Mechanics of Solids by Crandall, Dahl, Lardner, 1st Chapter

Chapter: 1
Fundamental Principles of
Mechanics
Mechanics of Solids Vikas Cahudhari 1

Mechanics
Study of Force & Motion

Mechanics
Study of Force & Motion
Gross/Overall Motion
(Dynamics)
KINETICS KINEMATICS
Mechanics
Motion
Localized Motion (Deformation)

(STATICS)
Rigid Bodies Deformable bodies

Topics to be addressed for Ch-1
• Force
• Moment
• Types of loading
• Types of Support & related Reactions
• Free Body Diagrams
• Equilibrium Conditions
• Trusses & Frames
• Friction
Definitions
Matter: Matter is actually made up of atoms
and molecules. Since this is too complex,
matter is taken to be continuously distributed-
a continuum; it may be rigid or deformable.
Particle: A material with negligibly small

dimensions is called a 'particle', the mass
being concentrated at a point. The concept is
analogous to that of a point in geometry, which
has position but no dimensions.

However, there is a difference in that a particle,
being a material, has mass while a point, being
only a geometrical concept, has none.
Body: A collection of particles is called a 'body'. It

may be a rigid body or an elastic or deformable
body.
Rigid Body: The particles in a rigid body are so

firmly connected together that their relative
positions do not change irrespective of the forces
acting on it. Thus the size and shape of a rigid
body are always maintained constant
Elastic Body: A body whose size and shape can
change under forces is a deformable body.
When the size and shape can be regained on
removal of forces, the body is called an elastic
body.
Scalar Quantity: A quantity which is fully

described by its magnitude only is a scalar.
Arithmetical operations apply to scalars.
Examples are: Time, mass, area and speed.

Vector Quantity: A quantity which is described by
its magnitude and also its direction is a vector.
Operations of vector algebra are applicable to
vectors. Examples are: Force, velocity, moment of
a force and displacement .
Mass: The quantum of matter in a body is

characterized by its 'mass', which is measure of its
inertia, or its resistance to change of velocity. It is
the property of a body by virtue of which it can
experience attraction to other bodies. The symbol
used is 'm'.
Analysis of Engineering systems
¾ Study of forces
• (Tensile, Compressive, Shear, Torque, Moments)
¾ Study of motion
• (Straight, curvilinear, displacement, velocity,
acceleration.)
¾ Study of deformation
• (Elongation, compression, twisting)
¾ Application of laws relating the forces to the
deformation
In some special cases one or more above mentioned steps
may become trivial
e.g. For rigid bodies deformation will be negligible.
If system is at rest, position of system will be independent
of time.
Step-By-Step procedure to solve problems in
mechanics of solids
¾ Select actual/real system of interest.
¾ Make assumptions regarding desired characteristics of

the system
¾ Develop idealized model of the system

(Structural and Machine elements)
¾ Apply principles of mechanics to the idealized model to

compare these calculated results with the behaviour of
the actual system
Contd…
¾If the results (calculated and actual) differ
widely repeat above steps till satisfactory
idealized model is obtained.

Force
Force: In physics, a net force acting on a body causes
that body to accelerate; that is, to change its velocity. The
concept appeared first in the second law of motion of
classical mechanics.
There are three basic kinds of forces as mentioned below
•Tensile force or pull

•Compressive force or push
•Shear force
Tensile Force or Pull
•When equal and opposite forces are

applied at the ends of a rod or a bar away
from the ends, along its axis, they tend to
pull the rod or bar. This kind of a force is
called a tensile force or tension.

Compressive Force or Push
•When equal and opposite forces act at

the ends of a rod or a bar towards the
ends along its axis, they tend to push the
rod or the bar. This kind of force is called a
compressive force or compression.

Shear Force
When equal and opposite forces act on the
parallel faces of a body, shear occurs on these
planes. This tends to cause an angular
deformation as shown.

• One Newton is force which gives an acceleration
of 1 m/s2 to a mass of 1 kg.
• A mass of 1kg on earth’s surface will experience a

gravitational force of 9.81 N.
• Hence a mass of 1kg has because of gravitational

force of the earth, a weight of 9.81 N.

