the metal surface. This is an a. Wood propellers should be inspected before
advanced form of corrosion, appearing as small dark and immediately after a flight. Inspect to ensure the
holes that usually form under decals or blade over- following:
lays. (1) The drain holes are open on metal
(3) Inter-granular corrosion, rare and dif- edged blade tips
ficult to detect in propellers, is the most dangerous (2) The metal/composite leading edge is
form of corrosion. It attacks the boundary layers of secured and serviceable
the metal, creating patches of lifted metal and white/
gray exfoliation on the surface of the propeller. It (3) The blades, hub, and leading edge have
is sometimes found in propellers that had a ground no scars or bruises
strike and have been straightened.
(4) The mounting bolt torque and safety
(4) If any of these signs of corrosion are wire or cotter pins are secure
found, do NOT fly the aircraft. Refer to the manufac-
(5) There are no cracks on the propeller
turer’s maintenance manual for corrosion limits and
spinner (if applicable), and the safety wire is secure
repairs or AC 43.4, ‘‘Corrosion Control for Air-
craft,’’ and AC 20-37D, ‘‘Aircraft, Metal Propeller (6) There are no small cracks in the protec-
Maintenance,’’ for additional maintenance informa- tive coating on the propeller, which are caused by
tion and corrective actions. UV radiation
b. Nicks and Metal Blades. (7) The charring around the mating surface
(1) Nicks in the leading and trailing edge of the prop and the engine flange -- both indications
of a metal blade are usually V-shaped. They are of a loose propeller
caused by high speed impact between the propeller b. A word about torque: A new, wooden
and a stone or piece of gravel. Properly trained propeller should have the mounting bolts checked
individuals can ‘‘dress out’’ the crack if the nick

27
AC 90-89A 5/24/95

for proper torque within the first hour of flight and NOTE: When parking the aircraft, always
every hour for 10 operational hours thereafter. leave the wood propeller in the horizontal
position. This position will allow the wood
(1) After 10 hours, check the bolt torque to absorb small amounts of moisture evenly
every 5 hours thereafter. The mounting bolt torque across it’s entire span rather than con-
also should be checked prior to flight if the aircraft centrating the moisture (weight) in the low
has been in storage for a long period of time (3 to blade and creating a vibration problem.
6 months). 6. COMPOSITE PROPELLERS
(2) If the bolts need to be torqued, it is INSPECTION.
suggested all the bolts be loosened for an hour to
allow the wood to relax. ‘‘Finger tighten’’ the bolts a. There are generally two types of composite
until snug and tighten the attaching bolts in small propellers: thermo-plastic injection molded propeller
increments, moving diagonally across the bolt circle. and the carbon/graphite fiber composite propeller.
It is good practice to check the propeller track (see (1) The thermo-plastic injection molded
chapter 1, section 7) as the bolts are torqued down. propeller is a low cost, thin bladed propeller used
The torqued bolts should be safety wired in pairs. on engines of 80 horsepower or less. Propeller
(3) If nylon/fiber insert type nuts are used, inspection is straight forward, by examining the
they should be changed every time the propeller bolts blades and hub for cracks and nicks. If a crack is
are re-torqued. They should never be used with a found, do not fly until the propeller is replaced. Small
bolt with a cotter key hole in the threaded area nicks of 3⁄16 of an inch or less can be dressed out
because the sharp edges around the hole will cut and filled using a two-part epoxy.
the nylon/fiber insert and reduce the fastener’s (2) Carbon/graphite composite propellers
effectiveness. All self-locking nuts should have at are primarily used on engines of 40 horsepower and
least two bolt threads visible pass the nylon/fiber more. One should inspect for small hair line cracks
insert after torquing. in the gel coat. These spider cracks are usually
(4) If any of the following damage is caused by vibration generated by a mismatch of the
found, a wood propeller should be removed from engine and propeller combination. If a crack in the
the aircraft and sent back to the manufacturer for base material of the propeller other than the gel coat
repair. If the propeller cannot be saved, it should is found, do not fly until the manufacturer inspects
be marked unserviceable. the propeller.

(i) Any cracks in the blades or hub (i) Nicks of 1⁄2 inch or less in the
leading or trailing edges of carbon/graphite propel-
(ii) Deep cuts across the wood grain lers can be dressed out and filled using a two-part
epoxy. But if the nick has severed the fiberglass rov-
(iii) Blade track that exceeds ⁄ ’’
1 16
ing (looks like a fiberglass wire bundle) that runs
limits after attempts to repair hub to tip on the leading and trailing edge, do not
(iv) Any warpage or obvious defect fly. The propeller has been severely damaged and
must be sent back to the factory for inspection and
(v) Extreme wear (leading edge repair.
erosion, bolt hole elongation) (ii) Before making even small repairs
(vi) Any separation between on a composite propeller, check with the manufac-
turer first. Larger nicks must go back to the factory
lamination for inspection and repair.

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5/24/95 AC 90-89A

CHAPTER 2. TAXI TESTS

SECTION 1. LOW SPEED TAXI TESTS
‘‘Yelling ’Clear the Prop!’ before you start an aircraft is the first of a series of well planned,
choreographed steps to make you a professional.’’ Jack Crawford, Pilot, Mechanic, Airport Operator
(1994)

1. OBJECTIVES. The objectives of the taxi 2. TAXI TESTS.

tests are fourfold:
a. Prior to beginning taxi tests in a conven-
a. To ensure that the aircraft ‘‘tracks’’ straight tional (tail dragger) aircraft, the tail should be raised
and there is adequate directional control at 20 percent until the aircraft is in the approximate take-off posi-
below the anticipated take-off speed. tion. The pilot should spend an hour or more in the
cockpit to become accustomed to the aircraft’s take-
b. To determine if the aircraft’s engine cooling off position. This small but important aspect of train-
and the brake system are adequate. ing will help the pilot avoid overreacting to an unex-
pected deck angle on the first flight.
c. To predict the flight trim of the aircraft and NOTE: All taxi tests should always be mon-
its handling characteristics during take off and land- itored by a minimum of one other member
ings. of the flight test team, who will watch for
evidence of fire/smoke or other problems not
d. To allow the pilot to become proficient with visible to the pilot.
the handling and braking characteristics of the air-
b. The taxi tests should begin with a taxi speed
craft.
no faster than a man can walk. The pilot should spend
NOTE: All taxi tests, low and high speed,
this time getting acquainted with the aircraft’s low
should be made as if it were the first flight. speed handling characteristics by practicing 90, 180,
The pilot should be wearing the proper and 360 degree turns and braking action. The pilot
clothing, seat belt/shoulder harness and hel- should also remember that monitoring the oil pres-
met and be mentally and physically pre- sure, oil temperature, cylinder head temperature, and
pared for the possibility of flight. maintaining them within limits is a critical function
that must not be overlooked.

29
AC 90-89A 5/24/95

NOTE: The builder should be aware that taxied out. The compass should match the magnetic
some aircraft brake manufacturers have heading of the runway or taxi way the aircraft is
specific brake lining conditioning proce- on. When making a turn (e.g., right hand turn), the
dures (break-in) for metallic and non-asbes- turn coordinator/turn and bank should indicate a right
tos organic linings. Proper brake lining
conditioning should be completed before
hand turn but the ball should skid to the left. The
starting the low and high speed taxi tests. vertical speed indicator should read zero and the
If not properly conditioned, the brake lining artificial horizon should indicate level.
will wear quickly and give poor braking d. After each taxi run, inspect the aircraft for
action at higher speeds.
oil and brake fluid leaks. No leak should be consid-
c. The pilot should check the flight ered a minor problem. Every leak must be repaired
instruments for operation each time the aircraft is and the system serviced prior to the next taxi test.

SECTION 2. HIGH SPEED TAXI TESTS

‘‘First get use to the fact that you are now 30 feet wide and you steer with your feet.’’ Wayne Nutsch

1. OBJECTIVE. To determine the aircraft’s (2) In a tail wheel aircraft at 80 percent

high speed handling and braking parameters. of stall speed, the pilot should be able to lift the
tail and assume a take-off position. Again, if the tail
a. Propeller rotation will determine which rud- cannot be raised, recheck the weight and balance and
der pedal is pressed to compensate for the asymmet- CG range. Most likely there is a rearward CG prob-
rical thrust of the propeller blades. For example, lem or the main gear is too far forward.
when viewed from the cockpit, a Volkswagen auto-
motive engine mounted in a tractor configuration will CAUTION: Heavy braking action at
rotate the propeller counter-clockwise. In this case, high speeds in tail wheel aircraft may
the pilot must use the left rudder pedal for high speed cause directional problems (ground
taxi and take-off. loops) or nose overs.
b. As with every part of the flight testing pro- c. If runway conditions permit, duplicate each
gram, the high speed taxi tests should follow the taxi test with the flaps in the take-off and landing
FLIGHT TEST PLAN. Start slowly and do not configuration. Record the flap effects on directional
progress to the next step until everyone is thoroughly control and insert the information in the draft copy
satisfied with the aircraft and his/her own perform- of the aircraft’s flight manual.
ance. d. Determine the approximate point on the
c. Each taxi run should be 5 mph faster than runway where lift-off will occur and mark it with
the last run until the aircraft is within 80 percent a green flag if no other existing reference is available.
of the predicted stall speed. Prior to reaching the e. Determine how much runway the pilot will
predicted stall speed, the pilot should test aileron need if it becomes necessary to abort the take-off.
effectiveness by attempting to rock the wings This is usually accomplished by accelerating to 80
slightly. As taxi speeds increase, the rudder becomes percent of lift off speed, bringing the engine back
more responsive and directional control will to idle, and applying heavy braking action to bring
improve. the aircraft to a full stop. After each take-off/abort
(1) In a nose gear aircraft, the pilot should test, the brakes must be allowed to COOL DOWN.
be able to raise the nose of the aircraft to a take The lining must be examined carefully and replaced
off attitude at 80 percent of the stall speed. If the if necessary.
nose cannot be raised at this speed, the weight and f. After determining the distance required to
balance and CG range should be rechecked. Most come to a full stop after aborting, add 30 percent
likely there is a forward CG problem or the main to the distance. Measure that distance from the
gear is too far aft. OPPOSITE end of the active runway which will be

30
5/24/95 AC 90-89A

used. If no existing reference is available, mark it h. Notes.

with a red flag. The taxi tests are completed when
(1) The first high speed taxi tests should
the test pilot is satisfied with both the aircraft’s and
be made in a no wind or a light head wind condition.
his/her individual performance. Prior to the first
The pilot should ensure that the tests will not inter-
flight, the aircraft should be thoroughly inspected
fere with the normal airport operations or create a
with special attention given to the landing gear, brake
safety hazard for other aircraft.
system, engine, and propeller.
(2) If the aircraft’s engine is not a U.S. type
g. During this inspection all discrepancies certificated engine, the pilot should determine which
must be fixed. Examine the screens/filters for metal, way the propeller rotates.
flush the fuel system, and clean all the screens/filters.
Perform a leak check on the engine and the fuel (3) Pilots of tail wheel aircraft must always
system by running-up the engine. be aware that ground loops are possible at any speed.
This is true especially if the main landing gear is
located too far forward of the aircraft’s CG.

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THIS PAGE INTENTIONALLY LEFT BLANK

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5/24/95 AC 90-89A

CHAPTER 3. THE FIRST FLIGHT

‘‘It is critically important that a test pilot never succumb to the temptation to do too much too soon, for
that path leads but to the grave.’’ Richard Hallion (1987)

SECTION 1. GENERAL

1. OBJECTIVE. To take every precaution to c. A safe and uneventful first flight begins
ensure that the first test flight is an ‘‘uneventful’’ with verifying all emergency equipment and person-
one. nel are standing by, radio communications are func-
tional, members of the crew are briefed, weather is
2. GENERAL. ideal, and the aircraft is airworthy. The pilot must
a. The first flight is an important event for be rested and physically and mentally ready for the
an amateur-builder. As important as it is, it should first flight and every flight thereafter. The pilot also
not be turned into a social occasion. This puts enor- should review any new data developed for the air-
mous peer pressure on the pilot to fly an aircraft craft’s flight manual.
that may not be airworthy or to conduct the flight d. The first flight should be flown a thousand
in inclement weather. times: the first 500 on paper, the next 499 flights
b. A ‘‘professional’’ will avoid this trap by fol- in the test pilot’s mind -- and once in actuality. The
lowing the FLIGHT TEST PLAN and inviting only first flight test should be so well-rehearsed by the
those members of the crew needed to perform test pilot and ground crew that the first flight is a
specialized tasks when testing the aircraft. non-event.

33
AC 90-89A 5/24/95

31. RECOMMENDATIONS. (5) Fuel valve is in the proper position and

vent lines are open.
a. The best time to test fly an aircraft is usu-
ally in the early morning when the winds are calm, (6) Trim tabs set in the take-off position.
and the pilot is well rested. (7) Altimeter set to the field elevation and
b. In addition to a pilot’s knee board, a small cross-checked with the local altimeter setting.
portable tape recorder or video camera properly (8) The complete control system has been
mounted to the aircraft is an excellent way to record given a functional check.
data.
(9) Check of all ground and air commu-
c. Good communication with the ground is nications frequencies for proper operation.
essential for data exchange and safety.
(10) Engine cowling and airframe inspec-
4. FIRST FLIGHT INSPECTION. tion plates/fairings secured.
a. Prior to the first flight, the aircraft should (11) The airspeed indicator marked with
be given a good pre-flight inspection by the pilot sticky tape at the ‘‘predicted’’ BEST CLIMB speed,
and at least one other experienced individual. A thor- BEST GLIDE speed and MANEUVERING speed.
ough aircraft pre-flight inspection should ensure that: If these speeds are not available from prototype flight
(1) The fuel on board is four times the test data, the following are conservative guidelines
amount of usable, clean, and proper octane fuel than to initially determine the referenced speeds:
is needed for the first flight. If a 2 cycle engine is (i) BEST ANGLE OF CLIMB (Vx)
used, check that the oil to fuel mix ratio is correct. = 1.5 times the aircraft’s predicted lift-off speed.
(2) A current weight and balance check is (ii) BEST GLIDE SPEED = 1.5 times
completed. The aircraft’s CG should be in the for- the aircraft’s predicted lift-off speed.
ward half of the safe CG range. This will reduce
the possibility of instability during approach to a stall (iii) MANEUVERING SPEED (Va) =
and enhance recovery from one. 2 times the aircraft’s predicted stall speed.

(3) Check oil, brake fluid, and hydraulic (iv) For applicable aircraft, it is advis-
system for the correct fluid and quantity. able to put the maximum landing gear operating
speed (Vlo) and maximum flap extension speed (Vfe)
(4) Canopy or cabin door latches lock on a piece of masking tape and attach it to the
securely and will not vibrate loose in flight. instrument panel for reference.

SECTION 2. THE ROLE OF THE CHASE PLANE

1. OBJECTIVE. To determine whether a chase a. The primary functions of the chase plane
plane should be used during the FLIGHT TEST are as follows:
PHASE.
(1) To watch the parts/systems of the test
2. GENERAL. To use or not to use a chase plane aircraft not visible to the test pilot and report any
should be a ‘‘test pilot’s’’ decision. If a chase plane problems
is used, it must serve a specific set of functions (2) To assist the test pilot in following the
identified in the FLIGHT TEST PLAN. Its overall FLIGHT TEST PLAN
purpose is to contribute to gathering flight test data
and flight safety. The chase plane should not serve (3) Watch for and inform the test pilot of
as a distraction to the test pilot or only as a platform other aircraft
for a home camcorder/camera. (4) Assist in an emergency situation

34
5/24/95 AC 90-89A

b. If a chase plane is used, the following first flights, fuel and oil leaks develop and small
suggestions are offered: hardware and fasteners could vibrate off the aircraft.
(1) A single chase plane should be used NOTE: Pilots of Both Aircraft Must Keep
on the first two flights and the first time the amateur- Each Other Informed of Their Intended
built aircraft’s landing gear is retracted. The chase Action or Maneuver Prior to Execution.
plane pilot should be experienced in formation flying
and thoroughly briefed prior to each flight. c. In an emergency situation:
(2) There should be at least two pilots on
(1) If the test aircraft’s radio fails, the
board the chase plane. One pilot’s sole duty is to
chase plane should serve as an airborne communica-
fly the aircraft and maintain a safe distance from
tion relay with the tower/ATC facility for the test
the amateur-built aircraft. The other pilot serves as
aircraft.
an observer whose duties include checking for other
traffic, the condition of the test aircraft, and commu- (2) For other emergency situations, the
nicating with the pilot on the frequency assigned by chase plane should provide the test pilot with
air traffic control (ATC) (e.g., 122.75 megahertz information or assistance as required. If necessary,
[MHz]). the chase plane can guide the test pilot to a safe
(3) A good chase plane position is about landing at the airport or an emergency field. If the
100/200 feet off the right side and slightly behind test aircraft goes down off the airport, the chase plane
and below the test aircraft. Avoid flying directly can serve as an overhead spotter that can direct emer-
behind the test aircraft. It is not uncommon that on gency personnel to the test aircraft location.

