Annex 43 Task34-Double Skin Facades A Literature Review

xxxxx
1
Double Skin Faades
A Literature Review
A report of IEA SHC Task 34 ECBCS Annex 43, 2006
Double Skin Faades
2
copyright Harris Poirazis and Department of Architecture and Built Environment, Division
of Energy and Building Design. Lund University, Lund Institute of Technology, Lund 2006.
Layout: Hans Follin, LTH, Lund
Cover Illustration: Harris Poirazis
Lund University, Lund Institute of Technology
Department of Architecture and Built Environment Telephone: +46 46 - 222 73 52
P.O. Box 118 Telefax: +46 46 - 222 47 19
SE-221 00 LUND E-mail: ebd@ebd.lth.se
Sweden Home page: www.ebd.lth.se
Preface
3
Double Skin Facades
A literature review
Written and edited by Harris Poirazis
The subchapter 4.3 Double Skin Facades Modelling Approaches was
written by Olena Kalyanova and was reviewed by Harris Poirazis, Per
Heiselberg, and ke Blomsterberg.
The literature review report was reviewed by the IEA SHC Task 34/
ECBCS Annex 43 (Project E) participants: Per Heiselberg (Denmark),
Olena Kanyanova (Denmark), Don Alexander (UK), Paul Strachan (UK),
Aad Wijsman (The Netherlands), ke Blomsterberg (Sweden).
The layout was prepared by Hans Follin, Lund University, Sweden
The report is available in electronic version. Printed copies should be
obtained from the:
Division of Energy and Building Design
Department of Architecture and Built Environment
Lund Institute of Technology (LTH)
Lund University
P.O.Box 118
SE-22100 LUND
SWEDEN
Web address: www.ebd.lth.se
Email: hans.follin@ebd.lth.se
Double Skin Faades
4
Preface
5
Preface
This report is a product of a joint effort between International Energy
Agency (IEA) Solar Heating and Cooling (SHC) and Energy Conserva-
tion in Buildings and Community Systems (ECBCS) Programmes. SHC
monitors this work as Task 34 and ECBCS monitors this work as Annex
43. Ron Judkoff of the National Renewable Energy Laboratory (NREL)
was the Operating Agent for IEA SHC 34/ECBCS 43 on behalf of the
United States Department of Energy.
International Energy Agency
The International Energy Agency (IEA) was established in 1974 within
the framework of the Organisation for Economic Co-operation and De-
velopment (OECD) to implement an international energy programme.
A basic aim of the IEA is to foster co-operation among the twenty-four
IEA participating countries and to increase energy security through en-
ergy conservation, development of alternative energy sources and energy
research, development and demonstration (RD&D).
Solar Heating and Cooling Programme
The Solar Heating and Cooling Programme was one of the first IEA
Implementing Agreements to be established. Since 1977, its members
have been collaborating to advance active solar and passive solar tech-
nologies and their application in buildings and other areas, such as agri-
culture and industry. Current members are:
Australia Finland Portugal
Austria France Spain
Belgium Italy Sweden
Canada Mexico Switzerland
Denmark Netherlands United States
European Commission New Zealand
Germany Norway
Double Skin Faades
6
A total of 39 Tasks have been initiated, 30 of which have been com-
pleted. Each Task is managed by an Operating Agent from one of the
participating countries. Overall control of the program rests with an
Executive Committee comprised of one representative from each con-
tracting party to the Implementing Agreement. In addition to the Task
work, a number of special activitiesMemorandum of Understanding
with solar thermal trade organizations, statistics collection and analysis,
conferences and workshopshave been undertaken.
The Tasks of the IEA Solar Heating and Cooling Programme, both
underway and completed are as follows:
Current Tasks:
Task 32 Advanced Storage Concepts for Solar and Low Energy Buildings
Task 33 Solar Heat for Industrial Processes
Task 34 Testing and Validation of Building Energy Simulation Tools
Task 35 PV/Thermal Solar Systems
Task 36 Solar Resource Knowledge Management
Task 37 Advanced Housing Renovation with Solar & Conservation
Task 38 Solar Assisted Cooling Systems
Task 39 Polymeric Materials for Solar Thermal Applications
Completed Tasks:
Task 1 Investigation of the Performance of Solar Heating and Cooling
Systems
Task 2 Coordination of Solar Heating and Cooling R&D
Task 3 Performance Testing of Solar Collectors
Task 4 Development of an Insolation Handbook and Instrument Package
Task 5 Use of Existing Meteorological Information for Solar Energy Ap-
plication
Task 6 Performance of Solar Systems Using Evacuated Collectors
Task 7 Central Solar Heating Plants with Seasonal Storage
Task 8 Passive and Hybrid Solar Low Energy Buildings
Task 9 Solar Radiation and Pyranometry Studies
Task 10 Solar Materials R&D
Task 11 Passive and Hybrid Solar Commercial Buildings
Task 12 Building Energy Analysis and Design Tools for Solar Applications
Task 13 Advance Solar Low Energy Buildings
Task 14 Advance Active Solar Energy Systems
Task 16 Photovoltaics in Buildings
Task 17 Measuring and Modeling Spectral Radiation
Task 18 Advanced Glazing and Associated Materials for Solar and Build-
ing Applications
Preface
7
Task 19 Solar Air Systems
Task 20 Solar Energy in Building Renovation
Task 21 Daylight in Buildings
Task 23 Optimization of Solar Energy Use in Large Buildings
Task 22 Building Energy Analysis Tools
Task 24 Solar Procurement
Task 25 Solar Assisted Air Conditioning of Buildings
Task 26 Solar Combisystems
Task 28 Solar Sustainable Housing
Task 27 Performance of Solar Facade Components
Task 29 Solar Crop Drying
Task 31 Daylighting Buildings in the 21st Century
Completed Working Groups:
CSHPSS, ISOLDE, Materials in Solar Thermal Collectors, and the Evalu-
ation of Task 13 Houses
To find more IEA Solar Heating and Cooling Programme publica-
tions or learn about the Programme visit our Internet site at www www www www www.iea- .iea- .iea- .iea- .iea-
shc.org shc.org shc.org shc.org shc.org or contact the SHC Executive Secretary, Pamela Murphy, e-mail:
pmurphy@MorseAssociatesInc.com.
Energy Conservation in Buildings and Community Systems
The IEA sponsors research and development in a number of areas related
to energy. The mission of one of those areas, the ECBCS - Energy Con-
servation for Building and Community Systems Programme, is to facili-
tate and accelerate the introduction of energy conservation, and environ-
mentally sustainable technologies into healthy buildings and community
systems, through innovation and research in decision-making, building
assemblies and systems, and commercialisation. The objectives of col-
laborative work within the ECBCS R&D program are directly derived
from the on-going energy and environmental challenges facing IEA coun-
tries in the area of construction, energy market and research. ECBCS
addresses major challenges and takes advantage of opportunities in the
following areas:
exploitation of innovation and information technology;
impact of energy measures on indoor health and usability;
integration of building energy measures and tools to changes in life-
styles, work environment alternatives, and business environment.
Double Skin Faades
8
The Executive Committee
Overall control of the program is maintained by an Executive Commit-
tee, which not only monitors existing projects but also identifies new
areas where collaborative effort may be beneficial. To date the following
projects have been initiated by the executive committee on Energy Con-
servation in Buildings and Community Systems (completed projects are
identified by (*) ):
Annex 1: Load Energy Determination of Buildings (*)
Annex 2: Ekistics and Advanced Community Energy Systems (*)
Annex 3: Energy Conservation in Residential Buildings (*)
Annex 4: Glasgow Commercial Building Monitoring (*)
Annex 5: Air Infiltration and Ventilation Centre
Annex 6: Energy Systems and Design of Communities (*)
Annex 7: Local Government Energy Planning (*)
Annex 8: Inhabitants Behaviour with Regard to Ventilation (*)
Annex 9: Minimum Ventilation Rates (*)
Annex 10: Building HVAC System Simulation (*)
Annex 11: Energy Auditing (*)
Annex 12: Windows and Fenestration (*)
Annex 13: Energy Management in Hospitals (*)
Annex 14: Condensation and Energy (*)
Annex 15: Energy Efficiency in Schools (*)
Annex 16: BEMS 1- User Interfaces and System Integration (*)
Annex 17: BEMS 2- Evaluation and Emulation Techniques (*)
Annex 18: Demand Controlled Ventilation Systems (*)
Annex 19: Low Slope Roof Systems (*)
Annex 20: Air Flow Patterns within Buildings (*)
Annex 21: Thermal Modelling (*)
Annex 22: Energy Efficient Communities (*)
Annex 23: Multi Zone Air Flow Modelling (COMIS) (*)
Annex 24: Heat, Air and Moisture Transfer in Envelopes (*)
Annex 25: Real time HEVAC Simulation (*)
Annex 26: Energy Efficient Ventilation of Large Enclosures (*)
Annex 27: Evaluation and Demonstration of Domestic Ventilation Systems
(*)
Annex 28: Low Energy Cooling Systems (*)
Annex 29: Daylight in Buildings (*)
Annex 30: Bringing Simulation to Application (*)
Annex 31: Energy-Related Environmental Impact of Buildings (*)
Annex 32: Integral Building Envelope Performance Assessment (*)
Preface
9
Annex 33: Advanced Local Energy Planning (*)
Annex 34: Computer-Aided Evaluation of HVAC System Performance (*)
Annex 35: Design of Energy Efficient Hybrid Ventilation (HYBVENT) (*)
Annex 36: Retrofitting of Educational Buildings (*)
Annex 37: Low Exergy Systems for Heating and Cooling of Buildings
(LowEx) (*)
Annex 38: Solar Sustainable Housing (*)
Annex 39: High Performance Insulation Systems (*)
Annex 40: Building Commissioning to Improve Energy Performance (*)
Annex 41: Whole Building Heat, Air and Moisture Response (MOIST-ENG)
Annex 42: The Simulation of Building-Integrated Fuel Cell and Other
Cogenerat ion Syst ems
(FC+COGEN-SIM)
Annex 43: Testing and Validation of Building Energy Simulation Tools
Annex 44: Integrating Environmentally Responsive Elements in Buildings
Annex 45: Energy Efficient Electric Lighting for Buildings
Annex 46: Holistic Assessment Tool-kit on Energy Efficient Retrofit Meas-
ures for Government Buildings (EnERGo)
Annex 47: Cost-Effective Commissioning for Existing and Low Energy Build-
ings
Annex 48: Heat Pumping and Reversible Air Conditioning
Annex 49: Low Exergy Systems for High Performance Built Environments
and Communities
Annex 50: Prefabricated Systems for Low Energy / High Comfort Building
Renewal
Working Group - Energy Efficiency in Educational Buildings (*)
Working Group - Indicators of Energy Efficiency in Cold Climate Buildings (*)
Working Group - Annex 36 Extension: The Energy Concept Adviser (*)
(*) Completed
Participating countries in ECBCS:
Australia, Belgium, CEC, Canada, Czech Republic, Denmark, Finland,
France, Germany, Greece, Israel, Italy, Japan, the Netherlands, New Zea-
land, Norway, Poland, Portugal, Sweden, Switzerland, Turkey, United
Kingdom and the United States of America.
Double Skin Faades
10
SHC Task 34 / ECBCS Annex 43: Testing and Validation
of Building Energy Simulation Tools
Goal and Objectives
The goal of this Task/Annex is to undertake pre-normative research to
develop a comprehensive and integrated suite of building energy analysis
tool tests involving analytical, comparative, and empirical methods. These
methods will provide for quality assurance of software, and some of the
methods will be enacted by codes and standards bodies to certify soft-
ware used for showing compliance to building energy standards. This
goal will be pursued by accomplishing the following objectives:
Create and make widely available a comprehensive and integrated suite
of IEA Building Energy Simulation Test (BESTEST) cases for evalu-
ating, diagnosing, and correcting building energy simulation software.
Tests will address modeling of the building thermal fabric and build-
ing mechanical equipment systems in the context of innovative low
energy buildings.
Maintain and expand as appropriate analytical solutions for building
energy analysis tool evaluation.
Create and make widely available high quality empirical validation
data sets, including detailed and unambiguous documentation of the
input data required for validating software, for a selected number of
representative design conditions.
Scope
This Task/Annex investigates the availability and accuracy of building
energy analysis tools and engineering models to evaluate the perform-
ance of innovative low-energy buildings. Innovative low-energy build-
ings attempt to be highly energy efficient through use of advanced en-
ergy-efficiency technologies or a combination of energy efficiency and
solar energy technologies. To be useful in a practical sense such tools
must also be capable of modeling conventional buildings. The scope of
the Task is limited to building energy simulation tools, including emerg-
ing modular type tools, and to widely used innovative low-energy design
concepts. Activities will include development of analytical, comparative
and empirical methods for evaluating, diagnosing, and correcting errors
in building energy simulation software.
