Dr.

Mostafa Ranjbar

Fundamentals of Vibration

Outline
Why vibration is important? Definition; mass, spring (or stiffness) dashpot Newtons laws of motion, 2nd order ODE Three types of vibration for SDOF sys. Alternative way to find eqn of motion: energy methods Examples
2

Why to study vibration

Vibrations can lead to excessive deflections and failure on the machines and structures To reduce vibration through proper design of machines and their mountings To utilize profitably in several consumer and industrial applications To improve the efficiency of certain machining, casting, forging & welding processes To stimulate earthquakes for geological research and conduct studies in design of nuclear reactors

Why to study vibration

Imbalance in the gas or diesel engines Blade and disk vibrations in turbines Noise and vibration of the hard-disks in your computers Cooling fan in the power supply Vibration testing for electronic packaging to conform Internatioal standard for quality control (QC) Safety eng.: machine vibration causes parts loose from the body
4

Stiffness
From strength of materials (Solid Mech) recall:
Force
fk

103 N
x0 x1 x2

x3

20 mm

Displacement

Free-body diagram and equations of motion

Newtons Law:
y

k k
m c

&(t ) = kx(t ) m& x

x fk mg fc

x(t)

Friction-free Friction-free surface

c=0

surface
N

&(t ) + kx(t ) = 0 m& x & (0) = v0 x(0) = x0 , x

2nd Order Ordinary Differential Equation with Constant Coefficients

2 &(t ) + n Divide by m : & x x(t ) = 0

k n = : natural frequency in rad/s m x(t ) = A sin( nt + )

Periodic Motion
x(t)
Max velocity Initial displacement Amplitude, A

Time, t Phase =

2
period

Periodic Motion
xx(t) (t) [mm]
A 1.5

1 0.5 0

Time, t Time [s]

2 4 6 8 10 12

-0.5 -1
-A -1.5

n
9

2 ___ 2 n

Frequency
n is in rad/s is the natural frequency n rad/s cycles n fn = = n = Hz 2 rad/cycle 2 s 2 2 s is the period T= n

We often speak of frequency in Hertz, but we need rad/s in the arguments of the trigonometric functions (sin and cos function).
10

Amplitude & Phase from the initial conditions

x0 = A sin(n 0 + ) = A sin v0 = n A cos(n 0 + ) = n A cos Solving yields n x0 x + v , = tan A= n v0 144 4 2444 3 144 244 3 1
2 n 2 0 2 0 1 Amplitude Phase

11

Phase Relationship between x, v, a

Displacement
A

x = A cos( nt + ) Displacement
x (t) = A sin(vnt + f)

Velocity
Velocity & = n A sin( x +v t +)f) x (t) = v t n A cos(

vnA

vnA vn2A

Acceleration Acceleration

& & = A cos( n t + ) x

2 n

x (t) = vn2A sin(vnt + f)

v2nA

12

For m= 300 kg and n =10 rad/s compute the stiffness:

Example
n =

k 2 k = m n m = (300)10 kg/s
2 2

= 3 10 N/m
4

14

Other forms of the solution:

x(t ) = A sin(n t + ) x(t ) = A1 sin nt + A2 cos n t x(t ) = a1e
j nt

+ a2e

j nt

Phasor: representation of a complex number in terms of a complex exponential

Ref: 1) Sec 1.10.2, 1.10.3 2) http://mathworld.wolfram.com/Phasor.html
15

Some useful quantities

A = peak value 1T x = lim x ( t ) dt = average value T T0 1T 2 2 x = lim x ( t ) dt = mean square value T T0 2 x rms = x = root mean square value
16

Peak Values
max or peak value of : displacement : xmax = A &max = A velocity : x &max = A acceleration : & x
2
17

Example Hardware store spring, bolt: m= 49.2x10

kg,k=857.8 N/m and x0 =10 mm. Compute n and max amplitude of vibration.