SECTION 3. EMERGENCY PROCEDURES

‘‘At the worst possible time, the worst possible thing will happen.’’ Murphy’s Law

1. OBJECTIVE. To develop a complete set of out of altitude or airspeed as the pilot attempts a
in-flight emergency procedures for the aircraft that 180 degree turn back to the airport. Declare an
are designed to make unmanageable situations emergency and shut off the master switch, fuel,
manageable. and magnetos to reduce the possibility of fire on
landing. Above 800 feet, the chances of making a
2. GENERAL. The FLIGHT TEST PLAN 180 degree turn to land downwind on the runway
should have a special section on emergency proce- or another emergency field nearby are directly
dures. The responses to each emergency should have proportional to the wind velocity and the numbers
been developed based on the aircraft’s predicted of practice emergency landings the pilots has made
flight characteristics, airport location, surrounding in similar make and model aircraft.
terrain, and nearby emergency fields.
(2) PROBLEM: Engine vibration in-
a. The following is a partial list of possible creases with rpm.
emergencies that may arise during the flight test
phase and includes suggested responses: RESPONSE: Fly the aircraft!
Reduce power or increase power to minimize the
(1) PROBLEM: Engine failure on take- effect of vibration, but maintain safe airspeed and
off. altitude. Run through the emergency checklist and
RESPONSE: Fly the aircraft! Estab- land as soon as possible.
lish best glide speed. If time permits, try to restart (3) PROBLEM: Smoke in the cockpit.
engine. If altitude is below 800 feet and the engine
will not start, land straight ahead or 20 degrees on RESPONSE 1: Fly the aircraft! If
either side of the runway centerline. This is sug- the smoke smells like burnt plastic wire installation,
gested because in most cases the aircraft will run shut off the master switch. Put on smoke goggles,

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open the fresh air vents to clear the cockpit, and (6) PROBLEM: Cabin door opening in
land as soon as possible. flight.
RESPONSE 2: Fly the aircraft! If RESPONSE: Fly the aircraft! A par-
the smoke is bluish/grey and has an acrid odor like tially open door usually affects the airflow over the
burning oil, shut off the fresh air/hot air vents and tail causing reduced control response and vibration.
put on the smoke goggles. Monitor oil pressure and Reduce speed, maintain level flight, and yaw/slip the
temperature. Be prepared to shut the engine down aircraft left or right to reduce vibration. Open the
and land as soon as possible. side vent window to reduce air pressure resistance
in the cabin and attempt to shut the door. Sometimes
(4) PROBLEM: Engine fire. putting the aircraft in a skid will assist in closing
RESPONSE: Fly the aircraft! Shut a partially open door.
off the fuel selector, mixture master switch, and b. Other possible emergencies to plan for
magnetos. Land as soon as possible. include:
(5) PROBLEM: Out of rig condition. (1) Canopy opening unexpectedly
RESPONSE: Fly the aircraft! Try to (2) Loss of communications
use the appropriate trim to offset adverse control
pressures. Keep the airspeed high enough to maintain (3) Throttle stuck in one position
altitude. Make small control inputs, reduce power (4) Oil on the windshield
slowly to avoid controllability problems, and land
as soon as practical. (5) Propeller throws a blade
(6) Fire in the cockpit

SECTION 4. FIRST FLIGHT

‘‘Always leave yourself a way out.’’ Chuck Yeager

1. OBJECTIVES. The two objectives of the first craft N number, location, and intentions every ten
flight are to determine engine reliability and flight minutes.
control characteristics.
d. If the airport is equipped with a tower,
a. After completing the pre-flight inspection, notify them that an experimental aircraft is on its
the test pilot should ensure that the seat/shoulder har- first test flight and requests take-off instructions.
ness is properly fitted and allows easy access to all
e. After being given clearance to take-off,
the cockpit controls (verified by a crew member).
clear the area, line up on the runway centerline,
Following the FLIGHT TEST PLAN and using
release the brakes, and slowly add power to provide
the starting checklist, warm up the engine until the
‘‘Thinking Time.’’ When the throttle is fully
engine instruments indicate normal operating
advanced, glance at the an oil pressure gauge and
temperatures and pressures.
tachometer to confirm they are in the green and
b. A complete check of each aircraft system indicating take-off rpm. A type certificated engine
should be performed (e.g., carb heat, magnetos, static of a 100 horsepower will produce between 2100 to
rpm, and brakes). 2300 rpm on the take-off roll, depending on the type
of propeller installed. If either oil pressure or
c. If the airport does not have a tower/unicom tachometer is reading low, abort the takeoff!
available, the pilot should transmit over 122.9 MHz
the following message: ‘‘This is experimental air- f. If there is any unusual vibration, rpm
craft Nlll on the first test flight, departing run- exceeding the red line, or engine hesitation, abort
way lll at lll airport, and will remain in the takeoff!
the local area for the next hour.’’ Transmit the air-

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g. If in a tail wheel aircraft, keep the tail on k. It is recommended that after establishing
the runway until the rudder is effective. This usually a safe climb angle. the pilot DOES NOT throttle
happens at approximately 35 mph on most aircraft. back, switch tanks, or make large inputs into the
flight controls for the first 1,000 feet. At the
h. As the aircraft accelerates and approaches preselected altitude, reduce power slowly to avoid
the predicted/manufacturer’s lift off speed/point a pitch up or pitch down that might be associated
(green flag), gently ease back on the stick. The first with rapid power reductions.
take-off should be a gentle and well-controlled
maneuver with the aircraft doing all the work. NOTE: Check if there is any additional stick
or rudder input pressure during the climb.
i. If the aircraft does not want to rotate or Try reducing any abnormal stick pressures
unusual stick forces are experienced, abort the with trim. Each control input should be
takeoff! small and slow.
j. If the aircraft has retractable gear, do not l. If any unusual engine vibrations, rapid oil
raise the gear on the first two to three flights until pressure fluctuation, oil and cylinder head tempera-
the aircraft’s stability/control responses have been tures approaching red line, or decreasing fuel pres-
explored a little further. sure is experienced, refer to the emergency check
list and land as soon as possible.

SECTION 5. FIRST FLIGHT PROCEDURES

‘‘In my opinion, about 90 percent of your risk in a total program comes with a first flight. There is no
nice in-between milestone. You have to bite it off in one chunk.’’ Deke Slayton

1. OBJECTIVE. To perform a series of tests to turns, followed by two 360 degree turns: one to the
develop data that will ensure a safe landing. left and one to the right at a bank angle of 10 degrees.
a. The First Test Flight. (4) If the aircraft is responding to the pre-
scribed specifications, increase the bank angle in
(1) After take-off, climb to 3,000 feet succeeding turns to 20 degrees. If no problems are
above ground level (AGL) and level off. Reduce encountered, climb to 5,000 feet AGL (using the
power slowly. Complete the cruise checklist items. climb checklist and monitoring engine gauges), level
Following the FLIGHT TEST PLAN, circle the air- off, fly an imaginary landing pattern, and test the
port or emergency field as the engine performance flaps. Do not forget to announce every 5 to 10 min-
is being monitored. utes the aircraft’s location, altitude, and intentions.
(2) Limit the cruise speed to no more than Practice approach to landing by descending to 4,000
1.5 the predicted stall speed of the aircraft. This will feet AGL first, then to 3,000 feet. Remember, use
reduce the chances of flutter. If the engine appears the descent checklist.
to be operating smoothly, try testing the flight con- (5) During these maneuvers, control pres-
trols. sures should increase in proportion to control deflec-
(3) With the airspeed being monitored, tion. If control pressure remains the same as control
each control input should be gentle and small. Start deflection increases or if stick forces become lighter
with the rudder first. Yaw the nose of the aircraft as control deflection increases, the aircraft may have
5 degrees left and right. Note the response. Raise a stability problem. Avoid large control movements
the aircraft’s nose 3 degrees up, note the response. and land as soon as possible.
After the aircraft is stabilized, level off and try three (6) Remember to keep informing the
degrees nose down, trim, and note the response. Try tower/UNICOM/chase plane of what is happening.
a gentle bank of no more than 5 degrees to the left, For 10 minutes of anticipated flight time, plan a brief
then one to the right. If the aircraft is stable and rest period for the pilot. Fly straight and level, mon-
is operating smoothly, try a few 90 degree clearing itor the gauges, and enjoy the experience.

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(7) At low cruise power setting, straight operating in the prescribed manner. If the aircraft
and level, observe how the aircraft trims out. Do does not respond to small control inputs -- and it
the ‘‘fixed’’ trim tabs on the rudder and aileron need should not be expected to respond as quickly as it
adjustment? Are the adjustable aileron and elevator did at higher speeds -- make the inputs a little bit
trim control effective? Is the control stick/yoke larger. Increase the amount of input progressively.
slightly forward of the mid-position in straight and Do not simultaneously put in all three control inputs.
level flight? Give particular attention to the response to nose-
down elevator inputs, which is necessary for recov-
(8) Climb slowly back up to 5,000 feet. ery.
Two questions must be answered before landing:
(5) Notice any changes in flight character-
(i) Is the aircraft controllable at low istics and the speeds at which they take place. Be
speeds? especially alert for the onset of pre-stall buffet. Is
(ii) What is the approximate stall the buffet felt through the stick? Through the air-
speed? frame? Though the seat of the pants? Does the nose
of the airplane want to rise or drop on its own? How
(9) These questions can be answered with strong is the buffet? Is it continuous? Would it get
an approach to a stall maneuver. Do NOT perform the pilot’s attention if they were concentrating on
a FULL STALL check at this time! something else?
(10) The necessity for an approach to a stall NOTE: On some high performance aircraft
check is because it will help establish a preliminary and aircraft with unusual wing designs, a
stall speed (Vsi) in mph/knots so the approach speed pre-stall buffet may not exist and the stall
for landing can be calculated. Also, the pilot will may be abrupt and violent with a large
have knowledge of the aircraft’s handling character- degree of wing drop.
istics at low speed. (6) Keep making small control inputs at
b. Suggested Procedure. intervals to check the aircraft’s responses. At
approximately 5 mph/knots before the predicted stall
(1) Level off at altitude; make two clearing speed, or at the first sign of a pre-stall buffet, note
turns; stabilize airspeed, heading, and altitude; apply the airspeed and stop the test. Recover and write
carb heat; set the flaps in the landing configuration down the pre-stall indicated airspeed. This airspeed
and reduce power slowly to 900 rpm. TRIM. If, as should be the reference stall speed for the first land-
is not uncommon on first flights, the aircraft cannot ing.
be trimmed properly, the pilot can still proceed with
the check as long as the stick forces are not unusually (7) The pre-stall recovery response should
heavy. be a smooth and quick forward stick movement. This
response should be enough to reduce the angle of
(2) With the aircraft airspeed approxi- attack to the point where the airplane is flying nor-
mately 1.4 mph/knots times (X) the predicted stall mally again.
speed, raise the nose slowly. It is desirable for the
aircraft to start decelerating slowly, about 1⁄2 mph/ (8) A wing drop would be unexpected so
knot a second. A 30 mph/knot deceleration at 1⁄2 early in the approach to a stall, but if it becomes
mph/knot per second will take only a minute. necessary to raise a low wing do it with rudder, NOT
OPPOSITE AILERON. Use of ailerons at lower
(3) As the aircraft slows down, note all the speed would increase the chances for a stall or a
things that happen as the speed bleeds off. Observe sudden departure from controlled flight.
the changing nose attitude and how the stick force
changes. Keep the turn coordinator or turn and bank (9) There is no need to gain more airspeed
‘‘ball’’ in the middle. than the extra few mph/knots to fly out of a pre-
stall condition. After returning to straight and level
(4) Note how much rudder it takes to keep flight and using the information learned, the pilot
the ball centered. Every few seconds make very can practice a few more recoveries from a pre-stall
small control inputs to check that the aircraft is condition. Remember the aircraft will constantly be

38
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loosing altitude so it is necessary to climb back up which most pilots will correct by using opposite aile-
to 5,000 feet AGL to continue further flight testing. ron. If allowed to continue, and with back pressure
Do not get so involved that the overall objective of on the stick, this will result in a cross-control stall
the first flight is lost -- which is getting the pilot and a roll to a near vertical bank attitude at the begin-
and aircraft safely back on the ground. ning of a spin with no altitude left for recovery.
(10) The FLIGHT TEST PLAN for the first (12) On final approach, the aircraft speed
flight should call for a maximum of 1 hour of actual should be no less than 1.3 but no more than 1.4
flight time. This is to reduce pilot fatigue and the times the recorded ‘‘first flight’’ pre-stall speed.
possibility of an engine failure or airframe malfunc- Homebuilt biplanes (high drag) should use an
tion occurring due to vibration or construction errors. approach speed of 1.5 x stall speed on landings.
NOTE: The pilot may elect to make several (13) Landings, especially the first one in an
practice approaches to landing at altitude or amateur-built or kit plane, are always exciting. Pro-
low approaches to the active runway to get ceed slowly and do not over control. If the landing
a solid understanding of the lower airspeeds, conditions are not ideal, be prepared to go around.
aircraft attitude, and overall feel of the air-
craft in the landing configuration. Before (14) The actual touchdown should take
each low approach at the airport, the tower/ place within the first 1,000 feet with braking action
UNICOM/chase plane should be advised of being applied before the red (abort) flag marker on
the pilot’s intentions. Avoid other traffic in the runway.
the pattern, and use the landing checklist. (15) After taxiing in, secure the aircraft,
(11) When the pilot has completed all the debrief the flight with members of the team, then
tests called for by the FLIGHT TEST PLAN, notify together perform a careful post-flight inspection of
the tower/UNICOM/chase plane of the intent to land. the aircraft.
Complete the landing checklist before entering NOTE: Remember to allow enough time to
downwind. Keep all turns less than 20 degrees of absorb what has been learned about the air-
bank, but do not cross-control by using the rudder craft’s performance and the pilot’s and
to move the nose. This will increase the bank angle, ground crew’s responses to it.

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CHAPTER 4. THE FIRST 10 HOURS

‘‘One can get a proper insight into the practice of flying only by actual flying experiments.’’
Otto Lilienthal (1896)
SECTION 1. THE SECOND FLIGHT

1. OBJECTIVE. To re-affirm the first flight b. The pre-flight inspection should be the
findings. same as performed for the first flight, including
draining the oil and inspecting the oil and fuel
a. Before the second flight, the pilot should
screens for contamination.
ensure that all discrepancies noted on the first flight
are corrected. It is probable that more ground run- c. The second flight, again lasting approxi-
ups, rigging adjustments, or taxi tests will be mately an hour, should be a carbon copy of the first
required. Under no circumstances should a pilot take- one, with the exception that all first flight discrep-
off in an aircraft with known airworthiness problems. ancies are corrected. If problems are not corrected,
The Law of Aerodynamics does not often forgive all further flight testing should be canceled until solu-
these types of mistakes. tions are found.

SECTION 2. THE THIRD FLIGHT

‘‘Plan the flight, fly the Plan.’’ Sign on the wall at the Naval Test Pilot School, Patuxent River, MD

1. OBJECTIVE. To validate the engine reliabil- responses to any applications of carb heat, leaning
ity. the fuel mixture, changes to the power settings (RPM
and Manifold pressure), changes to airspeed, and its
2. GENERAL. The third flight should con- response to switching fuel tanks.
centrate on engine performance. Do not forget to
record the engine’s response to any application of b. Resist the temptation to explore the more
carb heart, leaning of the fuel mixture, changes to exciting dimensions of flight. Stick to the FLIGHT
airspeed, and its response to switching fuel tanks. TEST PLAN and perform a conscientious evaluation
of the engine. After landing, review the data with
a. Engine oil pressure, oil temperature, fuel the crew members. Make adjustments as needed, per-
pressure, and cylinder head temperatures should be form another post-flight inspection of the aircraft,
monitored and recorded from 55 percent through 75 and record oil and fuel consumption.
percent rpm. At the higher rpm, be sure not to exceed
80 percent of the maximum cruise speed. This is c. After three hours of flight testing, the pilot
to avoid the possibility of encountering a flutter should be able to make the initial determination that
condition. Do not forget to record the engine the aircraft is stable and engine is reliable in cruise
configuration.

SECTION 3. HOURS 4 THROUGH 10

‘‘Keep your brain a couple steps ahead of the airplane.’’ Neil Armstrong

1. OBJECTIVE. To build on the data estab- 2. GENERAL. These next seven 1-hour test seg-
lished by the first three hours and start expanding ments should confirm the results of the first 3 hours
on the flight test envelope in a thorough and cautious and explore the following areas:
manner. This operational data will be added to the
a. Gear retraction (if applicable)
aircraft’s flight manual.