System of Forces
Coplanar Non-Coplanar
Collinear
Concurrent Concurrent
Parallel, Non-
concurrent Parallel
Non-concurrent &
Non-concurrent & Non-Parallel
Non-Parallel
System of Force
• Terms to be familiar with
– Concurrent Forces (a)
– Parallel Forces (b)
– Line of Action (c)
– Coplanar Forces
(c)

Forces
Coplanar & Non-Concurrent

Resultant Force
If a force system acting on a body can be replaced
by a single force, with exactly the same effect on
the body, this single force is said to be the
'resultant' of the force system.
F1 F2 F3 R

Law of parallelogram of forces:
If two forces acting at a point are represented in
magnitude and direction by the adjacent sides of
a parallelogram, then their resultant is
represented by the diagonal passing through the
point of intersection of the two sides representing
the forces.
F1
F F = (F12 + F22 + 2F1 F2 cosθ)1/2
P F2
Lami’s Theorem
γ
P Q
β
O
α P Q R
R = =
sin α sin β sin γ
If three forces acting at a point are in equilibrium, each

force is proportional to the sine of the angle between
the other two.
Superposition Principal
If a system is acted up on a set of forces, then the net
effect of these forces is equal to the summation net effect
of individual force.
This principle is applicable for linear systems.
F2 F2
= + +
F1 F3 F1 F3
The moment of force
The moment of force F about a point O is r X F.

Moment = r×F
¾The moment itself is a vector quantity.
¾ Its direction is perpendicular to the
plane determined by OP and F.
¾The sense is fixed by the right hand rule
¾From calculus the magnitude of the
cross product r×F = F r sinφ, Where r sinφ
is the perpendicular distance between
point O and vector F.
Moment M = F X x
F

Ex. 1 on Moment
15 kN
30o
4m

Solution for Ex. 1 on Moment
15 sin 30 kN
15 kN
30o
4m
Mo = 15sin30 kN X 4 m = 30 kN-m (CCW)

Ex. 2 on Moment
10 kN
4m

10 kN
4m
Mo = 10 kN X 2 m = 20 kN-m (CW)

Ex. 3 on Moment
10 kN
2m O
4m

10 kN
2m O
4m
Mo = 10 kN X 2 m = 20 kN-m (CW)

Ex. 4 on Moment
y
F
z
d
Mz = F kN X d m = Fd kN-m
Ex. 5 on Moment
y
z
d
My = F kN X d m = Fd kN-m
Ex. 6 on Moment
y
F1
F2
z
d
MR = (Mz2 + My2)1/2 kN-m

CALCULATE THE MOMENT 400 N FORCE ABOUT THE
POINT O
40
mm 400 cos 60
400 sin 60
Let, CCW moments are +ve and CW -ve
MO = 400 cos 60 (40)x10-3 – 400 sin 60 (120)x10-3
MO = - 33.6 Nm MO = 33.6 Nm (CW)

Couple
A special case of moments is a couple. A couple consists
of two parallel forces that are equal in magnitude, opposite
in direction. It does not produce any translation, only
rotation. The resultant force of a couple is zero. BUT, the
resultant of a couple is not zero; it is a pure moment.
d a
A B
F F
Sum of the moments of both the forces about B, we have total
moment
MB = F * (a+d) - (F) * a = Fd (CCW)
d - distance between the forces.

About couple….
• This result is independent of the location of B.
• Moment of a couple is the same about all points in

space.
• A couple may be characterized by a moment

vector without specification of the moment center
B, with magnitude Fd.
• Encircling arrow indicates moment of a couple.

Types of Loading

Types of Loading
1. Concentrated Load / Point Load
F F

Types of Loading
2. Uniformly Distributed Load (UDL)

Types of Loading
3. Uniformly Varying Load (UVL)

Types of Loading
4. Uniformly Varying Load (UVL)

Types of Loading
5. Moment (Pure Bending Moment)
y
MB

Types of Loading
6. Moment
y
x z
MT
z
MT Twisting Moment
Support
&
Reaction at the Support

Types of Supports & Reactions
1. Simple Support
F
A B
RA RB
2. Simple Support with hinge at A & B
F
A B
HB
HA
RA RB
3. Roller Support
F
A B
RA RB
4. Roller support & Simple support
F
A B
RA RB
5. Fixed support & roller support
F
A B
(RA)H
MA (RA)V (RB)V
6. Smooth/Frictionless Support