The audience for the results of the Task/Annex is building energy simu-
lation tool developers, and codes and standards (normes) organizations
that need methods for certifying software. However, tool users, such as
Preface
11
architects, engineers, energy consultants, product manufacturers, and
building owners and managers, are the ultimate beneficiaries of the re-
search, and will be informed through targeted reports and articles.
Means
The objectives are to be achieved by the Participants in the following
Projects.
Compar Compar Compar Compar Comparativ ativ ativ ativ ative and A e and A e and A e and A e and Analytical nalytical nalytical nalytical nalytical V VV VVerification erification erification erification erification T TT TTests: ests: ests: ests: ests:
Project A: Ground-Coupled Heat Transfer with respect to Floor
Slab and Basement Constructions
Project B: Multi-Zone Buildings and Air Flow
E EE EEmpirical mpirical mpirical mpirical mpirical V VV VValidation and Compar alidation and Compar alidation and Compar alidation and Compar alidation and Comparativ ativ ativ ativ ative e e e e T TT TTests: ests: ests: ests: ests:
Project C: Shading/Daylighting/Load Interaction
Project D: Mechanical Equipment and Controls
Project E: Buildings with Double-Skin Facades
O OO OOther: ther: ther: ther: ther:
Project G: Web Site for Consolidation of Tool Evaluation Tests
Participants
The participants in the task are Australia, Belgium, Canada, Czech Re-
public, Denmark, France, Germany, Japan, the Netherlands, Spain, Swe-
den, Switzerland, the United Kingdom, and the United States. The United
States served as the Operating Agent for this Task, with Ron Judkoff of
the National Renewable Energy Laboratory providing Operating Agent
services on behalf of the U.S. Department of Energy.
This report documents work carried out under Project E: Buildings
with Double-Skin Facades.
Double Skin Faades
12
Abstract
13
Abstract
The main aim of this report is to describe the concept of Double Skin
Faades based on different sources of literature. In order to serve as a
literature report for Annex 43 an extensive description of modelling ap-
proaches and methods for DSF is included covering modelling issues
including airflow and thermal simulations.
Although the Double Skin Faade concept is not new, there is a grow-
ing tendency from the architects to put it into practice. Its complexity
and adaptability to different climatic conditions increase the need for
careful design. Since the construction types can differ from one location
to another, it is obvious that the comparison of different literature sources
is not always relevant.
Since the concept of Double Skin Facades is complicated and its use
and function affects different parameters of the building, the literature
studied is from different fields. It is clear that the design of the system is
crucial for the performance of the building. It is the opinion of the au-
thor that the Double Skin Facades can provide both improved indoor
climate and reduced use of energy in the same time if designed properly.
If the approach is overall and the goals to be achieved are clear, then the
mentioned system is flexible enough to meet climatic changes for most
types of building use.
The classification of the Double Skin Facades is important since the
initial approach can influence the design stage. After selecting the type of
Double Faade appropriate for the building, it is necessary to define the
design and the technical parameters (such as the materials used) that can
influence the function and the performance of the system and the physi-
cal properties of the cavity. The accuracy of calculations of the faade
performance in the design stage will lead to more precise predictions. It
is clear that by prioritizing the main goals of the double faade system in
different ways, the building design and construction can differ adapting
to the performance requirements of the designers, and the needs of the
users. The advantages and disadvantages of double skin faades found in
different literature sources are mentioned and described. Furthermore,
examples of office buildings with Double Skin Faades are presented.
Double Skin Faades
14
Finally a discussion and conclusions section follows in which the point
of view of the author is given and comments are made. Fields of further
research an development needed are presented.
Contents
15
Contents
P PP PPr rr rreface eface eface eface eface 5
A AA AAbstract bstract bstract bstract bstract 13
Contents Contents Contents Contents Contents 15
A AA AAckno ckno ckno ckno cknowledgements wledgements wledgements wledgements wledgements 19
1 11 11 I II IIntr ntr ntr ntr ntroduction oduction oduction oduction oduction 21
1.1 Double Skin Facades - General 22
1.2 Keywords 23
1.3 Definition of Double Skin Faade System 24
1.4 The Double Skin Faade Concept 26
1.5 History of the Double Skin Faade 29
2 22 22 Classification of D Classification of D Classification of D Classification of D Classification of Double S ouble S ouble S ouble S ouble Skin F kin F kin F kin F kin Faades aades aades aades aades 31
3 33 33 T TT TTechnical D echnical D echnical D echnical D echnical Description escription escription escription escription 37
3.1 Double Skin Faade Construction 37
3.2 Opening principles 38
3.2.1 Cavity 38
3.2.2 Interior faade openings 39
3.2.3 Exterior faade openings 40
3.3 Material Choice 40
3.3.1 General 40
3.3.2 Selection of Glass 41
3.3.3 Selection of shading device 42
3.3.4 Construction types common in Nordic Climates 43
4 44 44 B BB BBuilding P uilding P uilding P uilding P uilding Physics of the D hysics of the D hysics of the D hysics of the D hysics of the Double S ouble S ouble S ouble S ouble Skin F kin F kin F kin F kin Faade Cavity aade Cavity aade Cavity aade Cavity aade Cavity 45
4.1 Introduction 45
4.2 Air flow 45
4.2.1 General 45
4.2.2 Air flow simulations of the cavity 47
4.2.3 Integration of Double Skin FacadesHVAC Strategies of the Building 48
4.2.3.1 General 48
4.2.3.2 Contribution of the Double Skin Faades to the HVAC Strategy 49
4.2.3.3 Coupling Double Skin Facades and HVAC-Examples 52
4.2.3.4 Control Strategy 56
Double Skin Faades
16
4.3 Double Skin Facades modeling approaches 57
4.3.1 Introduction 57
4.3.2 DSF Modelling Approaches 57
4.3.2.1 Approaches for DSF modelling 57
4.3.2.2 Network approach 59
4.3.2.3 Coupling of models 60
4.3.2.4 Published experiments on DSF 63
4.3.3 Models for DSF 64
4.3.3.1 CFD models 64
4.3.3.2 Networks models 67
4.3.3.3 Discussin of network models 84
4.3.4 Building simulation software for DSF modelling 95
4.4 Thermal Performance 105
4.5 Daylight Performance 108
4.5.1 Daylight Simulations 108
4.5.2 Shading - lighting devices 110
4.6 Energy Performance of Double Skin Faades 111
5 55 55 A AA AAdv dv dv dv dvantages D antages D antages D antages D antages Disadv isadv isadv isadv isadvantages of a D antages of a D antages of a D antages of a D antages of a Double S ouble S ouble S ouble S ouble Skin kin kin kin kin
F FF FFaade S aade S aade S aade S aade System ystem ystem ystem ystem 113
5.1 Advantages of the Double Skin Faade concept 113
5.2 Disadvantages of the Double Skin Faade Concept 118
5.3 Assessment of Double Skin Faade types 120
6 66 66 M MM MMeasur easur easur easur easurements ements ements ements ements T TT TTest R est R est R est R est Rooms and R ooms and R ooms and R ooms and R ooms and Real B eal B eal B eal B eal Buildings uildings uildings uildings uildings 123
7 77 77 Costs and I Costs and I Costs and I Costs and I Costs and Inv nv nv nv nvestments estments estments estments estments 127
8 88 88 E EE EExamples of O xamples of O xamples of O xamples of O xamples of Office B ffice B ffice B ffice B ffice Buildings with D uildings with D uildings with D uildings with D uildings with Double S ouble S ouble S ouble S ouble Skin F kin F kin F kin F kin Faade aade aade aade aade 129
8.1 Germany 129
8.1.1 Dsseldorf city gate (Dsseldorfer Stadttor) 129
8.1.2 ARAG 2000 Tower 131
8.1.3 Headquarters of Commerzbank 133
8.1.4 Eurotheum 134
8.1.5 Debis headquarters 136
8.1.6 (GSW) Headquarters 139
8.1.7 Halenseestrae 141
8.1.8 Galleries Lafayette 142
8.1.9 Potsdamer Platz 1 143
8.1.10 Deutscher Ring Verwaltungsgebude 145
8.1.11 Valentinskamp/Caffamacherreihe 146
8.1.12 RWE AG Headquarters 147
8.1.13 Print Media Academy 149
8.1.14 Victoria Life Insurance Buildings 151
8.1.15 Victoria Ensemble 152
8.1.16 DB Cargo Building 153
8.1.17 Gladbacher Bank 155
8.1.18 Energie/Versorgung Schwaben (ENBW) 156
8.1.19 BML Headquarters Building 157
Contents
17
8.1.20 Post Office Tower 158
8.1.21 Tower block at Olympic Park 159
8.1.22 Business Tower 160
8.1.23 Business Promotion Centre and the Technology Centre 162
8.2 Finland 163
8.2.1 Sanomatalo 163
8.2.2 SysOpen Tower 165
8.2.3 Martela 166
8.2.4 Itmerentori 167
8.2.5 Nokia Ruoholahti 168
8.2.6 Sonera 169
8.2.7 High Tech Centre 171
8.2.8 Radiolinja 172
8.2.9 Nokia K2 173
8.2.10 Iso Omena mall 174
8.2.11 Kone Building 176
8.2.12 Nokia Keilalahti 177
8.2.13 Korona 178
8.2.14 JOT Automation Group 180
8.3 Sweden 181
8.3.1 Kista Science Tower, Kista 181
8.3.2 NOKIA House, Kista 183
8.3.3 Arlanda, Pir F, Sigtuna 184
8.3.4 ABB Business Center, Sollentuna 186
8.3.5 GlashusEtt 187
8.4 United Kingdom (UK) 190
8.4.1 Helicon Finsbury Pavement 190
8.4.2 Briarcliff House 191
8.4.3 Building Research Establishment 193
8.4.4 Inland Revenue Centre 194
8.5 The Netherlands 195
8.5.1 Technical University of Delft Library 195
8.6 Switzerland 197
8.6.1 CAN-SUVA Building 197
8.7 Belgium 198
8.7.1 UCB Centre 198
8.7.2 Aula Magna 200
8.7.3 DVV Building 201
8.8 Czech Republic 203
8.8.1 Moravian Library 203
8.9 United States of America 204
8.9.1 Seattle Justice Centre 204
8.9.2 Occidental Chemical Center 205
8.10 Australia 207
8.10.1 Aurora Place office tower and residences 207
Double Skin Faades
18
9 99 99 I II IImpor mpor mpor mpor mportant I tant I tant I tant I tant Information S nformation S nformation S nformation S nformation Sour our our our ources ces ces ces ces 209
9.1 Literature 209
9.1.1 Double Skin Facades, Integrated Planning 209
9.1.2 Intelligent Glass Faades 210
9.1.3 Energy Performance Assessment of Single Storey Multiple-Skin Faades 211
9.1.4 Properties and Applications of Double Skin Faades 212
9.1.5 Study of Current Structures in Double Skin Faades 212
9.1.6 Source Book for Active Faades by the BBRI 213
9.1.7 High Performance Commercial Building Faades 214
9.2 Web Sites 214
1 11 110 00 00 D DD DDiscussion and Conclusions iscussion and Conclusions iscussion and Conclusions iscussion and Conclusions iscussion and Conclusions 217
10.1 Introduction 217
10.2 Classification of Double Skin Faades 219
10.3 Design Parameters 220
10.4 Building Physics Properties of the Cavity 222
10.5 Advantages Disadvantages 223
11 11 11 11 11 S SS SSummar ummar ummar ummar ummary yy yy 227
11.1 Definition Concept 227
11.2 Classification 228
11.3 Design Parameters 229
11.4 Building Physics 230
11.5 Advantages Disadvantages 231
11.5.1 Advantages 231
11.5.2 Disadvantages 233
11.6 Conclusions 234
R RR RRefer efer efer efer eferences ences ences ences ences 237
Acknowledgements
19
Acknowledgements
Many people have contributed to this work. First of all, I thank Olena
Kalyanova and Per Heiselberg for contributing the chapter Modeling
Approaches and all the subtask participants who reviewed and com-
mented on the report. I would also like to thank Dr. Maria Wall and Dr.
ke Blomsterberg for their guidance and the useful advice that they have
given me. Finally, I would like to thank all the experts that by making
available their theses, reports and articles provided easy access to knowl-
edge.
Double Skin Faades
20
Introduction
21
1 Introduction
The main purpose of the present literature review is to give an overview
of work done and ongoing research related to Glazed Office Buildings
with Double Skin Facades. Thus, it will serve as a basis for a PhD study
within the framework of a research project Glazed Office Buildings at
the Division of Energy and Building Design, Lund University. At this
point, it is important to clarify the difference between a Literature Re-
view and a State of the Art report.
