NOTES ON HISTORY OF INDIA ______________________________________________

[Reproduced from the handwritten manuscriptsed.] More important for the history of India were the conquests of the Sakas and Yueh-chih, nomad tri es of !entra" #sia simi"ar to the modern $urkomans% [f1] $he former are first heard of in the asin of the ri&er 'i, and ein( dis"od(ed y the ad&ance of the Yueh-chih mo&ed southwards reachin( north-western India a out )*+ ,. !. 'ere they founded many sma"" principa"ities, the ru"ers of which appear to ha&e admitted the su-erainty of the .arthians for sometime and to ha&e orne the tit"e of Satraps. It is c"ear that western India was parce""ed out amon( forei(n princes ca""ed Sakas, Ya&anas, or .a""a&as whose frontiers and mutua" re"ations were constant"y chan(in(. $he most important of these principa"ities was known as the /reat Satrapy which inc"uded Surashtra 01athiawar2 with ad3acent parts of the main"and "asted unti" a out 45*#.6. $he Yueh-chih started westwards from the frontiers of !hina a out )++ ,. !. and, dri&in( the Sakas efore them, sett"ed in ,actria. 'ere 1adphises, the chief of one of their tri es, ca""ed the 1ushans, succeeded in imposin( his authority on the others who coa"esced into one nation henceforth known y the tri a" name. $he chrono"o(y of the 1ushan 7mpire is one of the &e8ed questions of Indian history and the dates (i&en e"ow are stated positi&e"y on"y ecause there is no space for adequate discussion and are (i&en with some scepticism, that is desire for more know"ed(e founded on facts. 1adphises I 0c. )*-9* #. 6.2 after conso"idatin( his 7mpire "ed his armies southwards, conquerin( 1a u" and perhaps 1ashmir. 'is successor 1adphises II 0c. 9*-:; #. 6.2 anne8ed the who"e of north-western India, inc"udin( northern Sind, the .un3a and perhaps ,enares. $here was aconsidera "e trade etween India and the Roman 7mpire at this period and an em assy was sent to $ro3an, apparent"y y 1anishka 0c. :;-)<42, the successor of 1adphises. $his monarch p"ayed a part in the "ater history of ,uddhism compara "e with that of #soka in ear"ier a(es[f2] 'e wa(ed war with the .arthians and !hinese, and his 7mpire which had its capita" at .eshawar inc"uded #f(hanistan, ,actria, 1ash(ar, Yarkhand, 1hotan[f3] and 1ashmir. $hese dominions, which perhaps e8tended as far as /ya ,in the east, were retained y his successors 'u&ishka 0)<4-)9+ #. 6.2 and =asude&a 0)9+-):; #. 6.2 ut after this period the #ndhra and 1ushan dynasties oth co""apsed as Indian powers, a"thou(h 1ushan kin(s continued to ru"e in 1a u". $he reasons of their fa"" are unknown ut may e connected with the rise of the Sassanids in .ersia. >or more than a century, the po"itica" history of India is a "ank and "itt"e can e said e8cept that the kin(dom of S"irastra continued to e8ist under a Saka dynasty.