7. Frictional Support
FS = μN

Force Transmitting properties of some idealized mechanical elements

Equilibrium Conditions

Equilibrium
Static Eqlbm Dynamic Eqlbm
If the resultant force acting on a particle is zero then that

can be called as equilibrium
Dynamic Equilibrium
The body is said to be in equilibrium condition when the acceleration is zero
Static Equilibrium
The static body is in equilibrium condition if the resultant force acting on it is
zero
Necessary and sufficient
condition
for body to be in Equilibrium
Summation of all the FORCES should be
zero
ΣF=0
Summation of all the MOMENTS of all the
forces about any arbitrary point should be
zero
ΣM=0
Two Force Member
• Two forces can’t have random orientation, must be

along AB & FA=FB
FA
FA FB A
B
FB
Non-equilibrium condition Equilibrium Condition

Three Force Member
• Three forces can’t have random orientation
FB FA FB
FA
FC
FC
• All must lie in the plane ABC if total moment about

each of the points A,B & C is to vanish.
• They must all intersect in a common point O.
GENERAL COPLANER FORCE SYSTEM
• External forces acting on a system in equilibrium all lie in the plane

of sketch.
• Three of six general scalar equations of equilibrium are satisfied: no
force components perpendicular to the plane , & If moments are
taken about a point O lying in the plane, the only moment
components will be perpendicular to the plane.
• Hence for 2-dimensional problem, three independent scalar
conditions of equilibrium remains.
i.e ∑FX = 0
∑FY =0 and
∑M =0

Statically Determinate System
• If it is possible to determine all the
forces involved by using only the
equilibrium requirements without regard
to deformations, such systems are called
statically determinate.
• Use of equilibrium conditions to solve for
unknown forces from known forces.

Statically Indeterminate Systems

Ex. 1.8 Crandal
Statically Indeterminate Situation
1 kN
3.0 m
A B
2.2 m

Engineering Application
• STEPS IN GENERAL METHOD OF ANALYSIS

1. SELECTION OF SYSTEM
2. IDEALIZATION OF SYSTEM CHARACTERISTICS
• FOLLOWED BY
1. STUDY OF FORCES & EQUILIBRIUM
REQUIREMENTS
2.STUDY OF DEFORMATION & CONDITIONS OF
GEOMETRIC FIT
3.APPLICATION OF FORCE-DEFORMATION
RELATIONS

Free –body diagram
The sketch of the isolated component
from a system / and all the external forces
acting on it is often called a free- body
diagram

B
B Y W RY
W A
X A RX
Z
RBA
RZ
W
RX
W RY
RAB
RZ
FBD for A
Mechanics of Solids Vikas Cahudhari FBD for B 72
B
W
A
Z W
X
Y 30o
RBA
W
RZ
W
RBA
RY
N RX
FBD for A
Mechanics of Solids Vikas Cahudhari FBD for B 73
Example

Determine the forces at B and C
Idealization
1. Neglect the friction at pin joints
2. Ignore the self weight of rods

Free body diagram of the frame

Free body diagrams of bar BD and CD
i.e. Isolation from the system

Σ Fy= 0
FB sin 45- 20 = 0
FB = 28.28 kN
Σ Fx= 0
FC - FB cos 45 = 0
FC = 20 kN

Trusses

Trusses
• Trusses are designed to support the loads
and are usually stationary, fully
constrained structures. All the members of
a truss are TWO FORCE members

Use of truss
1. Construction of roof
2. Bridges

3. Transmission line towers.

Relation between number of joints and member in
trusses
m = 2j - 3
If a truss obeys the equation, is called Perfect
truss (just rigid truss)
If no. of members are more than this equation
then it is called Redundant truss (over rigid
truss)
If no. of members are less than this equation
then it is called Deficient truss (under rigid
truss)

Method of analysis of truss
1.Joint equilibrium method

2.Section equilibrium method

Joint Equilibrium Method
In this method using FBD for each joint, equilibrium of the
joints of the truss is consider one at a time. At each joint it is
necessary to satisfy the static equilibrium equations. This
method is suitable, when it is asked to calculate forces in all
the members of the truss
Only two static equilibrium equations will be satisfied at a
time because Σ M = 0 will always be satisfied for concurrent
force system.
Only two unknown forces will be determined at a time.

Step by step procedure of joint equilibrium method
1. Draw a FBD of an entire truss showing the external forces acting on
it. (i.e. applied forces/ loads and reactions)
2. Obtain the magnitude and direction of reactions by using the static
equilibrium equations.
3. Select a joint where only two unknown forces exit and draw its FBD
assuming all unknown forces tensile.
4. Apply the equilibrium equations to the joint, which will give the forces
in the members.
5. If the obtained value is –ve then our assumed direction is wrong.
Change the nature of force.
6. Apply the above steps to each joint and determine the forces.
7. At the end, redraw the truss and show the correct direction as well as
its magnitude of force in each member.

W W
F B F
C
A AX
CY
AY

B
FAB FBC
Compression
FAB FBC
A Tension C
FAC FAC

Calculate the force in each member of the loaded truss.

