218

ORIGINAL ARTICLE

Soccer specific aerobic endurance training

J Hoff, U Wisløff, L C Engen, O J Kemi, J Helgerud
.............................................................................................................................

Br J Sports Med 2002;36:218–221

Background: In professional soccer, a significant amount of training time is used to improve players’
aerobic capacity. However, it is not known whether soccer specific training fulfils the criterion of effec-
tive endurance training to improve maximal oxygen uptake, namely an exercise intensity of 90–95%
of maximal heart rate in periods of three to eight minutes.
Objective: To determine whether ball dribbling and small group play are appropriate activities for
See end of article for interval training, and whether heart rate in soccer specific training is a valid measure of actual work
authors’ affiliations intensity.
....................... Methods: Six well trained first division soccer players took part in the study. To test whether soccer
Correspondence to: specific training was effective interval training, players ran in a specially designed dribbling track, as
Dr Hoff, Department of well as participating in small group play (five a side). Laboratory tests were carried out to establish the
Physiology and Biomedical relation between heart rate and oxygen uptake while running on a treadmill. Corresponding measure-
Engineering, Norwegian
University of Science and
ments were made on the soccer field using a portable system for measuring oxygen uptake.
Technology, N-7489 Results: Exercise intensity during small group play was 91.3% of maximal heart rate or 84.5% of
Trondheim, Norway; maximal oxygen uptake. Corresponding values using a dribbling track were 93.5% and 91.7%. No
Jan.Hoff@medisin.ntnu.no higher heart rate was observed during soccer training.
Accepted Conclusions: Soccer specific exercise using ball dribbling or small group play may be performed as
3 December 2001 aerobic interval training. Heart rate monitoring during soccer specific exercise is a valid indicator of
....................... actual exercise intensity.

P
hysiological, technical, and tactical skills are all important for long periods of the game at anaerobic threshold, but either
to soccer performance. Factors such as acceleration, run- above the threshold (accumulating lactate) or below the
ning velocity, jumping height, and capacity to release threshold (because of the need for lactate clearance).3
energy are of major importance. Because of the length of a Work economy (CR) is defined as oxygen cost at a submaxi-
soccer match, at least 90% of the energy release must be aero- mal exercise intensity, and as much as 20% difference in CR has
bic1; during a 90 minute match, players run about 10 km2 3 at been found in trained endurance athletes at similar VO2MAX
an intensity close to anaerobic threshold or 80–90% of level.10 However, there is a paucity of research into the effect of
maximal heart rate.1 3 4 improved CR on soccer performance. Helgerud et al3 showed
Aerobic endurance performance is dependent on three that interval training increases CR as VO2MAX increases.
important elements: maximal oxygen uptake (VO2MAX), Furthermore, a recent study showed that CR could be improved
anaerobic threshold, and work economy.5 VO2MAX is defined as by maximal strength training without improving VO2MAX.11
the highest oxygen uptake that can be achieved during This approach could be used in future studies to determine the
dynamic exercise with large muscle groups.6 Previous studies effects of exclusively improved CR on soccer performance.
have shown a significant relation between VO2MAX and Running is usually not the favourite activity of soccer play-
distance covered during a match,1 7 and a rank order ers. However, playing soccer is not believed to provide
correlation between VO2MAX and placement in the league of the sufficient exercise intensity over time to improve VO2MAX very
best teams in Hungary has been shown.8 These findings are much.3 9 During interval training, as reported by Helgerud et
supported by Wisløff et al,9 who have shown a substantial dif- al,3 intensity is normally monitored and controlled by hear rate
ference in VO2MAX in members of the top team compared with monitors. During a game of soccer, however, concentrating on
those in the lowest placed team in the Norwegian elite league. team players and opponents and controlling the ball, or anxi-
Recently, Helgerud et al3 showed that interval training ety caused by training or match situations, may lead to heart
(90–95% of maximal heart rate)—running uphill for four rates above what reflects the actual workload.12 13 To achieve
periods of four minutes, separated by three minutes active rest valid exercise intensities in soccer specific training, the
at 70% of maximal heart rate, twice a week over nine weeks— relation between heart rate and oxygen uptake has to be
increased maximal oxygen uptake by 11% (from 58.1 established.
ml/kg/min to 64.3 ml/kg/min). This resulted in a 20% increase The aim of this study was to (a) design a dribbling track and
in distance covered during a game, a 23% increase in involve- a playing session that fulfils our criterion of effective aerobic
ment with the ball, and a 100% increase in the number of interval training, and (b) determine whether heart rate is a
sprints, highlighting the advantages of a high VO2MAX in soccer. valid measure of work intensity in soccer specific endurance
Anaerobic threshold is defined as the highest exercise inten- training.
sity, heart rate, or oxygen uptake, working dynamically with
large muscle groups, in which the production and clearance of
lactate is about the same.10 Anaerobic threshold in absolute METHODS
terms (ml/kg/min) is important, but is highly dependent on Subjects
VO2MAX, and does not seem to change much in percentage of Six male soccer players from a Norwegian first division team
VO2MAX. Owing to the length of a soccer game, the average exer- volunteered to participate in the three different training modes.
cise intensity cannot be much higher than that corresponding Before the study, each subject reviewed and signed consent
to anaerobic threshold. However, players do not actually exercise forms in accordance with the Declaration of Helsinki and the