-3

n =

k = m

857.8 N/m = 132 rad/s -3 49.2 10 kg

n fn = = 21 Hz 2 1 1 2 = = T= n fn 21 cyles
x (t )max = A = 1

0.0476 s sec

2 2 2 x + v n 0 0 = x 0 = 10 mm

18

Compute the solution and max velocity and acceleration

v (t )max = n A = 1320 mm/s = 1.32 m/s
3 2 A = 174.24 10 mm/s a( t )max = 2 n

= 174.24 m/s 2 17.8g! n x0 = tan = rad 0 2 x (t ) = 10sin(132 t + / 2) = 10 cos(132t ) mm

1

19

Derivation of the solution

& + kx = 0 Substitute x(t ) = ae t into m& x m2 ae t + kae t = 0 m2 + k = 0 k k = = j = n j m m x(t ) = a1e n jt and x(t ) = a2 e n jt x(t ) = a1e n jt + a2 e n jt

21

Damping Elements
Viscous Damping: Damping force is proportional to the velocity of the vibrating body in a fluid medium such as air, water, gas, and oil. Coulomb or Dry Friction Damping: Damping force is constant in magnitude but opposite in direction to that of the motion of the vibrating body between dry surfaces Material or Solid or Hysteretic Damping: Energy is absorbed or dissipated by material during deformation due to friction between internal planes
22

Viscous Damping
Shear Stress ( ) developed in the fluid layer at a distance y from the fixed plate is:

du (1.26 ) = dy where du/dy = v/h is the velocity gradient. Shear or Resisting Force (F) developed at the bottom surface of the moving plate is: Av (1.27 ) F = A = = cv h
where A is the surface area of the moving plate.
c=
24

A
h

is the damping constant

and

c=

A
h

Viscous Damping
(1.28)

is called the damping constant. If a damper is nonlinear, a linearization process is used about the operating velocity (v*) and the equivalent damping constant is:
dF c= dv v*

(1.29)

25

Linear Viscous Damping

A mathematical form Called a dashpot or viscous damper Somewhat like a shock absorber The constant c has units: Ns/m or kg/s
& (t ) f c = cx

26

Spring-mass-damper systems
From Newtons law:
y

k k
m c

x(t)

fkf Friction-free Friction-free f surface fc

surface

mg

&(t ) = f c f k m& x & (t ) kx(t ) = cx &(t ) + cx & (t ) + kx(t ) = 0 m& x & (0) = v0 x(0) = x0 , x

27

Derivation of the solution

& + cx & + kx = 0 x Substitute x(t ) = ae t into m& m2 ae t + cae t + kae t = 0 m2 + c + k = 0
2 k k 1 1j n= n j = n ,2== m m

x(t ) = a1e 1t and x(t ) = a2 e 2t x(t ) = a1e 1t + a2 e 2t

28

Solution (dates to 1743 by Euler)

Divide equation of motion by m
2 & &(t ) + 2 n x & (t ) + n x x(t ) = 0

where n = k

and

c = = damping ratio (dimensionless) 2 km

29

Let x (t ) = ae t & subsitute into eq. of motion

t 2 ae t + 2 n aet + 2 ae =0 n

which is now an algebraic equation in :

1,2 = n n 1
2

from the roots of a quadratic equation Here the discriminant 2 1, determines the nature of the roots

30

Three possibilities:
1) = 1 roots are equal & repeated called critically damped

= 1 c = ccr = 2 km = 2m n
x(t ) = a1e nt + a2te nt Using the initial conditions : a1 = x0 , a2 = v0 + n x0
31

Sec. 2.6

Critical damping continued

No oscillation occurs Useful in door mechanisms, analog gauges

x(t ) = [ x0 + (v0 + n x0 )t ]e
Displacement (mm)
0.8 0.6 0.4 0.2 0.0 0.2 0.5 1.0 1.5 2.0 2.5 3.0 3.5 Time (sec)

nt

Displacement

Time, t

32

2) > 1, called overdamping - two distinct real roots :

1, 2 = n n 2 1
x(t ) = e
n t

(a1e

n t 2 1

+ a2 e

n t 2 1

where a1 = a2 =

v0 + ( + 2 1) n x0 2 n 2 1 2 n 2 1

v0 + ( + 2 1) n x0

33

The overdamped response

Displacement (mm)

0.4 0.2 0.0 0.2 0.4 0 1 1 2

1. x0 ==0.3, 0.3, vv0 =0 1: x0 0 = 0 2. x0 = 0, v0 = 1 =0.0, v == 10 2: x 00 = 0.3, v 3. x0 0

Displacement

3: x0 =-0.3, v0 = 0

3 2 3 4 Time, t Time (sec) 5 6

34

3) < 1, called underdamped motion - most common Two complex roots as conjugate pairs write roots in complex form as :