2 KN
CX
AY CY
Σ FX = 0 = CX – 2 CX = 2 KN
Σ MC = 0 = 2 x 3 – AY x 6 AY = 1 KN
Σ FY = 0 = AY - CY CY = 1 KN
FAE
FAB
A
AY
At Joint A
Σ FY = 0 = AY - FAE sin 45 --- FAE = 1.414 kN (C)
Σ FX = 0 = FAB – FAE cos 45 ---- FAB = 1 kN (T)
E FDE
FAE
FBE
FAB
A
AY
At Joint E
Σ FY = 0 = FAE cos 45 - FBE --- FBE = 1 kN (T)
Σ FX = 0 = FAE sin 45 - FDE ---- FDE = 1 kN (C)

E FDE
FAE
FBE FBD
FAB FBC
A
B
AY
At Joint B
Σ FY = 0 = FBE - FBD sin 45 --- FBD = 1.414 kN (C)

Σ FX = 0 = FBC – FAB – FBD cos 45 -- FBC = 2 kN (T)
E 2 kN
FDE
D
FAE FCD
FBE FBD
CX
FAB FBC
A
B C CY
AY
At Joint C
Σ FY = 0 = FCD - CY --- FCD = 1 kN (T)

Sr. No. Member Force Nature of force
1 AE 1.414 kN Compressive
2 AB 1 kN Tensile
3 BE 1 kN Tensile
4 BC 2 kN Tensile
5 BD 1.414 kN Compressive
6 CD 1 kN Tensile
7 DE 1 kN Compressive

Section equilibrium method
This method is also based upon the conditions of static
equilibrium. This method is suitable when forces only in
few of the members of the truss, particularly away from
the supports are required.
Conditions of equilibrium are

Σ FX = 0 Σ FY = 0 ΣM=0
Where Σ M is the moments of all the forces about any point
in the plane of the forces.

Since we have only three equilibrium equation, only
maximum three unknown forces can be found at a time.
Therefore a care should be taken while taking a section
that section line does not cut more than three members in
which the forces are unknown.

Step by step procedure of section equilibrium method
1. Draw a FBD of an entire truss showing the external forces acting on

it. (i.e. applied forces/ loads and reactions)
2. Obtain the magnitude and direction of reactions by using the static
equilibrium equations.
3. Draw an imaginary line which cuts the truss and passes through the
members in which we need to find the forces, care must be taken to
see that the section line must cut maximum of three members in
which forces are unknown.
4. Prepare FBD of either part showing loads, reactions and internal
forces in the members, which are cut by section line.
5. Apply the three conditions of equilibrium. If more than three unknowns
are to be calculated, then two section lines can be selected and then
the truss is to be solved by the above procedure.

Determine the forces in members BC,
BF, FJ
J F E
50 kN
A D
B C
100 kN 100 kN
9m

J F E
50 kN
AX
D
A B C
AY DY
100 kN 100 kN
Σ MA = 0 = DY X 9 – 100 X 3 – 100 X 6 – 50 X 3 sin 60

DY = 114.43 kN
Σ FX = 0 = 50 – AX ------------ AX = 50 kN
Σ FY = 0 = AY – 100 – 100 + DY ------- AY = 85.57 kN

J FFJ F E
50 kN
FBF
AX FBC
D
A B C
AY DY
100 kN 100 kN
Taking moment about point B

Σ MB = 0 = - AY X 3 + FFJ X 3 sin 60 ----- FFJ = 98.80 kN (C)
Σ FY = 0 = AY + FBF sin 60 – 100 ------ FBF = 16.66 kN (T)
Σ FX = 0 = FBC + FBF cos 60 – FFJ – AX ------- FBC = 140. 47 kN (T)

Sr. No. Member Force Nature of force
1 BC 140.47 kN Tensile
2 BF 16.66 kN Tensile
3 FJ 98.80 kN Compressive

Friction
Friction forces are set up whenever a tangential
force is applied to a body pressed normally
against the surface of another
(a) Body A pressed against B

FBD of A
FBD of B

Friction force
¾is the result of interaction of the surface
layers of bodies in contact
¾Two separate friction forces are given by

FS = fs N Where FS is static friction force
FK = fk N Where FK is kinetic friction force
fs & fk are static and kinetic coefficients of

friction and are intrinsic properties of the
interface between the materials in contact.
Main Properties of Friction Force (F)
1. If there is no relative motion between a & b,

then the frictional force (F) is exactly equal &
opposite to the applied tangential force (T).
2. This condition can be maintained for any
magnitude of T between zero & certain limiting
value Fs, called the static friction force.
3. IF T > FS, sliding will occur.

