Pathology of Birds An Overview

H. L. Shivaprasad California Animal Health and Food Safety Laboratory System, Fresno Branch School of Veterinary Medicine, University of California, Davis 2789 South Orange Avenue. Fresno, CA 93725 Tele: 559-498-7740, Fax: 559-485-8097 E-mail: hlshivaprasad@ucdavis.edu

Contents
1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. 7. 8. 9. Introduction ......................................................................................................................... 2 Taxonomy ........................................................................................................................... 2 Anatomy.............................................................................................................................. 4 Inflammation ....................................................................................................................... 6 Coagulation ......................................................................................................................... 7 Complement ........................................................................................................................ 8 Bacterial Diseases ............................................................................................................... 8 Fungal diseases ................................................................................................................. 14 Viral diseases .................................................................................................................... 16

10. Parasitic diseases ............................................................................................................... 27 11. Toxicosis ........................................................................................................................... 34 12. Metabolic diseases ............................................................................................................ 37 13. Diseases of Malnutrition ................................................................................................... 41 14. Neoplasia........................................................................................................................... 43 15. References: ........................................................................................................................ 44

Presented at C.L. Davis Foundation Conference on Gross Morbid Anatomy of Animals, AFIP, Washington D. C., April 8-12, 2002. HLS (Last revised 3/12/2003)

Birds: Of all the higher forms of life the birds are the most beautiful, most musical, most admired, most watched and most defended. Roger Tory Peterson (1974)

1. Introduction
Similar to other animals, birds are susceptible to a variety of diseases. Knowledge about the type of birds, their anatomy and how they are managed does help one understand the type and kind of diseases different birds are susceptible to. Because some types of birds are raised for egg production or meat, such as commercial poultry, infectious diseases can spread rapidly among birds raised in a confined space. Poultry can also be raised in small numbers as backyard flocks. Often poultry raised in such conditions are more often exposed to natural elements and are often not vaccinated; poor nutrition and lax biosecurity can lead to frequent viral, bacterial, parasitic and nutritional diseases. Pet and exotic birds such as psittacines and passerines are raised in small or large aviaries, sold in pet shops and kept as pets. These birds have their own unique diseases that can be influenced by management. There are also free flying birds that face ever shrinking habitats and ecosystems that are undergoing changes. Therefore, diseases in such birds are greatly influenced by environmental factors. Numerous birds raised or kept in captivity as in zoos have a different and unique environment. Regardless of whatever management practices are used, genetics and nutrition also play a significant role in the initiation and outcome of a disease.

This handout on the pathology of birds is an outline and is by no means complete. There are a large number of miscellaneous diseases or pathological conditions that have not been included in this outline. Those who are interested in learning more are advised to review the references provided at the end of this outline.

2. Taxonomy

There are over 22,000 subspecies and 9300 species of birds classified in 166 families, 27 orders in the class Aves. Order Passeriformes contains the largest number with 5243 species of birds, and the Order Struthioniformes contains only one species (ostrich). The number of species in each order, along with representative species, is listed in the following table. The list starts with orders believed to be the most primitive and continuing to the most advanced. Order Struthioniformes Rheiformes Casuariiformes Apterygiformes Tinamiformes Sphenisciformes Gaviiformes Podicipediformes Procellariformes Peliconiformes Ciconiiformes Anseriformes Falconiformes Galliformes ostrich rheas emus, cassowary kiwis tinamous penguins loons grebes albatrosses, fulmars pelicans, cormorants, frigate, boobies herons, egrets, storks, ibises, spoonbills, flamingos, bitterns. Ducks, geese, swans vultures, eagles, hawks, harriers, kites, osprey, falcons, buzzards chickens, turkeys, quail, pheasant, partridge, Guinea fowl, peafowl, grouse, chachalaca, guan, currasow, capercaille, ptarmigan, megapods cranes, coots, rails, trumpeters, seriemas, bustards, bustard quails gulls, murres, terns, avocets, puffins, woodcock, oystercatchers, sandpipers, plovers, surfbirds, snipes, skimmers Species 1 2 4 3 40 17 4 18 86 55 116 145 272 252 # Species

Gruiformes Charadiformes

199 334

Columbiformes Pscittaciformes Cuciliformes Strigiformes Apodiformes Trogoniformes Coliiformes Caprimulgiformes Coraciformes Piciformes Passeriformes

pigeons, doves and sand grouse parakeets, Budgerigar, cockatiels, cockatoos, macaws, parrots, lories, lorikeets, love birds turacos, cuckoos, roardrunners owls hummingbirds quetzel, trogons mousebirds Oilbird, frogmouths,potoos, goatsuckers, nightjars toucans, barbets, woodpeckers, jacamars kingfishers, hornbills, hoopoes, rollers Perching birds; finches, canaries, crows, ravens, magpies, jays, American robins, mockingbirds, bulbuls, sparrows, starlings, mynahs, blackbirds, cardinals, chickadees, thrushes, tits, grosbeaks, buntings, tanagers, orioles, birds of paradise, larks, wrens, waxwings, waxbills, weavers, swallows, manakins, martins, antbirds, shrikes, etc., etc.

289 317 147 134 398 34 6

379 199 5243

3. Anatomy
Birds have a close evolutionary relationship with reptiles especially crocodiles. Their unique anatomy has helped the birds to adapt well to the environment. Even though there are numerous

different species of birds, their anatomy shows a greater uniformity of structure than many single orders of fishes, amphibians, reptiles and mammals (King and McLelland, 1984). A few salient features on the anatomy of birds are given below. Birds skin lack glands except for the uropygeal gland or preen gland present at the base of the tail. This gland is not found in all birds. Various appendages such as comb, wattles, ear lobes, snood, caruncles, beard, spurs, claws, scales are present in a variety of birds. Birds have pneumonic bones and air sacs extend in to the proximal humerus, vertebrae and pelvic girdle. Laying hens form medullary bone in response to estrogen, which serves as a source of calcium during laying. Trachea has complete rings and syrinx is present. Syrinx is large in male waterfowl. Lungs are attached to the body wall. From trachea the primary bronchi passes through the lungs giving rise to many secondary bronchi before entering the abdominal air sacs. The secondary bronchi give rise to tertiary or parabronchioles and from there to atria and air capillaries where air exchange takes place. Lungs are of paleopulmo (unidirectional movement of air) and neopulmo (bidirectional) types. Cervical, clavicular (paired), anterior and posterior thoracic (paired) and abdominal (paired) air sacs are present. Birds have four-chambered heart and the right atrioventricular valve is a muscular flap. Birds have beak, lack teeth, have mucus glands in the oral cavity and most birds have a food storage organ called crop. Proventriculus is the primary glandular stomach and the muscular stomach; gizzard is well developed in seed eating birds. It is lined by keratinous material or koilin. Duodenum in the form of a loop encloses pancreas, a long jejunum and a small ileum comprises the small intestine. Ceca are paired and their presence varies among different species of birds. It is well developed in gallinaceous birds and ratites but appear as small knobs in columbiformes, passeriformes and absent in psittacines. Colon is longer than the entire small intestine in ostrich. Cloaca is compartmentalized and is the common opening for digestive, urinary and genital systems. Liver is composed of right and left lobes, which join cranially, and gall bladder is present. Some birds such as most pigeons, ostriches, and many parrots lack gall bladder and in some birds such as toucans, woodpeckers and barbets it is exceptionally long. Birds have no lymph nodes; thymus and bursa are the primary lymphoid organs. Thymus, seven pairs in chickens are located along the jugular vein. Bursa of Fabricius is pale and round in most birds elongated in ducks and is located dorsal to the cloaca. Bursa in chickens is present at hatch

reaches maximum size 6-12 weeks and undergoes involution 18-22 weeks. Spleen is the primary lymphoid organ. It is round to oval in gallinaceous birds, ducks and psittacines but elongated in charadiiformes and passeriformes. Ceca have well developed lymphoid tissue, cecal tonsils at the junction of ceca and colon. Cecal tonsils occur as annular bands in waterfowl. Duodenum has well developed Payers patches. Paired lymph node-like structures present in duck and goose, one at the thoracic inlet near the thyroids and the second pair at the lumbar region. Lymphatics are present but not well developed. Kidneys are lobulated, lack renal pelvis and have both mammalian and reptilian nephrons. Renal portal circulation present, venous blood from the legs, pelvic region and hindgut is carried to the kidneys. Avian excretory system is uricotelic; uric acid is the end product. Urinary bladder is absent. Most avian species have only left ovary and oviduct. Oviduct has five parts, infundibulum, magnum (albumen secreting), isthmus (shell membranes), uterus (shell formation) and vagina. Testes are paired and located at the cranial poles of the kidneys. Testes can enlarge greatly during breeding season. Seminal vesicle, prostate, bulbourethral glands are absent. Ratites, ducks, geese, swan have intromittent (protruding) phallus. Thyroids are oval fleshy organs located in association with the common carotid artery at the thoracic inlet. Parathyroids and ultimobronchial bodies (have C cells) are separate and are located posterior to the thyroids. Adrenals are located at the anterior poles of the kidneys. Adrenals lack a distinct cortex (pale staining cells with vacuoles in cytoplasm) and medulla (basophilic cells) but are scrambled. Pituitary is present in sella turcica posterior to the optic chiasm. There is no intermediate lobe in the pituitary. Most of the islets are located in the splenic lobe of the pancreas. Brain lacks sulci and gyri but cerebellum has folia. Optic lobes are well developed and prominent. Spinal cord has glycogen body in the rhomboid sinus of lumbar segment. Eyes have pecten, scleral ossicles, single and multiple fovea. Extra orbital nasal or salt glands are present in the nasal septum, well developed in marine birds. Ears lack external pinna and have a well-developed sound conducting structure in the middle ear called columella.

4. Inflammation

Reaction is rapid in birds, 36 hours Leakage of fibrin and fibrinogen common in early exudate Intense granulomatous reaction (12 hours) Coagulum of eosinophilic debris, degranulating heterophils, macrophages and giant cells Macrophages, heterophils and thrombocytes are active phagocytes Pus is caseous but liquefaction can occur Birds respond with granulomatous inflammation to many insults Acute inflammatory reaction in birds involve edema, congestion and vascular changes mediated by basophils and mast cells 1-3 hours: basophils, heterophils and monocytes 2-6 hours: basophils degranulate and die 6-12 hours: lymphocytes, monocytes, macrophages 12-36 hours: lymphocytes, macrophages, giant cells Acute reaction peak by 12 hours (when giant cells appear) 36-72 hours: regeneration and repair Fibroblasts, secondary lymphoid follicles, plasma cells Chronic reaction with caseation, macrophages, giant cells, granuloma formation Cells involved in inflammation Heterophils: have lance-shaped granules, lack myeloperoxidase and alkaline phosphatase, have -glucuronidase and acid phosphatase Very phagocytic Granules tend to round up in tissues, difficult to identify Eosinophils: have spherical granules Function is not known, delayed type IV hypersensitivity? Associated with eosinophilic enteritis in turkeys due to ascarid Basophils: contain histamine, involved in acute inflammation Thrombocytes: small round to oval cells with clear cytoplasm and small round nucleus (looks like small lymphocyte), phagocytic Monocytes: precursors to cells of MPS, phagocytic, can fuse to form multinucleated giant cells Make monokines; IL-1, IL-2 (IL-15?), IL-6, IL-8, IL-18, TNF, G-CSF, gamma interferon Lymphocytes: various morphologies involved in subacute inflammation including plasma cells

5. Coagulation

Extrinsic system active and efficient but intrinsic system relatively weak Tissue thromboplastin (III) and platelets play important role Has a vitamin K dependent factor similar to mammalian factor IX Plasma thromboplastin and Hageman factor may be lacking Low levels or absence of factors V and VII