1,2 = n n j 1 2
where j = 1

35

Underdamping
x (t ) = e
nt

( a1e

j nt 1 2

+ a2e

j nt 1 2

= Ae nt sin(d t + )

d = n 1 2 , damped natural frequency

A= 1

d
1

( v0 + n x0 )2 + ( x0d ) 2

x0 d = tan v0 + n x0

36

Underdamped-oscillation
Gives an oscillating response with exponential decay Most natural systems vibrate with and underdamped response See textbook for details and other representations

Displacement (mm)

Displacement

1.0 0.0 1.0 10 15 Time Time, (sec)

37

Example consider the spring in Ex., if c = 0.11 kg/s,

determine the damping ratio of the spring-bolt system.

m = 49.2 103 kg, k = 857.8 N/m ccr = 2 km = 2 49.2 10 3 857.8 = 12.993 kg/s c 0.11 kg/s = = = 0.0085 ccr 12.993 kg/s the motion is underdamped and the bolt will oscillate
38

Example
The human leg has a measured natural frequency of around 20 Hz when in its rigid (knee locked) position, in the longitudinal direction (i.e., along the length of the bone) with a damping ratio of = 0.224.

Calculate the response of the tip if the leg bone to v0 (t=0)= 0.6 m/s and x0(t=0)=0
This correspond to the vibration induced while landing on your feet, with your knees locked from a height of 18 mm) and plot the response. What is the maximum acceleration experienced by the leg assuming no damping?

39

Solution:
V0=0.6, X0=0,

= 0.224
20 cycles 2 rad = 125.66 rad/s s cycles 1
2

n =

d = 125.66 1 (.224) = 122.467 rad/s

A=
A= 1

(0.6 + (0.224 )(125.66)(0)) + (0)(122.467)2

2

122.467 (0)( d ) =0 = tan v0 + n (0 )

-1

= 0.005 m

d
1

(v0 + n x0 ) 2 + ( x0 d ) 2

x 0 d = tan v + x n 0 0

x( t ) = 0.005e 28.148 t sin(122.467t )

40

Use undamped formula to get max acceleration:

v0 2 + A = x0 , n = 125.66, v0 = 0.6, x0 = 0 n 0.6 v m A= 0 m=

2 2 0.6 2 2 &) = n ( ) = = max(& x A = n 0 . 6 125 . 66 m/s 75 . 396 m/s n

maximum acceleration =

75.396 m/s2 g = 7.68g' s 2 9.81 m/s

41

Plot of the response:

Displacement Displacement (mm)
5 4 3 2 1 0 -1 -2 -3 -4 -5 0 0.02 0.04 0.06 0.08 0.1 0.12 0.14 Time (s)

x(t ) = 0.005e 28.148t sin(122.467t )

Time, t

42

Compute the form of the response of an underdamped system using the Cartesian form
sin( x + y ) = sin x cos y cos x sin y x(t ) = Ae nt sin( d t + ) = e nt ( A1 sin d t + A2 cos d t ) x(0) = x0 = e 0 ( A1 sin(0) + A2 cos(0)) A2 = x0 & = n e nt ( A1 sin d t + A2 cos d t ) x + d e nt ( A1 cos d t A2 sin d t ) v0 = n ( A1 sin 0 + x0 cos 0) + d ( A1 cos 0 x0 sin 0) A1 = v0 + n x0

Example

v0 + n x0 + x(t ) = e nt sin t x cos t d 0 d d

43

Eq. 2.72

MODELING AND ENERGY METHODS

An alternative way to determine the equation of motion and an alternative way to calculate the natural frequency

44

Modelling
Newtons Laws

F M
45

xi

& = m& x && = I 0

0i

Energy Methods
&dx x Fdx = m& 6 4 7 4 8 1 &2 work done = U1 U 2 = m x 2 T + U = constant d or (T + U ) = 0 dt
Alternate method of getting the eq. of motion
46

Potential Energy

2 1

= T2 T1 1 2 3

Kinetic Energy

Rayleighs Method
T1+ U1= T2+ U2 Let t1 be the time at which m moves through its static equilibrium position, then U1=0, reference point Let t2 be the time at which m undergoes its max displacement (v=0 so T2=0), U2 is max (T1 must be max ), Thus Umax=Tmax
Ref: Section 2.5

47

Example

The effect of including the mass of the spring on the value of the frequency.

y m s, k

y +dy

l
m x(t)

53

Ex. 2.8

mass of element dy :

assumptions y & (t ), velocity of element dy : vdy = x l ms dy l 1 m y & dy (adds up the KE of each element) = s x 2 0 l l = 1 ms 2 & x 2 3
l 2