In the literature review (present) report the main purpose is to inform
the reader about the main sources and results of research done in the
field of interest and the possible field that can be developed in the
future. Often it is more important to describe the work done and to
categorize different approaches for every aspect than to give our point
of view. Thus, comments were made only when necessary and in some
parts, the opinions of the authors were used exactly as they were ini-
tially written. In this way, the reader may have the opportunity to
develop his own view of the aspects mentioned. On the other hand, it
is unavoidable to describe all the individual parts that were consid-
ered and constitute the basic structure of the report, without showing
the authors point of view. In the discussion and conclusions chapter
the main approach of the author is described and comments are given
concerning fields of further research and development of the Double
Skin Faade System.
Generally, in a state of the art report, the purpose is to establish the
current level of knowledge and technology, phase/stage of develop-
ment based on literature, interviews, study tours, etc. The first step in
order to meet the main goal is to make clear the approach and to
define the framework of interest. In this case, the existing literature is
used as necessary background knowledge in order to develop our own
point of view. Thus, it is more important to show how the work done
Double Skin Faades
22
is considered comparing and scrutinizing the point of view of differ-
ent authors. An introductive report to the project Glazed Office Build-
ing will follow in the spring of 2004.
The present literature review report is divided in the main parts:
Introduction
Classification of Double Skin Facades
Technical Description of the Double Skin Faade System
Building Physics of the Double Skin Faade Cavity
Advantages and Disadvantages of Double Skin Facades
Measurements Test Rooms and Real Buildings
Cost and Investments
Examples of Office Buildings with Double Skin Facades
Important Literature Sources
Discussion and Conclusions
1.1 Double Skin Facades - General
The Double Skin Faade is a European architectural trend driven mostly
by:
the aesthetic desire for an all glass faade that leads to increased trans-
parency
the practical need for improved indoor environment
the need for improving the acoustics in buildings located in noise
polluted areas
the reduction of energy use during the occupation stage of a building
Although that the concept of Double Skin Facades is not new, there is a
growing tendency by architects and engineers to use them. Since the func-
tion of this faade type is not yet completely investigated, in the existing
literature, one can find reports that prioritise the main goals of this sys-
tem in different ways.
Previous research has been made focusing mostly in the following ar-
eas:
Architecture:
Architecture of the faade in general
Fully glazed faades
Office floor plan layout better utilization of perimeter area.
Improvement of the environmental profile of the building
Introduction
23
Indoor climate
Thermal comfort
Possibility to use solar control all year
Avoidance of overheating the offices
Acceptable internal surface temperatures during the winter and
summer
Visual comfort
Possibility to use solar control all-the-year-round
Improved visual comfort (such as avoiding glare)
Acoustic comfort
Improved acoustical performance of the envelope
Ventilation
Use of natural instead of mechanical ventilation when possi-
ble, using the Double Skin Faade cavity
Energy Use
Reduction of heating demand during winter
Reduction of cooling demand during summer
Reduction of peak heating/cooling loads
Use of natural daylight instead of artificial as much as possible
Other
Construction costs
Fire regulations
Maintenance of the faade
Since the concept of Double Skin Facades is complicated and its use and
function affects different parameters of the building (that often may in-
teract with each other, i.e. daylight, natural ventilation, indoor air qual-
ity, acoustics, thermal and visual comfort, energy use, environmental pro-
file, etc) the literature studied is from different fields. It is also important
to mention that in this first step it was considered important to present
the function and the impacts of the mentioned system from different
point of views.
1.2 Keywords
The gathering of data concerning the Double Skin Faade systems re-
vealed that according to both texts and web sites, these types of systems
are named in different ways. These include:
Double Skin Faades
24
Double-Skin Faade
Active Faade (usually when the air cavity ventilation is mechanical)
Passive Faade (usually when the air cavity ventilation is natural)
Double Faade
Double Envelope (Faade)
Dual-Layered Glass Faade
Dynamic Faade
Wall-Filter Faade
Environmental Second Skin System
Energy Saving Faade
Ventilated Faade
Double-Leaf Faade
Energy Saving Faade
Environmental Faade
Multiple-Skin Faades
Intelligent Glass Faade
Second Skin Faade/System
Airflow Window
Supply Air Window
Exhaust Window/Faade
Double Skin Curtain Wall
Twin Skin Facade
1.3 Definition of Double Skin Faade
System
In this part, different definitions were given in order introduce some of
the most important authors and to describe briefly how they defined the
Double Skin Faade System.
According to the Source book of the Belgian Building Research Institute
[BBRI], (2002), An active faade is a faade covering one or several storeys
constructed with multiple glazed skins. The skins can be air tighten or not. In
this kind of faade, the air cavity situated between the skins is naturally or
mechanically ventilated. The air cavity ventilation strategy may vary with
the time. Devices and systems are generally integrated in order to improve the
indoor climate with active or passive techniques. Most of the time such sys-
tems are managed in semi automatic way via control systems.
Introduction
25
Harrison and Boake, (2003) in the Tectonics of the Environmental Skin,
described the Double Skin Facade system as essentially a pair of glass
skins separated by an air corridor. The main layer of glass is usually insulat-
ing. The air space between the layers of glass acts as insulation against tem-
perature extremes, winds, and sound. Sun-shading devices are often located
between the two skins. All elements can be arranged differently into numbers
of permutations and combinations of both solid and diaphanous membranes.
Arons, (2001) defines the Double Skin Faade as a faade that consists of
two distinct planar elements that allows interior or exterior air to move through
the system. This is sometimes referred to as a twin skin.
Uuttu, (2001) describes the Double Skin Facade as a pair of glass skins
separated by an air corridor (also called cavity or intermediate space) ranging
in width from 20 cm to several meters. The glass skins may stretch over an
entire structure or a portion of it. The main layer of glass, usually insulating,
serves as part of a conventional structural wall or a curtain wall, while the
additional layer, usually single glazing, is placed either in front of or behind
the main glazing. The layers make the air space between them work to the
buildings advantage primarily as insulation against temperature extremes
and sound.
Saelens, (2002) defines the multiple skin facade as an envelope con-
struction, which consists of two transparent surfaces separated by a cavity,
which is used as an air channel. This definition includes three main ele-
ments: (1) the envelope construction, (2) the transparency of the bounding
surfaces and (3) the cavity airflow.
According to Claessens and DeHerde a second skin faade is an addi-
tional building envelope installed over the existing faade. This additional
faade is mainly transparent. The new space between the second skin and the
original faade is a buffer zone that serves to insulate the building. This
buffer space may also be heated by solar radiation, depending on the orienta-
tion of the faade. For south oriented systems, this solar heated air is used for
heating purposes in the winter time. It must be vented in order to prevent
overheating in other periods.
Compagno, (2002) describes the Double Skin Faade as an arrangement
with a glass skin in front of the actual building faade. Solar control devices
are placed in the cavity between these two skins, which protects them from the
influences of the weather and air pollution a factor of particular importance
in high rise buildings or ones situated in the vincity of busy roads.
Double Skin Faades
26
1.4 The Double Skin Faade Concept
In this part the Double Skin Faade concept is described more detailed
providing additional general information concerning the structure, the
function and the use of the mentioned system.
The BBRI, (2002) includes in the Source book a satisfactory descrip-
tion of the structure of a Double Skin Faade System. The layers of the
faade are described below:
Exterior Glazing: Usually it is a hardened single glazing. This exterior
faade can be fully glazed.
Interior glazing: Insulating double glazing unit (clear, low E coating,
solar control glazing, etc can be used). Almost always this layer is not
completely glazed.
The air cavity between the two panes. It can be totally natural, fan
supported or mechanically ventilated. The width of the cavity can
vary as a function of the applied concept between 200 mm to more
than 2m. This width influence the way that the faade is maintained.
The interior window can be opened by the user. This may allow natu-
ral ventilation of the offices.
Automatically controlled solar shading is integrated inside the air cavity.
As a function of the faade concept and of the glazing type, heating
radiators can be installed next to the faade.
Kragh, (2000) describes the Double Skin Faade as a system that consists
of an external screen, a ventilated cavity and an internal screen. Solar shad-
ing is positioned in the ventilated cavity. The external and internal screens
can be single glass or double glazed units, the depth of the cavity and the type
of ventilation depend on environmental conditions, the desired envelope per-
formance and the overall design of the building including environmental
systems.
Saelens, (2002) explains in his PhD thesis the concept of the Double
Skin Faade. According to him, a multiple-skin facade is an envelope con-
struction, which consists of two transparent surfaces separated by a cavity,
which is used as an air channel. The three main elements which are in-
cluded in this definition are described below:
The envelope construction, (atria, ventilated greenhouses and glazed
corridors are excluded)
The transparency of the bounding surfaces (cavity walls and Trombe
walls are excluded) and
Introduction
27
The cavity airflow (double window constructions and airtight trans-
parent constructions are excluded) It should be noted that in certain
adaptable solutions the cavity may be closed to avoid ventilation.
The exterior cavity surface is made up by a cladding system. Usually, it is
fully glazed (single glazing). The interior surface of a naturally ventilated
facade is composed of an opaque wall and an operable window. Fully
glazed interior surfaces are popular as well.
As Saelens mentioned in the definition, multiple-skin facades are char-
acterized by a ventilated cavity. This intermediate space is an excellent zone
to locate devices sheltered from weathering and soiling. Usually, the shading
device is positioned in the cavity. Sometimes it is suggested to install day
lighting equipment in the cavity as well.
Uuttu, (2001) describes the Double Skin Faade concept as a pair of
glass skins separated by an air corridor ranging in width from 20 cm to
several meters According to the author the cavity is connected with the
outside air so that the windows of the interior faade can be opened, even in
the case of tall buildings subject to wind pressures; this enables natural venti-
lation and night time cooling of the buildings thermal mass. In winter the
cavity forms a thermal buffer zone which reduces heat losses and enables
passive thermal gain from solar radiation. All types of double-skin faades
offer a protected place within the air gap to mount shading and daylight-
enhancing devices such as venetian blinds and louvers. Sheltered from wind,
rain and snow, these shading devices are less expensive than systems mounted
on the exterior.
When solar radiation is high, the faade cavity has to be well ventilated,
to prevent overheating. The key criteria here are the width of the cavity and
the size of the ventilation openings in the outer skin. The air change between
the environment and the cavity is dependent on the wind pressure conditions
on the buildings skin, the stack effect and the discharge coefficient of the
openings. These vents can either be left open all the time (passive systems), or
opened by hand or by machine (active system). Active systems are very com-
plicated and therefore expensive in terms of construction and maintenance.
Further criteria in designing a double-skin faade are regulations concerning
fire and noise protection. Using these factors as a basis, various solutions have
been developed for double-skin faades.
According to Compagno, (2002), the term of Double Skin Faade refers
to an arrangement with a glass skin in front of the actual building faade.
Solar control devices are placed in the cavity between these two skins, which
protects them from the influences of the weather and air pollution, a factor of
particular importance in high rise buildings or ones situated in the vicinity of
Double Skin Faades
28
busy roads. As the author claims, one of the biggest advantages of the
Double Skin Faade System is the intermediate placed shading devices
combined with ventilation inside the cavity. As the solar radiation is be-
ing absorbed by the shading devices the temperature inside the cavity is
increased. Due to the stack effect approximately 25% of this heat can be
removed by natural air circulation. Apart from that, the Double Skin
Faade also reduces heat losses since inside the cavity the air velocity is
reduced (compared to the case without intermediate placed blinds) and
the temperature is higher. The higher temperatures inside the cavity dur-
ing heating periods lead to increased temperatures close to the windows,
and as a result improved thermal comfort for the occupants.
Lee, Selkowitz, Bazjanac, Inkarojrit and Kohler, (2002) comment on the
use of the Double Skin Faade System as follows: The foremost benefit
cited by design engineers of EU double-skin facades is acoustics. A second
layer of glass placed in front of a conventional faade reduces sound levels at
particularly loud locations, such as airports or high traffic urban areas. Oper-
able windows behind this all-glass layer compromise this acoustic benefit,
particularly if openings in the exterior layer are sufficiently large to enable
sufficient natural ventilation. The authors mention another benefit of
this system. As they claim, double-skin facades allow renovation of histori-
cal buildings or the renovation of buildings where new zoning ordinances
would not allow a new building to replace the old with the same size due to
more stringent height or volume restrictions.
The authors focus on the heat extraction of the Double Skin Facades.
As they describe, Heat extraction double-skin facades rely on sun shading
located in the intermediate or interstitial space between the exterior glass
faade and interior faade to control solar loads. The concept is similar to
exterior shading systems in that solar radiation loads are blocked before enter-
ing the building, except that heat absorbed by the between-pane shading
system is released within the intermediate space, then drawn off through the
exterior skin by natural or mechanical ventilative means. Cooling load de-
mands on the mechanical plant are diminished with this strategy.