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b. Climbs and descents to preselected altitudes. and then retract the gear. Observe the following: air-
(monitor engine performance) craft reaction, such as pitch or roll; length of time
for gear to retract; trim requirements;, and the time
c. Airspeed indicator in-flight accuracy check
necessary to establish a 1,000-foot climb before
NOTE: After each test flight, ALL leveling off.
DISCREPANCIES must be cleared before
the next flight. The aircraft also must be e. Practice a simulated takeoff several times
THOROUGHLY INSPECTED prior to the to ensure that the aircraft’s response is predictable
next flight. and the gear retraction system is mechanically reli-
able.
NOTE: It is recommended that all flight test
maneuvers be preceded with two 90 degree 4. CLIMBS AND DESCENTS. The purpose of
clearing turns to ensure that the flight test these tests is to monitor engine performance and
area is free of other aircraft. reliability. The pilot should start the test only after
3. GEAR RETRACTION. the aircraft has been flying straight and level for a
minimum of 10 minutes to stabilize engine oil pres-
a. Before the gear is retracted in flight for the sure and temperatures.
first time, it is advisable to put the aircraft up on
jacks and perform several gear retraction tests, a. Engine oil pressure and temperatures must
including the emergency gear extension test. These be kept within the manufacturer’s limits at all times
tests will determine if, in the last three hours of flight during these tests. High summer temperatures may
testing, any structural deformation or systems mal- place restrictions on the flight test program because
functions have occurred. In addition to the gear both oil and cylinder head temperatures will increase
retraction test, the pilot/chase pilot/ground crew 1 degree for each 1 degree increase in outside
should use this time to review the aircraft’s kit/ temperature.
designer instructions and emergency checklist proce- (1) Climbs. Start the first climb at a 15
dures for malfunctioning gear and plan accordingly. degree climb angle, full power, at a predetermined
If at any time the aircraft has suffered a hard landing designated altitude (e.g., 1,000 feet). Maintain the
or side loading on the gear during flight testing, the climb angle for 1 minute. Record the engine tempera-
aircraft and its gear should be tested for operation tures and pressures. Reduce power, stabilize the
and condition on the ground. engine temperature, and repeat the test. For the sec-
b. The first gear retraction test should be con- ond climb test, the Flight Test Plan should call for
ducted with the aircraft flying straight and level at increasing the climb time -- record the results. When
or above 5,000 feet AGL, over an airport or emer- satisfied that an engine cooling problem does not
gency field. The airspeed must be well under the exist at this climb angle, repeat the tests using steeper
maximum landing gear retraction airspeed. When the climb angles until the pilot has reached 15 degrees
gear is being retracted, note if there is any tendency or encountered an engine manufacturer’s limit or a
for the aircraft to yaw, pitch, or roll. Record what 5-minute climb period at full throttle has been
changes to the aircraft’s trim are required to maintain reached.
straight and level flight. If there are no adverse flight (2) Descents. Should begin above 5,000
reactions or system malfunctions, cycle the gear sev- feet AGL with both the engine temperatures and
eral times. When satisfied with the straight and level pressures stabilized.
gear retraction test, try an emergency gear extension
but only if this is practical. (i) The test pilot should use carb
heat and clear the airspace below him before
c. With the gear extended, slow the aircraft
starting the descent. The first descent should be
to 1.3 times the pre-determined stall speed, stabilize,
at a shallow angle, at low rpm and last for 30 sec-
lower the flaps to the take-off position, trim, and
onds, not exceeding 1.5 times the estimated stall
maintain straight and level flight.
speed of the aircraft. During long, low power
d. Simulate a normal takeoff by increasing descents, the pilot must be on the alert for too rapid
rpm to full power. Raise the nose 3 degrees, trim, cooling of the engine usually identified by a signifi-

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cant drop in oil and CHT temperature. If a noticeable speed readings is the error in the instrument
drop occurs, increase the engine rpm and reduce the and the error caused by the installation of
angle of descent. If not corrected, the repeated rapid the system in the aircraft.
cooling of the engine may cause thermal shock to c. The airspeed calibrations runs should be
the engine cylinders and eventually cause cylinder made several times in opposite headings for each
head cracking or seizure. of the selected airspeeds the pilot wants to check.
(ii) Conduct each test as before, but Such accuracy test runs should start at the lowest
increase the time by 30 seconds until limited by the safe airspeed and work up to cruise speed using 10
engine manufacturer’s restrictions or 5-minute mph/knot increments.
descents are reached. Record temperatures, pres- d. Most errors will be found at the low end
sures, altitudes, and airspeeds data for climbs and of the speed range due to the angle of the pitot mast
descents for addition into the aircraft’s flight manual. to the relative wind and/or the location of the static
5. AIRSPEED IN-FLIGHT ACCURACY ports. Recently, amateur-builders have been using
CHECK. The following procedure for airspeed Global Positioning Satellite (GPS) hand held receiv-
calibration is offered for evaluation: ers to check airspeed accuracy.
a. A measured course should be chosen with NOTE: Flight testing of all amateur-built
readily identifiable landmarks at each end. The land- aircraft is restricted to a flight test area. If
marks should be a known distance apart, and the a pilot must run additional tests on the air-
length of course should be at least 1 to 2 miles long. craft that require more airspace, he should
notify the FAA District Office that issued
b. The pilot must fly a precision course the aircraft’s operating limitations and
maintaining a constant altitude (e.g., 1,000 feet), con- request a change to those limitations. If a
stant airspeed, constant magnetic heading, and con- pilot is found to be operating an EXPERI-
stant engine rpm. The pilot must record the tempera- MENTAL AIRCRAFT in violation of the
ture, altitude, indicated airspeed and the time over aircraft’s Operating Limitations, the FAA
each landmark for both directions. The average of may take certificate action.
these speeds is the ground speed of the aircraft. An
E6B computer will convert the temperature, altitude, e. If the aircraft has retractable gear or flaps,
and ground speed into True Indicated Airspeed for test the accuracy of the airspeed indicator with the
the tests. gear/flaps up and down.

NOTE: The difference between the E6B f. Record all the data in order to prepare an
computer readings and the aircraft’s ground airspeed calibration table for the flight manual.

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5/24/95 AC 90-89A

CHAPTER 5. EXPANDING THE ENVELOPE

‘‘Checklist! Checklist!! Checklist!!!’’ Jim Byers, Flight Instructor/Examiner
SECTION 1. GENERAL

1. OBJECTIVE. To move from a known flight and landing gear. Double check the flight control
environment to an unknown flight environment using hinges and rod end bearings for attachment and play.
a series of planned and carefully executed steps. Check all cable installations, cable tension, and con-
trol travel in addition to completing all the standard
a. Before beginning the next series of test
inspection and maintenance items. This inspection
flights, it is highly recommended that the aircraft
also should include checking the oil and fuel filters
undergo a ‘‘Condition Annual’’ inspection as identi-
for metal or other forms of contamination.
fied in the FAA Operation Limitation the amateur-
builder received with the special airworthiness cer- c. Even if there have been no indications of
tificate. It is strongly recommended that the builder CO contamination, perform another carbon mon-
and/or pilot TAKE THE TIME to inspect the aircraft oxide (CO) test using the floodlight procedure (see
because within the previous 10 hours, the aircraft chapter 1, section 7) or an industrial CO test meter.
has been subjected to what can be referred to as a There is a strong possibility that operational vibration
‘‘shakedown cruise.’’ and landing stresses may have opened new paths for
b. During the inspection, check the TORQUE CO to enter the cockpit.
(paint marks) on the engine mounts, propeller bolts,

SECTION 2. HOURS 11 THROUGH 20

‘‘Fly Scared!’’ Admiral Jack Ready, U.S.N.

1. OBJECTIVE. To focus the next 10 hours of b. The preferred pre-stall and stall behavior
flight testing on the following: stall speed, best rate is an unmistakable warning buffet starting lightly
of climb speed, best angle of climb speed, and slow about 5 to 10 mph/knots above the eventual stall
flight. It is recommended that stall speed tests be speed, growing in intensity as the aircraft slows
conducted with the aircraft’s fuel tanks full. (CG). down.
a. As with any unknown, approach slowly, c. The desired stall characteristics should be
incrementally, and follow the FLIGHT TEST PLAN. a straight forward nose drop with no tendency for
To improve safety and reduce the possibility of spins, roll or pitch-up. This docile and forgiving behavior
the aircraft should be tested with a forward CG load- implies a stall that has started at the wing root and
ing. Start the stall tests at 6,000 AGL. Make clearing progressed smoothly outboard. This gives an early
turns and stabilize the airspeed and altitude. The first warning to the pilot in the form of the buffet from
full stall should be conducted with power off, no separated airflow over the wings and or tail. The
flaps, and gear-up if applicable. After clearing the ailerons will continue to operate in the attached air
area, reduce the airspeed to 1.3 times the predicted flow until the aircraft’s stall speed is reached and
stall speed and trim. (NOTE: Do not trim within 10 the wing stalls.
knots of stall.) d. Begin by using the same procedures
NOTE: Some clean, high performance air- employed on the first flight. Secure cockpit items
craft may not have any noticeable pre-stall and put on carburetor heat. Decelerate slowly at 1⁄2
buffet. The actual stall may be abrupt and MPH/knot a second. Make small control inputs, keep
violent with a large amount of wing or nose the ball centered, and note the aircraft’s reaction.
drop.

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e. Let the aircraft stall and recover imme- (1) The power on stall may be more likely
diately, with stick forward and increasing power. to cause a wing drop than one at idle. This is due
Note the stall speed. to torque reaction and because the propeller slip-
stream tends to keep the flow of higher velocity air
f. Practice the same stall sequence several over the inboard (root) section of the wing despite
times at 1⁄2 mph/knot speed deceleration rate to deter- the higher angle of attack. This allows the root por-
mine the power-off, one g stall speed. Practice the tion of the wing to continue flying after the wing
same stall series with flaps, starting with the lowest tip stalls, dropping a wing.
setting first and working slowly to the full flap
configuration. Record the findings. (2) Tip stalls usually do not give advance
warning and will almost invariably result in some
g. After exploring the stall and recovery severe wing drop. These stalls are more likely to
behavior in a slow deceleration with the ball in the result in a spin, even if the controls are not mis-
middle, try a series of stalls with flaps up and then handled. If the spin does not develop, considerably
flaps down with a faster rate of deceleration. Do not more height will be lost in the recovery than if the
exceed the deceleration rate expected in normal oper- stall had been straight-ahead nose down.
ations.
(3) If the pilot yields to instinct and tries
2. STALLS. to correct the wing drop with aileron, it could result
a. Power on Stalls. As before, use the same in a spin. Since a sharp wing drop could be regarded
procedures moving from the known to the unknown. as the onset of spin auto-rotation, the recommended
Increase power incrementally and run a stall test at corrective action is to reduce power, exercise prompt
each new power setting until full power is reached. application of full opposite rudder combined with
It is not advisable to jump straight from idle to full lowering the nose to the horizon or below. Take care
power with the resultant large changes in pitch atti- to avoid this situation until the aircraft’s spin behav-
tude, torque reaction, and slip stream effect on the ior has been tested.
wing and tail. (4) Perform the same sequence of events
b. Conducting Power on Stalls. It is rec- for power on stalls as power-off stalls, unless limited
ommended that the aircraft be stabilized in level by the designer’s instructions. Record all findings
flight at low cruise power. The power-on stall is for the aircraft’s flight manual.
reached by slowly increasing the power to the desired NOTE: Aircraft with retractable gear will
power setting. The pilot then steadily increases the have to go through a separate series of slow
pitch attitude until the aircraft experiences the stall flight and stall checks with gear extended,
buffet. Remember to keep the ball in the center until with and without flaps. Record the different
the onset of the stall buffet. stall speeds for each configuration in the air-
craft’s flight manual.

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FIGURE 6. Climb Airspeed and Altitude Graph

c. Best Rate of Climb Speed Tests. To deter- aircraft passes through the BASE altitude, begin a
mine the best rate of climb for the aircraft, the fol- one minute time check. At the end of 1 minute,
lowing procedures are suggested: record the altitude gained. Descend down below the
BASE altitude. Decrease the airspeed by 5 mph/
(1) Perform the tests in smooth air, free knots and run the test again. After each succeeding
from thermal activity. Select an altitude (e.g., 1,000 test, the pilot should decrease the airspeed by 5 mph/
feet AGL) as a BASE attitude. Use a heading 90 knots until reaching an airspeed that is 10 mph/knots
degrees to the wind and for the best results, reverse higher than the stall speed of the aircraft. Record
the heading 180 degrees after each climb test. the airspeed and altitude gained for each climb on
(2) Begin a full throttle climb well below a graph similar to figure 6.
the predetermined BASE altitude and stabilize at a (3) The airspeed that shows the greatest
preselected airspeed approximately 15 mph/knots gain in altitude is the aircraft’s best rate of climb
above the predicted best rate of climb speed. As the speed (Vy).

47
AC 90-89A 5/24/95

FIGURE 7. Best Rate of Climb Speed Graph

d. Best Angle of Climb Speed Tests. (2) The tests should be done with and with-
out flaps. Start the tests at an airspeed of 1.3 times
(1) Best angle of climb speed can be found (X) the stall speed of the aircraft. Once the aircraft
by using the same chart developed for the best rate is stabilized and maintaining its altitude, reduce the
of climb tests. Draw a line (tangent) from the zero airspeed by 5 mph/knots. Maintain the altitude. Keep
rate of climb feet per minute (see figure 4) outward reducing the airspeed until approaching a stall.
to a point, on the rate of climb airspeed curve. Where
both lines touch, draw a line straight down to the (3) Maintain 5 mph/knots above the pre-
airspeed leg of the chart. viously determined stall speed. This figure is the ini-
tial slow flight airspeed. Practice with each flap set-
(2) The airspeed that the line intersects is ting, noting its affect on the aircraft’s performance.
the best angle of climb airspeed. If the aircraft has retractable gear, test in all gear
e. Slow Flight Test. and flap combinations. These tests will have to be
run later in the flight test program but with the AIR-
(1) For added safety, the slow flight tests CRAFT AT GROSS WEIGHT to determine the
should be performed at 6,000 AGL or higher to allow actual slow flight airspeed and stall speeds.
room for spin recovery. THE PRIMARY PURPOSE
OF THESE TESTS IS FOR THE PILOT TO (4) Remember, to help reduce the possibil-
BECOME FAMILIAR WITH THE AIRCRAFT’S ity of unplanned stalls in slow flight configurations,
HANDLING QUALITIES AT THE MINIMUM avoid bank angles of more than 5 degrees. When
GEAR UP/DOWN AIRSPEEDS AND POWER all the test data has been evaluated, and if the aircraft
SETTINGS. is equipped with a stall warning horn or indicator,
set the stall warning at 5 mph/knots above the air-
craft’s highest stall speed.

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SECTION 3. HOURS 21 THROUGH 35: STABILITY AND CONTROL CHECKS

‘‘A superior pilot uses his superior judgement to avoid those situations which require the use of superior
skill.’’ Old Aviation Proverb

1. OBJECTIVE. To determine the aircraft’s b. Carry out a close examination of the stabil-
stability limits and range of control. ity and control characteristics of the aircraft. Stability
and control checks will be centered around the three
2. GENERAL. Before attempting to satisfy the axes of the aircraft: longitudinal or roll axis (aile-
requirements of Federal Aviation Regulations rons), the lateral or pitching axis (elevators), and the
§ 91.319 Aircraft Having Experimental Certificates: vertical or yaw axis (rudder).
Operating Limitations and declaring that the aircraft
is controllable throughout the normal range of c. All tests need a starting point. The starting
speeds, two things must be done. point for stability and control checks is called the
state of equilibrium. An aircraft is said to be in a
a. Perform another complete inspection of the state of equilibrium when it experiences no accelera-
aircraft, including oil changes and fuel system filter tion and remains in a steady trimmed condition until
checks. the force or moment balance is disturbed by an
atmospheric irregularity or by pilot input.

FIGURE 8. Static Stability

3. DEFINITIONS. b. Static Stability: (neutral) is when an aircraft

remains in equilibrium in a ‘‘new’’ position, follow-
a. Static Stability: (positive) is when an air- ing a disturbance from an initial equilibrium position.
craft tends to return to the state of initial equilibrium
position following a disturbance. c. Static Stability: (negative) is when an air-
craft tends to move further in the same direction as
the disturbance that moved it from the initial equi-
librium position (figure 8).