Tspring

Tmass = U max

1 m 1 2 m 2 2 1 2 1 & Ttot = s + m x & Tmax = m + s n mx An 2 2 3 2 3 2 1 = kA2 2 Provides some simple k n = design and modeling ms m+ guides 3

54

Ex. 2.8

Effect of the spring mass = add 1/3 of its mass to the main mass

What about gravity?

k m k
0

mg k = 0, from FBD, and static equilibrium

+x(t) mg

m +x(t)

1 2 U spring = k ( + x) 2 U grav = mgx 1 2 & T = mx 2

55

d Now use (T + U ) = 0 dt d 1 2 1 2 & mgx + k ( + x) = 0 mx dt 2 2 && & mgx & + k ( + x) x & x mx & (m& & + kx) + x & ( k mg ) = 0 x x 1 4 2 4 3
0 from static equ.

& + kx = 0 x m&

56

More on springs and stiffness

Longitudinal motion A is the cross sectional area (m2) E is the elastic modulus (Pa=N/m2) l is the length (m) k is the stiffness (N/m)

l
m

k=

EA l

x(t)

60

Torsional Stiffness
Jp is the polar moment of inertia of the rod J is the mass moment of inertia of the disk G is the shear modulus, l is the length

Jp

GJ p k= l
0 (t)

61

Sec. 2.3

Example

compute the frequency of a shaft/mass system {J = 0.5 kg m2}

&& J &&(t ) + k (t ) = 0 M = J &&(t ) + k (t ) = 0 J GJ p d 4 k , Jp = n = = lJ J 32 For a 2 m steel shaft, diameter of 0.5 cm

n =

GJ p

(8 1010 N/m 2 )[ (0.5 10 2 m) 4 / 32] = lJ (2 m)(0.5kg m 2 ) = 2.2 rad/s

62

Transverse beam stiffness

Strength of materials and experiments yield:
f
m

3EI k= 3 l 3EI n = 3 ml

64

Samples of Vibrating Systems

Deflection of continuum (beams, plates, bars, etc) such as airplane wings, truck chassis, disc drives, circuit boards Shaft rotation Rolling ships See text for more examples.

65

Example : effect of fuel on frequency of an airplane wing

Model wing as transverse beam Model fuel as tip mass Ignore the mass of the wing and see how the frequency of the system changes as the fuel is used up
x(t)

E, I l

66

Mass of pod 10 kg empty 1000 kg full I = 5.2x10-5 m4, E =6.9x109 N/m, l = 2 m

Hence the natural frequency changes by an order of magnitude while it empties out fuel.

full =

3EI 3(6.9 109 )(5.2 105 ) = 3 ml 1000 23 = 11.6 rad/s = 1.8 Hz 3 EI 3(6.9 10 9 )(5.2 10 5 ) = 3 ml 10 2 3 = 115 rad/s = 18.5 Hz

empty =

Pod= a streamlined external housing that enclose engines or fuel

67

Does gravity effect frequency?

Static equilibrium:
kx 0 +x
mg

F = 0 = k + mg
Dynamic equation : & = k ( x + ) + mg x F = m& & + kx + k mg = 0 m& x & + kx = 0 ! m& x

68

Static Deflection
, = distance spring is stretched or
compressed under the force of gravity by attaching a mass m to it. mg = = s = k

Many symbols in use including xs and x0

69

Combining Springs
Equivalent Spring

1 series : kAC = 1 1 + k1 k2 parallel : kab = k1 + k2

70

Use these to design from available parts

Discrete springs available in standard values Dynamic requirements require specific frequencies Mass is often fixed or + small amount Use spring combinations to adjust wn Check static deflection
71

Example

Design of a spring mass system using available springs: series vs parallel Let m = 10 kg Compare a series and parallel combination a) k1 =1000 N/m, k2 = 3000 N/m, k3 = k4 =0 b) k3 =1000 N/m, k4 = 3000 N/m, k1 = k2 =0

k1 m k3 k4

k2

72

Case a) parallel connection : k3 = k4 = 0, k eq = k1 + k2 = 1000 + 3000 = 4000 N/m parallel = Case b) series connection : 1 3000 = = 750 N/m k1 = k2 = 0, keq = (1 k3 ) + (1 k4 ) 3 + 1 series = keg m = 750 = 8.66 rad/s 10 keg m = 4000 = 20 rad/s 10

Same physical components, very different frequency Allows some design flexibility in using off-the-shelf components
73

Free Vibration with Coulomb Damping Coulombs law of dry friction states that, when two bodies are in contact, the force required to produce sliding is proportional to the normal force acting in the plane of contact. Thus, the friction force F is given by:

F = N = W = mg

(2.106)

where N is normal force, is the coefficient of sliding or kinetic friction is usu 0.1 for lubricated metal, 0.3 for nonlubricated metal on metal, 1.0 for rubber on metal

Coulomb damping is sometimes called constant damping

74

Free Vibration with Coulomb Damping

Equation of Motion:
Consider a single degree of freedom system with dry friction as shown in Fig.(a) below.