This concept is manifested with a single exterior layer of heat-strength-
ened safety glass or laminated safety glass, with exterior air inlet and outlet
openings controlled with manual or automatic throttling flaps. The second
interior faade layer consists of fixed or operable, double or single-pane, case-
ment or hopper windows. Within the intermediate space are retractable or
fixed Venetian blinds or roller shades, whose operation can be manual or
automated. During cooling conditions, the Venetian blinds (or roller shades)
cover the full height of the faade and are tilted to block direct sun. Absorbed
solar radiation is either convected within the intermediate space or re-radi-
Introduction
29
ated to the interior and exterior. Low-emittance coatings on the interior glass
faade reduce radiative heat gains to the interior. If operable, the interior
windows are closed. Convection within the intermediate cavity occurs either
through thermal buoyancy or is wind driven. In some cases, mechanical ven-
tilation is used to extract heat.
Hendriksen, Srensen, Svensson and Aaqvist support that the transpar-
ency is often seen as the main architectural reason for a double skin facade,
because it creates close contact to the surroundings. This in fact is also derived
from a clients point of view saying that physical transparency of a company
gives a signal of a transparent organization with a large degree of openness.
Double skin facades affect a lot of aspects of indoor climate and to some
extend energy consumption. Transparency, view to the outside and daylight
levels are increased when double skin facades are used compared to the use of
traditional window facades. An increased glazing area will also lead to in-
creased glare problems and this is crucial for open plan offices, where disabil-
ity glare might occur in depth of the rooms.
1.5 History of the Double Skin Faade
The history of Double Skin Facades is described in several books, reports
and articles. Saelens, (2002) mentions that in 1849, Jean-Baptiste Jobard,
at that time director of the industrial Museum in Brussels, described an early
version of a mechanically ventilated multiple skin faade. He mentions how
in winter hot air should be circulated between two glazings, while in summer
it should be cold air.
Crespo, claims that, the first instance of a Double Skin Curtain Wall
appears in 1903 in the Steiff Factory in Giengen, Germany. According to
her, the priorities were to maximize daylighting while taking into account
the cold weather and the strong winds of the region. The solution was a three
storey structure with a ground floor for storage space and two upper floors
used for work areas. The building was a success and two additions were built
in 1904 and 1908 with the same Double Skin system, but using timber
instead of steel in the structure for budget reasons. All buildings are still in
use.
In 1903 Otto Wagner won the competition for the Post Office Savings
Bank in Vienna in Austria. The building, built in two phases from 1904 to
1912 has a double skin skylight in the main hall.
At the end of the 1920s double skins were being developed with other
priorities in mind. Two cases can be clearly identified. In Russia, Moisei
Ginzburg experimented with double skin stripes in the communal housing
Double Skin Faades
30
blocks of his Narkomfin building (1928). Also Le Corbusieur was designing
the Centrosoyus, also in Moschow. A year later he would start the design for
the Cite de Refuge (1929) and the Immeuble Clarte (1930) in Paris.
Little or no progress is made in double skin glass construction until the late
70s, early 80s. During 80s this type of facades they started gaining momen-
tum. Most of these facades are designed using environmental concerns as an
argument, like the offices of Leslie and Godwin. In other cases the esthetic
effect of the multiple layers of glass is the principal concern.
In the 90s two factors strongly influence the proliferation of double skin
facades. The increasing environmental concerns start influencing architec-
tural design both from a technical standpoint but also as a political influence
that makes green buildings a good image for corporate architecture.
Historical reviews Double Skin Facades are also made by Uuttu (2001),
Wigginton & Battle McCarthy (2001) and Kragh, (2000).
Classification of Double Skin Faades
31
2 Classification of Double
Skin Faades
Different ways to classify Double Skin Faade Systems are mentioned in
the literature. The systems can be categorized by the type of construc-
tion, the origin, destination and type of the air flow in the cavity, etc.
The Environmental Engineering firm of Battle McCarthy in Great
Britain created a categorization of five primary types (plus sub-classifica-
tions) based on commonalities of faade configuration and the manner
of operation. These are:
Category A: Sealed Inner Skin: subdivided into mechanically venti-
lated cavity with controlled flue intake versus a ventilated and serv-
iced thermal flue.
Category B: Openable Inner and Outer Skins: subdivided into single
story cavity height versus full building cavity height.
Category C: Openable Inner Skin with mechanically ventilated cav-
ity with controlled flue intake
Category D: Sealed Cavity, either zoned floor by floor or with a full
height cavity.
Category E: Acoustic Barrier with either a massive exterior envelope
or a lightweight exterior envelope.
Oesterle et al., (2001) categorize the Double Skin Facades mostly by con-
sidering the type (geometry) of the cavity. Very similar is the approach of
Saelens (2002) and E. Lee et al. (2002) in High Performance Commercial
Building Facades. The types are described below:
Box window type: In this case horizontal and vertical partitioning
divide the faade in smaller and independent boxes
Shaft box type: In this case a set of box window elements are placed in
the faade. These elements are connected via vertical shafts situated in
the faade. These shafts ensure an increased stack effect.
Corridor faade: Horizontal partitioning is realized for acoustical, fire
security or ventilation reasons.
Double Skin Faades
32
Multi storey Double Skin Faade: In this case no horizontal or verti-
cal partitioning exists between the two skins. The air cavity ventila-
tion is realized via large openings near the floor and the roof of the
building.
The BBRI, (2002) adds also another type of faade, the Louvers Facades.
As it is described, with this kind of faade, the exterior skin is composed of
motorized transparent rotating louvers. In closed position, these louvers con-
stitute a relatively airtight faade. In open position, they allow an increased
ventilation of the air cavity.
Uuttu, (2001) classifies the Double Skin Faade systems in a similar
way described below:
Building-high double-skin faade: According to her, a building-high
double-skin faade, the cavity is not separated at each storey; instead it
extends over the whole height of the building. The basic idea of a build-
ing-high cavity is the following: air that accumulates at the top of the air
space between the two layers is likely to get hot on sunny days. Openings in
the outer skin and at the roof edge siphon out the warm air, while cooler
replacement air is drawn from near the base of the building.
Storey-High Double-Skin Faades: The storey high double-skin faades
consists of air channels separated horizontally at each intermediate floor.
Box Double-Skin Faades: Box double-skin faades are stockwise ven-
tilated faades with horizontal partitions on each floor and vertical par-
tition on each window. The inlet and outlet vents are placed at each floor.
Hence the lowest degree of air heating and therefore the most effective
level of natural ventilation is to be expected.
A type of Diagonal Streaming of Air ventilation configuration
inside this type of cavity is described both by Uttu and the journal
Space Modulator, (1999). In box double-skin faades, a special sash
called a fish-mouth designed to admit and exhaust outside air is often
built in between storeys. This fish mouth has air inlets and outlets. The
outside air from the intake fish-mouth is warmed inside the double-
skin and diagonally ascends to be exhausted from the outtake fish mouth
at the neighbouring sash. If both the fish mouths are laid out vertically,
a large part of the exhausted air would have been reabsorbed. This system
also prevents fire from spreading to other levels.
Shaft Faades: A shaft faade is a combination of a double skin faade
with a building-high cavity and a double-skin faade with a storey-high
cavity. The full-height cavity forms a central vertical shaft for exhaust air.
33
On both sides of this vertical shaft and connected to it via overflow open-
ings are storey-high cavities. The warmed, exhaust air flows from the sto-
rey high cavity into the central vertical shaft. There it rises, due to the
stack effect and escapes into the open at the top. The buoyancy in the shaft
supports this flow at the level of the lower floors in that as the trapped air
is warmed it is drawn upwards.
Arons, (2000) describes two types of facades:
Airflow facades: a double faade that is continuous for at least one storey
with its inlet at or below the floor level of one storey and its exhaust at or
above the floor level above.
Airflow window: a double leaf faade that has an inlet and outlet spaced
less than the vertical spacing between floor and ceiling.
More detailed, the author describes crucial parameters of the design the
function and thus the classification of this system separating them to:
primary identifiers
airflow patterns
building height
secondary identifiers
layering composition,
depth of the cavity,
horizontal extend of cavity
vertical extend of cavity
operability
materials
Magali, (2001) divides the double skinned faades in two categories: A)
Double Skinned Faade on several floors and B) Double skinned faade
per floor. As she mentions, The difference between the categories (A) and
(B) is that there is a horizontal partitioning into the air cavity, at each floor.
According to the author, each of these categories is divided into sub-
categories. The distinction has been made between airtight or non-air-
tight faades the tightness of the faade is related with the possibility to open
the windows.
Double Skin Faades
34
Category A: Double skinned faade on several floors
Sub-classification: A1: the 2 faades are airtight
A2: non-airtight internal faade - airtight external
faade
A3: non-airtight external faade - airtight internal
faade
A4: non-airtight internal and external faade
Category B: Double skinned faade per floor
Sub-classification: B1: the 2 faades are airtight
B2: non-airtight internal faade - airtight external
faade
B3: non-airtight external faade - airtight internal
faade
B4: non-airtight internal and external faade
Kragh, (2000) categorizes the Double Skin Facades according to the func-
tion (ventilation type) of the cavity in three types:
Naturally Ventilated Wall: An extra skin is added to the outside of the
building envelope. In periods with no solar radiation, the extra skin pro-
vides additional thermal insulation. In periods with solar irradiation,
the skin is naturally ventilated from/to the outside by buoyancy (stack)
effects - i.e. the air in the cavity rises when heated by the sun (the solar
radiation must be absorbed by blinds in the cavity). Solar heat gains are
reduced as the warm air is expelled to the outside. The temperature differ-
ence between the outside air and the heated air in the cavity must be
significant for the system to work. Thus, this type of faade cannot be
recommended for hot climates.
Active Wall: An extra skin is applied to the inside of the building enve-
lope; inside return air is passing through the cavity of the faade and
returning to the ventilation system. In periods with solar radiation the
energy, which is absorbed by the blinds, is removed by ventilation. In
periods with heating loads, solar energy can be recovered by means of heat
exchangers. Both during cold periods with no or little solar irradiation
and during periods with solar gains or cooling loads, the surface tempera-
ture of the inner glass is kept close to room temperature, leading to in-
creased occupant comfort in the perimeter zone, near the faade. This type
of faade is recommended for cold climates, because of the increased com-
fort during the cold season and the possible recovery of solar energy.
35
Interactive Wall: The principle of the interactive is much like that of the
naturally ventilated wall with the significant difference that the ventila-
tion is forced. This means that the system works in situations with high
ambient temperatures, as it does not depend on the stack effect alone. The
system is thus ideal for hot climates with high cooling loads. During cold
periods with no solar irradiation (e.g. during night-time) the ventilation
can be minimized for increased thermal insulation. Apart from the ad-
vantages in terms of solar and thermal performance the system allows the
use of operable windows for natural ventilation, even in highrise build-
ings.
The BBRI, (2002) suggests a more detailed way to classify the active
facades according to the:
Type of ventilation
Natural
Mechanical
Origin of the airflow
From inside
From outside
Destination of the airflow
Towards inside
Towards outside
Airflow direction
To the top
To the bottom (only in case of mechanical ventilation)
Width of the air cavity
Narrow (10 - 20 cm)
Wide (0.5 1m)
Partitioning
Horizontal (at the level of each storey)
No horizontal partitioning
In this way, 48 different cases can be considered. Even more cases could
be created if the different categories would be refined (for instance cavity
width). Although this way of categorizing can be very precise, the in-
creased number of categories can be confusing.
Double Skin Faades
36
Technical Description
37
3 Technical Description
3.1 Double Skin Faade Construction
A MSc thesis was written at Helsinki University of Technology in 2001
by Uuttu. Apart from a short historical description and classification of
double skin faades, the thesis focuses mostly on the structural systems in
double-skin faades. According to the author, a complete structure can be
broken down into a hierarchy of substructures:
Primary structure: Loadbearing core, all columns, walls, floors and brac-
ing required to carry horizontal and vertical loads.
Secondary structure: Floors, which are not part of the primary system;
built-in items, partitions, roof structures and annexes; faade elements.
Tertiary structures: All constructions which are part of the secondary struc-
tures and whose stability is not critical to the stability of those secondary
structures, e.g. a window within a faade element.
The main parts that are discussed in this thesis are the secondary and the
tertiary structures. More detailed, the secondary structure can be divided
into three main types:
cantilever bracket structure
suspended structure and
frame structure.