49
AC 90-89A 5/24/95

FIGURE 9. Time

d. Dynamic Stability: is the time history of the speeds, the aircraft has NEUTRAL STATIC
movement of the aircraft in response to its static LONGITUDINAL STABILITY.
stability tendencies following an initial disturbance
from equilibrium (figure 9). (iv) If either of these test points
require a ‘‘push’’ force to maintain the reduced air-
e. Test for Static Longitudinal Stability. speed then the aircraft has NEGATIVE STATIC
LONGITUDINAL STABILITY.
(1) This test should be done first. All tests
should be conducted with the aircraft in the forward (2) Repeat another series of static longitu-
of center CG. Climb to at least 6,000 feet AGL and dinal stability tests using a ‘‘push’’ force on the con-
trim the aircraft for zero stick force in straight and trol stick. At an airspeed 10 percent above the trim
level flight at low cruising speed. (Note: Do not cruise speed the control stick should require a
retrim the aircraft once the test has begun.) Apply ‘‘push’’ force to maintain the airspeed. If a ‘‘pull’’
a light ‘‘pull’’ force and stabilize at an airspeed about force is required, the aircraft has NEGATIVE
10 percent less than the trimmed cruise speed. At STATIC LONGITUDINAL STABILITY.
this reduced airspeed it should require a ‘‘pull’’ force
to maintain the slower speed. WARNING: If the aircraft exhibits
negative static longitudinal stability,
(i) If it requires a ‘‘pull’’ force, pull seek professional advice on correct-
a little further back on the stick and stabilize the ing the problem before further flight.
airspeed at approximately 20 percent below the ini-
tial cruise trim speed. (3) After confirming the aircraft has posi-
tive STATIC longitudinal stability, the pilot can
(ii) If it requires a still greater ‘‘pull’’ check for positive DYNAMIC longitudinal stability
force to maintain this lower airspeed, the aircraft has (short period). First, trim the aircraft to fly straight
POSITIVE STATIC LONGITUDINAL STABIL- and level at normal trim cruise speed. With a smooth,
ITY. but fairly rapid motion, push the nose down a few
degrees.
(iii) If at either test points, no
‘‘pull’’ force is required to maintain the reduced air-

50
5/24/95 AC 90-89A

(4) Quickly reverse the input to nose up at a low cruise setting and an altitude above 5,000
to bring the pitch attitude back to trim attitude. As feet AGL. Slowly enter a sideslip by maintaining
the pitch attitude reaches trim attitude, release the the aircraft’s heading with rudder and ailerons. The
stick (but guard it). The aircraft with positive aircraft should be able to hold a heading with rudder
dynamic longitudinal stability will oscillate briefly at a bank angle of 10 degrees or the bank angle
about the trim attitude before stopping at the trim appropriate for full rudder deflection. The control
attitude position. forces and deflection should increase steadily,
although not necessarily in constant proportions with
(5) To test the aircraft for positive one another (in some cases, rudder forces may
DYNAMIC longitudinal stability (long period), lighten), until either the rudder or the ailerons reach
begin from trimmed, straight and level flight. With- full deflection or the maximum sideslip angle is
out re-trimming, pull (or push) the stick to a speed reached.
about 5 mph/knots off trim and release the stick.
There is no need to stabilize at the new speed. Expect (2) At no time should there be a tendency
the aircraft to oscillate slowly about the trim airspeed toward a force reversal, which could lead to an over-
a number of times before the motion dampens out. balance condition or a rudder lock.
If there is significant friction in the control system, (3) Release the ailerons while still holding
the aircraft may settle at a speed somewhat different full rudder. When the ailerons are released, the low
from the original trim speed. wing should return to the level position. Do not assist
(6) If the amplitude increases with time, the ailerons during this evaluation.
the dynamic longitudinal stability is negative or (4) To check static directional stability,
divergent. This is not necessarily dangerous as long trim the aircraft at a low cruise setting above 5,000
as the rate of divergence is not too great. It does feet AFL. Slowly yaw the aircraft left and right using
mean, however, the aircraft will be difficult to trim the rudder. Simultaneously the wings should be kept
and will require frequent pilot attention. level by using the ailerons. When the rudder is
(7) An aircraft with ‘‘NEUTRAL’’ released, the aircraft should tend to return to straight
dynamic longitudinal stability (long period) will con- flight.
tinue to oscillate through a series of increasing/ g. Spiral Stability. This is determined by the
decreasing airspeeds and never return to the original aircraft’s tendency to raise the low wing when the
trim airspeed. controls are released in a bank. To test for spiral
f. Lateral-directional Stability Control Tests. stability, apply 15 to 20 degrees of bank either to
Lateral (Dihedral Effect) and directional stability the left or right, and release the controls. If the bank
tests are to determine if the aircraft can demonstrate angle decreases, the spiral stability is positive. If the
a tendency to raise the low wing in a sideslip once bank angle stays the same, the spiral stability is neu-
the ailerons are freed. They also determine if the tral. If the bank angle increases, the spiral stability
rudder is effective in maintaining directional control. is negative. Negative spiral stability is not nec-
essarily dangerous, but the rate of divergence should
CAUTION: This test may impose high not be too great or the aircraft will require frequent
flight loads on the aircraft. Do not pilot attention and will be difficult to fly, especially
exceed the design maneuvering speed on instruments.
or any other airspeed limitation.
NOTE: Friction in the aileron control sys-
(1) To check lateral and directional stabil- tem can completely mask the inherent spiral
ity, the aircraft should be trimmed for level flight characteristics of the airframe.

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AC 90-89A 5/24/95

SECTION 4. A WORD OR TWO ABOUT FLUTTER

‘‘Stay up on the edge of your seat.’’ Scott Crossfield, Test Pilot

1. OBJECTIVE. To understand the causes and c. If the center of mass of the aileron is not
cures of the condition known as flutter. exactly on the hinge line, it will tend to lag behind
the wing as it bends upwards.
2. DESCRIPTION. Flutter in an aircraft struc-
ture is the result of an interaction between aero- d. In a simple, unbalanced, flap-type hinged
dynamic inputs, the elastic properties of the structure, control, the center of mass will be behind the hinge
the mass or weight distribution of the various ele- line and the inertial lag will result in the aileron being
ments, and airspeed. deflected downwards. This will result in the wing
momentarily generating more lift, increasing its
a. To most people, the word ‘‘flutter’’ suggests upward bending moment and its velocity relative to
a flag’s movement as the wind blows across it. In the fuselage. The inertia of the wing will carry it
a light breeze, the flag waves gently but as the wind upwards beyond its equilibrium position to a point
speed increases, the flags motion becomes more and where more energy is stored in the deformed struc-
more excited. It takes little imagination to realize ture than can be opposed by the aerodynamic forces
if something similar happened to an aircraft struc- acting on it.
ture, the effects would be catastrophic. The parallel
to a flag is appropriate. e. The wing ‘‘bounces back’’ and starts to
move downward but, as before, the aileron lags
b. Think of a primary surface with a control behind and is deflected upwards this time. This adds
hinged to it (e.g., an aileron). Imagine that the air- to the aerodynamic down force on the wing, once
plane hits a thermal. The initial response of the wing more driving it beyond its equilibrium position and
is to bend upwards relative to the fuselage. the cycle repeats.
f. Flutter can happen at any speed, including
take-off speed. At low airspeeds, however, structural

52
5/24/95 AC 90-89A

and aerodynamic damping quickly suppress the flut- i. What can be done about it? Having
ter motion. But as the airspeed increases, so do the described how flutter happens, the following sugges-
aerodynamic driving forces generated by the aileron. tions should help reduce the possibility of it happen-
When they are large enough to cancel the damping, ing to the amateur-builder’s aircraft:
the motion becomes continuous.
(1) Perform a mass balance of all flight
g. Further SMALL INCREASES will controls in accordance with the designer/kit manu-
produce a divergent, or increasing oscillation, which facturer’s instructions.
can quickly exceed the structural limits of the air-
frame. Even when flutter is on the verge of becoming (2) Eliminate all control ‘‘free play’’ by
catastrophic it can still be very hard to detect. What reducing slop in rod end bearings, hinges, and every
causes this is the high frequency of the oscillation, nut and bolt used in attaching flight controls.
typically between 5 and 20 Hz (cycles per second). (3) Ensure that all rigging and cable ten-
It will take but a small increase in speed (1⁄4 knot sion is set accurately to the design specifications
or less) to remove what little damping remains and using a calibrated cable tensiometer.
the motion will become divergent rapidly.
(4) Re-balance any flight control if it has
h. Flutter also can occur on a smaller scale been repaired, repainted, or modified in any way.
if the main control surface has a control tab on it.
The mechanics are the same with the tab taking the NOTE: If the pilot experiences flutter, or
place of the aileron and the aileron taking the place believes he did, reduce power immediately
of the wing. The biggest difference are the masses and land as soon as possible. Do not attempt
involved are much smaller, the frequencies much further flight until the aircraft has been
higher, and there is less feed-back through the con- thoroughly inspected for flutter induced
damage. This inspection should include all
trol system. This makes tab flutter more difficult to
wing/tail attach points, flight controls, their
detect. The phenomenon known as ‘‘buzz’’ is often attach points/hinges, hardware, control
caused by tab flutter. Since flutter is more prevalent rods, and control rod bearings for elongated
at higher speeds, it is not recommended that the flight bolt/rivet holes, cracks, (especially rod end
test plan call for high speed runs within 10 percent bearings) and sheared rivets.
of red line.

53
AC 90-89A 5/24/95

SECTION 5. SPINS
‘‘Go from the known to the unknown -- slowly!’’ Chris Wheal, Military Test Pilot

1. OBJECTIVE. To determine if spin testing is aircraft is designed for, and will be routinely flown
required. in, aerobatic flight.
NOTE: All FAA spin tests for type certifi- c. During all spin tests, it is strongly rec-
cation require a spin chute attached to the ommended that the pilot wear a parachute and that
aircraft. Even though amateur-built aircraft a quick release mechanism to jettison the canopy
have no such certification requirement, use or door be installed. If the pilot is unable to exit
of a spin chute during testing should be the aircraft because of the design restraints, it is rec-
considered. ommended that intentional spins not be conducted
2. CAUTION. even though the design has successfully dem-
onstrated spin recovery.
a. If the manufacturer/designer of the aircraft
has not demonstrated satisfactory spin characteristics d. If any modifications or alterations have
and safe recovery, avoid all types of high angle of been made to the airframe’s original design or
attack flight testing and placard the aircraft: ‘‘spins configuration (e.g., adding tip tanks or fairings), it
prohibited.’’ is not safe to assume that the aircraft still has the
same spin recovery characteristics as the prototype
b. If the prototype aircraft has satisfactorily aircraft. Spins in a modified aircraft should not be
demonstrated spin recovery and the builder’s aircraft attempted without consulting a qualified test pilot
is identical to the prototype aircraft, the pilot may and/or flight test engineer.
confirm the aircraft will recover promptly from
e. The pilot who conducts the spin tests should
inadvertent spin entries. Further tests to prove that
have experience in entry into and recovery from fully
the aircraft will recover from a fully developed spin
developed spins, preferably in makes and models
(three turns or more) are not necessary unless the
similar to the aircraft being tested. If the pilot needs

54
5/24/95 AC 90-89A

additional experience, aerobatic training with an (1) As the aircraft stalls, APPLY FULL
emphasis on spins from a qualified instructor is RUDDER in the desired spin direction, followed
highly recommended. immediately by full aft movement of the control stick
keeping the ailerons neutral.
3. PLANNING THE FLIGHT. At this point,
nearly all the preparatory work for spin testing has (2) The transition from a horizontal to a
been accomplished. Planning the next flight should vertical flight path takes approximately three or four
be identical to planning for the first flight through turns and is referred to as the incipient stage of the
stalls. IT IS EXTREMELY IMPORTANT THAT spin.
THE CENTER OF GRAVITY OF THE AIRCRAFT (3) During the incipient spin, the dynamic
IS AT THE FORWARD CG LIMIT AND ANY and inertia forces have not achieved equilibrium.
BALLAST USED SHOULD BE SECURELY Many aircraft can recover from the incipient spin
ATTACHED TO THE AIRCRAFT. phase, but may not be able to recover from a steady
a. The aircraft should be tested with landing spin.
gear (if applicable) and flaps in the up position. The (4) The normal spin recovery technique is
pilot’s minimum entry altitude for these tests should to apply full rudder opposite to the direction of yaw
be no less than 10,000 feet AGL with the cockpit (check the turn needle). Move the control stick
secured. smoothly and fairly rapidly forward towards the
instrument panel until the rotation stops.
NOTE: The following procedure is one way,
but not the only way, of conducting a spin (5) Quickly center the rudder and ease out
test and executing a recovery. Non-conven- of the dive. Do not attempt to pull up too rapidly
tional aircraft may require significantly dif- because the structural limits of the aircraft can easily
ferent spin recovery control applications. be exceeded, or the aircraft can stall again. Recover
The pilot should evaluate these procedures from the first deliberate spin after a half a turn.
and determine if they are compatible with
the aircraft before attempting any spin test- c. If the aircraft is not built for aerobatics,
ing. no further spin testing is required, It is recommended
the instrument panel be placarded ‘‘SPINS PROHIB-
b. The basic technique used to get a clean spin ITED.’’
entry is to continue to reduce airspeed at about a
1 mph/knot a second rate in level flight, carburetor d. If further spin testing is required, it is
heat on, and the power at idle. strongly recommended the services of a professional
flight test pilot be used.

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AC 90-89A 5/24/95

SECTION 6. ACCELERATED STALLS

‘‘Does it pass the Common Sense test?’’ U.S. Air Force, Thunderbird

1. OBJECTIVE. To further explore the stall is decreased and the angle of bank is held constant,
characteristics of the aircraft. until the aircraft stalls. It is the most preferred
because the potential violence of any accelerated stall
a. An accelerated stall is not a stall reached
is largely governed by the increasing g load and air-
after a rapid deceleration. It is an in-flight stall at
speed.
more than one g, similar to what is experienced in
a steep turn or a pull up. c. As with every test, plan the sequence of
NOTE: Do not attempt this or any other events. Start with small bank angles -- 30 degrees
extreme maneuver unless the designer or kit will produce 1.15 g. Decelerate slowly, ball in the
manufacturer has performed similar tests on center, do not over control. Work up incrementally
a prototype aircraft identical to the ama- to a two g, 60 degree bank.
teur-builder’s aircraft.
d. The aircraft does not have to develop a deep
b. The two standard methods for accelerated stall each time. The pilot needs only to record the
stalls are the constant g (constant bank) and constant airspeed and bank angle in which the aircraft hits
speed (increasing bank). Most preferred of the two the pre-stall buffet. Recover by adding power and
is the constant bank method in which the airspeed reducing the angle of bank.

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5/24/95 AC 90-89A

CHAPTER 6. PUTTING IT ALL TOGETHER: 36 HOURS TO —————?

‘‘Beware of false knowledge; it is more dangerous than ignorance.’’ George Bernard Shaw
SECTION 1. MAXIMUM GROSS WEIGHT TESTS

1. OBJECTIVE. To develop aircraft perform- f. If the aircraft develops either a neutral or

ance data across the weight and CG ranges. negative longitudinal stability problem, or the air-
craft displays unsatisfactory stall characteristics at
a. Up until this point, all tests have been per- any CG location being tested, STOP FURTHER
formed well below the test aircraft’s maximum gross TESTING!!
weight, with the possible exception of single seat
aircraft designs. A complete series of flight tests at g. These tests should confirm the designer’s
maximum gross weight from stalls, rates of climb, aft CG limit or establish the last satisfactory aft CG
angles of climb, stability, retraction tests, slow flight, location. If the aft CG range is not satisfactory, con-
through accelerated stalls should be investigated. sult with the kit manufacturer, aircraft designer, or
a flight test engineering consultant.
b. These tests should demonstrate that the air-
craft has been successfully flown throughout the CG h. The pilot should avoid the temptation to
range, and will operate in and at the full range of take a live ballast weight up for a ride for three rea-
aircraft weights from minimum to full gross weight. sons:
The findings should be documented in the aircraft’s
(1) The aircraft has not been proven safe
flight manual.
for the higher gross weights.
c. Each phase of the testing should be done
(2) The pilot and passenger are at great
slowly, incrementally, with the same careful atten-
risk. It is a sure sign the pilot has become complacent
tion to detail that should characterize all the flight
and sloppy in his flight test program.
testing.
(3) The pilot will be breaking a contract
d. Increases in the aircraft weight should be
(Operating Limitations) with the U.S. Government,
done in a series of steps. Usually, 20 percent incre-
which is known not to look kindly on such matters.
ments of the maximum payload (e.g., sandbags, lead
shot) are added in the aircraft to simulate passengers i. Pilots should ensure that the added ballast
or baggage weight. The pilot should carefully weigh weight in the cockpit is secured. A seat belt over
and secure the ballast. A new weight and balance some sand bags will not stop the weight from shifting
and CG location must be worked for each new and getting loose in a cockpit. The last thing a test
increase in weight. Stop testing when the aircraft’s pilot needs is a 20-pound lead-shot bag free in the
maximum gross weight is reached. cockpit during a climb test, a landing, or a spin. Tie
each weight down individually, and cover all the
e. The testing up to this point has been done
weights with a cargo net.
at, or near, the forward CG limit. During these tests,
the CG should be slowly, but progressively, moved j. Ensure the ropes/nets and airframe attach
aft between each test flight. Limit the change to the points are strong enough to take the added load.
CG range to about 20 percent of the range. Again Make sure the passenger seat can take that much
the pilot should weigh the ballast and work a new localized weight safely.
weight and balance for each flight. With each CG
change the aircraft longitudinal static stability and k. The maximum gross weight test results
stall characteristics should be carefully evaluated by should be recorded in the flight manual. If there are
using the same technique discussed earlier. Stop test- any changes to the stall speed initially marked on
ing when the designer’s or kit manufacturer’s aft CG the airspeed indicator, it should be changed to reflect
limit is reached. the aircraft stall speed at maximum gross weight.