?i(ht returns with the rise of the /upta dynasty, which rou(h"y marks the e(innin( of modern 'induism and of a reaction a(ainst ,uddhism. $hou(h nothin( is known of the fortunes of .ata"i-putra, the ancient imperia" city of the Mauryas, durin( the first three centuries of our era, it continued to e8ist. In 4<+ a "oca" Ra3a known as !andra(upta I increased his dominions and ce"e rated his coronation y the institution of the /upta era. 'is son Samudra /upta continued his conquests and in the course of an e8traordinary campai(n, conc"uded a out 49+ #. 6. appears to ha&e recei&ed the su mission of a"most the who"e peninsu"a. 'e made no attempt to retain a"" this territory ut his effecti&e authority was e8ercised in a wide district e8tendin( from the 'u("i to the ri&ers @umna and !ham a" in the west and from the 'ima"ayas to the Aar uda. 'is son !andra(upta II or =ikramaditya added to these possessions Ma"wa, /"i3arat and 1athiawar and formorethan ha"f a century the /uptas ru"ed undistur ed o&er near"y a"" northern India e8cept Ra3putana and Sind. $heir capita" was at first .ata"iputra, ut afterwards 1ausam i and #yodhya ecame roya" residences. $he fa"" of the /uptas was rou(ht a out y another in&asion of ar arians known as 'uns, 7phtha"ites[f4] or Bhite 'uns and apparent"y a ranch of the 'uns who in&aded 7urope. $his ranch remained ehind in #sia and occupied northern .ersia. $hey in&aded India first in 9**, and were repu"sed, ut returned a out 95+ in (reater force and o&erthrew the /uptas. $heir kin(s $ormana and Mihira(u"a were masters of northern India ti"" *9+ and had their "oca" capita" at Sia"kot in the .an3a , thou(h their headquarters were rather in ,arnyin and ,aikh. $he crue"ties of Mihira(u"a pro&oked a coa"ition of 'indu princes. $he 'uns were dri&en to the north and a out *C* #. 6. their destruction was comp"eted y the a""ied forces of the .ersians and $urks. $hou(h they founded no permanent states their in&asion was important, for many of them to(ether with kindered tri es such as the /"ir3ars 0/u3ars2 remained ehind when their po"itica" power roke up and, "ike the Sakas and 1ushans efore them, contri uted to form the popu"ation of north-western India, especia""y the Ra3put c"ans. $he defeat of the 'uns was fo""owed y another period of o scurity, ut at the e(innin( of the se&enth century 'arsha 0C+C-C9: #. 6.2, a prince of $hanesar, founded after thirty fi&e years of warfare, a state which thou(h it did not out"ast his own "ife, emu"ated for a time the dimensions and prosperity of the /upta 7mpire. Be (ather from the account of the !hinese pi"(rim 'suan !haun(, who &isited his court at 1anau3, that the kin(s of ,en(a". #ssam and D33ain were his &assa"s ut that the .an3a , Sind and 1ashmir were independent. 1a"in(a, to the south of ,en(a" was depopu"ated ut 'arsha was not a "e to su due .u"akesin II, the !a"ukya kin( of the 6eccan. ?et us now turn for a moment to the history of the south. It is e&en more o scure oth in e&ents and chrono"o(y than that of the north, ut we must not think of the

6ra&idian countries as Dninha ited or ar arius. 7&en the c"assica" writers of 7urope had some know"ed(e of them. 1in( .andion 0.andya2 sent a mission to #u(ustus in <+ ,.!.[f5] ."iny[f6] speaks of Modura 0Madura2 and .to"emy a"so mentions this town with a out forty others. It is said that there was a temp"e dedicated to #u(ustus at Ma-iris, identified with !ra(anore. >rom an ear"y period the e8treme south of the peninsu"a was di&ided into three states known as the .andya, !era and !o"a kin(doms [f7] $he first corresponded to the districts of Madura and $inne&e""y. !era and 1era"a "ay on the west coast in the modern $ra&ancore. $he !o"a country inc"uded $an3ore, $richinopo"y, Madras, with the (reater part of Mysore. >rom the si8th to the ei(hth century #. 