The author mentiones that cantilever bracket structures and suspended
structures are most commonly used in Finland. Comparing case studies of
buildings located in Finland and in Germany the author concludes that
Further double-skin faades constructed in Finland differ greatly from the
ones constructed in Germany. In Finland, the cavities in double-skin faades
are building-high, while in Germany they are partitioned horizontally at
each intermediate floor and vertically on each window. This difference results
in the fact, that the double-skin faades in Germany enable natural window
ventilation, while in Finland their main purpose is to act as a raincoat for
the inner faade.
Double Skin Faades
38
Another MSc thesis written in Helsinki University of Technology in
1999 by Kallioniemi, presents information on research, design and codes
about joints and fastenings in steel glass facades. According to the author
the use of glass in facades causes many problems due to the material proper-
ties of glass. Glass differs from other building materials in aspect of being an
extremely brittle material and breaking without a forewarning. This mate-
rial property of brittleness has to be taken into account when designing large
glass facades. The requirements of designing load-bearing structures are nor-
mally gotten from either the glass supplier or the producer of glass pane ele-
ments, who both are thereby responsible for the strength and functionality of
the fastening.
The connection types of steel-glass facades are putty glazing (old), glass
holder list, pressed fastening, point supported glass panes and structural sili-
cone glazing (SSG). The new invention, point support, is used very little in
Finland, although it nowadays can be applied in Finnish climatic condi-
tions. Point supports are mainly constructed of stainless steel. The main re-
quirements of supports are functionality with glass and very small tolerances.
The requirement of small tolerances concerns also the load-bearing structures.
Point supported glass panes are affected by high stresses in drilling area, re-
straint loads caused by temperature and in insulation glass panes, especially
in Finland, even additional stresses caused by many-sheet-glazing.
3.2 Opening principles
The air velocity and the type of flow inside the cavity depend on:
The depth of the cavity (both for mechanical and natural ventilation)
The type of the interior openings (both for mechanical and natural
ventilation)
The type of the exterior openings (for natural ventilation)
3.2.1 Cavity
According to Compagno, (2002) the air exchange between the environ-
ment and the cavity is depending on the wind pressure conditions on the
buildings skin, the stack effect and the discharge coefficient of the openings.
These vents can either be left open all the time (passive systems), or opened by
hand or by machine (active systems). Active systems are very complicated and
therefore expensive in terms of construction and maintenance.
39
Faist, (1998) compared an airtight faade and a Double Skin Faade
that provides natural room ventilation. After this comparison, he con-
cluded the following:
In an air tight faade:
the depth of the faade is not really critical for the temperatures
inside the cavity
the windows are usually closed; opening the window does not guar-
antee good room ventilation
the canal is open at the bottom and may be closed (by a valve) at
the top
the double-skin has virtually no noise-insulating effect (compar-
ing to a convectional wall)
owing to the air temperature rise in the canal (with solar radia-
tion), the canal height is limited to 3 to 4 levels
In a ventilated faade:
the depth of the faade has to be determined precisely
ventilation of the rooms is obtained by opening appropriate valves
(sized floor by floor)
the canal closed at its base, extends above the last floor level.
Noise insulation can be improved when the double-skin screen is
installed as the outer layer
the allowed height depends on the canal sizing. An upper limit is
nevertheless given by the allowed air temperature rise in the canal
(10 to 15 storeys)
Oesterle et al., (2001) presents an extensive description of the function
and the air flow of the cavity in relation with constructional parameters.
The authors mention that only when the cavity between the faade skins
is relatively shallow (less than 40 cm) significant pressure losses are likely
to occur. Otherwise, the intermediate space offers no major resistance to
the air flow.
3.2.2 Interior faade openings
Oesterle et al., (2001) mention that the effectiveness of the inner faade
in terms of its ventilating function will depend on the opening move-
ment of the windows. The authors make a comparison between various
casement opening types in the inner faade skin and their relative venti-
lating effectiveness in relation to the elevational area of the opening light.
The following cases of inner openings are described:
Double Skin Faades
40
Table 3.1 Relative Ventilating Effectiveness in relation to the Elevational
Area of Opening Light for different types of inner openings
Type of inner opening Relative Ventilating Effectiveness
in relation to the Elevational Area
of Opening Light
Bottom hung tipped casement Up to 25%
Horizontally sliding casement Up to 70%
Slide down, top hung casement Up to 80%
Vertically sliding casement Up to 90%
Side-hung casement Up to 100%
Vertically pivoting casement Up to 100%
Horizontally pivoting casement Up to 100%
Jager presented in 2003 different design configurations of the air inlet
and outlet. He gave results of different opening types of the interior faade
and their relative air change efficiency related to the visible area of the
opening sash.
3.2.3 Exterior faade openings
Oesterle et al., (2001) claims that in a Double Skin Faade the principles
applying to inbuilt elements in air intake openings, also apply to air
extract openings. According to the authors vortices may occur along the
path of the airstream, with eddies spinning off along the edges and at tight
curves. Once these turbulences have formed, they can considerably reduce the
effective area of an opening. The cross-section available for the airflow will
then be the residual area free of turbulence, the dimensions of which are the
only ones that should be used in calculations. The authors provide an ex-
ample and a detailed description of a CFD Simulation.
3.3 Material Choice
3.3.1 General
When choosing the materials used for the construction of the Double
Skin Faade, caution should be paid to the pane type and the shading
device.
41
Uuttu, (2001) describes the support structure materials used for the
mentioned facades. According to her Designers should take care when
choosing materials to be used together with glass. This is not simply because of
possible incompatibilities in natural properties of the base material, such as
coefficient of thermal expansion. It is also because the coatings used with
materials may be incompatible or may need maintenance that is difficult to
carry out without harming the glass or its coatings in some way.
3.3.2 Selection of Glass
In most of the literature, one can read that the most common pane types
used for Double Skin Facades are:
For the internal skin (faade): Usually, it consists of a thermal insulat-
ing double or triple pane. The panes are usually toughened or
unhardened float glass. The gaps between the panes are filled with air,
argon or krypton.
For the external skin (faade): Usually it is a toughened (tempered)
single pane. Sometimes it can be a laminated glass instead.
Lee et al., (2002) claim that the most common exterior layer is a heat-
strengthened safety glass or laminated safety glass. The second interior
faade layer consists of fixed or operable, double or single-pane, case-
ment or hopper windows. Low-emittance coatings on the interior glass
faade reduce radiative heat gains to the interior.
Oesterle et al., (2001) suggest that for higher degree of transparency,
flint glass can be used as the exterior layer. Since the number of the layers
and the thickness of the panes are greater than in single skin construc-
tion, it is really important to maintain a clear faade. The main disad-
vantage in this case is the higher construction costs since the flint glass is
more expensive than the normal one.
If specific safety reasons occur (i.e. bending of the glass or regulations
requiring protection against falling glass), then the toughened, partially
toughened or laminated safety glass can be used.
Similar description of the panes used can be found in the existing
literature. However, there is no literature connecting the pane types and
the shading devices with the construction type (i.e. box window, corri-
dor faade, etc) and the use of the Double Skin Faade (origin and desti-
nation of the air flow, etc).
Double Skin Faades
42
Poirazis and Rosenfeld, (2003) compared 4 different Double Skin
Facade cases where different panes were applied in order to calculate the
airflow, the temperatures in different heights of the cavity and other prop-
erties. The pane types used are shown below:
Table 3.2 Description of panes applied for different types of Double Skin
Facades
Case 1 2 3 4
Outer Pane 8 mm clear 8 mm clear 8 mm clear 6 mm solar
float glass float glass float glass control glass
Intermediate 4 mm clear 4 mm clear 6 mm solar 4 mm clear
Pane float glass float glass control glass float glass
Inner Pane 4 mm clear 4 mm low-e 4 mm clear 4 mm low-e
float glass glass float glass glass
As the authors concluded, the case 1 gives the highest U-Values. The 3
rd
gives slightly lower U-Values. The case 2 and 4 have approximately the
same U-Values, lower than the cases mentioned above. The average in-
crease of the mentioned value compared with the cases 2 and 4 is ap-
proximately 39.6% for the 1
st
and 34,3% for the 3
rd
case correspondently.
Concerning the heat losses, (Q
loss
) the 1
st
and 3
rd
case lead to higher
losses than the 2
nd
and the 4
th
.
3.3.3 Selection of shading device
According to Oesterle et al., (2001) Determining the effective characteris-
tics of the sunshading in each case poses a special problem at the planning
stage since the properties can vary considerably, according to the type of glaz-
ing and the ventilation of the sunshading system. The sunshading provides
either a complete screening of the area behind it or, in the case of the louvers
it may be in a so-called cut-off position.
As the authors conclude for large-scale projects it is worth investigating
the precise characteristics of the combination of glass and sunshading, as well
as the proposed ventilation of the intermediate space in relation to the angle
of the louvers.
43
3.3.4 Construction types common in Nordic Climates
Tenhunen, Lintula, Lehtinen, Lehtovaara, Viljanen, Kesti and Mkelinen
carried out a research project at the Helsinki University of Technology,
during the years 2000-2002. The purpose of the project was to develop
design and product development bases for metal-glass double-skin fa-
cade systems in order to ensure their satisfactory performance in Nordic
climate conditions. The parameters considered for the suggestion of ap-
propriate Double Skin Facades were:
Architectural
Lighting
Building Physics and
Structural Performance
The project was named Metal-Glass Structures in Double Facades: Ar-
chitecture, Lighting, Building Physics and Structural Performance. Five
functionally different double-skin alternatives have been found and cho-
sen as a basis for further research. Furthermore, based on building phys-
ics, three different types of systems have been detected. Classification is
based on the utilization degree of the double facade in the ventilation
system. Some temperature and humidity measurements have been done
and wide variations in the intermediate space have been shown. After
studying integrated double skin facades, three different supporting struc-
ture types have been found. Furthermore, many kinds of glass systems
have been used. Tolerances between the main frame and the facades are
usually the most demanding challenges. According to the authors The
further research will be based on the above mentioned models and types. The
purpose is to produce guidelines for design and development of a high quality
technical standard to get a structural system that faultlessly fulfils relevant
functional requirements.
Uuttu, (2001) describes the current structures in double skin faades
after studying fourteen double-skin faades in Finland and five in Ger-
many. The research work was carried out by means of site visits and inter-
views among architects, structural designers, faade designers, contrac-
tors and manufacturers.
According to the author, the most common faade types built in Fin-
land are box-window. However both in Denmark and Sweden, most of
the faades are multi storey (see building examples, chapter 8).
Double Skin Faades
44
45
4 Building Physics of the
Double Skin Faade Cavity
4.1 Introduction
The modelling and simulation of the Double Skin Faade Cavity is a
complicated task, since different elements interact with each other influ-
encing the function of the cavity. Efforts to model the cavity are focused
mostly on:
Air flow simulations
Calculation of the temperature at different heights (Thermal Perform-
ance)
Daylight simulations
Different studies and approaches in order to model the cavity are men-
tioned.
4.2 Air flow
4.2.1 General
Air flow simulations of the Double Skin Faade cavity are necessary if
one wants to calculate the temperatures at different heights in the cavity.
Additionally, the temperatures can be critical when deciding the:
Faade design
Type of the Double Skin Faade (box window, corridor, multi-
storey faade, etc)
Geometry of the faade (width of the openings, height and width
of the cavity, etc)
Faade glazing
Double Skin Faades
46
Type of glazing units (single/double glazing for the interior and
exterior layers)
Type of panes (clear glass, solar control glass, low E coating, etc)
Shading devices
Type of shading devices (venetian blinds, louvers, etc)
Positioning of shading devices (external/internal/intermediate)
If placed inside the cavity, exact positioning
Proper combination of pane type and shading device for each orien-
tation and type of faade.
HVAC Strategy
Origin and destination of the air inside the cavity
Natural/mechanical/fan supported ventilation
Night cooling/venting
Before describing more detailed each of the air flow simulation methods
that different authors have used, it is important to describe briefly the
two possible ways of ventilating the Double Skin Faade cavity.
As Shiou Li, (2001) describes, The cavity in double skin facades is
either naturally or mechanically ventilated. Natural ventilation can provide
an environmental friendly atmosphere and reduce the requirement for me-
chanical ventilation. On the other hand, natural ventilation is not without
risk. It may create a door-opening problem due to pressurization. Besides, if
the air path is not appropriately designed, the solar heat gain within the
faade cavity will not be removed efficiently and will increase the cavity tem-
perature.
For the naturally ventilated double faade system, the air is brought into
the cavity and exhausted by two means: wind pressure and/or the stack effect.