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AC 90-89A 5/24/95

SECTION 2. SERVICE CEILING TESTS

‘‘Man is made for error; it enters his mind naturally and he discovers a few truths only with the greatest
effort.’’ Frederick the Great

1. OBJECTIVE. To determine the highest alti- (4) Install a portable oxygen bottle, if plans
tude at which an aircraft can continue to climb at are to go above 12,000 feet. (Recommend the pilot
100 feet per minute (Service Ceiling). becomes familiar with the symptoms and cures of
hypoxia and hyperventilation.)
a. Pilots who wish to determine the actual
service ceiling of their aircraft are offered the follow- (5) Review the engine manufacturer’s mix-
ing suggestions: ture leaning procedures.
(1) Ask the local Flight Standards District (6) Maintain communications with an air
Office (FSDO) to amend the Operating Limitations traffic facility at all times.
to permit a climb to the aircraft’s service ceiling,
if that altitude is above 18,000 feet. b. The climb to the aircraft service ceiling
should be made in a series of step climbs during
(2) Contact the local Flight Service Station which engine performance, temperatures and pres-
(FSS) or ATC facility, and reserve a time and air- sures are recorded. At the slightest indication of
space to make the test. engine performance or aircraft control problems, the
(3) Install a transponder (reference FAR pilot should terminate the test and return to the air-
§ 91.215) or get a waiver. port.

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5/24/95 AC 90-89A

SECTION 3. NAVIGATION, FUEL CONSUMPTION, AND NIGHT FLYING

‘‘That’s one small step for man, one giant leap for mankind.’’ Neil Armstrong

1. OBJECTIVES. To ensure all the small but to approximately 1,700 rpm to duplicate the aircraft’s
important aspects of flight have been tested and magnetic field and reads the compass.
found reliable.
NOTE: Conventional gear aircraft builders
a. The Magnetic Compass. The magnetic will have to position the magnetic compass
compass should have been checked for accuracy in a straight and level position for this test.
prior to the first flight. However, the addition and Raise the tail or mount the compass level
removal of equipment, changing of wire bundle rout- with the horizon.
ing, and other airframe modifications may have (2) If the aircraft compass is not in align-
affected the accuracy of the instrument. The follow- ment with the master compass (start at north), correct
ing recommendations are offered: the error by adjusting the north/south brass adjust-
(1) The magnetic compass can be checked ment screw with a non-metallic screwdriver (can be
for accuracy by using a compass rose located on made out of stainless steel welding rod, brass stock,
an airport, or using a hand held ‘‘master compass.’’ or plastic) until the compass reads correctly. Go to
The master compass is a reverse reading compass the reciprocal heading (south) and remove half the
with a gun-sight mounted on the top of it. With the error. On the east/west headings, use the other brass
aircraft facing north and the pilot running the engine adjustment screw to make the corrections using the
at 1,000 rpm, a second individual standing 30 feet same procedures that was used to correct the north/
away facing due south ‘‘shoots,’’ or aligns, the mas- south errors.
ter compass with the aircraft’s centerline. Using hand (3) Check again for errors at each cardinal
signals, the pilot aligns the aircraft with the master heading. Record the last readings and prepare a com-
compass. The pilot then runs the aircraft engine up pass correction card. The maximum deviation (posi-
tive or negative) is 10 degrees on any one heading.

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AC 90-89A 5/24/95

(4) If the compass cannot be adjusted to Riverdale, MD 20737, or contact the nearest
meet this requirement, install another one. If the new FAA FSS.
compass is not available, try a different location in (2) For the airborne test, select a prominent
the cockpit, away from all ferrous metals and elec- ground point along the selected radial, preferably
trical bundles. more than 20 miles from the VOR. Maneuver the
NOTE: A common error that affects the aircraft directly over the point at a reasonably low
compass’s accuracy is the mounting of mag- altitude.
netic compass on/in the instrument panel
(i) Note the VOR bearing indicated
with steel machine screws and nuts rather
than brass.
by the receiver when over the ground point. The
maximum permissible variation between the pub-
(5) If the aircraft has an electrical system lished radial and the indicated bearing is six degrees.
it is recommended that two complete compass checks
be made, one with all electrical accessories on (e.g., (ii) If the aircraft has dual VOR’s, the
radios/nav lights), and one with all electrical acces- maximum permissible variation between the two
sories off. If the deviation in level flight is more receivers is 4 degrees.
than 10 degrees on any heading with the accessories c. Fuel Consumption: a good indication of
on, make up a separate compass correction card that how much the engine is working for each rpm pro-
shows the magnetic heading with the equipment on. duced. For a new or recently overhauled engine, the
(6) Record the findings in the aircraft’s fuel consumption should improve each flight hour
flight manual and create a compass correction card, until the engine finishes its ‘‘break in’’ period, i.e.,
mounting it near the magnetic compass in the cock- after approximately 100 hours of operation.
pit. Make two cards; one with radios on and one (1) To determine the aircraft fuel consump-
with radios and non essential electrical accessories tion, lay out a race track course with 8 to 10 mile
off. legs. If the aircraft has one fuel tank or cannot switch
b. Very High Frequency (VHF) Omni-direc- tanks, do the following: Determine the approximate
tional Radio Range (VOR) Check. The best guide fuel burn to reach 1,000, 3,000, 5,000, 7,000, and
to check the accuracy of the VOR on board equip- 9,000 feet of altitude. With full tanks, climb to 3,000
ment is the VOR Receiver Check found in the Air- feet and run the race track course for half an hour
man’s Information Manual (AIM), available from the at 55 percent power.
Superintendent of Documents. The following is an (2) Land and measure the fuel used by dip-
abbreviated summary of the VOR procedure in the ping the tanks with a calibrated fuel stick, or by add-
AIM. ing measured amounts of fuel to the tank until the
(1) For a ground test of the VOR, a VOR tank is full. Subtract the approximate fuel burn to
Test Facility (VOT) must be used. To use the VOT altitude, and multiply the remainder by two to get
service, tune in the VOT frequency on the VOR the fuel burn per hour.
receiver. It is normally 108 Mhz. With the Course (3) The tests are much easier and the
Deviation Indicator (CDI) centered, the omni-bear- results more accurate if the aircraft has two
ing selector should read 0 degrees with the to/from independent fuel tanks. Take-off on one tank and
indicator showing ‘‘from,’’ or the omni-bearing switch to the opposite tank at the test altitude. At
selector should read 180 degrees with the to/from the completion of the test, switch back to the first
indicator showing ‘‘to.’’ The maximum bearing error tank; land and measure the amount of fuel added
should never be more than four degrees. in both tanks and multiply the quantity by two to
NOTE: The VOT facilities closest to the
get the amount of fuel used per hour.
flight test location can be found in the Air- (4) Run the same test at 65 percent and
port/Facility Directory. It is available by 75 percent power at the same altitude, using the same
subscription from NOAA Distribution procedures. Move up to the next altitude and run
Branch N/CG33, National Ocean Service, the same tests.

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d. Night Operations: should be conducted in (ii) The cockpit instrumentation light-

accordance with the aircraft’s FAA Operating ing is adequate and was tested for reliability of oper-
Limitations and limited to normal climbs and ation during daytime flights.
descents (e.g., 500 feet per minute), pitch angles of
(iii) The pilot has at least 1⁄2 hour of
less than 5 degrees, straight and level flight, and
night time taxiing the aircraft. This practice is needed
coordinated turns of no more than 20 degrees of bank
to familiarize the pilot with a different operating
angle.
environment. Do not exceed engine operating
(1) The main concern for night testing temperatures during taxiing.
should be the availability of a horizonal reference
(iv) The position and brightness of
(e.g., bright moon or artificial horizon).
instrument panel lights, anti-collision strobe lights,
(2) Prior to every night flight, ensure a reli- and rotating beacons will not adversely affect the
able flashlight with fresh batteries and a set of pilot’s night vision.
FLIGHT TEST PLAN procedures are on board. (3) A suggested night flight test plan is a
Some night testing requirements should have already series of takeoffs and landings and traffic pattern
been determined on the ground. For example: entries and exits. The tests should begin while there
(i) The electrical load review of all is still enough light to read a newspaper and transi-
the lights, pumps, instrumentation, and avionics did tion to true night flying. The actual night flight will
not exceed 80 percent of the aircraft’s charging sys- consist of an evaluation of the effectiveness of the
tem capacity. taxi/landing light system, during taxi, take-off, and
landing. The pilot should note any glare on the wind-
shield or light flicker on the instrument panel.

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CHAPTER 7. THOUGHTS ON TESTING CANARD TYPE AMATEUR-

BUILT AIRCRAFT
‘‘FLY.’’ Jonathan Livingston Seagull
SECTION 1. CANARDS

1. OBJECTIVE. To discuss canard flight with pusher propellers need a substantially higher
characteristics. rotation speed on take-off.
a. Canard configured aircraft generally fall (5) To rotate a conventional design air-
into 2 categories: the LongEze design (pusher prop, craft, all that is required is enough airspeed to pro-
tandem seats) and the Quickie (Q2) design (tractor vide sufficient control to attain a positive angle of
prop, side by side seats). Canard configured aircraft attack due to the long moment arm from the main
do not ‘‘stall’’ in the conventional sense. All success- gear (the axis of rotation) to the tail, a relatively
ful ‘‘loaded canard’’ designs have the angle of small amount of lift is required. This lift, generated
incidence (AOI) of the canard set higher than the at a relatively low airspeed, makes it possible to
main (rear) wing. rotate the aircraft into the take-off position slightly
below flying speed. Allow the aircraft to accelerate
b. As the airplane’s angle of attack (AOA) to flying speed and lift off.
increases, the canard should stall first, lowering the
AOA of the main (rear) wing. Since the rear wing (6) In contrast, the canard nose wheel will
doesn’t stall, a characteristic ‘‘buck’’ or ‘‘nod’’ takes stay firmly on the ground until an airspeed is reached
place. Full aft stick results in the canard alternately at which the canard, with full up elevator, can gen-
stalling and flying while the rear wing never reaches erate enough lift to equal the following:
it’s critical AOA and continues to fly. This self-limit- (i) the load carried by the nose
ing stall characteristic makes a properly designed and wheel, plus
built canard aircraft un-spinable. It should be noted,
however, that the accident rate for canard designs (ii) the nose down moment caused by
are approximately the same as conventional designed the friction of the nose and main gear tires with the
amateur-built aircraft because of the following: surface, and the down-thrust vector provided by the
propeller during the take-off roll.
(1) During take-off, the transition from
ground roll to flight can be a more critical procedure (7) Since the main wing may reach flying
in some canards as compared to more conventional speed before the canard, the nose wheel will stay
designs. firmly on the runway until take-off speed is reached.
Rotation will then occur, and the aircraft will literally
(2) Some canards with combinations of CG jump off the ground.
and pitch control sensitivity will be more likely to
over rotate at lift-off. (8) Canards with a thrust line above the
CG will have appreciable pitch trim change with
(3) Some canards have less visible air- power. Forward stick motion is required when power
frame structure in front of the pilot and in his periph- is reduced. While this may not be of any consequence
eral vision. Others have more than enough. These to an experienced pilot, it can be a serious surprise
differences in design can produce a different ref- to an unwary and inexperienced pilot. This unfamil-
erence frame for pilots with many hours of conven- iar flight characteristic might cause pilot-induced
tional aircraft time and may cause initial errors in pitch oscillations with disturbing consequences under
pitch attitude, such as the nose too high on take- some conditions (e.g., an aborted take-off).
off and landings.
(9) Due to its unique design, the canard
(4) In addition, canard aircraft by design aircraft needs a higher nose up attitude when landing
have very different take-off characteristics than compared to conventional configured aircraft. Many
conventional configured aircraft. Canard aircraft canard pilots are reluctant to raise the nose high on

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landing due to the limited forward visibility while stabilized, with the aircraft in a deep stall, that recov-
the nose is up. Consequently, many canard pilots ery might not be possible.
tend to make their approach angle shallow. This shal-
b. Testing for pitch stability in a new design
low angle results in approach speeds quite a few
or a just-completed aircraft built from a kit or from
knots faster than what is necessary. For pilots who
plans is a requirement the pilot needs to consider
prefer visibility to shorter runways, it is rec-
prior to carrying passengers. Pitch stability tests are
ommended that canard designed aircraft be tested
conducted to ensure that the aircraft does not exhibit
on runways a minimum of 1,000 feet longer than
any dangerous flight characteristics but must be
what would be used for a conventional aircraft of
approached and conducted in a logical and sensible
the same horsepower and performance capability.
manner.
Longer runways should be used until the pilot
becomes more experienced with the landing (i) Positive pitch stability is exhib-
characteristics of the aircraft. ited when the aircraft trimmed for hands off level
flight, returns to that state when a control force is
(10) If the nose is held at a too high an angle
applied and released.
on landing, the canard will stall while the main wing
is still generating lift. The stalled canard will drop (ii) Neutral pitch stability is achieved
the nose rapidly onto the runway with enough force when the aircraft remains in the pitch attitude
to damage the nose gear. attained when a control force is applied.
(11) Quickie (tractor engine designs) (iii) Negative pitch stability is dem-
configured canard designs have a limited ability to onstrated when the aircraft departs from the pitch
rotate nose up while on the ground. This tends to attitude attained when a control force is applied and
increase takeoff speeds because the canard and the continues to increase in amplitude.
main wing angle of attack are limited while the air- c. The aircraft should be weighed and the c.g.
craft is on the ground. That is why this design carefully calculated. At the same time, determine the
appears to ‘‘levitate’’ off the ground without much weight needed and the moment calculated to load
apparent pitch change. the aircraft at the most forward and aft c.g. limits
(12) Some canard designs are very sensitive recommended by the designer. Beginning at the most
to rain or other types of contamination on the leading forward c.g., trim the aircraft to a hands off condition
edge and/or top of the airfoil. Contamination in the and slowly reduce the power, maintaining altitude
form of water droplets, frost, crushed insects, or even by increasing pitch attitude. When the stick reaches
poorly applied paint will disturb the laminar flow the full aft position, momentarily release the back
over the canard and lift is lost. When decreasing lift pressure followed by full aft stick. The aircraft, in
over drag (L/D) performance, the chances for an demonstrating positive stability, should return to its
accident increase. original pitch attitude and remain there. The aircraft
should display positive stability characteristics.
2. FLIGHT TEST CONSIDERATIONS.
Technically, a canard type aircraft cannot stall, or d. Other tests may be conducted by adjusting
at least it will not stall in the normal fashion. A the c.g. further aft and observing the tendency of
pilot testing the aircraft for stability characteristics the aircraft. At some point near the aft c.g. limit,
should approach such testing with caution in mind. you may experience neutral stability, or the point
where the aircraft no longer recovers by itself from
a. Under certain conditions, usually consist- the upset. Moving further aft in the c.g. range from
ing of aft c.g. problems, the main wing may stall this point will cause the aircraft to diverge from the
before the canard surface. In this case, extreme pitch- trim path in the direction of the upset (neutral stabil-
up can occur until the canard surface or strakes stall. ity).
The aircraft would then pitch down to a near-level
attitude, however the airspeed would be approaching e. Some designers and builders have installed
zero and the angle of attack could approach or exceed adjustable, moveable ballast containers in the aircraft
45 degrees. This condition (high-alpha), could be so to allow the c.g. to be adjusted forward or aft during
flight. If testing is to be accomplished outside the

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recommended range, it is advisable to consider the decision about leaving the aircraft if the test becomes
installation of a ballistic recovery system or spin untenable.
chute system. In addition, the pilot should make a

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CHAPTER 8. ULTRALIGHT AIRFRAME INSPECTION

‘‘You can learn 10 things by learning one.’’ Japanese proverb
SECTION 1. DIFFERENCES