Fibrinogen (I), prothrombin (II), antihemophiliac factor (VIII) and Stuart factor (X) are present Clot retraction is very slow in birds Has thrombolytic mechanism and t-PA activation for fibrinolysis

6. Complement

Not well understood Classical complement (CCP) and alternate complement pathways (ACP) are present A few components have been identified such as C1, C3, B may lack C2 and C4. Factor B in chickens may play a dual role in ACP and substituting for C2 in CCP Differences in C components may exist among avian species

7. Bacterial Diseases
Disease caused by E. coli, Salmonella, Chlamydophila, Clostridia, Mycobacteria, Mycoplasma, Bordetella, Haemophilus, Pasteurella, Erysipelas, Yersinia pseudotuberculosis, Riemerella anatipestifer, Ornithobacterium rhinotracheale, Staphylococcus, Streptococcus, Pseudomonas and other miscellaneous bacteria a. Colibacillosis

Disease of great economic significance in poultry Any one of the syndromes in poultry caused by E. coli Colisepticemia, air sac disease (CRD), peritonitis, coligranuloma, salpingitis, omphalitis/yolk sac infection, cellulitis, osteomyelitis/synovitis, swollen head syndrome and panophthalmitis Enteritis with AEEC, eae gene present Ceca most commonly involved Common in turkeys, others; chickens, pigeons, quail, partridges, pheasants, ducks, ostriches, psittacines, passerines, etc. Septicemia and enteritis in other birds? Large group of acute, subacute or chronic diseases caused by one or more members of bacterial genus Salmonella Pullorum Disease in poultry, S. pullorum Fowl Typhoid in poultry, S. gallinarum Paratyphoid in poultry, ducks, pigeons, wild birds, psittacines, passerines, etc. 10-20 species: S. typhimurium, S. enteritidis, S. heidelberg, S. anatum, S derby, S. bredeney, etc. Arizonosis in turkey poults, S. arizonae Also in chicks, ducklings, psittacines, passerines, etc. Lesions Pullorum/Typhoid 8

b. Salmonellosis

In chicks: Septicemic lesions of omphalitis, hepatitis, peritonitis, necrotic typhlitis, pericarditis, splenitis, pneumonia, synovitis, nephritis, ophthalmitis, etc. Pale yellow nodules in myocardium (histiocytes), intestine and gizzard in chronic cases

In adults: oophoritis, salpingitis, peritonitis, orchitis Paratyphoid S. typhimurium most important In different species of birds: similar to acute septicemic lesions of pullorum and typhoid, In pigeons: brain, bone, and gonads often involved S. enteritidis can cause septicemic lesions in chicks Important in egg-associated food poisoning Arizonosis, in turkey poults Septicemic lesions, omphalitis, typhlitis, meningitis, ophthalmitis

c. Chlamydiosis

Naturally occurring contagious systemic disease of various species of birds Chlamydophila psittaci, six serotypes (A, B, C, D, E and F) Diagnosed in 139 avian species, 15 orders and 30 families Psittacines, 25% of the reported host species, others; pigeons, passerines, wild and feral birds, rheas, turkeys, pheasants, etc. Chickens relatively resistant Clinical signs: vary greatly, species and age of bird, and strain of Chlamydia Respiratory signs, oculonasal discharge, diarrhea often greenish colored, swelling above eye (turkeys), conjunctivitis (pigeons), etc. Lesions: airsacculitis, pericarditis, pneumonia, hepatitis, splenitis, enteritis, conjunctivitis, nasal adenitis (turkeys), synovitis, encephalitis, nephritis, etc. Can also infect endothelial cells Chlamydia pneumoniae has been associated with atherosclerosis in humans Chlamydia-taxonomy (Everett, Bush and Andersen. Int. J Syst. Bact. 49: 415-440,1999) Order: Chlamydiales Family: Chlamydiaceae Genus: Chlamydophila Species: C. psittaci C. pneumoniae C. pecorum C. felis C. caviae C. abortus Genus: Chlamydia Species: C. trachomatis

C. suis C. muridarum

Chlamydophila psittaci Obligate nonmotile, coccoid intracellular bacteria Depends on host cells for ATP metabolites Multiply within membrane-bound inclusions, in the cytoplasm of host cells Have a non-synchronous multimorphic developmental cycle: Spore-like, non-vegetative elementary body (EB), uniformly spherical particle of 300nm diameter Ingestion by host cell, fusion of bacterial endosome with host lysosomes? EB undergoes conversion to metabolically active reticulate body (RB), 800-1200nm RB replicate by binary fission, within a membrane bound vacuole, the chlamydial inclusion Intermediate bodies (IB) can also be seen Mature to infectious EBs which infect other cells by lysis of host cells or by extrusion of chlamydial inclusion C. perfringens (type A most common) - necrotic enteritis in poultry, ratites, psittacines, etc. C. colinum - ulcerative enteritis in poultry, especially in quail (quail disease), toucans, ratites, etc. C. difficile - entero/typhlocolitis in ratites (ostrich) C. sordelli - enterocolitis in ratites (ostrich), omphalitis in baby chickens C. chauvoei - enteritis in ostriches Liver may have foci of necrosis and inflammation with the above clostridial diseases C. septicum - gangrenous dermatitis in poultry, especially chickens (C. perfringens can also cause) C. botulinum - limberneck in poultry Chronic progressive disease of a variety of species of birds with unthriftiness, loss of weight, diarrhea, etc. M. avium - wide host spectrum, poultry, pigeons, raptors, ratites, wild birds, psittacines , passerines, etc. M. genavense most common mycobacteria of psittacines and probably passerines M. tuberculosis - psittacines, others? M. bovis pigeons, psittacine, others? Lesions Poultry, pigeons, raptors, ratites; grossly pale yellow or grey nodules in liver, spleen, intestine, bone marrow, lung, heart, etc. micro: caseous necrosis surrounded by multinucleated giant cells and fibrosis Psittacines, passerines, touracos; grossly pale mottling or diffuse enlargement of liver, spleen, intestine, lung, heart, eyelid, skin, etc. 10

d. Clostridial diseases

e. Mycobacteriosis

micro: diffuse or focal infiltration of foamy macrophages with myriads of acid fast bacilli in the cytoplasm, necrosis is unusual

f. Mycoplasmosis

Important economic diseases of poultry caused by M. gallisepticum M. synoviae M. meleagridis M. iowae 14-20 or more Mycoplasma sp. are known Isolated from chickens, turkeys, pigeons, raptors, ratites, wild birds, psittacines, passerines, etc. Pathogenic significance? M. imitans can cause conjunctivitis and sinusitis in red-legged partridges M. sturni has been associated with conjunctivitis in a European starling, Blue Jays and Mockingbirds M. gallisepticum (MG) Disease called chronic respiratory disease (CRD) in chickens and infectious sinusitis in turkeys. Other birds susceptible include, quail, pheasants, partridges, peafowl, finches, etc. Egg transmitted Respiratory disease with swollen infraorbital sinus, tracheitis, airsacculitis, conjunctivitis, etc. Primarily of lymphocytic inflammation MG can cause decreased egg production in layers Some strains of MG can cause neurological signs in turkeys due to vasculitis in the brain MG has caused conjunctivitis in wild finches in the East and Midwest regions of the US.

M. synoviae (MS) - in chickens, turkeys, geese, quail, partridge, ducks, etc. Egg transmitted Subclinical infection of respiratory disease, sinusitis, tracheitis, air sacculitis, conjunctivitis It can cause severe synovitis, ulceration Lymphocytic inflammation, proliferation of synovial cells Some strains of MS can cause neurological signs in turkeys, (chickens?) due to vasculitis in the brain Disseminated vasculitis in synovium, eye, kidney, skeletal muscle, heart, lung, etc., can be seen in turkeys Has been associated with amyloid arthropathy in brown-egg laying type chickens M. melagridis - affects turkeys Egg transmitted Airsacculitis in day-old poults Decreased hatchability, swelling of hock joint, bowing of tarsometatorsus (TS-65 syndrome), deformation of cervical vertebrae (wry neck) M. iowae - affects turkeys Egg transmitted

11

 Causes decreased hatchability and embryo mortality g. Turkey Coryza (Bordetellosis)

Caused by Bordetella avium Upper respiratory tract infection primarily of young turkey poults; swollen sinus, collapsed trachea, watery eyes Tracheitis: deciliation, squamous metaplasia, and lymphoplasmacytic inflammation Decrease of GAGS (?) in the cartilage, effect of toxin? B. avium can be a significant pathogen in young broiler chickens, ratites, passerines and psittacines Disease primarily of young chickens caused by Haemophilus paragallinarum Pheasants and guinea fowl are also susceptible Upper respiratory tract infection; swollen sinus (sinusitis/rhinitis), facial edema, conjunctivitis Occasionally tracheitis, bronchitis and airsacculitis Also called avian cholera, pasteurellosis Septicemic disease of birds with high mortality and morbidity Etiology: P. multocida Most common in turkeys, chickens, wild waterfowl Other birds such as geese, quail, pheasants, raptors, psittacines, passerines, zoo birds, etc., are susceptible Lesions Acute: petechiae on viscera, consolidated lungs (common in turkeys), enlarged liver with foci of necrosis, pericarditis, airsacculitis, cellulitis, endocarditis, etc. Mucoid enteritis in waterfowl Peritonitis and oophoritis in breeders Chronic: swollen wattles, synovitis, otitis, osteomyelitis of cranial bones, sinusitis, conjunctivitis, etc. Esophageal abscesses in raptors Acute septicemic disease of primarily turkeys Etiology: Erysipelothrix rhusiopathiae Chickens, emus, pheasants, ducks, grebes, geese, chukars, raptors, psittacines, zoo birds, etc. Lesions Acute cases: hemorrhages over epicardium, abdominal fat, skin, muscle, congested and enlarged spleen, foci of hepatic necrosis Chronic cases: vegetative endocarditis and arthritis

h. Infectious Coryza

i. Fowl Cholera

j. Erysipelas

12

k. Pseudotuberculosis

Chronic contagious disease of psittacines, canaries, finches, doves, poultry, raptors, wild birds, etc. Yersinia pseudotuberculosis Birds often found dead, loss of weight, digestive and respiratory signs can be seen Lesions Pale yellow nodules of caseous granulomas in liver, spleen, intestine, lung, airsacs, bone, muscle, etc. Lesions can be confused with mycobacteriosis or coligranuloma Previously classified as Pasteurella anatipestifer Disease called new duck disease, goose influenza Disease of young domestic ducks, geese and turkeys Respiratory signs, ocular discharge, diarrhea, neurological signs, as much as 10% mortality Fibrinosuppurative airsacculitis, pericarditis, perihepatitis, meningitis, uveitis, etc. Skin and joints may be involved Gram negative bacillus associated with respiratory disease in poultry, primarily turkeys and broiler chickens It has been isolated from layer-type chickens, pheasants, partridges, pigeons, psittacines, etc. Consolidated lungs (similar to fowl cholera in turkeys), tracheitis, airsacculitis, sinusitis, peritonitis, hepatic necrosis, etc. Systemic infection of birds caused by S. aureus Less commonly by S. epidermidis and S. hyicus S. aureus most common in turkeys and broiler chickens, but has been isolated from a variety of bird species Lesions: omphalitis, synovitis, arthritis, osteomyelitis, green liver, gangrenous dermatitis, cellulitis, endocarditis, abscesses (bumblefoot), etc. Systemic infection of a variety of birds caused by species of genus Streptococcus S. zooepidemicus, septicemia in chickens, turkeys, pigeons, wild birds, etc. Valvular endocarditis with secondary infarcts in heart, liver, spleen, etc. Others: osteomyelitis, arthritis, tenosynovitis, salpingitis S. bovis, septicemia in turkeys, pigeons, etc. S. faecium, septicemia in ducklings, goslings, chickens, etc. Enterococcus hirae, encephalomalacia with vascular thrombosis and meningitis in broiler chicks

l. Riemerella anatipestifer

m. Ornithobacterium rhinotracheale

n. Staphylococcosis

o. Streptococcosis

13

 Enterococcus faecalis, associated with amyloid arthropathy in chickens (brown-egg layers) p. Miscellaneous bacteria

Pseudomonas aeruginosa, Klebsiella pneumoniae - can cause localized or systemic infection in poultry and other birds Bacillus anthracis - been reported in ostriches as a cause of septicemia Listeria monocytogenes - can cause septicemia, myocarditis and encephalitis in chickens Campylobacter jejuni - been associated with enteritis and hepatic necrosis in ostriches Lawsonia intracellulare - associated with enteritis in ratites Eubacterium tortuosum - granulomas in liver and spleen, broiler chickens and turkeys Clostridium piliformis (Tyzzers disease) - hepatic necrosis in psittacines Spirochetosis: Borrelia anserina, septicemia in poultry and canaries Borrelia related to B. hirmsii associated with hepatitis, splenitis and encephalitis in Northern Spotted Owl Serpulina hyodysenteriae associated with typhlitis in rheas, in poultry? Serpulina piloscholi in ceca of pheasants, disease? Spirochete-like in ceca of turkeys, disease?