Wind pressure typically dominates the airflow rate. If properly designed, wind
flowing over the faade can create pressure differences between the inlet and
outlet inducing air movement. Without wind, the cavity can still be venti-
lated due to the stack effect. As air flows into the lower inlet, it is heated and
becomes less dense and thermally buoyant. As a result, air will flow into the
inlet and out the outlet while removing heat. Because there is the potential
for stack-driven and wind-driven pressures to be counteractive, the air path
and exterior openings need to be correctly sized and configured to insure the
stack effect pressures and wind-driven forces are additive. Otherwise, the
preheated airflow in the cavity will tend to radiate to the interior, and open-
ing the inner layer window in summer will introduce a burst of hot air.
47
In urban environments, natural ventilation systems may also experience
significant problems of noise transmission and pollution and may result in
uncomfortable indoor environments in extreme weather conditions. There-
fore, a natural ventilation system is more suitable in suburban areas with
temperate weather where the airflow in the cavity will be close to the indoor
air condition.
The mechanically assisted ventilation systems usually use an underfloor or
overhead ventilation system to supply or exhaust the cavity air to ensure good
distribution of the fresh air. Air is forced into the cavity by mechanical de-
vices. This air rises and removes heat from the cavity and continues upwards
to be expelled or re-circulated. Because air is not pumped in directly from the
outdoors, there is potentially less risk of condensation and pollution in the
cavity (Barreneche, 1995). Also because the mechanically assisted ventilation
systems allow the building to be sealed, they provide more protection from
traffic noise than naturally ventilated systems. In areas with severe weather
conditions or poor air quality, the mechanically assisted ventilation system
can keep conditions in the buffer zone nearly constant to reduce the influence
of the outdoor air to the indoor environment.
4.2.2 Air flow simulations of the cavity
When it comes to airflow simulations of the cavity the focus can be set
on:
Simulation of mass flow (amount of air that enters and leaves cavity)
Simulation of flow regime in the cavity
Simulation of vertical/horizontal temperature distribution in the cav-
ity
If the airflow in the DSF cavity is mechanically driven than the amount
of air passing a cavity is known; in a case of naturally driven, however, it
is necessary that the flow is calculated. In addition, the airflow in the
cavity can be limited to maintain the necessary airflow rate in the room.
Air temperature in the double faade cavity is essential if one wants to
maintain comfortable indoor environment, especially when the cavity
air is directly used for ventilation of indoors.
The air temperature and the airflow in the cavity are interrelated pa-
rameters and one can not be estimated properly without the other. Knowl-
edge about the flow regime is also compulsory for prediction of the air
temperature and air flow, as explained in the chapter Literature Review
of Double Skin Faade Modelling Approaches.
Double Skin Faades
48
Normally the CFD-tool is required for calculation of detailed tem-
perature distribution and flow regime in the cavity space, though these
calculations can become time consuming. For that reason the network
approach is frequently used for airflow simulations of the cavity. The
chapter Literature Review of Double Skin Faade Modelling Approaches
describes modelling of airflow, temperatures and optical properties in
the DSF in more detail.
4.2.3 Integration of Double Skin FacadesHVAC
Strategies of the Building
4.2.3.1 General
The integration of the Double Skin Faade systems in office buildings is
crucial for the thermal performance and the energy use during the occu-
pation phase. Stec & Paasen, (2003) presented a paper in which they
describe different HVAC strategies for different Double Skin Faade types.
According to the authors, the designing procedure of the building should
include the following tasks:
Defining the functions of the double skin faade in the building. The
requirements concerning the airflow, thermal, noise reduction per-
formance should be described as well as control possibilities.
Selecting the type of the double skin faade, its components, materials
and dimensions of the faade that fulfill the requirements.
Optimizing the design of the HVAC system to couple it with the dou-
ble skin faade.
Selecting the control strategy to supervise the whole system.
The authors introduce briefly the concept of different cavity depths and
describe its influence on the air temperatures inside the cavity. According
to them, Dimensions of the faade together with the openings determine the
flow through the faade. The thinner cavity the higher flow resistance and the
smaller flow through the cavity. On the other hand the thinner cavity the
more intensive convection heat transfer and higher growth of air temperature
in the cavity. These lead to the following conclusions:
1. In the cold period it is more suitable to use thin cavities to limit the flow
and increase the cavity temperature.
49
2. In the hot period the double skin faade should work as a screen for the
heat gains from radiation and conduction. It is difficult to claim in gen-
eral if the thin or deep cavities will perform better because in one case the
cavity temperature and in other case temperature of the blinds will be
higher.
Example concerning how different depths influence the properties of the
cavity are shown in Second Skin Faade Simulation with Simulink Code
by Di Maio and van Paassen in (2000).
In Modeling the Air Infiltrations in the Second Skin Faade in (2001)
the same authors conclude that thin cavities are more useful, because they
can deliver a higher and hotter air flow compared to the air flow delivered by
thick ones.
4.2.3.2 Contribution of the Double Skin Faades to the
HVAC Strategy
As Stec et al., (2003) describe, an HVAC system can be used in the three
following ways in a Double Skin Faade office building:
Full HVAC system (the Double Faade is not a part of the HVAC)
which can result in high energy use. On the other hand, the user
can select whenever he prefers a controlled mechanically condi-
tions inside or natural ventilation with the use of the Double Skin
Faade).
Limited HVAC system (the Double Faade contributes partly to
the HVAC system or is playing the major role in creating the right
indoor climate). In this way the Double Faade can play the role
of
the pre-heater for the ventilation air
ventilation duct
pre-cooler (mostly for night cooling)
No HVAC. The Double Facade fulfills all the requirements of an
HVAC system. This is the ideal case that can lead to low energy
use.
During the heating periods the outdoor air can be inserted from the
lower part of the faade and be preheated in the cavity (figure 4.1). The
exterior openings control the air flow and thus the temperatures. Then,
through the central ventilation system the air can enter the building at a
proper temperature. During the summer, the air can be extracted through
the openings from the upper part of the faade. This strategy is applied
Double Skin Faades
50
usually to multi storey high Double Skin Facades. This type provides
better air temperatures during the winter but during the summer the
possibility of overheating is increased.

Figure 4.1 Double Skin Faade as a central direct pre-heater of the supply air.
During the whole year, the double skin faade cavity can be used only as
an exhaust duct without possibility of heat recovery for the HVAC sys-
tem (figure 4.2). It can be applied both during winter and summer to the
same extent. The main aim of this configuration is to improve the insu-
lation properties in the winter and to reduce the solar radiation heat
gains during the summer. There are no limitations in individual control
of the windows openings.
51
Figure 4.2 Double Skin Faade as an exhaust duct.
The possibility to use the Double Skin Faade as an individual supply of
the preheated air also exists (figure 4.3). This strategy can be applied
both in multi-storey and box window type. An exhaust ventilation sys-
tem improves the flow from the cavity to the room and to exhaust duct.
Extra conditioning of air is needed in every room by means of VRV
system or radiators. This solution is not applicable for the summer con-
ditions since the air temperature inside the cavity is higher than the ther-
mal comfort levels. Also in this case there are no limitations in individual
control of the windows openings.
Figure 4.3 Double Skin Faade as an individual supply of the preheated air.
Double Skin Faades
52
Finally, the Double Skin Faade cavity can be used as a central exhaust
duct for the ventilation system (figure 4.4). The air enters through the
lower part of the cavity and from each floor. Supply ventilation system
stimulates the flow through the room to the cavity. The recovery of air is
possible by means of heat pump or heat regenerator on the top of the
cavity. The windows cannot be operable due to the not fresh air in the
cavity.
Figure 4.4 Double Skin Faade as a central exhaust duct for the ventilation
system.
As Stec et al., (2003) describe, Generally supply facades couple better with
the winter systems in which their preheating properties can be used. The
exhaust faade is more efficient to cool the cavity in the summer. Problem
arise one faade need to couple both of the periods what cause that the con-
struction need to be adjusted for summer and winter conditions.
4.2.3.3 Coupling Double Skin Facades and HVAC-Examples
Stec and van Paassen in Controlled Double Facades and HVAC in
2000 wrote a paper that deals with the preheating aspects of Double Skin
Facades. The authors claim that for the winter period the most signifi-
cant parameter should be the heat recovery efficiency. The main aim of
the paper was to show the usability of the cavity air for ventilation pur-
poses. According to the authors, With the simulation one can define how
the heat recovery efficiency depends on:
Outside conditions
53
Dimension of the cavity, (width of the cavity is taken into account)
Area of inlets and outlet of outside air
Height of the building (number of floors)
For the simulations, the authors chose the following four different Dou-
ble Skin Faade types.
1. Double Skin Faade with controlled airflow through the cavities (Fig-
ure 4.5). The faade is a multi-storey with no opening junctions that
allow the air to be extracted out. There is only one inlet for the venti-
lation airflow at the bottom of the faade. It is controlled by an air
damper such that the air supply to the cavity is just enough for venti-
lating all the rooms above. The controlled trickle ventilator delivers
the desired airflow to each room (80 m
3
/h)
Figure 4.5 Controlled air flow in the cavity (Stec et al, 2000).
2. There are no open junctions on each floor, no controlled airflow in
the cavity and no dampers at all in this system (Figure 4.6). Addition-
ally, the upper part of the faade is open allowing the air to be ex-
tracted.
Double Skin Faades
54
Figure 4.6 Uncontrolled air flow in the cavity (Stec et al, 2000).
3. There are open junctions between the outside and the cavity on each
floor, which cause heat exchange between air inside the cavity and
outside air. The main airflow is the same as in the second system
(Figure 4.7). The authors claim that This should be the best system for
summer time when cooling is required, but due to the open junctions
preheating of the cavity air will be much lower than in the other systems
with closed junctions.
Figure 4.7 Open junctions in each floor (Stec et al, 2000).
4. There are open junctions on each level, but each storey is separated
from each other (Figure 4.8). Consequently each storey creates its
own system. The authors claim that In practice this will be the most
convenient system because the same module can be used on each storey.
55
Also the problems due to large temperature gradients in different height of
the cavity can be avoided (on each storey there is more or less the same
temperature in the cavity).
Figure 4.8 Each storey is separated (Stec et al, 2000).
Some of the conclusions that the authors made are:
The most important parameters in designing the double skin faade
are dimensions of the cavity, its height and width. Dimensions have
the greatest influence on the heat and flow performance in the double
skin faade.
A high-rise building with a very thin cavity may not ensure the air-
flow in the cavity needed for ventilation purposes.
In general double facades with airtight junctions and properly airflow
control in the cavity is an interesting pre-heater for ventilation air. In
a four storeys building and a cavity width of 0.2 m an overall heat
recovery efficiency of 40% can be obtained. This efficiency can be
increased to 72% if the ventilation flow inside the cavity is properly
controlled. In that case the second skin can compete with a mechanical
ventilation system with heat recovery. A disadvantage is the vertical
temperature gradient inside the double faade. It gives less comfort or
higher cooling capacities at higher floors.
From the previous conclusion and simulation results it can be con-
cluded to split cavities of high rise buildings in separated parts by
combining for example four storeys with their own inlets and outlets.
If this is done for each floor the efficiency will drop to 35%.
In order to use the double faade as well as for night cooling, as for
heat recovery controlled dampers in the open junctions are necessary.
In summer they should be fully open.
The asymmetric behaviour of the double faade gives less comfort or
higher cooling capacities at higher floors.
Double Skin Faades
56
4.2.3.4 Control Strategy
A crucial point when integrating Double Skin Faade systems in build-
ings is to define a control strategy that allows the use of solar gains during
the heating period and provides acceptable thermal comfort conditions
during the whole year. The risk of overheating the offices during the
summer months is high when the design of the Double Skin Faade is
not coupled properly with the strategy of the HVAC system. According
to Stec et al., (2003) this system allows the outside conditions influence
the indoor climate. As the authors describe, Efficient control system needs
to be applied to manage rapidly changing outside conditions. A successful
application can only be achieved when the contributions of all the devices can
be synchronized by an integral control system.
According to the authors, The control system of the Passive climate
system of the building should be done according to the following principles:
The occupants must be able to influence everything, even if their in-
tervention spoils energy. (A.H.C. van Paassen, 1995).
In order to save energy, the control system must take the maximum
advantage from the outside conditions before switches over to the air
conditioning system. (A.H.C. van Paassen, 1995).
All the control system must be focused on the realization of the comfort
with the lowest energy consumption.
During the unoccupied period the control system is focused only on the
energy saving, while during the occupied period must be focused on
the comfort as well.
The control system has three tasks to fulfill with the use of the passive
and active components. These tasks are following:
keep the right level of the temperature inside the building
supply sufficient amount of the ventilation air to the building
ensure the right amount of light inside the building.