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Soccer endurance training 219

30 m
x

Cones
Hurdles
10 m

50 m

10 m

2m B

15 m o
10 m

40 m

START Figure 2 Small group play: five a side football, including a

goalkeeper. Several balls were stored in each goal so that they
Figure 1 Soccer specific “dribbling track” for measuring maximal could be rapidly introduced into play to avoid stoppages. Two
oxygen uptake (VO2MAX). The ball is dribbled in the direction of the resting players on each team assisted the playing team by acting as
arrows, with backward running between points A and B. Subjects a “wall” on the sidelines of the attacking half of the field.
were instructed to gradually increase intensity to a level that brought
them to VO2MAX within six minutes.
laboratory test on an indoor high quality soccer field consist-
human research review committee of the Norwegian University ing of artificial curled nylon grass filled with sand. All field
of Science and Technology. Subjects were informed about the tests were performed after a 30 minute soccer training warm
test protocols, without being informed about the aim of the up period. Figure 1 shows the dribbling track for the
study. The mean (SD) age of the soccer players was 22.2 (3.3) endurance training.
years, weight was 77.5 (12.4) kg, height was 180.2 (5.5) cm, and The soccer players dribbled the ball through the cones and
maximal heart rate was 198.3 (5.5) beats/min. The laboratory lifted the ball over the 30 cm high hurdles. Between point A
tests were carried out first, and the dribbling course and small and B the players moved backwards while controlling the ball,
group play were carried out in randomised order. before turning and starting on a new round. Players were
instructed to increase running intensity gradually to a level
Testing
that brought them to 90–95% of maximal heart rate after
Laboratory tests
about 60 seconds in the four minute training bout. The play-
All laboratory tests were performed on the same day. Room
temperature was 21–22°C and relative humidity was 50%. ers carried out two four minute intervals, separated by a three
Subjects carried out a 20 minute warm up at 50–60% of minute exercise at 70% of maximal heart rate. Heart rate was
VO2MAX, running on a treadmill. VO2MAX was determined with monitored using Polar heart rate monitors which were
the treadmill inclined at 3° (Jaeger LE 5000; Erich Jaeger continuously observable by the player during the run. The
GmbH, Germany), as described previously.10 Briefly, running player was also assisted in assessing heart rate by the test
speed was increased by 1 km/h every minute to a level that leader observing the heart rate transmitted by telemetry
brought the subjects to VO2MAX after about five minutes. (Polar Sport Tester). One person replaced cones and hurdles
VO2MAX was defined as levelling off of oxygen uptake despite that fell down. VO2, VE, R, and fb were measured using the
increased exercise intensity, and unhaemolysed blood lactate portable metabolic test system Metamax II (MMX II) (Cortex
concentration above 6 mmol/l. Immediately after VO2MAX Metamax, Leipzig, Germany). The MMX II has been shown to
determination, each subject ran for two minutes at an exercise be valid, reliable, and comparable to the EOS used in the labo-
intensity of 50–60% of VO2MAX directly followed by a ratory test.14
supramaximal intensity run, which resulted in exhaustion
within three minutes. The highest heart rate (fc), measured by
short range radiotelemetry (Polar Sporttester; Polar Electro, Small group play
Oy, Finland) during the last minute of running, was recorded Small group play was organised as five a side, including goal-
as fcmax. Oxygen uptake, ventilation (VE), respiratory exchange keepers as shown in fig 2. Pilot studies indicated that it would
ratio (R), and breathing frequency (fb) were measured using be necessary to use four minute periods of play to reach at
an Ergooxyscreen Sprint (EOS; Erich Jaeger). Unhaemolysed least three minutes in the high intensity zone. Intensity was
blood lactate was determined using a lactate analyser (YSI sought to be as high as possible through the four minute play-
Model 1500 Sport Lactate Analyzer; Yellow Springs Instru- ing periods. Two four minute playing periods were carried out,
ments Co, Yellow Springs, Ohio, USA). separated by three minutes of active rest. Pilot studies showed
that active coaching by encouragement and constructive mes-
Dribbling track sages was necessary to achieve a high enough intensity for
The field running test measurements were performed a mini- some of the players. The measuring equipment was similar to
mum of three days and a maximum of nine days after the that used for the dribbling track.