8. Fungal diseases
a. Aspergillosis

One of the most common fungal diseases of poultry, water fowl, psittacines, passerines, ratites, raptors, zoo birds (penguins), etc. Aspergillus fumigatus and A. flavus most common Others: A. niger, A. terreus, A. glaucus, etc. Respiratory signs (brooder pneumonia in poultry), unthrifty, diarrhea, neurological signs, ocular involvement, etc. Lesions Pale yellow nodules in lungs, air sac, syrinx, sinus, liver, brain, cloudy cornea, etc. White plaques with fuzzy green or grey or blue material (conidiophores-fruity bodies) on air sacs, pleura, etc. Fibrinosuppurative or granulomatous pneumonia, airsacculitis, syringitis, sinusitis, encephalitis, ophthalmitis, vasculitis (aortic rupture), hepatitis, osteomyelitis, pericarditis, etc. Common mycosis of the upper digestive tract Also called thrush, crop mycosis, moniliasis Young birds most susceptible

b. Candidiasis

14

Candida albicans most common etiology Poultry, psittacines, passerines, ratites, raptors, pigeons, water fowl, etc. Oral cavity, esophagus and crop involved with white proliferative plaques Proventriculus, gizzard, intestine less often involved Systemic and ocular candidiasis have been described In ostriches, psittacines, water fowl, canaries involving proventriculus and gizzard and air sacs in a pigeon Mucor sp, Absidia sp. and Rhizopus sp. isolated necrotizing lesions with granulomatous reaction Due to Microsporum gallinae, dermatophyte of chickens with white powdery material on head, face and eyelids Acanthosis, hyperkeratosis and dermatitis Due to D. gallopava in turkeys and quail Fibrinosuppurative encephalitis and ophthalmitis Due to C. neoformans in psittacines, pigeons, pheasant and experimental infection in chickens Sinusitis, laryngitis, tracheitis, encephalitis, hepatitis, pneumonia, etc. Due to R. seeberi in swans, ducks Granulomatous conjunctivitis Been associated with proventriculitis in psittacines, ostriches, etc.

c. Zygomycosis

d. Favus (avian ringworm)

e. Dactylariosis

f. Crpytococcosis

g. Rhinosporidiosis

h. Megabacteriosis, now it is classified as a fungus, probably a yeast i. Others fungal diseases

Histoplasmosis - due to H. encapsulatum Granulomatous iridocyclitis in experimental infection of chickens Penicillium Penicillium griseofulvum, systemic infection in a toucanet P. cyclopium, beak infection in a macaw Trichosporon Trichosporon beigelii, granulomatous pneumonia, myocarditis, hepatitis in a macaw Curvularia Curvularia geniculata, mycetoma in a parrot

15

Scedosporium Scedosporium prolificans isolated from feet of an ostrich with severe hyperkeratosis Geotrichum and Paecilomyces Geotrichum candidum and Paecilomyces variota have been isolated with disease

9. Viral diseases
Diseases caused by herpesvirus, retrovirus, coronavirus, paramyxovirus, orthomyxovirus, picornavirus, poxvirus, birnavirus, parvovirus, adenovirus, reovirus, enterovirus, circovirus, papovavirus, arbovirus, bunyavirus and other miscellaneous viruses a. Mareks Disease

One of the most common and well studied diseases of young chickens Quail and turkeys are also susceptible Etiology: cell-associated herpesvirus Pathogenesis: virus replicates in feather follicle epithelium, infection through respiratory route, viremia infection of B cells cytolysis infection of activated T cells cytolysis immunosuppression infection of other organs like nerves (paralysis) & blindness latency transformation of T cells (CD4) lymphoma Lesions Gross: bursal and thymic atrophy, swollen peripheral nerves, enlarged organs with pale white tumors in liver, spleen, kidney, lung, proventriculus, intestine, heart, gonads, thymus, irregular/gray iris, prominent feather follicles, etc. Microscopic: lymphoid necrosis and depletion in bursa, and thymus, neuritis, encephalomyelitis, pleomorphic lymphocytic lymphoma in various organs Intranuclear inclusion bodies in feather epithelium Atherosclerosis can be produced with MD virus Genus, ALV- related viruses of family Retrovirus Six subgroups; A, B, C and D (exogenous viruses), E (endogenous) & J (recombinant) A, B and J are common in the field, C and D are rare Various oncogenes have been identified (see table 1) They can produce a variety of neoplasms in chickens Influenced by strain of virus, dose, route of inoculation, age of host, genotype and sex of host Neoplasms: sarcomas (fibro, osteochondro, myxo, histio, lympho, hemangio), meningioma, mesothelioma, erythroblastosis, myeloblastosis, nephroblastoma, granulosa cell tumor, hepatocellular carcinoma, glioma, (osteopetrosis), etc. Lymphoid Leukosis Disease of semimature and mature chickens Etiology: retrovirus of leukosis/sarcoma group Exogenous viruses, subgroups A, B, C and D Transmission Horizontal, transient viremia, immunity, LL rare

b. Leukosis/Sarcoma Group

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Egg transmission, chronic viremia, immune tolerance, LL common B cell lymphoma in various organs, bursa of Fabricius, liver, spleen, kidney, gonads, etc. Osteopetrosis thickening of long bones Effect of virus on osteoblasts

Myelocytomatosis Neoplastic disease primarily of broiler breeders and broilers Etiology: retrovirus, subgroup J (leukosis/sarcoma group) Lesions: liver, spleen, kidney, sternum, etc., with nodules made up immature granulocytes Hemangiosarcoma, histiocytoma, myxoma, carcinoma in liver, fibrosarcoma, lymphoma, ganglioneuroma, renal tumors, etc., have also been associated with subgroup J virus Reticuloendotheliosis Includes runting syndrome, chronic lymphoma and acute reticulum cell sarcoma Primarily in chickens and turkeys but neoplasia associated with REV has been observed in quail, ducks, pheasants, geese and peafowl Etiology: retrovirus of REV group, distinctly different from leukosis/sarcoma group, more closely related to murine leukemia virus Other viruses in REV group include chick syncytial virus, duck infectious anemia virus, spleen necrosis virus and others Lesions In runting syndrome: thymic and bursal atrophy, neuritis, lymphoma (similar to Mareks disease) In chronic lymphoma: bursal and visceral lymphoma (similar to Lymphoid Leukosis) In acute reticulum cell sarcoma: enlarged liver, spleen, kidney, heart, gonads, etc. Acute viral respiratory disease of primarily chickens Pheasants and peafowl are also susceptible Etiology: herpesvirus Lesions: oculonasal discharge, trachea with hemorrhage and/or fibrinous exudate Conjunctivitis, tracheitis and sinusitis, syncytia formation and intranuclear inclusion bodies Highly contagious viral respiratory disease of young chickens Drop in egg production and egg quality in layers Etiology: coronavirus, many serotypes, and great antigenic variation among strains of virus Lesions: catarrhal tracheitis, conjunctivitis, bronchitis, and airsacculitis Fibrinosuppurative inflammation in cases complicated with E. coli Interstitial nephritis with nephrotropic strains

c. Infectious laryngotracheitis

d. Infectious Bronchitis

e. Avian Paramyxoviruses

17

Based on antigenic relatedness (HI test) avian parmyxoviruses are classified into nine groups Groups PMV-1/Newcastle Disease Virus PMV-2/Yukaipa PMV-3/Turkeys PMV-3/Psittacines PMV-4/Duck PMV-5/Budgerigar PMV-6/Duck PMV-7/Dove PMV-8/Goose PMV-9/Duck Primary Host numerous Passerines, turkeys Turkeys Psittacine Ducks Budgerigar Ducks, geese Pigeons, dove Ducks, geese Ducks Other Hosts many Chickens, psittacines, rail None (chickens ?) Passerines Geese, rails none Turkeys none none none

Newcastle Disease Acute viral disease of chickens, turkeys, pigeons, doves, pheasants, ratites, psittacines, cormorants, etc. 236 species of birds comprising 27 orders Etiology: avian paramyxovirus - 1, isolates vary greatly in pathogenicity to chickens Lentogenic: mild or inapparent infection in chickens Mesogenic: cause disease and mortality in young chickens Velogenic (viscerotropic and neurotropic): lethal infection of chickens of all ages New OIE classification based on chick intra-cerebral pathogenicity index (ICPI) ICPI of > 0.7 is Newcastle disease virus (formerly Velogenic and mesogenic) ICPI of < 0.7 is Avian Paramyxovirus 1 (formerly Lentogenic) Clinical signs Vary with strain, respiratory, digestive, ocular, neurological, sudden death In mature chickens, egg production and quality problems (mesogenic strain) Lesions In pigeons: enteritis, pancreatitis, nephritis, encephalitis, respiratory system rarely involved In chickens; tracheitis, pneumonia, enteritis, conjunctivitis, encephalitis, myocarditis, lymphoid necrosis Velogenic; hemorrhages in conjunctiva, trachea, oral cavity, esophagus, proventriculus, ceca, rectum Disseminated vasculitis, lymphoid necrosis and depletion, mucosal necrosis and ulceration Inclusions are rare but both intranuclear and intracytoplasmic inclusions have been described In a recent case, discrete eosinophilic intranuclear and intracytoplasmic inclusions in conjunctiva, esophagus, lung, brain, adrenal ganglia of a pheasant and in the brain of a chicken with NDV

18

Eosinophilic intranuclear inclusions in hepatocytes in doves associated with lentogenic type of NDV