6. a fourth power was important, name"y the .a""a&as, who apparent"y came from the north of the Madras presidency. $hey had their capita" at !an3ee&aram and were (enera""y at war with the three kin(doms. $heir kin(, Aarasimha-=arman 0C<*-C9* #. 6. 2 ru"ed o&er part of the 6eccan and most of the !o"a country ut after a out :*+ they dec"ined, whereas the !o"as (rew stron(er and Ra3ara3a 05;*-)+);2 whose dominions inc"uded the Madras .residency and Mysore made them the paramount power in southern India, which position they retained unti" the thirteenth century. #s a"ready mentioned, the 6eccan was ru"ed y the #ndhras from <<+ ,. !. to <4C #. 6., ut for the ne8t three centuries nothin( is known of its history unti" the rise of the !a"ukya dynasty at=atapi 0,adami2 in ,i3apur. .u"akesin II of this dynasty 0C+;-C9<2, a contemporary of 'arsha, was for some time successfu" in creatin( a ri&a" 7mpire which e8tended from /u3arat to Madras, and his power was so considera "e that he e8chan(ed em assies with 1husru II, 1in( of .ersia, as is depicted in the frescoes of #3anta. ,ut in C9< he was defeated and s"ain y the .a"a&as. Bith the death of .u"akesin and 'arsha e(ins what has een ca""ed the Ra3put period, e8tendin( from a out C*+ to )+++ #. 6. and characteri-ed y the e8istence of numerous kin(doms ru"ed y dynasties nomina""y 'indu, ut often descended from northern in&aders or non-'indu a ori(ina" tri es. #mon( them may e mentioned the fo""owin( E ). 1anau3 or .ancha"a. $his kin(dom passed throu(h trou "ous times after the death of 'arsha ut from a out ;9+ to 5)+ #. 6. under ,ho3a 0or Mihira2 and his son, it ecame the principa" power in northern India, e8tendin( from ,ihar to Sind. In the twe"fth century it a(ain ecame important under the /aharwar dynasty. <. 1anau3 was often at war with the .a"as of ,en(a", a "ine of ,uddhist kin(s which e(an a out :4+ #. 6. 6harmapa"a 0c. ;++ #. 6.2 was sufficient"y powerfu" to depose the kin( of 1anau3. Su sequent"y the eastern portion of the .a"a 1in(dom separated itse"f under a ri&a" dynasty known as the Senas. 4. $he districts to the south of the @umna known as @e3ak-a hukti 0,unde"khand2 and !edi 0near"y equi&a"ent to our !entra" .ro&inces2 were (o&erned y two

dynasties known as !ande"s and 1a"acuris. $he former are thou(ht to ha&e een ori(ina""y /onds. $hey were (reat ui"ders and constructed amon( other monuments the temp"es of1ha3urao. 1ird&arman !hande" 0)+95-))++2 (reat"y e8tended their territories. 'e was a patron of "earnin( and the a""e(orica" drama .ra odhacandrodaya was produced at his !ourt. 9. $he .aramara 0.awar2 dynasty of Ma"wa were -"ikewise ce"e rated as patrons of "iterature and kin(s Mun3a 05:9-55*2 and ,ho3a 0)+);-)+C+2 were authors as we"" as successfu" warriors. II Saka Period #ccordin( to =incent Smith, after first adoptin( #. 6. :; which appeared the most pro a "e, fina""y chose )<+ #. 6. and we may a(ree that this date marks the e(innin( of the Saka period inau(urated y 1anishka. $he order in which the chief 1ushan kin(s fo""owed dou tfu". It is (enera""y a(reed that 1anishka cameafte phises I 01u3u"a 1ara 1adphises2 and II 0=ima 1adphises2 former of these two, a ,actrinised Scythian, must, in 6r. SmithFs &iew, ha&e assumed power a out 9+ #. 6. 'e sei-ed /andhara and the country of $a8i"a from /ondophares, the .arthian prince who, accordin( to the apocrypha" acts of the apost"es, recei&ed St. $homas. 