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220 Hoff, Wisløff, Engen, et al

Table 1 Comparison of respiratory variables between laboratory test and field

training
Laboratory max test Dribbling track Small group play

fc (beats/min) 198.3 (7.9) 185.5 (6.7) 181.0 (4.4)*

VO2 (litres/min) 5.22 (0.68) 4.74 (0.53) 4.42 (0.61)
VO2 (ml/kg/min) 67.8 (7.6) 62.2 (5.0) 57.3 (3.9)
VO2 (ml/0.75 kg/min) 200.4 (19.4) 181.8 (10.5) 171.8 (10.0)
Than (ml/kg/min) 50.9 (4.0)
Than (ml/0.75 kg/min) 150.4 (7.7)
Than (beats/min) 178.3 (8.8)
R (VCO2/VO2) 1.16 (0.07) 0.99 (0.07) 0.94 (0.07)
VE (litres/min) 174.6 (20.7) 138.7 (21.3) 132.0 (15.3)
fb (breaths/min) 55.8 (6.4) 49.6 (2.8) 48.8 (7.2)

Data are mean (SD).

VO2MAX, Maximal oxygen uptake; fcmax, maximal heart rate; fbmax, maximal breathing frequency; VE,
ventilation; R, respiratory exchange ratio; VCO2, carbon dioxide output; VO2, oxygen uptake; Than, anaerobic
threshold.
*Significantly different from value obtained on dribbling track, p<0.05. All training and soccer play values
are significantly different from the laboratory max test.

y = 0.47x + 104 Furthermore, heart rate monitoring is a valid measure of

200
r = 0.97, p < 0.001 actual exercise intensity in these types of training modes.
The results therefore show that it is possible to perform
fc (beats/min)

180 soccer specific endurance training in the form of specially

designed small group play or on a dribbling track, within the
160 intensity zone for effectively developing VO2MAX and corre-
Treadmill sponding soccer performance.3 It should be emphasised that
140 Five a side this requires good organisation, as satisfactory exercise inten-
Dribbling track sity was not reached during small group play without active
coaching—that is, constructive instructions and encourage-
120
100 120 140 160 180 200 ment to the players when necessary. Several factors must be
VO2 (ml/0.75 kg/min) considered when designing soccer specific aerobic endurance
training. Firstly, intensity has to be higher than in normal soc-
Figure 3 Correlation between VO2 and fc at different submaximal cer matches. This can be achieved by altering the number of
velocities during treadmill testing (r = 0.844, p<0.01). A linear players and field size and reducing the time the ball is out of
regression is shown. play.1 The fact that players with the highest VO2MAX had the
lowest percentage of VO2MAX during small group play indicates
that the playing situation designed for this experiment may
Statistical analysis have a ceiling effect for developing aerobic endurance. There-
Data are expressed as means (SD). The Kruskall-Wallis test fore, players with a high VO2MAX may have to train on the drib-
was used to evaluate differences between tests. Spearman cor- bling track because higher exercise intensity is achievable in
relation coefficients were used when appropriate. Cautious this way than during small group play, or they may have to run
calculations from previous studies3 9 and pilot experiments uphill to have the same training response as players with
showed that six players were enough to test the hypothesis lower VO2MAX.
with a statistical power of 0.90 (p<0.05). A problem to be considered when designing a dribbling
track is that soccer is played on a flat surface, and research has
shown that subjects running on a flat surface may not be able
RESULTS to reach exercise intensities close to VO2MAX.14 Therefore,
During small group play, exercise intensity was 91.3% of fcmax or VO2MAX is usually measured with the treadmill at a 3° inclina-
84.5% of VO2MAX. Corresponding intensity in the dribbling tion. In the design of the dribbling track, the inclination
track was 93.5% of fcmax or 91.7% of VO2MAX. fc corresponding to should be compensated for by changes in pace and direction,
90–95% of fcmax was reached after 61.5 (10.8) seconds on the both of which increase workload.
dribbling track, and after 62.5 (12.5) seconds in small group Intermittent work—that is, part of the time is spent stand-
play (table 1). ing still, as seen in soccer play—may overestimate VO2 based
Figure 3 shows the relation between VO2 and fc measured at on fc measurements compared with a continuous workload.
several submaximal intensities on the treadmill (correlation The dribbling track should therefore be designed to be
coefficient r = 0.844, p<0.01). The VO2-fc relation in either of continuous, but allow for some variation in exercise intensity.
the soccer specific training situations was not significantly Previously, the measuring equipment has been too compli-
different from running on the treadmill (fig 3). fc was higher cated for field testing of soccer players, both in terms of weight
on the dribbling track than during small group play (p<0.05). and size. Smaller and lighter (800 g) equipment—for example,
Average VO2 and the corresponding fc were similar in both Metamax Cortex II—has been tested in our laboratory and
playing sessions, whereas, during the dribbling course, VO2 found to be valid, reliable, and comparable to the EOS Sprint
was significantly (p<0.05) reduced by 3.9%, with unchanged used for the laboratory measurements.15
fc in the second interval. The players with the highest VO2MAX On the dribbling track, the soccer players could have
showed the lowest percentage of VO2MAX during the small exercised at an intensity considerably higher than that shown
group play. in this experiment. In fact, in line with observations from
running training (without a ball), the players had to be told to
reduce their intensity in the first interval, so as not to exceed
DISCUSSION the planned intensity of 90–95% of fcmax. Higher exercise inten-
The major finding of this study is that specifically designed sities lead to increased lactate levels and a lower aerobic train-
soccer training fulfils the criteria for aerobic interval training. ing response, and often result in fatigue and failure to