Other Avian Paramyxoviruses PMV - 2 (Yucaipa): Respiratory disease in young turkeys and drop in egg production in layers, chickens are susceptible PMV - 3, two strains, turkey and psittacine Turkey: egg production drop in turkeys Psittacine; neurological and digestive problems in psittacines and passerines Encephalitis with intranuclear and intracytoplasmic inclusion bodies in neurons and glial cells Myocarditis, pancreatitis with intranuclear inclusions PMV -5 (Kunitachi): Enteritis and mortality in budgerigars and lorikeets

f. Avian pneumovirus Cause of Turkey Rhino Tracheitis (TRT) of turkeys, Swollen Head Syndrome (SHS) of chickens, highly contagious respiratory diseases Etiology: pneumovirus (Paramyxoviridae) Lesions: swollen sinuses, sinusitis, tracheitis, rhinitis, conjunctivitis g. Avian Influenza Acute viral disease of poultry; turkeys and chickens and psittacines, passerines, ratites, etc. It has been isolated from many species of birds Waterfowl may serve as reservoirs Etiology: type A influenza virus of family Orthomyxoviridae Numerous subtypes based on surface antigens, hemagglutinin (13) and neuraminidase (9) Viruses of H5 (H5N2) and H7 (H7N1) subtypes are considered pathogenic, H1N1 (swine flu) in turkeys H4N8, H4N6, H3N8 in exotic birds H5N1 in chickens and humans, Hong Kong, 1997 Clinical signs: vary greatly, respiratory, digestive, ocular, neurological, sudden death, etc. Drop in egg production in layers Lesions: vary greatly in pathogenicity Mildly pathogenic: catarrhal tracheitis, sinusitis, airsacculitis, conjunctivitis, pneumonia, peritonitis, oopharitis, salpingitis, etc. Highly pathogenic: hemorrhagic lesions in skin of face, comb & shanks and GI tract, interstitial pneumonia & nephritis, encephalitis, conjunctivitis, myocarditis, adrenalitis, pancreatitis, myositis, lymphoid necrosis, vasculitis and thrombosis, etc. h. Avian Encephalomyelitis Viral disease of young (1-3 weeks) chickens, turkeys, pheasants and coturnix quail

19

Neurological signs (epidemic tremor) Drop in egg production in layers Egg transmitted Etiology: Picornavirus (distantly related to hepatitis A virus, genus:Hepatovirus)

Lesions: neuronal swelling, chromatolysis, lymphocytic perivascular cuffing, gliosis in brain and lymphocytic foci in muscular layer of proventriculus and gizzard, pancreatitis A few survivors can develop cataracts i. Avian Pox Slow spreading viral disease of chickens, turkeys, quail, pigeons, canaries, raptors, psittacines, ostrich, peacock, waterfowl, etc. 60 species of wild birds Etiology: poxvirus of genus Avipoxvirus, many strains Fowl pox, turkey pox, pigeon pox, canary pox, quail, mynah, psittacine, junco, sparrow, starling, etc. Signs: cutaneous, respiratory, digestive, ocular Septicemic form in canaries, 70 - 90% mortality Lesions Gross: Dry pox or cutaneous form: proliferative skin lesions on face, eyelids, beak, feet, legs, vent, etc. Wet pox or diphtheritic form: yellow raised plaques in sinus, trachea, oral cavity esophagus/crop, conjunctiva, etc. Micro: Proliferation of epithelial cells, ballooning degeneration with eosinophilic intracytoplasmic inclusion bodies (pathognomonic) Desquamative pneumonia in canaries Some avipoxviruses are oncogenic, wart-like growth j. Infectious Bursal disease

Acute viral disease of young chickens (1-6 weeks) and secondary immunosuppression Turkeys and ducks, subclinical infection Etiology: birnavirus Lesions: enlarged and edematous bursa of Fabricius some times with hemorrhages and atrophy in later stages, hemorrhages in skeletal muscle, thymic atrophy with virulent IBD Lymphoid necrosis and depletion Secondary infections with inclusion body hepatitis, gangrenous dermatitis, bursal cryptosporidiosis, etc.

k. Chicken Infectious Anemia Viral disease of young chickens characterized by aplastic anemia and immunosuppression Chicks 1-3 weeks of age most susceptible

20

Vertically transmitted Etiology: a circovirus, genus Gyrovirus, family Circoviridae Hematology: anemia, hematocrit less than 27% (N 35%), leukopenia, thrombocytopenia Due to cytotoxic effect of virus on bone marrow precursor cells Lesions: pale bone marrow, severe thymic atrophy, atrophy of bursa, hemorrhages in skeletal muscles Lymphoid necrosis and depletion, bone marrow hypoplasia Gangrenous dermatitis, colibacillosis, aspergillosis, viral infection, etc. Eosinophilic (red) intranuclear inclusions in mononuclear inflammatory cells (macrophages?) of thymus, spleen, bone marrow, bursa, lung, etc. in some cases True nature of these inclusions is not known

l. Duck Viral Enteritis

Acute viral disease of primarily adult ducks, geese and swans characterized by high mortality Etiology: herpesvirus Lesions: hemorrhages on heart, liver, gizzard, fibrinonecrotic lesions in esophagus, rectum, cloaca, bursa, annular band of hemorrhage and necrosis in intestine, ceca, and thymic atrophy Necrosis, inflammation and intranuclear inclusions in liver, intestine, thymus, gland of Harder, conjunctiva, etc. Esophagitis and bursal necrosis with intranuclear and intracytoplasmic inclusions in mucosal cells Peracute viral infection of ducklings (< 5 weeks) characterized by high mortality Etiology: DVH - 1, enterovirus DVH - 2, astrovirus DVH - 3, enterovirus (unrelated to DVH1) Lesions: petechiae or ecchymotic hemorrhages and necrosis in liver, minimal inflammation Goose parvovirus (Derzsy disease): highly contagious disease of young geese and Muscovy ducks Serofibrinous pericarditis and perihepatitis Myocarditis with intranuclear inclusions

m. Duck virus hepatitis

n. Parvovirus Infection

Muscovy duck parvovirus Serologically related to goose parvovirus Causes locomotor problems with high mortality in 1-3 weeks-old ducks, loss of weight , pale leg muscles, serofibrinous pericarditis and perihepatitis

21

Myositis, myocarditis, encephalomyelitis, neuritis, etc. Ascites, round hearts in ducks recovered from infection o. Avian Adenoviruses

Three groups: Group I - quail bronchitis, inclusion body hepatitis and hydropericardium syndrome in chickens, also disease in turkeys, pigeons, psittacines, raptors, etc. Group II - hemorrhagic enteritis virus of turkeys (HEV), marble spleen disease of pheasants (MSD) and splenomegaly of chickens Group III - egg drop syndrome of chickens with no apparent lesions but caused tracheitis and bronchitis in goslings Quail bronchitis High mortality in young bobwhite quail associated with bronchopneumonia, tracheitis, hepatitis, pancreatitis, bursal necrosis, intranuclear inclusions Inclusion body hepatitis of chickens, also in turkeys, guinea fowl, pigeons, psittacines, etc. In chickens usually secondary to immunosuppression caused by IBDV, CIAV Liver enlarged and mottled red/pale, foci of necrosis, inflammation and intranuclear inclusion bodies, also pancreatitis Similar lesions seen in turkey poults, guinea fowl, pigeons Hepatitis, enteritis, bronchitis, pancreatitis, nephritis, encephalitis, etc., associated with intranuclear inclusions in psittacines Hemorrhagic enteritis virus (HEV) of turkeys and Marble spleen disease (MSD) of pheasants Caused by group II adenovirus Guinea fowl, psittacines, (partridge) susceptible Young turkeys (4-12 weeks) and pheasants (3-8 months) With HEV, intestinal hemorrhage and enlarged mottled white spleen and immunosuppression Intranuclear inclusions in mononuclear cells of spleen and intestine, renal epithelial cells in HEV In pheasants mottled white enlarged spleen, MPS cell hyperplasia, intranuclear inclusions Splenomegaly in chickens Disease of young turkeys, multiple etiologies Viruses include coronavirus (blue comb disease), enterovirus, rotavirus, astrovirus, etc. Diarrhea, loss of weight, small intestine and ceca distended with watery or frothy contents Mortality 1 - 55%, caseous exudate in bursa with coronavirus infection Increased cellularity of lamina propria, necrosis of cells in lamina propria and enterocytes, villus atrophy, lymphoid necrosis in thymus and bursa (virus?) Eneteritis associated with rotavirus and enterovirus have been described in young pheasants, quail, chukars, etc.

p. Poult Enteritis

q. Herpesviruses (Mareks disease, see page 16) 22

Psittacine Herpesvirus Probably a diverse group of viruses which infect a variety of psittacines Three diseases are known PACHECOS DISEASE Acute viral disease of a variety of psittacines (common in 1980s in US) Lesions: enlarged liver occasionally with petechiae, enlarged spleen, fluid filled intestine, diphteritic membrane in oral cavity, esophagus, etc. liver necrosis with or without inflammation, enteritis, stomatitis, esophagitis, pancreatitis, conjunctivitis, splenic and bursal necrosis, nephritis with intranuclear inclusion bodies syncytia formation with inclusions in liver AMAZON TRACHEITIS, disease characterized by tracheitis, bronchitis, rhinitis, laryngitis with syncytia formation and intranuclear inclusions Virus has some cross reactivity with ILT virus of chickens BUDGERIGAR HERPESVIRUS, rare disease associated with decreased hatchability and feather duster plumage Miscellaneous Herpesviruses GOOSE HERPERVIURS

Lesions like in Duck viral enteritis with intranuclear inclusion bodies and high mortality in goslings

PIGEON HERPESVIRUS Common in young squabs characterized by hepatitis, pancreatitis, esophagitis associated with intranuclear inclusions Conjunctivitis, enteritis, myocarditis, encephalitis, laryngitis, splenitis, etc. can also be seen Raptors and budgies susceptible FINCH HERPESVIRUS (cytomegalovirus-like) Disease of primarily Gouldian finches characterized by high mortality, conjunctivitis, tracheitis, bronchitis, associated with cytomegalic cells and intranuclear inclusions OTHERS HERPES VIRUSES OF OWLS, FALCONS, EAGLES, CRANES, etc. Hepatitis associated with intranuclear inclusion bodies r. Psittacine Beak and Feather Disease

Viral disease of many species of psittacines characterized by chronic feather and beak dystrophy Acute immunosuppression and sudden death in young birds due to secondary bacterial septicemia and fungal infections Etiology: Psittacine circovirus, genus circovirus, family Circoviridae Clinical signs: dystrophic feathers first noticed of the powder down, progress to contour feathers, followed by primary, secondary tail and crest feathers, almost symmetrical Dystrophy of the beak Lesions

23

Gross: abnormal and loss of feathers, sloughing of claws, beak necrosis, necrosis of oral mucosa, liver, bursa, thymus, etc. Microscopic: pterylitis and pulpitis associated with botryoid inclusions in macrophages, also in bursa, bone marrow, thymus, beak, claws, liver, pancreas, thyroid, testes, etc. Intranuclear inclusions in feather epithelium, intestine, esophagus, hepatocytes Pigeons and doves Etilogy: Pigeon circovirus, genus circovirus feather dystrophy, exudate in bursa (due to bacterial infection), pterylitis, bursal lymphoid depletion and intracytoplasmic circovirus inclusions in macrophages of bursa of Fabricius, spleen, thymus, cecal tonsil, etc. secondary bacterial, parasitic, fungal and other concurrent viral infections common Canaries and Finches Etiology: Canary circovirus, genus circovirus, family Circoviridae Feather dystrophy and characteristic circovirus inclusions in bursa of Fabricius in finches Gulls and Geese are also susceptible to circovirus Circovirus inclusions in the bursa of Fabricius Two genera are known to cause disease in psittacines and passerines Papillomavirus Polyomavirus Papillomavirus It has been associated with cutaneous papillomas in wild finches (Fringilla) and an African Grey Parrot No virus has been associated with papillomas of cloaca, conjunctiva, tongue, larynx, oral cavity, crop/esophagus, etc., in psittacines Polyomavirus Three groups, A, B and C Causes BUDGERIGAR FLEDGLING DISEASE (BFD) One of the most common diseases of psittacines (disease of 90s?) and passerines Antibodies to BFDV been detected in chickens, but chickens are resistant to infection Etiology: polyomavirus, different strains such as psittacine, passerine, etc., may exist Variety of psittacines, finches, canaries, seed crackers and blue bills are susceptible Young psittacines are highly susceptible with very high mortality (30 - 100%), also adults Feather dystrophy in budgerigars, acute death, digestive, neurological, respiratory signs, etc. Lesions Gross: variation among psittacines and also passerines In most of psittacines feather dystrophy, hemorrhages in skin, subcutis, skeletal muscle, heart, intestine, liver enlarged and mottled red or with white foci, splenomegaly, pale kidneys, ascites, lung congestion, pale carcass, etc.