4. If body A slides on body B, then F acting on
body A will have a direction opposite to velocity
of A relative to B, & its magnitude will be Fk,
called the kinetic friction force.
• FS and FK are proportional to normal force N.
»FS= fS N, FK =fk N

Both coefficients,
¾Depends on materials of bodies in contact
¾Depends on state of lubrication/contamination
at the interface
¾Independent of the area of the interface
¾Independent of the roughness of the two
interfaces
¾Independent of time of contact and relative
velocity respectively

It is of interest to find the range of values of W which
will hold the block of weight WO = 500 N in
equilibrium of the inclined plane if the coefficient of
static friction is fS = 0.5.

Estimate the force in the link AB when a man of
weight equal to 800 N stands on top of the ladder.

Draw FBD of blocks A & B
A µ1
(1000 N)
B
µ2 P
(2000 N)

A
N)
0 0
µ1 (3
B
N)
0 0
(9
µ2
θ

µ1
µ2 A
W kN B
N )
5 k
(
30o

Problem:
A ladder of weight 390 N and 6 m long is placed against a
vertical wall at an angle of 300 as shown in figure. The
coefficient of friction between the ladder and the wall is 0.25
and that between ladder and floor is 0.38. Find how high a
man of weight 1170 N can ascend, before the ladder begins
to slip.

Problem
A cantilever truss is loaded as shown in figure. Find the
value of W which will produce a force of 150 kN magnitude
in the member AB.

Problem
By using the method of sections find the forces in the
members BC, BF and BE of the cantilever truss shown in
figure.

What we studied in Ch-1
• Force
• Moment
• Types of loading
• Types of Support & related Reactions
• Equilibrium Conditions
• Trusses
• Friction
Numericals are based on

• Force/Reaction Determination
• Trusses
• Friction

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Chapter: 1

Mechanics of Solids Vikas Cahudhari 1

Study of Force & Motion

Mechanics of Solids Vikas Cahudhari 2

Localized Motion (Deformation)

Rigid Bodies Deformable bodies

Particle: A material with negligibly small

Mechanics of Solids Vikas Cahudhari 6

Body: A collection of particles is called a 'body'. It

Rigid Body: The particles in a rigid body are so

Scalar Quantity: A quantity which is fully

Mechanics of Solids Vikas Cahudhari 8

Mass: The quantum of matter in a body is

¾ Make assumptions regarding desired characteristics of

¾ Develop idealized model of the system

¾ Apply principles of mechanics to the idealized model to

Mechanics of Solids Vikas Cahudhari 12

There are three basic kinds of forces as mentioned below

•Tensile force or pull

•When equal and opposite forces are

Mechanics of Solids Vikas Cahudhari 14

•When equal and opposite forces act at

Mechanics of Solids Vikas Cahudhari 15

Mechanics of Solids Vikas Cahudhari 16

• A mass of 1kg on earth’s surface will experience a

• Hence a mass of 1kg has because of gravitational

Mechanics of Solids Vikas Cahudhari 17

– Parallel Forces (b)

– Line of Action (c)

Mechanics of Solids Vikas Cahudhari 19

Coplanar & Non-Concurrent

Mechanics of Solids Vikas Cahudhari 20

Mechanics of Solids Vikas Cahudhari 21

F F = (F12 + F22 + 2F1 F2 cosθ)1/2

If three forces acting at a point are in equilibrium, each

The moment of force F about a point O is r X F.

Mechanics of Solids Vikas Cahudhari 25

Mechanics of Solids Vikas Cahudhari 28

Mechanics of Solids Vikas Cahudhari 29

Mo = 15sin30 kN X 4 m = 30 kN-m (CCW)

Mechanics of Solids Vikas Cahudhari 31

Mechanics of Solids Vikas Cahudhari 32

Mechanics of Solids Vikas Cahudhari 33

Mechanics of Solids Vikas Cahudhari 34

MR = (Mz2 + My2)1/2 kN-m

Let, CCW moments are +ve and CW -ve

MO = 400 cos 60 (40)x10-3 – 400 sin 60 (120)x10-3

MO = - 33.6 Nm MO = 33.6 Nm (CW)

Mechanics of Solids Vikas Cahudhari 38

d - distance between the forces.

• Moment of a couple is the same about all points in

• A couple may be characterized by a moment

• Encircling arrow indicates moment of a couple.

Mechanics of Solids Vikas Cahudhari 40

Mechanics of Solids Vikas Cahudhari 42

Mechanics of Solids Vikas Cahudhari 43

Mechanics of Solids Vikas Cahudhari 44

Mechanics of Solids Vikas Cahudhari 45