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Soccer endurance training 221

complete the planned training session. A work intensity of

Take home message
90–95% of fcmax is higher than the anaerobic threshold. Activity
during pauses is thus important to reduce lactate build up in
the muscles and subsequently in the blood.16 The high The single most important physiological parameter that
intensity—close to VO2MAX—also limits the length of the describes the amount of work carried out during a soccer
working periods and the number of intervals that it is possible match is maximal oxygen uptake, which is most effectively
trained at an intensity of 90–95% of maximal heart rate,
to carry out. Helgerud et al3 used 4 × 4 minute intervals, which
normally by running. By using small group play and a spe-
seemed to be very effective for soccer players with a VO2MAX in
cifically designed dribbling track, soccer players, who are
the range 55–65 ml. Better trained subjects would probably more readily motivated by playing with a ball, no longer
have optimised training responses through somewhat longer need to carry out plain running to improve their maximal
interval periods or a higher number of intervals, and the oxygen uptake.
opposite is probably true for less trained subjects.
The soccer players in this experiment showed a higher
VO2MAX than that reported previously,4 but in line with results 2 Bangsbo J, Nørregaard L, Thorsøe F. Activity profile of competition
reported by Wisløff et al.9 However, the players in our study do soccer. Can J Sport Sci 1991;16:110–16.
3 Helgerud J, Engen LC, Wisløff U, et al. Aerobic endurance training
not represent a whole team, and, as volunteers for an endur- improves soccer performance. Med Sci Sports Exerc 2001;33:1925–31.
ance experiment, they probably have a genetic predisposition 4 Reilly T, Ball D. The net physiological cost of dribbling a soccer ball. Res
for endurance performance. Therefore, the VO2MAX results can- Q Exerc Sport 1984;55:267–71.
5 Pate RR, Kriska A. Physiological basis of the sex difference in
not be generalised to all groups of soccer players. Monitoring cardiorespiratory endurance. Sports Med 1984;1:87–98.
heart rate during play would give the coach valuable 6 Wagner PD. Determinants of maximal oxygen transport and utilization.
information about training effects. Annu Rev Physiol 1996;58:21–50.
7 Smaros G. Energy usage during a football match. In: Vecciet L, ed.
Proceedings of the First International Congress on Sports Medicine
Conclusions Applied to Football. Rome: Guanillo, D, 1980:795–801.
High intensity, aerobic, endurance, interval training can be 8 Apor P. Successful formulae for fitness training. In: Reilly T, Lees A,
carried out in a more soccer specific way than plain running. Davids K, et al, eds. Science and football. London: E & F N Spon,
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A specially designed dribbling track and small group play can 9 Wisloff U, Helgerud J, Hoff J. Strength and endurance of elite soccer
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10 Helgerud J, Ingjer F, Stromme SB. Sex differences in
a valid and reliable indicator of oxygen uptake in small group performance-matched marathon runners. Eur J Appl Physiol
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economy in trained female cross-country skiers. Med Sci Sports Exerc
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..................... 12 Blix AS, Stromme SB, Ursin H. Additional heart rate: an indicator of
psychological activation. Aerosp Med 1974;45:1219–22.
Authors’ affiliations 13 Herd JA. Cardiovascular response to stress. Physiol Rev
J Hoff, U Wisløff, L C Engen, O J Kemi, J Helgerud, Department of 1991;71:305–30.
Physiology and Biomedical Engineering, Norwegian University of 14 Åstrand PO, Rodahl K. Textbook of work physiology. New York:
Science and Technology, N-7489 Trondheim, Norway McGraw-Hill, 1986.
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