s. Papovavirus

24

 In passerines, liver enlarged and mottled white, serosal or subserosal hemorrhage of intestine, pale myocardium, etc. Microscopic: hemorrhages in various organs, necrosis in spleen, bursa, thymus and bone marrow, midzonal or random necrosis in liver, myocarditis, enteritis, nephritis, membranous glomerulopathy, pancreatitis, conjunctivitis, encephalomyelitis, ganglionitis (spinal), etc. Bluish karyomegalic inclusions in various tissues; epidermis, feather follicle epithelium, esophagus, kidney, macro/lympho of spleen, bursa, thymus, bone marrow, liver, etc., hepatocytes, myocytes, endothelial cells, glial cells, Purkinje cells, etc. Buzzards and Falcons are also susceptible Goose hemorrhagic polyomavirus: causes high mortality in 4-10 week old geese, 100 % mortality in one week-old geese subcutaneous edema, ascites, hemorrhagic enteritis, nephritis and lymphoid necrosis in bursa of Fabricius t. Proventricular Dilation Disease (PDD)

A common chronic disease of psittacines Characterized by dilation of proventriculus, anorexia, regurgitation, passing of undigested seeds in feces, diarrhea, neurological signs, loss of weight, etc. Also been seen in a perigrine falcon, Canada geese, etc. Etiology: not known, presumed to be a virus Lesions Gross: dilated thin proventriculus in 70% of cases, distended duodenum, etc. Microscopic: lymphoplasmacytic ganglioneuritis of splanchnic nerves of crop/esophagus, proventriculus, gizzard, intestine, adrenalitis, myocarditis, neuritis, encephalomyelitis, choroiditis, etc. (see table 2) Turkey viral hepatitis Disease of young turkeys Etiology: Picorna-like virus Liver and pancreas with foci of necrosis and inflammation Viral arthritis Disease primarily of young chickens and turkeys Etiology: reovirus Joints enlarged with fluid, proliferative synovitis Avian nephritis Highly contagious disease of chickens Etiology: Astrovirus Nephritis and secondary visceral urate deposition Hepadna virus (hepatitis B virus) Common in ducks, but no significant clinical disease or lesions

u. Miscellaneous Viral Diseases

25

 Also in swans and geese, no associated clinical disease

Hepatitis E virus Has been associated with hepatitis-splenomegaly syndrome in mature chickens Disease is called big liver and spleen disease in Australia Drop in egg production and increased mortality Periportal hepatitis, vasculitis, necrosis and hemorrhage in liver. Spleen with increased number of MPS cells with amyloidosis frequently Louping ill virus Red grouse are susceptible Arboviruses
WEST NILE VIRUS Etiology: Flavivirus

First appeared in people in the US in NY city in 1999, flu-like symptoms, 7/61 died Over 14 orders and over 170 species of birds are susceptible but most severe in crows, blue jays, geese, herons, raptors (owls, hawks), etc. others; pigeons, kestrels, gulls, storks, geese, magpie, bald eagles, ducks, flamingos, lorikeets, macaw, cockatiel, cockatoo, parakeet, etc. Chickens and turkeys are resistant to infection clinical signs vary from sudden death to depression, weight loss, ataxia, tremors, opisthotonus, impaired vision, etc. gross: hemorrhages in brain, pale areas in the myocardium, enlarged spleen, nephritis, hemorrhage and necrosis in the intestine histo: primarily nonsuppurative encephalitis and myocarditis. Others include necrosis in spleen, liver, pancreas, and enteritis, nephritis, adrenalitis and pulmonary hemorrhage. Virus widespread in many tissues but kidneys and brain are good for virus isolation

EASTERN EQUINE ENCEPHALOMYELITIS VIRUS Causes neurological signs and encephalitis in pheasants, partridges, finches and turkeys In young turkeys and chickens, myocarditis, lymphoid necrosis in bursa and thymus Hemorrhagic enteritis and splenic necrosis in emus WESTERN EQUINE ENCEPHALOMYELITIS VIRUS Encephalitis, myocarditis, hemorrhagic leiomyositis of intestine associated with vasculitis in emus Encephalitis in pigeon and neurological signs in turkeys HIGHLAND J VIRUS: Encephalitis and myocarditis in partridges and young turkeys Associated with precipitous drop in egg production in turkeys ISRAEL TURKEY MENINGOENCEPHALITIS VIRUS 26

Encephalitis and myocardial necrosis in 10-12 week-old turkeys BUNYA VIRUS (Turlock-like): Associated with encephalomyelitis and myocarditis in an ostrich chick

10. Parasitic diseases

Protozoa: coccidia, histomonas, cryptosporidia, sarcocystis, toxoplasma, atoxoplasma, amoeba, microsporidia, trichomonas, leucocytozoon, malaria, haemoproteus, giardia, cochlosoma, spironucleus (Hexamita), balantidium, trypanosomes, hemosporozoa, besnoitia, chilomastix, caryospora, etc. Nematodes: Ascarids, Capillaria, Syngamus, Tetrameres, Heterakis, Baylisascaris, etc. Cestodes: Raillietina, Davainea, Hymenolepis, etc. Trematodes: Prosthogonimus, Schistosomes, etc. Arthropods: mites, fleas, lice, etc. Protozoa a. COCCIDIOSIS

Common disease of many species of birds caused by species of genera primarily Eimeria and Isospora and are quite host specific Chickens: disease of universal importance Eimeria tenella (ceca), E. acervulina (upper small int.), E. maxima and E. necatrix (mid small intestine) Hemorrhagic, mucoid, necrotic, proliferative enteritis Numerous coccidia in different stages of development Turkeys: common, lesions less severe than in chickens E. adenoides (ceca), E. meleagrimitis (mid small intestine) Mucoid enteritis, sometimes hemorrhagic and necrotic enteritis Geese: E. truncata occurs in kidney Nephritis and urate deposits E. anseris causes enteritis Ducks: renal coccidia due to E. boschadis, etc. Quail, partridges, and pheasants: various species of Eimeria causes enteritis In quail coccidiosis is commonly associated with ulcerative enteritis caused by Clostridum colinum Pigeons: E. labbeana causes enteritis Psittacines: Species of Eimeria, E. dunsingi and Isospora can cause enteritis in budgerigars, lories, parakeets, parrots, etc. Passerines: Finches: Isospora lacazei has been associated with enteritis

27

Cranes: E. gruis and E. reichenowi causes granulomatous enteritis, hepatitis, splenitis, pneumonia, myocarditis, etc. in whooping and sandhill cranes Also called black head, a common protozoal disease of turkeys and partridges Also in chickens, peafowl, quail, pheasants, rhea, etc. Etiology: Histomonas meleagridis Cecal worm, Heterakis gallinarum and earth worms act as accessory hosts Lesions: saucer shaped depressions or white foci in liver and fibrinonecrotic mucosa and thickened wall of ceca Granulomatous hepatitis and typhlitis associated with spherical protozoa, 8 - 21 um in diameter Nephritis, bursitis (bursa of Fabricius), pneumonia, proventriculitis, pneumonia, peritonitis secondary to perforating typhlitis can be seen in turkeys Common protozoa of various species of birds Chickens, turkeys, quail, ratites, ducks, pheasants, peafowl, psittacines, passerines, etc. C. baileyi, C. meleagridis and Cryptosporidium spp in Finches and probably others Infect various body systems Cloaca, bursa of Fabricius and trachea most common Nasal cavity, sinus, bronchus, air sac, conjunctiva Proventriculus, intestine, ducts of pancreas, salivary and esophageal glands and bile duct Ureters, collecting tubules of kidney Inflammation and hyperplasia of epithelium Systemic protozoal disease of psittacines caused by S. falcatula Opossum is the definitive host, cowbirds and grackles are intermediate hosts Old World psittacines highly susceptible Young new world psittacines, canaries, finches, pigeons are susceptible Gallinaceous birds and anseriformes are resistant Sarcocystis with encephalitis has been described in a golden eagle, capercailles and chickens S. riley causes sarcocystosis in skeletal muscle (rice breast) of ducks, an innocuous incidental finding Lesions Pulmonary edema, congestion, liver may be enlarged and mottled white, splenomegaly Lymphoplasmacytic interstitial pneumonia, edema and schizonts in capillaries Myocarditis, hepatitis, splenitis, nephritis, encephalomyelitis, neuritis, myositis, uveitis, etc., associated with schizonts Mature cysts in the heart and skeletal muscle Generally no reaction to cysts in muscles

b. HISTOMONIASIS

c. CRYPTOSPORIDIOSIS

d. SARCOCYSTOSIS

28

e. TOXOPLASMOSIS

Sporadic disease of various species of birds It has been described in passerines (canaries), chickens, psittacines, pigeons, ducks, penguin, Japanese quail, chukar partridges, etc. Turkeys, pheasants, Bob White quail, owls, house sparrows resistant Etiology: T. gondii Lesions: encephalomyelitis, ophthalmitis, pneumonia, myocarditis, hepatitis, splenitis, neuritis, myositis, enteritis, adrenalitis, etc. associated with zoites and cysts Optic nerve; may be enlarged and yellow with necrotizing and granulomatous neuritis in chickens Common coccidian infection of canaries and finches, (previously called Lankesterella) Also in mynahs, sparrows, grosbeaks, thrush, cowbirds, raptors and many birds of order Passeriformes Etiology: A. serini (Isospora serini), A. adiei and probably others Lesions Liver enlarged with white foci, splenomegaly Enteritis, hepatitis, myocarditis with arteritis, splenitis, myositis, dermatitis, pneumonia, etc. Schizonts in cytoplasm of macrophages Lankesterella-like coccidia associated with pneumonia in a Northern Cardinal It can be a significant disease of psittacines It has been reported in a variety of lovebirds, budgerigars, parrots, cockatiels, etc. Also reported in ostrich and Hummingbirds Encephalitozoon hellum, others? Lesions: granulomatous nephritis, necrosis and inflammation in liver, enteritis, pneumonia, conjunctivitis, etc. associated with Gram-positive organisms A common infection of pigeons and raptors Also in canaries, finches, doves, psittacines, ducks, poultry, wild birds, etc. Etiology: T. gallinae Tetratrichomonas anatis, Tetratrichomonas sp. in ducks Tetratrichomonas gallinarum in mocking bird Lesions Granulomatous stomatitis, pharyngitis, esophagitis, ingluvitis, and enteritis Hepatitis, pericarditis, airsacculitis, tracheitis, pneumonia, meningoencephalitis Sinusitis, rhinitis, episcleritis Salpingitis in ducks

f. ATOXOPLASMOSIS

g. MICROSPORIDIOSIS

h. TRICHOMONIASIS

i. LEUCOCYTOZOONOSIS 29

Disease of anseriformes, turkeys, raptors, wild birds and columbiformes Black flies (Simuliidae) are vectors Etiology: L. simondi in anseriformes, L. smithi in turkeys, L. marchouxi in columbiformes, L. toddi in falconiformes, L ziemanni in owls Infect both white and red blood cells Lesions Disseminated characteristic megaloschizonts in endothelial cells of liver, spleen, heart, brain, eye with hepatitis, myocarditis, encephalitis, etc. L. caulleryi, which causes severe disease in young chickens in south and eastern Asia, is classified as Akiba caulleryi Vectors are biting midges of genus Culicoides Lesions are similar to ducks Leucocytozoon-like infection has been described in budgerigars, parakeets, Nankeen kestrels and a buzzard Myositis, myocarditis, encephalitis and hemorrhages in skin, pericardium, pancreas, hepatosplenomegaly, etc. Granulomatous meningoencephalomyelitis, pectinitis and proliferative areteritis associated with endothelial parasitic cysts in Nankeen Kestrels Hemoprotozoal infection of canaries, penguins and raptors caused by species of Plasmodium Ducks, pigeons, chickens, grouse, pheasants, sparrows, blackbirds, robin, canary, tern, etc. are susceptible Three species of Culicoides are vectors Etiology: P. relictum, P. elongatum, P. circumflexum, etc. Infect red blood cells and cells of MPS Lesions: anemia, interstitial pneumonia, hepatitis, splenitis, encephalitis, etc. Brown-black pigment (malaria pigment) of RBCs in MPS cells Hemoprotozoa of some significance primarily in columbiformes Common in raptors, water fowl, passerines, etc. Also seen in psittacines Etiology: H. columbae in pigeons and doves Biting flies of hippoboscids and Culicoides are vectors Infects red blood cells and endothelial cells Lesions: anemia, hepatitis, splenitis, myositis, pneumonia, etc. Schizonts and megaloschizonts can be seen Giardia psittaci cause of enteric disease in budgerigars Others: cockatiels, lovebirds, parrots, conures, many wild birds, herons, egrets, sparrows, etc.