1. OBJECTIVES. To serve as additional only to FAR Part 103 operation. If they qualify, they
resource for ultralight test pilots and to help the new can be operated under FAR Part 91, if they meet
owner develop a flight test plan for the ultralight. § 21.191(g) amateur-built category or § 21.191(h)
operating kit built aircraft in primary category. Only
2. DEFINITION. The term ‘‘Ultralight’’ means single seat ultralights of less than 254 pounds empty
a fixed wing vehicle that is powered by a conven- weight, however, can operate legally under FAR Part
tional 2 or 4 cycle, gasoline powered engine and 103.
is operated under Part 103. It has one seat and does
not exceed 254 pounds, excluding floats and safety b. Many in the general aviation community
devices. In addition, the ultralight can be unpowered, view amateur-built and ultralights as one and the
in which case the weight is restricted to 155 pounds. same design category, therefore all flight testing
The powered ultralight’s fuel capacity cannot exceed procedures should be identical. While in many cases
5 U.S. gallons. The vehicle should not be able to this assumption is true, there are several major dif-
exceed 55 knots calibrated airspeed at full power ferences between the two designs.
and level flight and cannot exceed a power-off stall (1) Most ultralights are assembled from
speed of 24 knots calibrated airspeed. The term also complete kits, unlike amateur-built aircraft of which
includes two place ultralight training aircraft of 496 the major portion (51 percent) of the aircraft and
pounds or less operated under either the EAA or its component parts are manufactured by the builder.
USUA exemption to FAR Part 103. Most of the kit/ultralight manufacturer’s pilot operat-
a. Be aware that both single and dual seat ing handbooks/flight manuals are usually accurate
ultralights in this performance class are not restricted and address the majority of the information covered

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in the first eight chapters of this AC. The FAA rec- Manual supplied by the manufacturer. The ultralight
ommends the pilot’s operating handbook always be FLIGHT TEST PLAN does not have to be as exten-
consulted by the new owner prior to flight. sive as the one recommended for amateur-built air-
craft but should address all flight conditions and
(2) The changes in ultralight ownership are emergencies called out in the ultralight’s flight man-
more frequent than amateur-built and general avia- ual.
tion aircraft ownership. Although the ultralight is
‘‘used,’’ the new owner is usually unfamiliar with d. With these differences in mind, the next
the its operating characteristics. A comprehensive three chapters will address problems associated with
flight testing/training program should be a high prior- both NEW and USED ultralight flight testing. Chap-
ity safety consideration of the new owner. ter 8 will address pre-test flight inspection, chapter
9 will cover engine and fuel system operation and
(3) New flying skills should be developed. inspection, and chapter 10 will cover ultralight flight
Each ultralight pilot/owner should address the effects testing.
smaller size, lighter wing-loading, lower weight, and
higher drag designs have on low-speed flight. e. In keeping with that professional approach
towards flight testing, it is suggested that a FLIGHT
c. Due to these differences, the FAA rec- TEST PLAN and other relevant safety recommenda-
ommends that each ‘‘new’’ ultralight owner design tions found in the chapters 1 through 7 be adopted
a FLIGHT TEST PLAN regardless if the ultralight by the ultralight owner/operator prior to test flying
was bought, used, and/or the ultralight has a Flight a new or used ultralight.

SECTION 2. THE TEST PILOT

‘‘There is always a harder way to flight test an aircraft, but that path does not need to be followed. ’’
George Kaseote, FAA Test Pilot

1. GENERAL. Whether the ultralight is brand b. The test pilot should be experienced and
new or used, it needs to be properly evaluated. A competent. He/she should have made a minimum of
new owner should enlist the services of an experi- 100 solo flights in similar make, model, and type
enced ultralight flight instructor who is authorized of ultralight and must follow the FLIGHT TEST
to give dual instruction under the EAA or the USUA PLAN exactly. The FLIGHT TEST PLAN should
exemption. examine the ultralight and its performance capability,
beginning with the pre-flight inspection and ending
a. The instructor should test fly the ultralight
only after the test pilot has explored the ultralight’s
only after it has been properly assembled, inspected,
published flight envelope as described in the flight
engine run-in, and taxi tests have been performed.
manual.
It is not recommended that a ‘‘new’’ pilot and a
new/used ultralight ‘‘learn’’ to fly together.

SECTION 3. PRE-FLIGHT AIRFRAME INSPECTION

1. GENERAL. high stress points and once discovered, the ultralight

should be grounded until the damaged is repaired.
a. Ultralight owners should remember that the
light-weight, thin wall tubing design of an ultralight b. The tolerance limit of a tube or fitting can
fuselage/wing structure is particularly susceptible to be significantly lowered by over-torquing a bolt. If
metal fatigue. When aluminum tubing has been a bent or damaged support tube or structure is not
stressed beyond its elastic limit, it takes on a chalky repaired, the bend or dent will become a crack, and
white appearance (corrosion) at the point of highest ultimately the crack will become a structural failure.
stress. Warpage and deformation are other signs of

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NOTE: If a used ultralight has been pur- (4) Condition and operation of the steer-
chased, it is highly recommended that the able nose gear, if applicable.
owner perform a detailed acceptance inspec-
tion on the aircraft assisted by an experi- (5) Condition and attachment of the tail
enced individual who is familiar with the wheel/skid, if applicable.
make and model aircraft. It is also rec-
ommended that all existing hardware (e.g., b. Wing Assembly. The vast majority of
nuts, bolts, springs) be replaced with new ultralight aircraft use a man-made sailcloth material
aviation quality hardware. stretched over a tubular frame. This type of fabric
is susceptible to ultra-violet radiation from the sun.
c. If possible, remove the fabric envelope and If left unprotected, it can become unairworthy in less
check the airframe structure underneath for dents, than 6 months. The checklist should include the fol-
cracks, and corrosion. Check the top and bottom of lowing inspection items:
the spars for compression (wrinkled metal) damage.
Double check all wings, landing gear, strut, engine, (1) Ensure the sailcloth has not suffered
and tail surface attach points for wear, elongated any tears, or abrasion, due to wear or foreign object
holes, or damage. damage.

d. If any previous repairs are found, check (2) Check the sailcloth for obvious ultra-
with the manufacturer to see if damage in that area violet (UV) degrading of fabric strength by examin-
can be repaired and if the repair that was made is ing the condition of the fabric on top of the wing.
airworthy. Compare it to the fabric on the bottom of the wing.
If the top wing fabric shows a significant difference
2. CHECKLIST. Each ultralight FLIGHT TEST in color (faded), the fabric should be tested for
PLAN should include a pre-flight inspection strength with a fabric tester (Maule or Quicksilver)
CHECKLIST. The CHECKLIST should include a to see if it tests within the manufacturer’s serviceable
step-by-step approach to inspection that covers all limits. If no minimum service limits are listed, the
the manufacturer inspection items as well as the fol- fabric should test out at 46 pounds, or 70 percent
lowing suggested items starting at the landing gear. or more, of its original tensile strength, whichever
is greater, to be considered airworthy. If the fabric
a. Landing Gear. The landing gear is the last fails the tests, it must be replaced before further
part of the light-weight aircraft to leave the earth flight.
and the first part to arrive. Since the majority of
these aircraft fly from unimproved strips, the stress (3) Flying and landing support cables
on the gear is high. The checklist should include should be checked for tension, routing, attach points,
inspection items recommended by the manufacturer and condition. Scrutinize the swaged cable ends. It
and inspection for the following: is recommended that a red reference mark (nail pol-
ish works fine) be painted on each of the cables abut-
(1) The condition of the landing gear attach ting the swaged end. If the cable is growing, i.e.,
points and alignment of the landing gear and wheels a gap forming between the swaged end and the
to the longitudinal axis of the fuselage. If the attach painted referenced mark, there is an impending fail-
points are mis-aligned, the landing gear will not track ure of the swaged terminal. Do not fly the aircraft
in a straight line and this will affect take-offs and until the cable is replaced.
landings.
(4) Flight control cables should be checked
(2) Elongated bolt-holes, loose AN hard- for frayed wires and proper routing. Run a rag over
ware, bent tubing, condition and attachment of all of the flying and landing wires and control cables
wheels, wheel bearings, tire inflation, tire condition (wings and tail). If the cloth snags, this may indicate
and brakes. a frayed wire which demands further inspection. If
(3) Brake condition and operation, includ- possible, bend the cable to form a ‘‘U’’ and inspect
ing chafing of brake lines/cables against the gear for internal broken wires. Also, check the cable pul-
struts. leys for wear and operation. Extreme wear patterns

69
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on pulleys indicate misrouting and must be corrected slipping, hence not transferring the desired move-
prior to flight. ment to the engine control.
(5) Check wing leading/trailing edge, wing (3) Check the instrument panel for security
struts, aileron, flaps, spoiler hinges and attach points and instruments for attachment, proper operation,
for loose rivets, cracks, elongation and wear. Ensure and range/limit markings.
that all hardware (nuts and bolts) are of aviation
quality. (4) Inspect for bent or damaged structural
tubing. If a tube is bent, it must be properly repaired
(6) Ensure that the bungee, or return or replaced. Straightening out a bend will only work-
springs for wing spoilers (if applicable), are service- harden the tube in the damaged area and hasten the
able and will keep the spoiler down flat against the time of failure.
top of the wing when not being deployed.
(5) Fiberglass structures should be checked
(7) Check the aircraft’s flight controls rig- for cracks, delaminations, and holes -- especially on
ging every time the aircraft is re-assembled. It is the bottom of the fuselage.
recommended that the cables/rigging for easier
assembly be color coded (e.g., red to red, blue to (6) Examine the seat, seat brackets, and
blue). seat belt/shoulder harness, attach points, clips/rings,
brackets or tangs and other hardware, for security,
(8) Check for corrosion on all metal sur- safety (cotter pins or safety wire), and condition.
faces. Corrosion on aluminum usually appears as a
white powder, rough to the touch. On steel parts, (7) Check the shoulder/seat belt harness for
corrosion takes the common form of rust. Dissimilar condition and proper operation.
metal corrosion occurs when two different types of (8) Check the ballistic chute hardware and
metal make surface contact. To obtain additional mounting assembly (review information in chapter
information on corrosion and treating it, refer to FAA 1, section 3).
AC 43.9, ‘‘Corrosion Control for Aircraft.’’
d. Tail Surfaces. The tail, or empennage
(9) Make sure the leading edge of the wing group, contains two of the ultralight’s three primary
and tail surfaces are clean and free of insects, grass, control surfaces: the rudder (yaw control) and the
or mud prior to flight. elevator (pitch control). In two-axis ultralights, the
c. Fuselage Assembly. The fuselage is the elevators are the only flight controls on the tail. Spe-
backbone of the light-weight aircraft. All the flight cial attention must be given to the attach points, hard-
and ground operating stresses encountered by the ware, and proper operation for both control systems.
wings, tail, landing gear, and engine are transferred (1) Ensure that the primary controls and
to the fuselage at the attach points. Exercise extra trim systems if applicable, have the proper travel,
care when examining these high stress areas because that control cables are properly tensioned, and that
failure of any of these attach points and associated all turnbuckles are safetied.
hardware will cause catastrophic structural failure.
(2) Examine the control hinges and attach
(1) Flight controls should be checked for points on the elevator and rudder horn for wear,
proper operation, travel, and condition of the stops. cracking, and elongation of bolt holes, and security
There should not be any sharp bends in the flight of the rudder and elevator stops.
control cables.
(3) Check the leading and trailing edges of
(2) Check engine controls for proper oper-
the flight controls for damage.
ation; they should be free of bends and properly
secured. Ensure that all control cables are securely (4) Check for wear/UV deterioration to the
clamped to the fuselage to prevent the cable from fabric cover.

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CHAPTER 9. ULTRALIGHT ENGINE/FUEL SYSTEM INSPECTION

‘‘Do not let ego overcome reason.’’ Al Hodges, Ultralight pilot, Homestead, FL (1994)

SECTION 1. ENGINE INSPECTION

1. OBJECTIVE. To provide the amateur- wires, caps, and plug cap restraints on inverted
builder/ultralight pilot with a suggested engine and engines are secured and safetied. Ensure that the kill
fuel system inspection program in addition to the switch, if applicable, is within easy reach and works
manufacturer’s check list items. as advertised.
a. Engine. (6) Check that the carburetor and the throt-
(1) Check the engine mount, vibration iso- tle cable is secured and both operate freely from idle
lation mounts, and attach points before each flight. stop to full power stop.

NOTE: If slippage marks are painted across (7) Check carburetor boots for cracks that
the bolt heads, engine mount, and fuselage will suck air and may create a lean mixture, high
at the time the mount bolts are torqued, a CHT and EGT, and possible engine failure.
break in the paint will give advance warning
the mount is coming loose. (Again, red nail (8) Check the fuel on/off valve, fuel filter,
polish works adequately.) and crossover valve for proper operation and
(2) Check all hose clamps for tightness. position.
(3) Check for fuel and oil leaks. (9) Drain the fuel system of water and
(4) Check air filter for condition and sediment.
attachment
(10) Ensure that the fuel tank is secured,
(5) Ensure that all spark plugs are the cor- full, and if applicable, contains the proper mix (ratio)
rect ones, properly torqued. Check that the ignition of fuel and oil.

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b. Exhaust System. have bedded down in the V of the pulley causing

a significant reduction in belt tension. If corrosion
(1) On most 2 cycle engines, the exhaust is present on a pulley, the belt wear rate will be
system is tuned to the engine in order to have the rapid. During the visual inspection of the fan cooling
proper amount of back pressure. Sometimes, due to belt and pulley, look for evidence of wear and corro-
installation demands, the exhaust system must be sion on the pulleys.
modified. If modifications are necessary, contact the
engine manufacturer before incorporating any d. Reduction Drive.
exhaust systems changes. (1) A large percentage of engines used on
(2) The exhaust system should be mounted light-weight aircraft are 2 cycle air cooled engines
on vibration-damping elements and be safety wired. fitted with a rpm reduction drive. The reduction drive
The exhaust system ball-joints should not be is usually a bolt-on unit which drops the high 2 cycle
mounted under a tension load and they should be engine rpm down to a propeller RPM that is more
lubricated with an anti-seize, heat resistant grease efficient.
to allow the ball joints to move freely. Some exhaust (2) To check tension on most V belts on
systems use springs to keep pressure (compression) the reduction drive, grab the belt and twist. The belt
on the ball-joints. If the engine is so equipped, run should allow no more than approximately a half a
a piece of safety wire through the spring and secure turn.
it to the exhaust system. This would prevent a broken
spring from coming loose and hitting the propeller (3) Ensure that the reduction gear box is
in a pusher configuration or hitting the top of the filled with oil to the proper level in accordance with
wing or tail in a tractor design. the manufacturer’s instructions and drain plug/filter
is safetied.
(3) Another approach to prevent propeller
damage from broken springs is to lay a bead of high (4) Grasp the propeller (switch off and
temperature silicon length-wise across the spring. If spark plugs disconnected) approximately half way
a spring does break during flight, the silicon bead down each blade. Try first to move the prop in an
will hold some or all of the broken pieces of spring up and down motion. Pull away from the aircraft
material in place until the aircraft lands. and then push in the opposite direction. No appre-
ciable bearing slop should be detected in the reduc-
c. Fan Cooling. tion gear bearings.
(1) It is particularly important that installa- (5) Eccentricity of the driving, or driven,
tions of fan cooled engines with enclosed cowlings pulley will cause variations of belt tension with rota-
are designed so that the hot cooling air exits the tion, possibly leading to rapid failure of the belt and
cowl and cannot recirculate back into the cooling engine or propeller shaft bearings. Remove the spark
fan intake. If there are any doubts, tests should be plugs and rotate the engine slowly by hand for sev-
carried out by measuring the temperature of the air eral turns in small steps (approximately 45 degrees
entering the cooling fan. of engine rotation per step). There should be no
noticeable change in belt tension at any position. Any
(2) In most cases, it is unlikely there will
noticeable change must be investigated further (e.g.,
be a problem with cooling belt tension on a new
by measuring the run out of the engine pulley and
engine. On older engines, however, the belt may
propeller shaft pulley with a dial indicator).