57
4.3 Double Skin Facades modelling
approaches
4.3.1 Introduction
In the late seventies, some remarkable buildings with double-skin faades
(DSF) were built and a few inspiring articles appeared. It was the time
when the oil crisis emerged and as a result the DSF projects became at-
tractive and encouraging. In this period the prevailing literature had an
advertising character, typical for the energy efficient technologies. The
knowledge was based on rare examples, as the field of science was not
formed yet. After a short time the interest in the double-skin construc-
tion was set aside until the 90s. At that time the DSF was still considered
an innovation and the articles were focused on the performance of dou-
ble facades with the emphasis on their advantages. Later on the lack of
criticism became noticeable and the objective discussions began (Gertis,
1999). Dr. Karl Gertis wrote an article, where the advantages and disad-
vantages of double-skin facades were summarized. Finally, the author
concluded: we do not see a reason to be optimistic about DSF. Never-
theless, there are many studies available with a positive impression sup-
ported by investigations and experiments.
In the following section an overview of the key studies (since the 90s)
performed on DSF is given. The studies include empirical and experi-
mental investigations, modelling and simulation of the double-facade
performance. With such a spread of topics for studies the focus will be
set on the modelling approaches and possibilities. The difficulties re-
garding the modelling process and different techniques will be explained
and the discussion will point out their advantages and disadvantages.
4.3.2 DSF Modelling Approaches
4.3.2.1 Approaches for DSF modelling
Nowadays, building simulation software and developed mathematical
models vary in a wide range of complexity. The simplest model is de-
scribed by a few equations and the most complex one is the CFD model
solving the conservation equations for mass, momentum and thermal
energy.
According to Champagne, (2002), in the HVAC field, there is a need
to validate a proposed design to ensure proper performance. One of two meth-
ods is typically used: experimental or numerical. Although experimental val-
Double Skin Faades
58
ues are very reliable when performed in a controlled environment, there are
several major drawbacks to this approach. It is expensive and time consum-
ing. Computational Fluid Dynamics (CFD) is a numerical approach that is
informative while also saving time and money.
At the same time Hensen, (2002), categorizes building simulation
approaches by level of resolution into macroscopic and microscopic.
According to the author the macroscopic approaches deal with the whole
building systems, indoor and outdoor conditions over some periods, while
microscopic approaches use much smaller spatial and time scales. The
building simulation software is normally related to the macroscopic ap-
proaches, while the CFD has the microscopic technique which is usually
restricted to the steady state condition. The macroscopic (network)
method is more suitable for the time series considerations.
Another direction is taken by Djunaedy, et al. (2002), which catego-
rizes the main air flow modelling levels of resolution and complexity as
described below:
Building energy balance (BEB) models that basically rely on airflow
guesstimates
Zonal airflow network (AFN) models that are based on (macroscopic)
zone mass balance and interzone flow-pressure relationships; typically
for a whole building
CFD that is based on energy, mass and momentum conservation in
all (minuscule) cells that make up the flow domain; typically a single
building zone
Hensen, et al. (2002), explain that although airflow is demonstrably an
important aspect of building/plant performance assessment, the sophistica-
tion of its treatment in many modeling systems has tended to lag behind the
treatment applied to the other important energy flow paths. The principal
reason for this would appear to be the inherent computational difficulties
and the lack of sufficient data. In recent times more emphasis has been placed
on airflow simulation mostly focused on the following two approaches:
A. Computational fluid dynamics (CFD) in which the conservation equa-
tions for mass, momentum and thermal energy are solved for all nodes of a
two- or three-dimensional grid inside or around the object under investiga-
tion. In theory, the CFD approach is applicable to any thermo-fluid phenom-
enon. However, in practice, and in the building physics domain in particu-
lar, there are several problematic issues, of which the amount of necessary
computing power, the nature of the flow fields and the assessment of the com-
plex, occupant-dependent boundary conditions are the most problematic. This
has often led to CFD applications being restricted to steady-state cases or very
short simulation periods.
59
B. The network method, in which a building and the relevant (HVAC)
fluid flow systems are treated as a network of nodes representing rooms, parts
of rooms and system components, with inter-nodal connections representing
the distributed flow paths associated with cracks, doors, pipes, pumps, ducts,
fans and the like. The assumption is made that for each type of connection
there exists an unambiguous relationship between the flow through the com-
ponent and the pressure difference across it. Conservation of mass for the flows
into and out of each node leads to a set of simultaneous, non-linear equa-
tions, which can be integrated over time to characterize the flow domain.
The CFD code is able to perform many tasks that the network mod-
elling will never achieve. However, some of the CFD features are too
sophisticated and unnecessary for the design stage (e.g. the grid distribu-
tion of the velocity, temperature, dissipation of energy etc., obtained when
the CFD modelling is performed) and, as mentioned above, the CFD
modelling is often restricted to the steady state simulations. According to
authors, whose works are mentioned in this section, there is a seriously
growing experience in CFD modelling in general and in CFD modelling
of DSF, but still there is a number of issues which are considered to be
problematic in practice (Hensen, et al., 2002; van Dijk and Oversloot,
2003; Ding, et al., 2004; Jaro!, et al., 2002; Chen, 1997):
Amount of necessary computer power
Complex flow fields
Uneven boundary conditions
Compulsory validation of the results and the difficulties to achieve
satisfaction with validations
Obligatory advanced knowledge for users
4.3.2.2 Network approach
In a report, written in 1999 by Karl Gertis, the author comments on the
lack of information in publications concerning the results of simulations
and developed models for DSF. According to the author, the boundary
conditions in publications are poorly described and a deficit of experi-
ments is observed (Gertis, 1999).
The position of Park, et al. (2003), Gertis, (1999), Hensen, et al.
(2002), and work of many other researchers indicates that it is very diffi-
cult to find a simple model that would describe the DSF performance
appropriately. As explained in Hensen, et al. (2002): to predict the
performance of a double-skin faade is not a trivial exerciseThe tempera-
ture inside the cavity, the ambient temperature, wind speed, wind direction,
transmitted and absorbed solar radiation, angles of incidence each of which
are highly transient govern the main driving forces.
Double Skin Faades
60
Manz and Frank, (2005), point out that: the thermal design of build-
ings with the DSF type of envelope remains a challenging task. As, yet, no
single software tool can accommodate all of the following three modelling
levels: optics of layer sequence, thermodynamics and fluid dynamics of DSF
and building energy system.
The complexity of the prediction task is the main reason for the long
lasting research and application of simplifying techniques. The iterative
approach of the network method became the reason to distinguish the
three main issues in the DSF modelling:
Optical element responsible for the optical properties of the DSF
materials
Heat transfer element responsible for the heat transfer processes
in the DSF
Flow element responsible for the motion of the fluid in the DSF
In various network methods these elements are defined differently in terms
of nomenclature. In some methods they even stay undefined. The ele-
ments (the physical processes behind them) influence each other and, as
it has been argued, together they govern the main heat and mass transfer
processes in the DSF. Several researchers (Saelens, Faggembauu, van
Paassen, Di Maio, Manz and others) suggested the separation of the flow
element and the heat transfer element in the predictions, which allows a
better accuracy of wind influence predictions and advanced calculations
of the convective and radiative heat transfer (Saelens, 2002).
4.3.2.3 Coupling of models
There are many studies which consider all the elements separately (opti-
cal element, heat transfer element and flow element), the works described
in the published literature are mainly focused on one or two elements.
While, the remaining ones are neglected as non-influencing or very rough
approaches are employed to estimate their effect. However, few articles
consider all three elements with a relatively equal effort, as will be ex-
plained in the following chapters.
There are many reasons to assume that the task of DSF modelling is
too complex to be performed only with the pure network method. Some
authors (Djunaedy, et al., 2002; Beausoleil-Morrison, 2001; Manz and
Frank, 2005) suggest that the CFD and the network methods should be
combined. As pointed out by Manz and Frank, (2005): the nodal
network approach is not suitable for cases where intra-zone air movement
can not be predicted by a simple flow resistance approach or where the tem-
61
perature distribution inside the zone is significant. In such cases the limita-
tions of the nodal network model can only be overcome by coupling building
energy simulation tool with a CFD code.
In this way the CFD is involved in some particular problems, such as
calculation of local loss and friction factors (Strigner and Janak, 2001),
or calculation of the flow regime and convection coefficients. These is-
sues cannot easily be solved by the network approach. However, the net-
work approach is used for the rest of the calculations. In this manner it is
possible to combine the benefits from both approaches and to reduce
their disadvantages.
At the same time, combining the two different approaches results in a
number of questions, the most important ones being specified by
Djunaedy, et al. (2002). A detailed procedure of coupling CFD and the
network approach is explained by Beausoleil-Morrison (2001) and
Beausoleil-Morrison, et al. (2001). The authors give an example how the
issue of data exchange protocol between CFD and network model can be
solved.
According to Hensen, et al. (2002): Both CFD and network method
can be integrated with building energy simulation. In case of CFD, this is
still very much in development, although enormous progress has been made
in recent times. Integration of the network method with building energy simu-
lation is much more mature and more commonly used in practice.
The reason for this is threefold. First, there is a strong relationship be-
tween the nodal networks that represent the airflow regime and the corre-
sponding networks that represent its thermal counterpart. This means that
the information demands of the energy conservation formulations can be
directly satisfied. Secondly, the technique can be readily applied to combined
multizone buildings and multicomponent, multifluid systems. Finally, the
number of nodes involved will be considerably less then the required in a
CFD approach and so the additional CPU burden is minimized.
A compromise of choices between modelling approaches was suggested
by Hensen, et al. (2002): The network method is of course much faster but
will only provide information about bulk flows. CFD on the other hand will
provide details about the nature of the flow field. It depends on the problem
at hand, which of these aspects is the more important one.
Manz and Frank, (2005), describe three types of software tools to be
coupled for simulation of double skin facades:
1. Simulation software to model the optical element of DSF
2. CFD simulation code
3. Building energy simulation software
Double Skin Faades
62
Coupling is performed in three steps where the heat sources in the build-
ing constructions are calculated by software able to handle optical diffi-
culties. These heat sources are then transferred as inputs into the CFD
tool. The next step is the CFD simulation of temperatures and mass flow
in the DSF, and the final step is to use the air flows predicted by the CFD
simulations as inputs into the whole building energy simulation pro-
gram.
Furthermore, it is concluded ...a three level modelling approach is a
feasible design method for whole buildings with double-skin faade if there is
a static coupling between CFD and building energy simulation (Manz and
Frank, 2005).
Beausoleil Morrison, (2001), disagrees with Manz and Frank, (2005):
the static coupling between building simulation and CFD is not suffi-
cient: the simulation program must be given the ability to adapt modelling
approaches to prevailing conditions. The details of adaptive coupling of
CFD with whole building thermal simulation can be found in the origi-
nal paper.
There are more scientific papers available on coupling different simu-
lation software with the CFD tool for modelling the DSF, such as:
Manz, (2004), and Manz, et al. (2004) - the articles include a
detailed explanation of coupling a spectral optical model with a
CFD model, and recommend this approach for analyzing and
optimizing a DSF.
Djunaedy, et al. (2003), - develop a guideline for selecting a simu-
lation tool of air flow prediction and propose a methodology for
the coupling procedure.
Djunaedy, et al. (2002), - analyze levels of modelling in terms of
resolution and complexity. The case of study uses the two level
BEB-CFD coupling approach. Many conclusions were obtained,
but more questions arose. Some of the answers are given in the
work of Manz and Frank, (2005), Manz, (2004), Beausoleil-
Morrison, (2001), and Beausoleil-Morrison, et al. (2001). It is
worth mentioning that these authors do not consider the BEB
approach, they use the network approach instead.
Hensen, et al., (2002) - this paper also gives a short overview of
the possibilities for the DSF modelling approaches, mainly the
CFD and network approach are compared and discussed.
Beausoleil- Morrison, et al. (2001),- the article explains: a build-
ing-integrated CFD model comprises six aspects: domain discretisation;
a set of equations to represent the conservation of energy and mass,
momentum and species; the imposition of boundary conditions; an
63
equation solver; a method to link the CFD, building thermal and
network airflow models; and the interpretation of the results. These
aspects are carefully explained in the paper.
Beausoleil-Morrison, (2001), - provides the reasons and details
for adaptive coupling of CFD with whole-building thermal simu-
lation.
The above sections provide a description of the possibilities in the DSF
modelling, general approaches and their application. The benefits and
drawbacks of these approaches are highlighted in a very brief form as
these have to be confirmed with theory and practice.
4.3.2.4 Published experiments on DSF
Since the year 2000 publications on DSF modelling and application are
more frequently confirmed by experiments. The earlier publications on
DSF are criticised for the quality of representing the results of measure-
ments and the documentation of the experimental set-up.
Zlner, et al. (2002): Most of the experiments reported in the European
literature were conducted at indoor facilities using artificial radiation sources
and, in general, small scale test facades.