j. AVIAN MALARIA

k. HAEMOPROTEUS

l. GIARDIA, SPIRONUCLEUS (HEXAMITA)

30

Hexamita meleagridis an enteric protozoa of turkeys Others: pheasants, pigeons, quail, partridge, ostrich, peafowl, etc. Lesions Emaciation, fluid filled intestine, catarrhal enteritis Cochlosoma anatis, a flagellate enteric protozoon of small intestine is associated with catarrhal enteritis in turkeys Entamoeba gallinarum common in large intestine of turkeys, significance? Others: Balantidium spp. in ostriches, Wenyonella philiplevinei in ducks, Blastocystis sp. in pheasants, etc. Hemosporozoa of undetermined taxonomy Disseminated myositis associated with cysts and high mortality in BW quail in California Also hepatitis, splenitis, myocarditis, nephritis, etc. associated with cysts, encephalomyelitis Probably caused by Heaemoproteus lophortyx? Large protozoan cysts of undetermined spp. associated with hepatitis, splenitis, pneumonia in canaries, conures, love birds, oropendola, etc. Amoeba of undetermined spp. associated with meningoencephalitis in a cockatiel Besnotia: Cyst stages of Besnoitia-like protozoa causes arteritis and endarteritis in shore birds like knots with severe mortality. Caryopsora: coccida with raptor-mouse cycle. Cysts found in the intestine, and other organs. Disease? Chilomastix: cyst forming flagellate seen in the intestine of chickens, turkeys, ducks, geese and bustards. Disease? Babesia shortii: causes anemia in Kestrels Others: trypanosomes, aegyptianella, etc. ASCARIASIS Common intestinal parasitism of many birds Chickens, turkeys, pigeons, partridges, raptors, psittacines (Australian parakeets), passerines, etc. Etiology: Ascaridia galli (chicken), A. dissimilis (turkey), A. columbae, A. hermaphrodita, species of Porrocaecum and Contracaecum, etc. Lesions: loss of weight, intussusception, mild enteritis if in large numbers Eosinophilic enteritis in turkeys Granulomas in livers due to larval migration Bile duct hyperplasia and pericholangitis associated with larvae in bile ducts in parakeets

m. OTHER ENTERIC PROTOZOA

n. MISCELLANEOUS PROTOZOA

Nematodes a.

31

b.

CAPILLARIASIS Significant disease primarily of upper digestive tract in many species of birds Quail, pheasants, partridges, guinea fowl, turkeys, pigeons, chickens, raptors, ducks, pscittacines, etc. Etiology: C. contorta, C. annulata, etc. Lesions: hyperplastic mucosa, fibrinonecrotic esophagitis, ingluvitis, etc. C. obsignata, C. caudinflata may cause enteritis in galliformes and columbiformes CEREBROSPINAL NEMATODIASIS Common condition in a variety of birds Chickens, emus, ostriches, psittacines, raptors, quail, partridges, wild birds, etc. Etiology: Baylisascaris procyonis (raccoon) and occasionally B. columnaris (skunk) Lesions: non-suppurative encephalomyelitis Larvae of Chandlerella quiscali, a filarid nematode of grackle has been associated with encephalitis in emu SYNGAMUS Common tracheal worm (gape worm) of pheasants Others: turkeys, geese, quail, peafowl, chickens Etiology: Syngamus trachea Lesions: granulomatous tracheitis and occasionally bronchitis Cyathostoma bronchialis can cause bronchitis and pneumonia in geese Also been associated with tracheitis in emus NEMATODES OF PROVENTRICULUS AND GIZZARD Dispharynx nasuta, Cyrnea colini, Tetrameres americana, Cheilospirura hamulosa and species of Acuaria, Synhimantis, Habronemia, Amidostomum, Hadjelia, etc. Occur in pigeons, chickens, quail, ducks, turkeys, pheasants, psittacines, passerines, etc. Lesions: proventriculitis and ventriculitis Geopetitia aspiculata (Habronemia) causes severe proventriculitis in passeriformes and others Libyostrongylus douglassii causes severe proventriculitis in ostriches Eustrogylides ignotus causes severe proventriculitis and peritonitis in fish eating birds such as herons, egrets and mergansers. MISCELLANEOUS NEMATODES Heterakhis isolonche: fibrous and granulomatous typhlitis in pheasants Trichostrongylus tenuis: enteritis in young grouse and geese Oxispirura mansoni: conjunctivitis in galliformes

c.

d.

e.

f.

32

Thelazia sp. have been associated with conjunctivitis in psittacines Pelecitus calamiformis(filarid): tenosynovitis associated with adult nematodes in parrots Microfilariae are common in psittacines, especially cockatoos, not pathogenic Microfilariae associated with severe pneumonia in magpies Serratospiculoides amaculata, parasite of air sacs and airways in raptors. Associated with air saccultitis, peritonitis and necrotizing myelitis in a Prairie Falcon Serratospiculum sp. nine species known in raptors, some associated with airsacculitis and pneumonia Paronchocerca ciconarum (filarid): myocardial degeneration with adult nematodes in a Marabou Stork Cardiofilaria - heart worm in psittacines

Cestodes

Common intestinal tapeworms of many species of birds Chickens, turkeys, ducks, geese, pigeons, psittacines, passerines, wild birds, etc. Etiology and lesions: Davainea proglottina (smallest); enteritis in chickens Raillietina echinobothridia: granulomatous enteritis in chickens Species of Raillietina, Hymenolepis, Amoebotaenia, etc. are common in psittacines and finches Pathogenic in large numbers, obstruction, enteritis, etc.

Trematodes

Schistosomiasis: common in waterfowl Dendritobilharzia sp. Medial hypertrophy of vessels in the intestinal wall Rarely hepatitis, encephalitis, nephritis, enteritis Encephalitis common in swans Dicroceliidae: been associated with dilated bile ducts and severe cholangiohepatitis in cockatoos and an amazon parrot Gigantobilharzia sp. associated with hemorrhagic ulcerative colitis and cloacitis in a nanday conure Sphaeridiotrema globulus: causes severe ulcerative hemorrhagic enteritis in swans and cygnet and chickens (experimental) Philophthalmus gralli: associated with conjunctivitis in ostriches Collyriclum faba cause cysts in the skin of poultry, wild birds including robins Prosthogonimus sp. oviduct fluke of poultry Tanaisia bragai in collecting tubules of kidney in poultry, pigeons, etc.

33

Cathaemasia hians in the upper esophagus of storks Athesmia heterolecithodes causes severe hepatitis in guinea fowls

Arthropods MITES

Most common ectoparasites of a variety of species of birds Chickens, canaries, finches, psittacines, pigeons, turkeys, pheasants, wild birds, etc. Etiology (see table 3): species of Dermanyssus, Onithonyssus, Knemidocoptes, Sternostoma, etc. Lesions Anemia Hyperkeratosis, acanthosis, epidermitis, dermatitis Blockage, granulomatous tracheitis, airsacculitis, pneumonia Cysts in skin, poor feather growth, loss of feathers, etc.

11. Toxicosis
a. Mycotoxins

Generally ducklings, turkey poults and pheasants are more susceptible Aflatoxins (B1, B2, G1and G2): B1 most toxic, liver has congestion, necrosis, fatty change, karyomegaly, numerous mitotic figures, bile duct hyperplasia, fibrosis, etc. Immunosuppression, myocardial, kidney degeneration, impaired blood coagulation, etc. Turkey X disease due to aflatoxin B1 + cyclopiazonic acid Model for hepatocarcinogenesis Citrinin, Ochratoxin, Oosporein: renal tubular necrosis and visceral urate deposition In addition vacuoles, bile duct hyperplasia, etc. in liver associated with citrinin and ochratoxin Ochratoxin can cause glycogen storage disease in chickens Ochratoxin is embryocidal at low levels Trichothecenes (T2, DAS, Vomitoxin = DON): radiomimetic effect, oral, proventricular and gizzard erosions, lymphoid necrosis and depletion, hepatic necrosis, etc. Fumonisins: poultry are relatively resistant, hepatic necrosis, biliary hyperplasia, widening of growth plates, myodegeneration, etc. Moniliformin: Cardiomegaly in broilers, myocardial degeneration, hepatic necrosis Fusarochromanone: tibial dyschondroplasia Cyclopiozonic acid: skeletal muscle, heart, liver, GI degeneration Zearalenone: mycotoxin with estrogen activity Cystic oviduct with inflammation, cysts in vent, etc. Ergotism: beak and toe necrosis