SECTION 2. FUEL SYSTEMS

1. GENERAL. Many problems with light- requiring a label stating so. Alcohol can cause seri-
weight aircraft engines can be directly traced to the ous problems in aircraft engines so first ensure that
type of fuel used. Many states allow automotive fuels the fuel source is a reliable one.
to be sold containing 10 percent alcohol without

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a. Test for Alcohol in Automotive Fuel. between water and oil detergents. The fuel filter
Take a thin glass jar, mark it one inch from the bot- should be distinctly located, between the fuel pump
tom of the jar with tape or indelible ink, and fill and the carburetors, to facilitate pre-flight inspection
the jar with water up to that mark. Fill the jar to and avoid the possibility of air leaks on the suction
the top with a sample of the fuel to be tested. There side.
is a clear separation between the water and the fuel.
Put the lid on the jar and shake. Let it settle for (2) Check plastic fuel lines for age hard-
about a minute and check. If the ‘‘water’’ line is ness, discoloration, and over all condition. Fuel line
now above the first mark, the fuel has alcohol in attach points should be checked before each flight.
it. Try another source for fuel and do another test. Always clamp a fuel line at the inlet and outlet. A
slip-on line might slip off in flight. Leave a little
b. Fuel Primer System. Perform a careful slack in the fuel lines to minimize cracking from
inspection of fuel primer bulbs fitted in suction lines vibration.
because they deteriorate over time and are a possible
source of air leaks, resulting in a lean mixture. Primer (3) If the 2 cycle engine has two carbu-
bulbs with plastic one-way valves have been known retors, make sure the throttles are exactly syn-
to break loose and completely block the fuel in the chronized. If not, one carburetor will run rich while
fuel line. Positioning the fuel line so the fuel flows the other runs lean, causing cylinder overheating and
upward through the primer bulb will help minimize a possibility of the piston seizing or being holed.
the possibility of this problem occurring. A perma- d. Causes of High Fuel Consumption
nently fitted fuel pressure gage is recommended
because it can check fuel system operation during (1) Dirty air filter causes a rich mixture.
engine break-in and fuel flow during extreme angles (2) Propeller is not matched to the engine.
of attack.
(3) Carburetor float improperly adjusted.
c. Filters, Fuel Lines, and Throttles.
(4) Fuel pressure set too high.
(1) Finger screens in fuel tanks should be
checked every 10 hours for debris or varnish build (5) Wrong carburetor jets installed.
up from fuel. Nylon mesh fuel filters are preferred (6) Defective float valve.
with 2 cycle engines. Paper element filters should
be avoided because they may severely and invisibly (7) Extreme vibration (propeller/engine)
restrict the fuel flow. This is due to a reaction that keeps float valve open.

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CHAPTER 10. ULTRALIGHT TEST FLYING RECOMMENDATIONS

‘‘Hurrying is a visible sign of worry.’’ Arnold H. Glascow

SECTION 1. THREE RECOMMENDATIONS

1. OBJECTIVE. To list additional items accordance with the EAA or USUA exemption to
applicable to ultralights that will need to be FAR Part 103.
addressed in the FLIGHT TEST PLAN b. Ultralights by their very nature are highly
2. RECOMMENDATIONS. susceptible to winds above 15 mph. All ultralight
aircraft test flights should be conducted in light or
a. Even if the builder/owner or pilot is an B- no-wind conditions.
747 airline captain with 20,000 hours in type, he/
she should NOT climb into an ultralight without first c. Even more so than America’s top fighter
receiving flight instruction from a properly certified pilots, ultralight pilots must manage airspeed. Due
or authorized ultralight flight instructor. This must to its small speed range between stall and full power;
be done in a two-seat ultralight trainer operated in high drag and low weight, airspeed should become
the single most important concern of the ultralight
pilot.

SECTION 2. AIRPORT SELECTION

1. OBJECTIVE. To choose an airport to test fly from one of these locations ensure that a wind sock
the ultralight. or even a flag is installed nearby to give some indica-
tion of the wind direction and speed.
a. Most ultralights are flown out of unim-
proved grass strips. Before test flying the ultralight

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b. Carefully examine each air strip. Note and turbulence during certain times of the day, or
record in the FLIGHT TEST PLAN the surrounding presenting a hazard to flight in other ways.
terrain, man-made structures, power lines, phone
c. Make sure that the strip is orientated
wires, and trees. Record the probability of these fac-
towards the prevailing winds. Before selecting a
tors contributing toward or causing mechanical
strip, make certain emergency strips are located
close-by in case of engine failure.

SECTION 3. TAXIING

1. GENERAL. As explained in chapter 2, taxi- c. Practice the procedures for starting and
ing should be designed and conducted to achieve stopping the engine.
the FLIGHT TEST PLAN goals. In addition to
identifying the ultralight’s ground handing character- NOTE: When taxiing a nose-gear ultralight,
the input response on the rudder bar will
istics at low and high taxi speeds, braking, monitor-
be positive, similar to a car. If operating a
ing engine operation, and developing pilot pro-
tail dragger design, anticipate an initially
ficiency, the FLIGHT TEST PLAN should consider larger input with a decreasing amount of
developing the following: pressure upon entering the turn. If the pilot
a. Cross-wind handling characteristics during is slow in getting the pressure off, the larger
taxi. moment arm -- main gear to the tail versus
main gear to the nose wheel -- will set the
b. Addressing the ultralight’s response to ultralight up for a ground loop.
rapid changes in power (tractor design versus
pusher).

SECTION 4. FIRST FLIGHT DIFFERENCES

‘‘Fly as if angels are watching you and taking notes.’’ Dr. Anthony Romanazzi, DMD and Ultralight pilot
(1994)

1. USE OF POWER. One of the biggest dif- tends to be slower than inputs on faster and heavier
ferences between a general aviation aircraft and an aircraft.
ultralight is the effect very quick changes in power
3. STALLS. Because of their high angle of dihe-
can have on aircraft speed. In a light-weight aircraft, dral, most ultralight stalls tend to be straight forward,
it is possible to go from cruise speed to a stall in particularly during a power-off stall. These
less than 4 seconds. This is due to the low mass, ultralights experience little airframe buffeting. The
high drag configuration, and smaller speed range only stall indications the pilot may recognize are the
characteristic of the majority of ultralights. To avoid ultralight’s slowed forward movement, a rapid
unplanned stalls, make small power reductions over decrease in altitude, and controls that are suddenly
a longer time period while always monitoring the mushy and mostly ineffective.
airspeed.
4. STEEP TURNS. When performing steep
2. CONTROL FEEL. Due to the slow cruise turns in an ultralight, the increasing weight (g load)
speed and lower weight of ultralights, their flight and high drag tends to bleed off energy very quickly.
controls feel light or sensitive. Once the flight control The pilot must monitor the airspeed to avoid
input has been made, however, the rate of response inadvertently setting up a stall/spin scenario.

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SECTION 5. EMERGENCY PROCEDURES

1. ENGINE FAILURES. The single most com- b. Loss of ailerons authority usually can be
mon emergency in ultralight and amateur-built air- overcome with rudder. The turns should be shallow
craft is engine failure. When an engine fails, FLY while avoiding rudder inputs that would generate
THE ULTRALIGHT! Push the nose down to main- large yawing movements.
tain airspeed, pick the landing field, and try to land
into the wind. c. Loss of the elevator is the most serious loss
of control function a pilot can experience. If the
a. If the pilot knows the cause of the engine elevator is jammed in one position, or remains in
failure (e.g., failure to change tanks) and can easily a trail position behind the horizontal stabilizer, the
fix it in flight, they should do so. Do not focus all pilot must experiment with engine power to deter-
attention on restarting the engine. If preoccupied mine whether an increase in power will raise or lower
with the restart, the pilot may be distracted from fly- the nose.
ing the ultralight, inadvertently allowing the airspeed
to bleed off and setting the ultralight up for a stall/ 3. CATASTROPHIC FAILURE.
spin. a. The chance of loss of life or personal injury
b. The best way to prepare for an engine out due to a catastrophic failure of the ultralight can be
procedure is to practice, practice, and practice until reduced with a ballistic recovery system (see chap.
the real thing is a non-event. 1, sec. 3). If control of the ultralight cannot be
regained, and the ultralight is equipped with a ballis-
2. LOSS OF CONTROL. Another emergency tic chute, deploy the chute before running out of time
procedure the FLIGHT TEST PLAN should address and altitude.
is sudden loss of a control function such as ailerons/
spoilers (roll), rudder (yaw), or elevator (pitch). In (1) The pilot must be sure that activation
all emergency situations, all corrective control move- of the parachute is a better choice than any other
ments should be small and slowly initiated. options available. Once the canopy is deployed, the
pilot becomes a passenger.
a. Loss of rudder authority or a jammed rud-
der can usually be overcome with opposite aileron. (2) Even with a canopy deployed, how-
Be advised this is a cross control situation. Large ever, the pilot must remain alert to the danger of
or rapid control inputs could initiate a stall/spin power lines, trees, rocks, water, and highways below
maneuver, especially when the ultralight is in a land- which may obstruct his/her attempt to safely land.
ing configuration and/or operating at a low airspeed.

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APPENDIX 1. SAMPLE CHECKLIST FOR A CONDITION

INSPECTION
AIRCRAFT IDENTIFICATION:
TYPE/SN. lllllllllll ENGINE MODEL/SN. lllllllllll
N NUMBER llllllllllll PROPELLER MODEL/SN. llllllllll
A/F TOTAL TIME llllllllll ENGINE TOTAL TIME llllllllll
OWNER llllllllllllll PROPELLER TOTAL TIME lllllllll
GENERAL:

Builder/Inspector
S = SATISFACTORY U = UNSATISFACTORY
(correct all unsatisfactory items prior to flight) S U S U

REGISTRATION/AIRWORTHINESS/OPERATION LIMITATIONS
AIRCRAFT IDENTIFICATION PLATES INSTALLED
EXPERIMENTAL PLACARD INSTALLED
WEIGHT AND BALANCE/EQUIPMENT LIST
(updated for each flight)
RADIO LICENSE
WINGS:
REMOVE INSPECTION PLATES/FAIRINGS
GENERAL INSPECTION OF THE EXTERIOR/INTERIOR WING
FLIGHT CONTROLS BALANCE WEIGHTS FOR SECURITY
FLIGHT CONTROLS PROPER ATTACHMENT (NO SLOP)
FLIGHT CONTROL HINGES/ROD END BEARINGS SERVICEABILITY
FLIGHT CONTROLS PROPERLY RIGGED/PROPER TENSION
INSPECT ALL CONTROL STOPS FOR SECURITY
TRIM CONTROL PROPERLY RIGGED
TRIM CONTROL SURFACES/HINGES/ROD END BEARINGS SERV.
FRAYED CABLES OR CRACKED/FROZEN PULLEYS
SKIN PANELS DELAMINATE/VOIDS (COIN TEST)
POPPED RIVETS/CRACKED/DEFORMED SKIN
FABRIC/RIB STITCHING/TAPE CONDITION
LUBRICATION
WING ATTACH POINTS
FLYING/LANDING WIRES/STRUTS FOR SECURITY

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Appendix 1 5/24/95

APPENDIX 1. SAMPLE CHECKLIST FOR A CONDITION

INSPECTION—Continued
Builder/Inspector
S = SATISFACTORY U = UNSATISFACTORY
(correct all unsatisfactory items prior to flight) S U S U

CORROSION

FOR U/L AIRCRAFT CHECK

FLIGHT CONTROL BOLTS/PINS FOR SAFETY AND CONDITION

WING/STRUT/CABLE ATTACHMENTS AND HARDWARE FOR SAFETY AND

CONDITION

FUEL SYSTEM:

CORROSION

FUEL LINES FOR CHAFING/LEAKS/ SECURITY/CONDITION

SUMP ALL FUEL TANKS FOR WATER OR DEBRIS

FUEL CAPS FOR SECURITY

FUEL PLACARD

FUEL VALVE/CROSS FEED/ FOR OPERATION AND SECURITY

CLEAN FUEL FILTERS/GASOLATOR/FLUSH SYSTEM

INSPECT FUEL TANK VENT SYSTEM

LANDING GEAR:

INSPECT STRUTS/TORQUE LINKS FOR ATTACHMENT

INSPECT STRUTS FOR PROPER EXTENSION

2
 AC 90-89A
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APPENDIX 1. SAMPLE CHECKLIST FOR A CONDITION

INSPECTION—Continued
Builder/Inspector
S = SATISFACTORY U = UNSATISFACTORY
(correct all unsatisfactory items prior to flight) S U S U

INSPECT FOR HYDRAULIC LEAKS

CHECK ALL BUSHINGS FOR WEAR/FREE PLAY

CHECK LUBRICATION

INSPECT WHEELS FOR ALIGNMENT

WHEEL/TIRES FOR CRACKS AND SERVICEABILITY
WHEEL BEARINGS FOR LUBRICATION

INSPECT FOR CORROSION

INSPECT NOSE GEAR FOR CRACKS AND TRAVEL

INSPECT TAIL WHEEL FOR CRACKS AND TRAVEL

PERFORM GEAR RETRACTION TEST/CK INDICATOR LIGHTS
EMERGENCY GEAR RETRACTION SYSTEM
CHECK TIRE PRESSURE

BRAKE LINING WITHIN LIMITS

BRAKE DISKS FOR CRACKS, WEAR, AND DEFORMITY

BRAKE HYDRAULIC LINES FOR LEAKS AND SECURITY

FUSELAGE:
REMOVE INSPECTION PLATES AND PANELS
INSPECT BULKHEADS AND STRINGERS FOR POPPED RIVETS AND CRACKED SKIN

INSPECT FOR DELAMINATED SKIN/VOIDS (COIN TEST)

INSPECT THE SECURITY OF ALL INTERNAL LINES

INSPECT WINDOWS/CANOPY FOR CRACKS AND FIT

INSPECT DOOR OR CANOPY LATCHING MECHANISM
INSPECT FIRE WALL FOR DISTORTION AND CRACKS
INSPECT RUDDER PEDALS AND BRAKES FOR OPERATION AND SECURITY
INSPECT BEHIND FIREWALL FOR LOOSE WIRES AND CHAFING LINES

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APPENDIX 1. SAMPLE CHECKLIST FOR A CONDITION

INSPECTION—Continued
Builder/Inspector
S = SATISFACTORY U = UNSATISFACTORY
(correct all unsatisfactory items prior to flight) S U S U

CHECK CONTROL STICK/YOKE FOR FREEDOM OF MOVEMENT

CHECK FLAP CONTROL OPERATION

CHECK CABLE AND PULLEYS FOR ATTACHMENT AND OPERATION

PERFORM FLOOD-LIGHT CARBON MONOXIDE TEST

ENSURE THE COCKPIT INSTRUMENTS ARE PROPERLY MARKED

INSPECT INSTRUMENTS, LINES, FOR SECURITY

CHECK/CLEAN/REPLACE INSTRUMENT FILTER

INSPECT COCKPIT FRESH AIR VENTS/HEATER VENTS FOR OPERATION AND

SECURITY

INSPECT SEATS, SEAT BELTS/SHOULDER HARNESS FOR SECURITY AND

ATTACHMENT

CORROSION

CHECK BALLISTIC CHUTE INSTALLATION PER MANUFACTURER

RECOMMENDATIONS

EMPENNAGE/CANARD

REMOVE INSPECTION PLATES AND FAIRINGS

INSPECT CANARD ATTACH POINTS FOR SECURITY

INSPECT VERTICAL FIN ATTACH POINTS

INSPECT ELEVATOR/STABILIZER ATTACH POINTS

INSPECT HINGES/TRIM TABS/ROD ENDS FOR ATTACHMENT AND FREE PLAY (SLOP)

INSPECT EMPENNAGE/CANARD SKIN FOR DAMAGE/CORROSION

INSPECT ALL CONTROL CABLES, HINGES AND PULLEYS

INSPECT ALL CONTROL STOPS

FOR U/L:

CHECK ALL ATTACHMENT POINTS AND CONTROL FOR SAFETY CONDITION

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APPENDIX 1. SAMPLE CHECKLIST FOR A CONDITION

INSPECTION—Continued
Builder/Inspector
S = SATISFACTORY U = UNSATISFACTORY
(correct all unsatisfactory items prior to flight) S U S U

ENGINE:

PERFORM COMPRESSION TEST #1 lll #2 lll

#3 lll #4 lll #5 lll #6 lll

CHANGE OIL AND FILTER (CHECK FOR METAL)

INSPECT IGNITION HARNESS FOR CONDITION AND CONTINUITY

CHECK IGNITION LEAD CIGARETTES FOR CONDITION/CRACKS

CLEAN AND GAP SPARK PLUGS

CHECK MAGNETO TIMING/POINTS/OIL SEAL/DISTRIBUTOR

INSPECT ENGINE MOUNT/BUSHINGS

INSPECT ENGINE MOUNT ATTACHMENT BOLT TORQUE

INSPECT ALTERNATOR/GENERATOR ATTACHMENT

CHECK ALTERNATOR/GENERATOR BELT CONDITION

INSPECT CYLINDERS FOR CRACKS/BROKEN FINS/ EXHAUST STAINS

INSPECT ENGINE BAFFLES FOR CRACKS/CONDITION

CHECK FOR OIL LEAKS INSPECT VACUUM PUMP AND LINES

INSPECT OIL VENT LINES

INSPECT ALL CABIN HEAT/CARB HEAT/DEFROSTER DUCTS FOR CONDITION

INSPECT CARBURETOR FOR SECURITY & CLEAN INLET SCREEN

INSPECT INTAKE HOSES/SEALS FOR SECURITY/LEAKS

INSPECT THROTTLE/MIXTURE/CARB HEAT/CONTROL FOR

PROPER TRAVEL AND SECURITY

INSPECT CARB HEAT AIR BOX FOR CRACKS/OPERATION

INSPECT CONDITION OF FLEXIBLE FUEL AND OIL LINES

INSPECT OIL COOLER FOR LEAKS AND CONDITION

CHECK EXHAUST SYSTEM FOR ATTACHMENT AND CONDITION

CHECK MUFFLER/INTERNAL BAFFLE/ FOR SECURITY

CHECK EXHAUST PIPES/FLANGES FOR SECURITY & ATTACHMENT

REPACK EXHAUST GASKETS AS REQUIRED

CHECK COWLING FOR CRACKS AND SECURITY

5
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Appendix 1 5/24/95

APPENDIX 1. SAMPLE CHECKLIST FOR A CONDITION

INSPECTION—Continued
Builder/Inspector
S = SATISFACTORY U = UNSATISFACTORY
(correct all unsatisfactory items prior to flight) S U S U