Since friction force varies with the direction of velocity, we need to consider two cases as indicated in Fig.(b) and (c).
75

Free Vibration with Coulomb Damping Case 1. When x is positive and dx/dt is positive or when x is negative and dx/dt is positive (i.e., for the half cycle during which the mass moves from left to right) the equation of motion can be obtained using Newtons second law (Fig.b):

& = kx N m& x

or

& + kx = N m& x

(2.107)

Hence, N x(t ) = A1 cos nt + A2 sin nt k

(2.108)

where n = k/m is the frequency of vibration A1 & A2 are constants

76

Free Vibration with Coulomb Damping Case 2. When x is positive and dx/dt is negative or when x is negative and dx/dt is negative (i.e., for the half cycle during which the mass moves from right to left) the equation of motion can be derived from Fig. (c): & or m& & + kx = N kx + N = m& x x (2.109) The solution of the equation is given by: N x(t ) = A3 cos nt + A4 sin nt + k

(2.110)

where A3 & A4 are constants

77

Free Vibration with Hysteretic Damping

Consider the spring-viscous damper arrangement shown in the figure below. The force needed to cause a displacement: cX & F = kx + cx (2.122) c X For a harmonic motion of frequency and x(t ) amplitude X, x(t ) = X sin t (2.123)

F (t )

x2

cX

F (t ) = kX sin t + cX cos t = kx c X 2 ( X sin t ) 2 = kx c X 2 x 2

85

(2.124)

Free Vibration with Hysteretic Damping

When F versus x is plotted, Eq.(2.124) represents a closed loop, as shown in Fig(b). The area of the loop denotes the energy dissipated by the damper in a cycle of motion and is given by: 2 / (kX sin t + cX cos t )(X cos t )dt W = Fdx =
0

= cX 2

(2.125)

Hence, the damping coefficient:

c= h

(2.126)

86

Fig.2.36 Hysteresis loop

where h is called the hysteresis damping constant.

Free Vibration with Hysteretic Damping

Eqs.(2.125) and (2.126) gives W = hX 2

(2.127)

Complex Stiffness. For general harmonic motion, x = Xeit , the force is given by

F = kXeit + ciXe it = (k + ic) x

Thus, the force-displacement relation: F = (k + ih) x
where
87

(2.128)

(2.129) (2.130)

h k + ih = k 1 + i = k (1 + i ) k

2.6.4 Energy dissipated in Viscous Damping: In a viscously damped system, the rate of change of energy with time is given by:
dW dx 2 = force velocity = Fv = cv = c dt dt
2

(2.93)

The energy dissipated in a complete cycle is:

2 dx W = c dt = cX 2d cos 2 d t d (d t ) 0 t =0 dt = cd X 2 (2.94) ( 2 / d ) 2

94

Energy dissipation Consider the system shown in the figure below. The total force resisting the motion is: & F = kx cv = kx cx (2.95)
If we assume simple harmonic motion:

x(t ) = X sin d t

(2.96)

Thus, Eq.(2.95) becomes

F = kX sin d t cd X cos d t
W = =
2 / d t =0 2 / d 2 / d

(2.97)

The energy dissipated in a complete cycle will be

Fvdt kX 2d sin d t cos d t d (d t ) cd X 2 cos 2 d t d (d t ) = cd X 2 (2.98)

t =0

+
95

t =0

Energy dissipation and Loss Coefficient Computing the fraction of the total energy of the vibrating system that is dissipated in each cycle of motion, Specific Damping Capacity
2 c cd X 2 W (2.99) = = 2 = 2 4 = constant 1 W d 2m m d2 X 2 2 where W is either the max potential energy or the max kinetic energy.

The loss coefficient, defined as the ratio of the energy dissipated per radian and the total strain energy: (W / 2 ) W
loss coefficient = W = 2W
96

(2.100)