34

b. Heavy metals

Lead: one of the most commonly reported toxic compounds of waterfowl and companion birds Lesions: anemia, hemorrhagic enteritis, myocardial degeneration, hyalinosis of cerebral vessels with hemorrhage, nephrosis, demyelination of nerves, etc. Acid fast intranuclear inclusions in renal tubular epithelial cells Zinc: common in companion birds, waterfowl Lesions: gizzard erosion, pancreatic acinar necrosis, enteritis, nephrosis Iron: seen in a variety of birds Lesions: hepatic necrosis, hemolysis of RBC Ionophores widely used as anticoccidials in poultry Toxicity most common in turkeys and chickens Also described in quail, guinea fowl, etc. Monensin, Lasalocid, Salinomycin, Narasin Various compounds interact and influence toxicity Lesions: degeneration of skeletal muscles (pectoral muscles not affected) and occasionally heart In addition demyelination and axonal degeneration of peripheral nerves and spinal cord have been associated with lasalocid toxicity Selenium: hepatopathy, alopecia of the scalp and dorsal cervical midline, broken or lost digit nails, necrosis of the tip of the beak in ducks pulmonary congestion and edema in an ostrich chick Salt: causes right heart hypertrophy, dilation and ascites in turkey poults and broiler chicks and occasionally encephalomalacia Water high in salinity causes conjunctivitis, myocardial degeneration, hyperemia of brain, hyperplasia or atrophy of salt glands, cataracts (reversible if not severe) in wild waterfowl Cystic testes in poultry Calcium: nephrosis in young poultry Vitamin D: common in psittacines Soft tissue mineralization, proventriculus, heart, air sacs, etc. Vitamin A: conjunctivitis and rickets in chickens Hepatic degeneration, Ito-cell hyperplasia? Polytetrafluoroethylene (PTFE): Teflon coated pans when overheated release toxic gases Seen in companion birds, also in free flying birds

c. Ionophore toxicity

d. Selenium, salt, calcium

e. Vitamins

f. Gases; PTFE, Ammonia, CO

35

 In poultry from PTFE-coated light bulbs Pulmonary congestion and edema

Carbon monoxide: pulmonary congestion and edema, bright red colored blood Ammonia: conjunctivitis, corneal erosions and ulcers and sinusitis and tracheitis in poultry Oxygen: in budgerigars, edema and interstitial pneumonia Diphacinone, Brodifoucum, Bromodiolone: blood in abdominal cavity, hemorrhage in liver Zinc phosphide: hydropericardium, pulmonary edema, congestion and hemorrhage in liver, congestion in kidney Gentamicin, Amikacin - nephrosis Sulfa drugs - disseminated hemorrhages, nephrosis Tetracyclines - nephrosis Furazolidone - round heart, hepatocellular vacuoles Polymyxin E-1. in ostriches, congestion of meningeal vessels, vacuolization of the plexus of Auerbach, edema in the heart and intestinal serosa Avocado and oleander: myocardial degeneration Oak: nephrosis Green acorns (pyrogallol): gastroenteritis, congestion and edema of organs Coffee senna: degeneration of muscles Gossypol: hepatic necrosis, biliary hyperplasia, perivascular inflammation Spring Parsley (Cymopterus watsonii), celery: photosensitization, dermatitis Blue green algae (Microcystin): Hepatic necrosis Organo-phosphates - acute and delayed neurotoxicity Acute, inhibition of acetyl cholinesterase, no lesions Delayed, axonal degeneration in peripheral nerves and spinal cord, adult chicken is the (test) animal model, young birds are resistant Nitrate, Nitrite: Brown mucus membranes, methemoglobinuria Arsenilic acid, nitro-phenyl-arsenic acid: demyelination of peripheral nerves Sodium Sesquicarbonate: nephrosis, visceral gout, fluid in intestine Quaternary Ammonium: erosions and ulcers in upper GI tract Domoic acid (marine neurotoxin): In pelicans and cormorants 36

g. Rodenticides

h. Antibiotics

i. Plants

j. Others

Hemorrhage and necrosis in skeletal muscles Avian vacuolar myelinopathy Cause not known but toxicity is suspected In bald eagles, coots and others Spongy degeneration of the white matter of CNS but most prominent in optic lobes and swollen axons in spinal cord. Optic nerve also affected.

12. Metabolic diseases

a. Goiter

In male mature buff Cochin chickens (Dr. D. Webb, IL) Severely enlarged cystic thyroid glands with follicles lined by flattened epithelial cells Genetics suspected Abnormal accumulation of iron in tissues associated with tissue disturbance such as cirrhosis Most common in mynahs, toucans, crows, starlings, ducks, fruit doves, horn bills, psittacines, etc. Hepatic degeneration, fibrosis, myocardial degeneration, ascites, etc. Genetics, nutrition, hemorrhagic syndromes, starvation, etc. It has been described in psittacines, toco toucans and a red-tailed hawk Glucagon is the major glucose - regulating hormone in granivorous birds Carnivorous birds are similar to mammals Lesions Hyperplasia of islet cells Enlarged islets with eosinophilic cytoplasm in toco toucans Islet cell tumor Most common in ducks and finches Also in other water fowl, game birds, turkeys, psittacines, ratites, canaries, flamingoes, touracos, pigeons, doves, etc. Commonly associated with chronic infections Genetics may play a role in its occurrence in commercial ducks, as young as 3-4 week-old ducklings may have severe amyloidosis in the spleen with out apparent co-infections. Accumulation of amorphous eosinophilic material in various tissues Liver, spleen, intestine, adrenal, kidney, synovium, heart, pancreas, thyroid, skin, brain, lung, etc.

b. Hemochromatosis

c. Diabetes mellitus

d. Amyloidosis

37

Lesions Gross: ascites (water belly) in commercial ducks, firm enlarged and waxy liver sometimes with nodules, enlarged mottled white spleen, pale or brownish kidneys, etc. Microscopic: interstitial accumulation of amyloid in liver with hepatocellular atrophy in severe cases, kidney, adrenal, thyroid, pancreas, spleen, in the lamina propria of intestine and proventriculus, in subepithelium of synovium, bronchus, in myocardium, brain, skin, vessels, etc. Severe hepatic capsular fibrosis and nodules made up of hyperplastic hepatocytes Amyloid arthropathy in brown egg laying-type chickens o Cause: Enterococcus faecalis, Mycoplasma synoviae and others o Lesions: Orange colored exudate in the synovium Amyloid associated with Hepatitis-splenomegaly syndrome in mature broiler and laying-type chickens o Cause: Hepatitis E virus o Lesions: enlarged mottled pale spleen and enlarged and hemorrhagic liver. Amyloid primarily in the spleen

e. Gout (visceral and articular)

Uric acid is the end product of protein and purine metabolism (uricotelic) in birds, where as in mammals urea is the end product (ureotelic) Birds lack the enzyme carbamyl phosphate synthetase to dispose of ammonia and the enzyme uricase to decarboxylate uric acid to allantoin Gout is a metabolic condition where abnormal accumulation of white chalky or white semifluid-like urates in soft tissues of various organs in the body Gout occurs as two distinct syndromes, visceral and articular gout These two syndromes differ in age of onset, frequency, sex predilection, gross and microscopic lesions, pathogenesis and causes Great deal of confusion exists between the two syndromes because urate deposition takes place in joints in visceral gout also Term visceral gout should be replaced with the term visceral urate deposits See table 4 to help clarify differences between the two syndromes Common in some psittacines, budgerigars, amazons, rose breasted cockatoos, shell parakeets, etc. Diet, environment, toxicities, hormones, genetics (shell parakeets) influence lipidosis Lesions: obesity, hepatic lipidosis, and lipidosis in liver and other organs in shell parakeets Condition of obese layer-type chickens

f. Hepatic Lipidosis

g. Hemorrhagic fatty liver syndrome (chickens)

38

Fat in abdominal cavity, fatty livers, hemorrhagic or ruptured livers Very common in psittacines especially amazons Others: ducks, geese, chickens, turkeys, ostriches, flamingoes, herons, vultures, falcons, pigeons, etc. Etiology: diet, environment, genetics, virus, age, etc. Mareks disease virus (herpesvirus) can induce atherosclerosis in chickens White Carneaux pigeon used as model Lesions Thickened walls or plaques in brachiocephalic, carotid, abdominal aorta, etc., coronary arteries rarely involved Thickening of intima and media with lipid laden cells Also called Sanfilippo B syndrome First description in any animal Deficiency of N-acetyl--D-glucosaminidase Probably inherited as a autosomal recessive trait

h. Atherosclerosis

i. Mucopolysaccharidosis type IIIB (emu)

Signs and lesions Sudden death, neurological signs Ruptured liver or subcutaneous hemorrhages Accumulation of membrane bound substance in neurons of nervous tissue and visceral organs j. Storage disease in Costas Hummingbirds Neurologic signs; flying backwards, swaying, head tilt, flying in circles, head tremors Vacuoles in swollen neurons, cells of bone marrow, spleen, gland of Harder, uropygeal gland and inner nuclear layer of retina k. Inherited Muscular dystrophy in chicken Seen in New Hampshire breed and similar dystrophy-like myopathy has been described in Cornish breed Clin. signs: unable to elevate wings beyond horizontal plane and unable to right themselves when placed on their backs Lesions: grossly enlargement of pectoral muscles initially and later atrophy, microscopically variation in fiber size, increased nuclei, vacuoles, necrosis, fragmentation and replacement by adipose tissue l. Myotonic dystrophy in mutant (LWC strain) Japaneese Quails As early as 28 days of age generalized myotonia, muscle stiffness, muscle weakness Lesions: ring fibers, sarcoplasmic masses, internal migration of sarcolemmal nuclei, variation in fiber size, replacement by fat cells and lenticular cataracts m. Type II Glycogen storage disease in Japaneese Quail 39

Acid maltase deficiency Most common in male turkeys but also seen in ostriches and emus Most common in the abdominal aorta at the origin of the celiac artery Longitudinal slit in the posterior abdominal aorta or rarely at the origin of aorta Medial degeneration and loss of elastic fibers, subintimal thickening, displacement of elastic lamina, increased amount of collagen, necrosis, rupture Genetics, hypertension, low copper, vasa vasorum defect? Coronary artery aneurysm (turkeys) In male turkeys, 15 -16 weeks-old, 1.5-3.5% mortality Hemopericardium, hemorrhage across base of heart, subintimal thickening, medial degeneration of coronary artery, rupture Genetics, hypertension, low copper, increased body weights? Also called spontaneous cardiomyopathy Common condition in young commercial turkeys Dilated ventricles, chronic passive congestion of liver Cause is not known, genetics? Common condition in broiler chickens Right heart hypertrophy, dilation, passive congestion of liver and ascites Rapid growth coupled with insufficient pulmonary capillary capacity aggravates pulmonary hypertension leading to right heart failure Common condition in broiler chickens and turkeys and ducks Abnormal masses of cartilage below the growth plate primarily in the proximal tibiotarsus but occurs also in the tarsometatarsus Presence of prehypertrophic cartilage with no vascular channels Etiology: multifactorial, nutrition, genetics, mycotoxin, etc. Similar picture as TD can be seen grossly in the long bones of ratites but it is not TD nor it is pathologic In ratites it is normal embryonic cartilage which gets resorbed by 6-8 weeks of age

n. Aortic aneurysm/rupture

o. Round heart disease (turkeys)

p. Ascites syndrome (chickens)

q. Tibial dyschondroplasia (TD)

r. Deep pectoral myopathy

Seen in well muscled broilers and turkeys Green discoloration of primarily supracoracoideus muscle due to ischemic necrosis Seen in rapidly growing turkeys, 8-14 weeks of age

s. Perirenal hemorrhage

40

Hemorrhage over portion or entire kidney Underlying vascular problems? Probably due to small ruptures or tears in the posterior abdominal aorta and its branches? Common in psittacines and occasionally in chickens Yellow subcutaneous swelling or nodules in the body cavity Giant cells, lymphocytes, macrophages with cholesterol clefts Occurs spontaneously in obese strain of chicken Used as model to study Hashimotos thyroiditis Birds have long and silky feathers, large amount of abdominal fat Thyroids become small gradually as the bird matures and atrophies Lymphocytic infiltration with few macrophages and lymphoid nodules, loss of architecture, thyroid gland Antibodies to thyroglobulin Hyperlipidemia, low T3 and T4 and IgA deficiency

t. Xanthomatosis

u. Auto immune thyroiditis (chicken)