FOR U/L:
CHECK CARB BOOTS ON 2 CYCLE ENGINES FOR CRACKS
CHECK SAFETIES ON EXHAUST SPRINGS
PERFORM 2 CYCLE COMPRESSION TEST TO CHECK SEALS
ENSURE SPARK PLUG CAPS ARE SAFETIED ON INVERTED ENGINES
PROPELLER:
CHECK SPINNER AND BACK PLATE FOR CRACKS
INSPECT FOR CRACKS/STONE DAMAGE/NICKS
CHECK FOR DELAMINATION (WOOD/COMPOSITE BLADES)
CHECK PROP BOLTS TORQUE/SAFETY WIRE
CHECK FOR OIL LEAKS (CRANKCASE NOSE SEAL)
GREASE LEAKS (CONSTANT SPEED PROP)
CHECK PROPELLER GOVERNOR FOR LEAKS AND OPERATION
CHECK PROP TRACK
CHECK PROP BALANCE (WOOD PROP)
ELECTRICAL
SPARE FUSES AVAILABLE
BATTERY SERVICED AND FREE FROM CORROSION
BATTERY BOX FREE FROM CORROSION
ELT BATTERY FREE FROM CORROSION AND CURRENT BATTERY
CHECK LANDING LIGHT OPERATION
CHECK POSITION LIGHTS OPERATION
CHECK ANTI COLLISION LIGHT FOR OPERATION
INSPECT ALL ANTENNA MOUNTS AND WIRING FOR SECURITY
CHECK ALL GROUNDING WIRES (ENGINE TO AIRFRAME, WING TO AILERON/
FLAP, ETC.)
INSPECT RADIOS/LEADS/WIRES FOR ATTACHMENT & SECURITY
INSPECT CIRCUIT BREAKERS/FUSES PANELS FOR CONDITION

6
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APPENDIX 1. SAMPLE CHECKLIST FOR A CONDITION

INSPECTION—Continued
Builder/Inspector
S = SATISFACTORY U = UNSATISFACTORY
(correct all unsatisfactory items prior to flight) S U S U

OPERATIONAL INSPECTION:
VISUAL INSPECTION OF THE ENGINE/PROPELLER
ALL INSPECTION PANELS AND FAIRINGS SECURE
PERSONNEL WITH FIRE BOTTLE STANDING BY
BRAKE SYSTEM CHECK
PROPER FUEL IN TANKS
ENGINE START PROCEDURES
OIL PRESSURE/OIL TEMPERATURE WITHIN LIMITS
VACUUM GAUGE CHECK
MAGNETO CHECK/HOT MAG CHECK
IDLE RPM/MIXTURE CHECK
STATIC RPM CHECK
ELECTRICAL SYSTEM CHECK
COOL DOWN PERIOD/ENGINE SHUT DOWN
PERFORM OIL, HYDRAULIC, AND FUEL LEAK CHECK
PAPERWORK:
AIRWORTHINESS DIRECTIVES
RECORD FINDINGS AND SIGN OFF INSPECTION AND
MAINTENANCE IN AIRCRAFT LOG BOOKS

7
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8
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5/24/95 Appendix 2

APPENDIX 2. ADDRESSES FOR ACCIDENT/INCIDENT

INFORMATION
Accident/incident reports for all U.S.-registered make and model aircraft are available from the following
sources:
Federal Aviation Administration (FAA)
Information Management Section, AFS-624
P.O. Box 25082
Oklahoma City, OK 73125
FAX: (405) 954-4655
Experimental Aircraft Association (EAA)
P.O. Box 3086
Attention: Information Services
Wittman Airfield
Oshkosh, WI 54903-3086
TEL: (414) 426-4821
National Transportation Safety Board (NTSB)
Public Inquiry Section
RE-51
490 L’Enfant Plaza, SW.
Washington, DC 20594
TEL: (202) 382-6735

Upon writtern request, the FAA will supply summary formatted computer print-outs on all accidents and
incidents concerning all makes and models of general aviation and amateur-built aircraft. Reports for an
individual aircraft accident/incident, or a summary accident/incident report on all aircraft accidents and
incidents for a particular make and model, are also available. Requests must be in writing via mail or FAX.
The FAA, EAA, and the NTSB require the date, location of the accident, and if possible, the ‘‘N’’ number
for a single aircraft accident. Identify the make and model aircraft (e.g., Poteen Rocket, model OB-1) only
if ALL the accidents/incidents for a particular aircraft design are being requested.
A single, computerized report runs approximately 2 pages in length. If the accident is over 18 months old,
the report will list probable causes.
A processing fee may be charged for each request based on the number and length of the reports
requested.
For Ultralight Accident/Incident information, call or write to the following address:
FAA Safety Data Exchange
ACE-103
Attention: Ben Morrow
1201 Walnut Street, Suite 900
Kansas City, MO 64106
TEL: (816) 426-3580
Service reports and service information also are available by computer by dialing the FAA Safety Data
Exchange telephone, (800) 426-3814. The system operates at 1200 thru 9600 Baud rates, and the other param-
eters are: 8 N 1. It is suggested ANSI or VT100 emulations be used.

1
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2
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5/24/95 Appendix 3

APPENDIX 3. ADDITIONAL REFERENCES ON FLIGHT

TESTING
The following references comprise selected additional information sources on flight testing and first flight
experiences for amateur-built and ultralight aircraft. This list of informational material may help amateur-
builders in preparing the FLIGHT TEST PLAN for their aircraft.

INDUSTRY PUBLICATIONS: Amateur-Built

Askue, Vaughan, Flight Testing Homebuilt Aircraft, (Ames, IA: State University Press, 1992)
Ariosto, James, ‘‘A Two Minute Test-Hop Reveals All Wrongs,’’ Sport Aviation, (May 1970), pp. 29-30.
Bingelis, Antoni, ‘‘A Report on the 1973 Oshkosh Safety and Courtesy Inspections,’’ Sport Aviation, (Novem-
ber 1973), pp. 35-37.
llll ‘‘After the First Test Flight,’’ Sport Aviation, (April 1988), pp. 27-30.
llll ‘‘Flight Testing Homebuilts-Stage One: Making Preparations for Flight Testing,’’Sport Aviation,
(January 1989), pp. 27-30.
llll ‘‘Flight Testing Homebuilts-Stage Two: Making the Initial Flight Test,’’ Sport Aviation, (February
1989), pp. 27-30.
llll ‘‘Flight Testing Homebuilts-Stage Three: Expanding the Flight Envelope,’’ Sport Aviation, (March
1989), pp. 28-31, 66.
Colby, Doug (1986), ‘‘Into the air, Junior Birdman!’’ Homebuilt Aircraft, V. 13, No ?, pp. 44-47.
Dewey, A. J., and Downie, Don, ‘‘Flight Testing the Deweybird,’’ Air Progress Homebuilt Aircraft, (Spring-
Summer 1967), pp. 4-9.
Donofrio, P. R., ‘‘Checkmate,’’ Sport Aviation, (June 1978), pp. 30-31.
Dwiggins, Don, ‘‘Flight Testing Your Homebuilt,’’ Homebuilt Aircraft, (July 1985), pp. 40-43.
llll ‘‘Flight Testing Your Homebuilt,’’ Plane and Pilot, (Annual, 1974), pp. 56-61.
Enman, Ann, ‘‘The Moment of Truth! The Test Flight,’’ Air Progress 1989 Guide to Sport Aircraft Kits,
pp. 16-19.
Experimental Aircraft Association, Pilot Reports and Flight Testing, V. 1, pg. 72 (1977). Selected first flight
reports and flight testing procedures.
Friedman, Peter, ‘‘High Tech-First flight,’’ Sport Pilot, (February 1989), pp. 16, 17, 72, 73.
Goyar, Norman, ‘‘Free Insurance and How to Get It,’’ Sport Pilot, j. 5, No. 3 (1989), pp. 44-49.
Hamlin, Benson, Flight Testing Conventional and Jet-Propelled Airplanes, (New York: The MacMillan Com-
pany, 1946)
Heintz, Chris, ‘‘The First Flight of Your Aircraft,’’ EAA Light Plane World, (May 1986), pp. 7-9.
llll ‘‘Performance Testing Your Aircraft,’’ EAA Light Plane World, (July 1986), pp. 13-15.
Hurt, H. H., Jr., Aerodynamics for Naval Aviators, (California: University of Southern California, 1960 [revised
1965]). NAVAIR 00-80T-80. Issued by the Office of the Chief of Naval Operations, Aviation Training Division.

1
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APPENDIX 3. ADDITIONAL REFERENCES ON FLIGHT

TESTING—Continued
Jacquemin, G., ‘‘Flight-testing for the Amateur,’’ Sport Aviation, (April 1965), pg. 4.
Kerley, Jim, ‘‘Thoughts on Test Flying,’’ Sport Aviation, (March 1970), pp. 34-35.
Ladd, Robert W., ‘‘The Test Flight of Chihuahua,’’Sport Aviation, (February 1968), pg. 4.
Macq, Harvey, ‘‘Test Flight,’’ Sport Aviation, (March 1960), pg. 3.
Mason, Sammy, Stalls, Spins, and Safety, (New York: Macmillan Publishing Company, 1985)
Mitchell, C.G.B., ‘‘Design of the ‘Kittiwake’ Family of Light Aircraft,’’ (Part 2) Sport Aviation, (March
1969), pp. 36-37.
Rhodes, Mike, ‘‘First Flight—Trial by Fire,’’ (Part 1) Sport Aviation, (August 1988), pp. 26, 27, 29.
Smith, Hubert, Performance Flight Testing, (Blue Ridge Summit: Tab Books, Inc. [Modern Aviation Series],
1982), pg. 131.
Sport Aviation, ‘‘Pointers on Test Flying Complied by Chapter 32, St. Louis, MO,’’ Sport Aviation, (December
1960), pg. 3.
Sport Planes, ‘‘The Sacramento Seaplanes,’’ Sport Planes, (Fall 1970), pp. 16-27.
Taylor, M. B., ‘‘Testing your Homebuilt,’’ Sport Aviation, (January 1977), pg. 24-27.
Tausworthe, Jim, ‘‘The Brotherhood of Flight,’’ Sport Aviation, (August 1969), pg. 22.
Thorp, J. W., ‘‘Structural Flight Testing,’’ Sport Aviation, (November 1961), pg. 2.
Wendt, H. O., ‘‘Designing, Building, and Flight Testing of the Wendt Wh-1 Traveler,’’ Sport Aviation,
(March 1973), pg. 10-15.
White, E. J., ‘‘Super Coot—The Fishermans Homebuilt,’’ Homebuilt Aircraft, (September 5, 1981), pg. 18-
21.
Wood, Karl D., Technical Aerodynamics, (New York: McGraw Hill, 1947)

INDUSTRY PUBLICATIONS: Ultralight

Brooke, Rob, ‘‘Greatest Peril,’’ Ultralight Flying, (September 1993), pp. 42-43.
Cannon, Mike, ‘‘Learning to Fly—Again,’’ Ultralight Flying, (June 1988), pp. 5
llll ‘‘Keeping Cool in the Summer Time,’’ Ultralight Flying, (August 1988), pp. 16-17.
Cartier, Kerry, ‘‘Power Failure on Take-off,’’ Ultralight Flying, (January 1988), pp. 25.
Chapman, John, and Smith, Clark, ‘‘Preparing for the In-Flight Emergency,’’ Ultralight Flying, (March 1989),
pp. 32.
Demeter, Dennis, ‘‘Risk Management,’’ Ultralight Flying, (July 1993), pp. 48-49.
llll ‘‘Don’t Forget the Pre-flight,’’ Ultralight Flying, (May 1993), pp. 70-71.
Grunnarson, Tom, ‘‘Getting into Ultralight Float Flying,’’ Ultralight Flying, (April 1989), pp. 27-29.
Johnson, Don, ‘‘Getting the Most out of Flight Reviews,’’ Ultralight Flying, (March 1989), pp. 20-23.
Loveman, Dave, ‘‘Problem-Solving the Cayuna 430R,’’ Ultralight Flying, (June 1988), pp. 24-25.

2
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APPENDIX 3. ADDITIONAL REFERENCES ON FLIGHT

TESTING—Continued
Pagen, Dennis, ‘‘‘G’ forces and your Ultralight,’’ Ultralight Flying, (August 1989), pp. 37.
llll ‘‘Weight and Speed,’’ Ultralight Flying, (May 1989), pp. 20-21.
Peghiny, Tom, ‘‘Effects of Sunlight on Polyester Sail Cloth,’’ Ultralight Foundation, Volume 2, Number
1, pp. 49-50, (1986).

GOVERNMENT PUBLICATIONS:
Send a written request for free Advisory Circulars to the FAX or address listed below.

Department of Transportation (DOT)

Property Use and Storage
Section, M-45.3
Washington, DC 20590
FAX: (202) 366-2795
Advisory Circulars (AC) with a stock number and dollar amount can be obtained from:

New Orders
Superintendent of Documents
P.O. Box 371954
Pittsburgh PA 15250-7954
TEL: (202) 783-3238 (Order Desk)
NOTE: Make the check payable to the Superintendent of Documents.
AC 00-2.8 ‘‘Advisory Circular Checklist (and Status of Other FAA Publications)’’
AC 20-27 ‘‘Certification and Operation of Amateur-Built Aircraft’’
AC 20-32 ‘‘Carbon Monoxide (CO) Contamination in Aircraft—Detection and Prevention’’
AC 20-34, ‘‘Prevention of Retractable Landing Gear Failures’’
AC 20-35, ‘‘Tiedown Sense’’
AC 20-37, ‘‘Aircraft Metal Propeller Maintenance’’
AC 20-42, ‘‘Hand Fire Extinguishers for Use in Aircraft’’
AC 20-103, ‘‘Aircraft Engine Crankshaft Failure’’
AC 20-105, ‘‘Engine Power-Loss Accident Prevention’’
AC 20-106, ‘‘Aircraft Inspection for the General Aviation Aircraft Owner’’
AC 20-125, ‘‘Water in Aviation Fuels’’
AC 23-8, ‘‘Flight Test Guide for Certification of Part 23 Airplanes’’ (Available from the Sup. Docs.,
SN 050-007-00817-1, cost $12.00)
AC 23.955-1,‘‘Substantiating Flow Rates and Pressures in Fuel Systems of Small Airplanes’’
AC 23.959-1,‘‘Unusable Fuel Test Procedures for Small Airplanes’’
AC 61-21A, ‘‘Flight Training Handbook’’ (Available from the Sup. Docs., SN 050-007-00504-1, cost $17.00)

3
AC 90-89A
Appendix 3 5/24/95

APPENDIX 3. ADDITIONAL REFERENCES ON FLIGHT

TESTING—Continued
AC 61-23B, ‘‘Pilot’s Handbook of Aeronautical Knowledge’’ (Available from the Sup. Docs., SN 050-011-
00077-1, cost $10.00)
AC 61-107, ‘‘Operations of Aircraft at Altitudes Above 25,000 Feet MSL and/or Mach Numbers (Mmo)
Greater Than .75’’
AC 91-23A, ‘‘Pilot’s Weight and Balance Handbook’’ (Available from the Sup. Docs., SN 050-007-00405-
2, cost $5.00)
AC 91-46, ‘‘Gyroscopic Instruments—Good Operating Practices’’
AC 91-48, ‘‘Acrobatics—Precision Flying With a Purpose’’
AC 91-59, ‘‘Inspection and Care of General Aviation Aircraft Exhaust Systems’’
AC 91-61, ‘‘A Hazard in Aerobatics: Effects or G-Forces of Pilots’’
AC 103-6, ‘‘Ultralight Vehicle Operations-Airports, Air Traffic Control (ATC), and Weather’’
AC 103-7, ‘‘The Ultralight Vehicle’’
Airman’s Information Manual (AIM): Official Guide to Basic Flight Information and ATC Procedures. For
price and availability, call (202) 783-3238.