'is son =ima 0:;-))+2 car&ed out a (reat empire for himse"f, em racin( the .un3a and the who"e western ha"f of the /an(es asin. $here seems to ha&e een an inter&a" of a out )+ years etween 1adphises and 1anishka, the "atter was the son of one =a3heshka and no re"ation of his predecessor, he seems to ha&e een from 1hotan, not ,actria, and indeed he spent the summer at 1apisi in .aropan. . . [f8] and the winter at .urushapura 0.eshawar2 the a8is of his empire was no "on(er in the 0midst )[f9] of the /raeco-"ranian country. $he empire of 1anishaka did not "ast "on(. Gf his two sons, =asishka and 'a&ishka on"y the second sur&i&ed him. $he power of the 1ushans in the third century was reduced to ,actria with 1a u" and /andhara, and they fe"" eneath the yoke of the Sassanids. Kshatrappas or Satraps. $his tit"e, which is Iranian, is orne y two dynasties founded y the Sakas ho had een dri&en from their country y the Yuch-chi in&asion. I. $he first was esta "ished in Surashtra 01athewar2. Gne prince of this "ine !hasthana, seems to ha&e he"d Ma"wa efore the (reat days of the 1ushans and to ha&e ecome a &assa" of 1anishkaH he ru"ed o&er D33ayini, which was the centre of the Indian ci&i"isation. II. $he second "ine to which the name of 1shaharata is more particu"ar"y attached, was the hereditary foe of the #ndhras H it ru"ed o&er Maharashtra, the country etween modern Surat and ,om ay. It was this "atter Saka state that was

annihi"ated y the Satakarni and it was the former which arran(ed it, when Rodraman, the Satrap of D33ayni conquered the #ndhra 1in(. $he anta(onism etween the eastern I western states seems to ha&e een accompanied y a difference of idea"s. $he Sakas, "ike a"" the Scythians of India or Serindia, such as the $horkhans, retained from their forei(n ori(in a sympathy for ,uddhism, whereas the #ndhras were keen supporters of ,rahmanism. The Guptas $he e&ents of the third century are unknown to history and we ha&e &ery, "itt"e information a out the 1ushan empire. 6ay "i(ht returns in 4);-)5, when there arises in the o"d country of Ma(adha a new dynasty-/upta. $he /uptas-!handra(upta II conquered the country of Ma"&as, /u3rathand Surashtra 01athiwar2 o&erthrowin( the )st (reat Satrap of the Saka dynasty of D33ain. #s an e8tension of his territory westward he made #yodhya and 1ausam i his capita"s instead of.ata"iputra. # out )** 0,.!.2 he conquered the who"e of the "ower Indus and 1athewar, wa(ed war in Ra3putana, and Gudh ut took Mathura 0Muttra2 on the @umna, and e&en reached .ata"iputra. . 'e was se&ere"y defeated y .ushyamitra 0J2. ,actriana was at "east in the north, a arrier etween .arthia and India. India was therefore "ess e8posed to attack from .arthia. Ae&erthe"ess, there was at "east one .arthian ru"er, Mithradates )0):)-)4C2 who anne8ed the country of $a8i"a for a few years, a out )4;. End o the independen!e o Parthia and "a!tria $he e&ent that put an end to the independence of .arthia and ,actria was a new in&asion, resu"tin( from a mo&ement of tri es, which had taken p"ace far away from India in the Mon(o"ian steppes. # out ):+ 0,.!.2 a horde of nomadic Scythians, the Yuch-chi or $okharians, ein( dri&en from /o i, the present 1ansu, y the 'ian(-nu or 'uns, started on a wi"d mi(ration which upset the who"e a"ance of #sia. $hey fe"" on the Sakas, who were Iranianised Scythians dwe""in( north of the .ersion empire and sett"ed in their (ra-in( (rounds north of the @a-artes. $he e8pe""ed Sakas fe"" on .arthia and ,actriana, o "iteratin( the "ast &esti(es of /reek ru"e, etween )9+ and )<+ 0,. !.2 $hen the $okharians, ein( defeated in their turns y the Bu-Sun tri e, esta "ished themse"&es on the G8us, and after that took a"" the country of the Sakas in eastern Iran at the entrance to India. $hat entrance was found in the first century after !hrist. $he conquest of India was the work of the 1ushans 01ushana2, a dynasty which united the Yue-!hi tri es and esta "ished their dominion oth o&er their own kinsfo"k the Sakas of .arthia and o&er peop"es of the .un3a . $he accession of the principa" 1in( of this "ine, 1anishka, was p"aced at