13. Diseases of Malnutrition

a. Xerophthalmia

In non-commercial poultry, psittacines, etc. Etiology: vitamin A deficiency Lesions: pustule-like nodules in upper GI tract, exudate in conjunctiva, nasal cavity, nephrosis, opaque dry cornea, hyperkeratosis of plantar surfaces Microscopic: squamous metaplasia of epithelium, hyperkeratosis Rarely seen in poultry Etiology: vitamin B1 (thiamin) deficiency Lesions: prominent peripheral nerves with edema and infiltration of mononuclear cells Malacia of the brain in fish eating birds Rickets in younger birds and osteomalacia in older birds In poultry, ratites, psittacines, zoo birds, etc. Etiology: deficiency of calcium, phosphorus and vitamin D3 or an imbalance in calcium to phosphorus ration (normal 2:1) Lesions: soft and pliable beak, claws and keel, beading of ribs (rickety rosary), enlarged epiphysis, fractures of long bones, enlarged parathyroid glands

b. Polyneuritis

c. Rickets/osteomalacia

41

Microscopic: Calcium deficiency - lengthened Proliferating Prehypertrophied Zone and short Degenerating Hypertrophied Zone (DHZ), hyperplasia of parathyroid glands Phosphorus deficiency/calcium excess: lengthened DHZ Vitamin D3 deficiency - similar to calcium deficiency

d. Encephalomalacia

In young chickens, turkeys, pheasants, geese, ducks, etc. Can also be seen in older birds Etiology: vitamin E deficiency Lesions: soft and enlarged cerebellum, petechiae, hemorrhages especially in turkey poults Microscopic: malacia, hemorrhage, vascular thrombosis, demyelination in brain Occasionally spinal cord involved, poliomyelomalacia Yellow fat disease in wild birds: herons, etc. Fat is brownish yellow, steatitis In chickens, quail, turkeys, pelicans, ducks, etc. Etiology: vitamin E/Selenium deficiency Lesions Subcutaneous green-tinged fluid Pale streaks in skeletal muscles, gizzard and heart (ducks and pelican) Degeneration of skeletal muscle, heart, gizzard, pancreatic acinar necrosis Seen in chicks, turkey poults, ducklings Etiology: vitamin B2 (riboflavin deficiency) Lesions: swelling of peripheral nerves, axon and myelin degeneration, Schwann cell proliferation, mononuclear cell infiltration, etc. Perosis, neurological signs in chicks and ducks and reduced egg production and hatchability in laying chickens and turkeys Microcytic hypochromic anemia in ducks Etiology: manganese and choline deficiency Lesions: deformity of hocks, enlargement of condyle, bowing of tarsometatarsus, slipping of gastrocnemius tendon Deficiency of pantothenic acid, biotin, folic acid, niacin can cause similar lesions In addition dermatitis can be seen in birds deficient in biotin and pantothenic acid and poor feathering and anemia in niacin deficiency

e. Muscular dystrophy/exudative diathesis

f. Curled-toe paralysis

g. Pyridoxine (B6) deficiency

h. Perosis/slipped tendon (chicks, poults)

42

i. Goiter

Common in psittacines especially in budgerigars Also seen in pheasants, geese, chickens, etc. Etiology: Iodine deficiency Lesions: enlarged thyroid glands, some times cystic Micro: severe hyperplasia of follicle epithelium with papillary projections, pale or lack of colloid, hemorrhage and severe effacement of the gland in extreme cases

14. Neoplasia

Most common in chickens and psittacines especially budgerigars among birds Birds in the order Passeriformes have the lowest incidence In chickens most are caused by viruses such as retroviruses and herpesvirus (see Leucosis/Sarcoma group and Mareks Disease) Etiology is not known in other species of birds Incidence in budgerigars range from 16 to 24 % Some of the common tumors in psittacines include renal tumors, fibrosarcoma, lymphoma, papilloma, tumors of gonads, gastric carcinoma, leiomyosarcoma, pituitary adenoma, etc.

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15. References:
1. Barnes, J. E. Avian Pathology, Class notes. College of Veterinary Medicine, North Carolina State University, Raleigh, NC. 2. Lowenstine, L. J and others. Comparative Avian Anatomy and Pathology, Class notes. School of Veterinary Medicine, University of California, Davis, CA. 3.Avian histopathology, 1996, Ed. C. Riddell, 2nd Ed, AAAP pub. Kennett Square, PA 4. Color atlas of avian histopathology, 1996, C.J. Randall and R.L. Reece, Mosby-Wolfe 5. Diseases of poultry, 1997, Ed. B. W. Calnek, et al., Iowa State University Press, Ames, Iowa 6. Color atlas of Diseases and Disorders of the Domestic Fowl, 1991, C.J. Randall, Iowa State University Press, Ames, Iowa 7. Avian Medicine: Principles and application, 1994, Ed. B. W. Ritchie, G.J. Harrison and L.R.Harrison, Wingers publishing, Lakeworth, FL 8. Pathology of zoo animals, 1983, L. A. Griner, Zoological society of San Diego, CA 9. The comparative Pathology of zoo animals, 1980, Ed. R. J. Montali and G. Migaki, Smithsonian Institution Press, Washington, DC. 10. Field manual of Wildlife Diseases: General field procedures and diseases of migratory birds, 2001, Ed. M. Friend, US dept. Interior, Fish and Wildlife Service pub, Washington, DC. 11. Diseases of Cage and Aviary birds, 1996, W. J. Rosskopf and R.W. Woerpel, Williams and Wilkins, PA 12. Diseases of Wild waterfowl, 1981, G.A. Wobeser, Plenum Press, NY Journals: Avian Pathology, Avian Diseases, Veterinary Pathology, J Comparative Pathology, Veterinary Record, JAVMA, AJVR, JAMS, Poultry Sci., etc.

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Table 1: Oncogenes originally identified through their presence in transforming retroviruses Oncogene abl akt crk erb-A erb-B ets fes/fps fgr fms fos jun kit mil/raf mos myb myc H-ras K-ras rel ros sea sis ski src Protein Kinase Kinase Kinase activator TH-R EGF-R TF Kinase Kinase Kinase TF TF Kinase Kinase Kinase TF TF G-protein G-protein TF Kinase Kinase PDGF TF Kinase Source of virus Mouse, cat Mouse Chicken Chicken Chicken Chicken Chicken/cat Cat Cat Mouse Chicken Cat Chicken/mouse Mouse Chicken Chicken Rat Rat Turkey Chicken Chicken Monkey Chicken Chicken Tumour Pre-B-cell leukaemia T-cell lymphoma Sarcoma Erythroleukaemia Erythroleukaemia Myeloid leukaemia o. Sarcoma Sarcoma Sarcoma Osteosarcoma Fibrosarcoma Sarcoma Sarcoma Sarcoma Myeloid leukaemia Myelocytoma, lymphoma, carcinoma Sarcoma Sarcoma Reticuloendotheliosis Sarcoma Sarcoma, leukaemia Sarcoma Carcinoma Sarcoma

yes Kinase Chicken Sarcoma Abbreviations: EGF-R, epidermal growth factor; PDGF, platelet-derived growth factor; TH-R, thyroid hormone receptor; TF, nuclear transcription factor. Chicken genes are shown in bold. Ref: R. A. Weiss. The oncologists debt to the chicken. Avian Path. 27:S8-S15, 1998.

45

Table 2. Relative frequency of microscopic lesions in various organs of psittaciformes diagnosed of having PDD Organ Prov/Gizzard Adrenal Intestine Heart Brain/spinal cord Esophagus/crop Peripheral nerves Eye Skin Pancreas Thyroid Liver/lung/spleen/kidney * Incidental findings not included. # Examined 112 56 89 87 66 61 28 12 24 64 31 102 # With Lesions 112 50 77 69 52 44 20 8 6 11 3 0* % 100 89.3 86.5 79.3 78.8 72.1 71.4 66.7 25.0 17.2 9.6 0.0

Ref: Shivaprasad et al., Pathology of proventricular dilation syndrome, Vet Path 34:500, 1997.

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Table 3. Mites in Birds Name Dermanyssus gallinae* Ornithonyssus sylviarum* O. bursa Knemidocoptes mutans* K. pilae* Procnemidokoptes janssensi K. jamaicensis Knemidocoptes gallineae K. laevis Neocnemidocoptes gallinae Epidermoptes bilobatus Myialges nudus Harpyrynchus sp. Syringophilus hipectinatus S. columbae (Dermoglyphus sp., Analges sp., Mengninia sp., Freyana sp) Paraglopsis sp. Sternostoma tracheacolum* (Neonyssus, Rhinonyssus) Cytodites nudus Laminosioptes cysticola

Common Name Red mite (Roost mite, Poultry mite) Northern Fowl mite Tropical Fowl mite Scaly-leg and scaly-face mites Scaly-leg and scaly-face mites Scaly-leg and scaly-face mites Scaly leg mite Depluming mite Depluming mite Depluming mite Skin mite Skin mite Skin and feathers Feather and quill mites Feather and quill mites Feather and quill mites

Species of birds affected Chickens, turkeys, pigeons, canaries, wild birds Chicken, turkeys, wild birds Poultry, pigeons, Mynah Poultry Psittacines Love birds Canaries, finches, other passerines Chickens, pigeons, pheasants Pigeons Pheasants and others Chickens Grey-cheeked parakeets Passerines Poultry, wild birds Pigeons Chickens, turkeys

Feather and quill mites

Psittacines, finches

Respiratory tract mite (trachea, Passerines (canaries, finches), lung, air sac) psittacines, poultry, pigeon Air sac mite (bronchi, lungs, air sac) Cyst mite (skin, subcutis, muscle, abdominal viscera and lungs) Areolar subcutaneous, connective tissue Chiggers Poultry, pheasants, pigeons, canaries, etc. Chicken, turkeys, pigeons, pheasants geese Pigeons Poultry (Southern US), turkeys, wild birds, chickens

Hypopial mites Family Trombiculidae (Neoschonagastia americana) * Most common

47

Table 4: Differences between Visceral Gout and Articular Gout in Birds

Visceral gout (Visceral urate deposition) 1. Onset: 2. Frequency: 3. Age: It is usually an acute condition but can be chronic. It is very common. 1 day and above. Articular gout It is usually a chronic disease. It is rare or sporadic. 4-5 months and above. However, immature genetically susceptible chickens may be induced by high protein levels in the diet. Mostly males.

4. Sex: 5. Gross lesions Kidney:

Both males and females are susceptible.

Kidneys are almost always involved and they look grossly abnormal with deposition of white, chalky precipitates. Visceral organs like liver, myocardium, spleen or serosal surfaces like pleura, pericardium, air sacs, mesentery, etc. are commonly involved. Soft tissues around the joints may or may not be involved. Surfaces of muscles, synovial sheaths of tendons and joints are involved in severe cases. Generally no inflammatory reaction in synovium or visceral surfaces. Kidney has inflammatory reaction around tophus. It is generally due to failure of urate excretion (renal failure). 1. Dehydration. 2. Nephrotoxicity: calcium, mycotoxins, (ochratoxins, oosporein, aflatoxins, etc.), certain antibiotics, heavy metals (lead), ethylene glycol, ethoxyquin etc. 3. Infectious agents: nephrotropic IBV and avian nephritis virus (chickens), polyomavirus, PMV-1 (pigeons), Salmonella sp., Yersinia sp., Chlamydia psittaci, Eimeria truncata, microsporidia, cryptosporidia, Aspergillus sp.,

Kidneys are normal grossly. Kidneys may become abnormal with white urate deposits if the bird gets dehydrated. Soft tissues other than synovium are rarely involved, however, comb, wattles, and trachea have been observed to be involved. Soft tissues around the joints are always involved, especially feet. Other joints of the legs, wing, spine, and mandible are also commonly involved. Granulomatous inflammation in synovium and other tissues. It is probably due to a metabolic defect in the secretion of urates by the kidney tubules. a. Genetics. b. High protein in the diet. c. Others?

Soft tissues:

Joints:

6. Microscopic lesions: 7. Pathogenesis: 8. Causes:

etc.
4. Vitamin A deficiency 5. Urolithiasis 6. Neoplasia (lymphoma, primary renal tumors) 8. Immune mediated glomerulonephritis 9. Anomalies 10. Others?

Ref: Shivaprasad, H. L. An overview of anatomy, physiology and pathology of urinary system in birds, AAV Proceedings, pp. 201-205, 1998

48