uncertain dates etween *: ,. !. and #. 6. <++. .ushyamitraa mayor of the .a"ace as Sy rani ?i&i ca""ed him. The Selected Empire ru"ed y #ntiochos III 0<C)-<9C ,.!.2 and "ost two pro&inces .arthia and ,actriana which emancipated themse"&es simu"taneous"y. $he .arthians whom the Indians ca""ed .aha"&as, were re"ated to the nomads of the $urkoman steppes and occupied the country south-east of the !aspian. $he ,actrians ordered on the .arthians on the north-east and were sett"ed etween the 'indu 1ush and the G8us H the num er and wea"th of their towns were "e(endary. $hese two peop"es seem to ha&e taken ad&anta(e of the difficu"ties of #ntiochos and his successors, Se"eucos II 0<9C-<<C ,.!.2 and III 0<<C-<<4 ,.!.2 in the west to reak away. $he .arthian re&o"t was a natura" mo&ement, "ed y #rsaces, the founder of a dynasty which was to ru"e .ersia for near"y *++ years. $he ,actrian risin( was rou(ht a out y the am ition of a /reek satrap. 6iodotos, represents an out reak of 'e""ennism in the heart of #sia. $here is no dou t that the formation of these enterprisin( nations on the Indo"ranian order he"ped to shake the empire of #shoka in the time of his successors. $he .un3a , once a .ersian satrapy and then a pro&ince of #"e8ander, was to find itse"f sti"" more e8posed to attack, now that sma""er ut tur u"ent states had arisen at its doors. #fter 6iodotos I I II, the 1in( of ,actria was 7uthidemes, who went to war with #ntioches the /reat of Syria. .eace was conc"uded with the reco(nition of ,actrian independence a out <+;. ,ut durin( hosti"ities Syrian troops had crossed the 'indu 1ush and entemin( the 1a u" &a""ey had se&ere"y dispoi"ed the ru"er Su ha(asena. 6emetrius, the son of 7nthidemos, increased his dominion not on"y in the present #f(hanistan ut in India proper, and ore the tit"e of 1in( of the Indians 0<++-)5+2. ,etween )5+ and );+ there were /reek ad&enturers rei(nin( at $a8i"a, named .a"eon I #(athoc"es. >rom )C+ to )9+ rou(h"y, 1a u" and the .un3a were he"d y a pure /reek, Mi"inda or Minander, who "eft a name in the history of ,uddhism. I## Huns In the "ast years of 1umar(upta new Iranian peop"es assai"ed the empire, ut they were kept ack from the frontiers. Dnder Skanda(upta, the first wa&e of formida "e mi(ration came down upon the same frontiers. $his consisted of nomad Mon(o"oids to whom India afterwards (a&e the (enuine name of Huna$ under which we reco(nised the 'uns who in&ated 7urope. $hose who reached India after the midd"e of the fifth century were white 'uns or 7phtha"ites, who in type were c"oser to the $urks than to the hideous fo""owers of

#tti"a. #fter a ha"t in the &a""ey of the G8us they took possession of .ersia and 1a u". Skanda(upta had dri&en them off for a few years 09** #. 6.2 ut after they had s"ain >iro- the Sassanid in 9;9, no Indian state cou"d stop them. Gne of them, named $oramana, esta "ished himse"f amon( theMa"a&as in *++ and his son Mihir(u"a set up his capita" at Sako"0Sia"kot2 in the .un3a . # nati&e prince Yeshodharman shook off the yoke of Mihir(u"a. $he e8pu"sion of the 'uns was not quite comp"ete e&erywhere. # (reat many resided in the asin of the Indus. #t the e(innin( of the :th century a power arose from the chaos in the sma"" principa"ity of Sthan&is&ara 0$haneshwar, near 6e"hi2. 'ere a coura(eous Ra3a .ra hakar =ardhan or(anised a kin(dom, which showed its mett"e a(ainst the /ur3ars, the Ma"was and other nei(h ourin( princes. Short"y after his death in C+9 or C+* his e"dest son was murdered y the orders of the kin( of/auda in ,en(a". $he power fe"" to his youn(er rother 'arsha.