Zlner, et al. (2002): Only a few cases an attempt was made to predict
the increase in air temperature within the gap subjected to ambient condi-
tions and geometry of double skin faade. A broad, but superficial review of
the technical aspects to be considered in designing double-skin facades has
recently been provided by Oesterle et.al, (1999).
Today measurements are more and more often conducted both in real
buildings and in full-scale test facilities. Articles which include the ex-
perimental data belong to Grabe, (2002), Jaros, et al. (2002), van Dijk
and Oversloot, (2003), Gertis, (1999), Li, (2001), Manz, et al., (2003).
Performed experiments investigate the specific constructional elements
and geometry, i.e. depth and height of the cavity, different shading de-
vices and their thermal mass, location of glazing, the type of glazing, etc.
Results of measurements are used for the validation and enhancement of
the developed models and for improvements of DSF performance at the
design stage.
Faggembauu, et al. (2003), offer results of experiments on DSF under
the North European and South European climatic conditions. The Mas-
ter thesis written by Li (Li, 2001), includes a range of measurements
conducted in the test facility in USA, Virginia. Here, the DSF is investi-
gated together with the whole test facility system.
Double Skin Faades
64
K. Gertis, (1999) cites some of the research made at Stuttgart Univer-
sity which is based on measurements of air velocity in the DSF, wind
velocity, solar heat gains, and air change rate. An experiment made on a
basis of the scale model is also conducted. The results of the scale-model
experiments are mentioned in van Dijk and Oversloot, (2003).
In the article written by Park, et al. (2003), for instance, the different
mathematical approaches are discussed in connection with the variable
air flow regimes in the cavity and combined with the whole building
system. In articles written by Faggembauu, et al. (2003), and Baker and
McEvoy, (2000) forced convection, free convection and convection in a
closed cavity are examined. The comparison of the simulation and ex-
perimental results show a good correspondence (the measurements are
conducted in different climatic zones).
4.3.3 Models for DSF
This chapter reports on the available studies and publications made in
the field of DSF modelling. The report includes a short overview of some
models and difficulties which were faced by authors in their modelling
process.
There are a number of models developed with different levels of com-
plexity and accuracy. These models aim to describe different modes of
DSF function. Some of the models are validated in reference to experi-
mental results. Several models include modelling of shading devices such
as Venetian blinds, roller blinds, etc.
The entire chapter is focused on the network approach, since the topic
of CFD modelling is very broad and there are many parameters to be
discussed in order to be consistent. For that reason, the following section
4.3.3.1 CFD models is of purely informative character, while all the con-
clusions are derived for the network model in the section 4.3.3.3.
4.3.3.1 CFD models
The most important issues, related to CFD modelling of DSF, which are
emphasized in the literature, will be addressed in this section.
The CFD modelling of passive solar space heating is not an easy mat-
ter. Jaro!, Charvt, "vork and Gorn# presented a paper at the Sustain-
able and Solar Energy Conference in 2001, which deals with critical as-
pects of these problems, mentions possibilities and drawbacks of some
CFD codes in this area and, in several solved cases, presents outcomes
which can be obtained by this method.
65
According to the authors simulation methods are a very useful tool for
the optimization of the solar building performance, since they enable to pre-
dict performance parameters still in the stage of the design. The CFD simula-
tion has become very popular, because of its capability to model particular
details of the temperature fields and airflow patterns. These features are es-
sential just in the case of solar-heated rooms with the intense heat fluxes and
natural convection.
The CFD simulation of the performance of solar air systems can signifi-
cantly improve their operation parameters and effectiveness. Moreover, new
structures or systems can be evaluated still in the stage of their design. How-
ever, the applicability of the CFD simulation is still restricted to the relatively
simple cases. The simulation of airflow and heat transfer inside the whole
building is still difficult due to the computer performance. The capabilities of
CFD simulation will grow with the increasing capabilities of hardware and
software.
Gan, (2001), presented in an article a numerical method that he had
developed for the prediction of thermal transmittance of multiple glaz-
ing based on Computational Fluid Dynamics. As he describes the pre-
dicted thermal resistance of glazing agrees with reference data for double
glazing unit. The results confirm that the heat transfer coefficient, thermal
resistance and thermal transmittance vary with the width of air space be-
tween glazing panes up to about 25 mm. As the width of air space increases,
the thermal resistance increases while the thermal transmittance decreases. It
is shown that both the convective heat transfer coefficient and thermal trans-
mittance increase linearly with the temperature difference between the hot
and cold panes of glass. The effect of the temperature difference across an air
space on the convective heat transfer coefficient is significant. For moderate
climate conditions the effect of the temperature difference on the thermal
transmittance may be considered negligible. According to the author one
of the advantages of the CFD technique over the analytical method is that it
can easily be applied to performance evaluation of novel flow devices such as
air flow windows.
Manz presented in 2003 an article concerning the development of a
numerical simulation model of heat transfer by natural convection in
cavities of facade elements. The study sets out to compare the results
obtained by means of a CFD code with empirical correlations in relation
to heat transfer by natural convection in rectangular, gas-filled cavities. It
mostly focuses on tall, vertical cavities in building elements such as insu-
lating glazing units, double skin facades, doors, facade integrated solar
collectors, transparent insulation panels etc.
Double Skin Faades
66
In more detail: heat transfer by the natural convection of air layers within
vertical, rectangular cavities with aspect ratios (A) of 20, 40 and 80 was
investigated in relation to applications in building facade elements, such as
insulating glazing units, double-skin facades, doors, etc. using a computa-
tional fluid dynamics (CFD) code. Boundary conditions were assumed to be
isothermal hot and cold wall, and zero heat flux at bottom and top cavity
surfaces. Rayleigh numbers were between 1000 and 10
6
, i.e. flow was either
laminar or turbulent, and a conduction, transition or boundary layer regime
was applied. The study focuses on overall convective heat flow through the air
layer. This study improves the starting position for future applications of the
code to more complex cases of facade elements, where less or even no experi-
mental data are available in literature.
Manz and Simmler, (2003), presented at the Building Physics re-
current conference (in Belgium) an experimental and numerical study of
a mechanically ventilated glass double facade with integrated shading de-
vice. The procedure for modelling glass double facades is described in
the article. Optical properties were calculated and a transient 2D computa-
tional fluid dynamic model was developed. The computing program used
for the CFD simulations was FLOVENT. Simulated results were com-
pared with data derived from an experimental investigation of a mechani-
cally ventilated glass double facade built in an outdoor test facility.
The authors concluded that A total solar energy transmittance of 7%
means that solar energy absorbed in the faade is removed efficiently by me-
chanical ventilation. In addition, thermal comfort problems due to infrared
radiation between people and the inner pane are unlikely because the pane
temperature did not rise more than 6 K above mean room air temperature.
However, an overall analysis of the faade concept should take into account
that the fans used for mechanical ventilation consume electrical energy.
It would be still possible to decrease total solar energy transmission, e.g. by
increasing the outside solar reflectance of the shading screen (here = 0.48).
In other words, very low values can be obtained in a carefully designed glass
double faade with mechanical ventilation in comparison with the total so-
lar energy transmittance values that are often recommended, e.g. < 15%, as
in SIA 180 (1999). Furthermore, it was found that
air flow pattern depends on boundary conditions, in particular ab-
sorbed solar radiation, and can substantially change over 24 hours
air flow pattern can be much more complex than the piston-flows as-
sumed in simple analytical models such as that to be found in ISO/
DIS15099 (2001)
67
detailed analysis of air flow patterns (e.g. recirculation / counter flow),
energy flows and temperature distribution is only possible with CFD
boundary conditions, e.g. external heat transfer coefficient, have to be
carefully set because they can have a substantial effect on results we
have to bear in mind that if the shading screen is open or not fully
closed, solar energy flow into the room increases substantially (e.g.
present case: shading screen closed
so
l,
tot
= 0.03, shading screen open
so
l,
tot
= 0.28).
Zllner, et al. (2002), performed simulations of DSF, supported by ex-
perimental results. The wind influence in this model was not taken into
account. Attention was paid to the modelling of mixed convection; the
experiments were performed in order to validate a theoretical model for
steady two-dimensional incompressible turbulent mixed convection flow
in transparent channels.
4.3.3.2 Network models
This section is not an attempt to emphasize the favourable models or to
scale them by level of accuracy, but to reveal the basic and more advanced
approaches. Regarding validation and accuracy, models are affirmed to
be successful and promising, though in some cases models are valid only
under some specific conditions defined by the author. When it is neces-
sary to know the accuracy of model performance and its validation re-
sults, then the original article has to be found for the detailed informa-
tion. Most of the articles include comments on model limitations and
circumstances for their validation. Thus it is up to the reader to estimate
whether it is accurate enough for the specific conditions of other con-
figurations.
All models in the following section are sorted by the year of publica-
tion and therefore the historical development can be seen as well.
Cho, et al. (1995)
This paper describes an analytical model developed for a window system
with Venetian blinds. The analytical model is validated via published
results of experimental investigations and then the analytical model has
been introduced into the TRNSYS software.
Since the model deals with the window system, there is no air flow
through the double-faade cavity and the flow element is not included in
the investigations. However, the overall thermal characteristics of the
Venetian blinds (the heat absorbed in each slat) are analyzed and the
results are incorporated in the model.
Double Skin Faades
68
The effect of the slat angle is included in the analytical model and
described in this paper. First, the overall thermal characteristics of the
Venetian blinds are computed, as a function of slat angle and incident
angle. There are three cases considered:
When all of the solar radiation incident on the Venetian blind is
transmitted through the slats, without being absorbed
When a part of solar radiation is reflected and the rest is transmit-
ted
When all the incident solar radiation is reflected
A table of equations to calculate transmittance, reflectance and absorb-
ance of the Venetian blinds is included in the article with correspondence
to the above cases.
When the overall thermal characteristics of the Venetian blinds are
computed, then the ray-tracing method is applied to calculate the trans-
mittance, reflectance and absorptance in multiple layers of double-faade
(with inside Venetian blinds). Also, the overall transmittance, reflectance,
and absorptance of double-faade with inside Venetian blinds are ob-
tained. Finally, the simple heat balance for each layer of glazing and the
air layer between the panes is set up and solved.
The external heat transfer coefficient is described by Lockmanhekin,
(1975), and it depends on the wind velocity and wind direction. The
internal heat transfer coefficient is calculated from the same source as the
external one and depends on window height and the temperature differ-
ence between the internal environment and the glass surface.
The heat transfer coefficient in the DSF cavity (for natural convec-
tion) is determined after the empirical relationships specified by the au-
thor. The equation for the radiation heat transfer is also specified (see the
original paper).
The article includes a detailed schema of the developed model and
results of predictions compared with the experimental results.
Tanimoto and Kimura, (1997)
The model is developed for atypical design of DSF. The authors suggest
the use of roller blinds instead of the glass pane of the internal window.
This fact imposes the modelling procedure and its final output in the
direction, which rarely exists in practice. Nevertheless, the methodology
used for this type of DSF can be useful for approaching an ordinary
model.
69
In the model the DSF is vertically subdivided into 10 parts, each part
consists of the number of nodes for every glass or air layer. The heat
balance equations are set up for every discrete node and combined into
the matrix. The heat balance includes the heat conduction, convection,
absorption of solar radiation and the long wave radiation. According to
the authors: A numerical solution was made using an implicit type of finite
difference method The equations are solved iteratively, while the heat
transfer and air flow are considered simultaneously.
There are no extensive studies made either in optics or convection
(type of flow) for the double-faade cavity. The property of heat accumu-
lation in the materials has been included into the heat balance equations,
but the heat storage ability of the Venetian blinds is neglected. The ab-
sorption of the solar radiation is expressed through the absorption prop-
erty of the material. The long wave radiation within a cavity space is
calculated through the mean temperature of opposite surfaces, thus the
linearized radiative heat transfer coefficient and nodal temperatures are
used. The long wave radiation with the external and internal environ-
ment has not been explained.
The flow network can be defined as the unusual one, as there is an air
flow through the roller blinds into the room. The model considers the
stack effect and the mechanical ventilation by the exhaust fan. The pres-
sure difference for the stack effect is calculated from the difference in the
specific weights of the air.
Todorovic and Maric, (1998)
In this paper the DSF is considered as a single zone where the simple heat
balance is set up for two cases, one when the air is captured in the zone
(thermal insulation mode) and another one when the air enters the zone
from the outside and leaves with a higher temperature (external air cur-
tain mode). The primary idea is to determine the temperatures of all
surfaces in DSF and to solve the overall DSF heat balance. The heat
balance for the DSF glass panes includes:
transmitted solar radiation into the space
radiation (solar radiation absorbed by glass which is then released
by means of long wave radiation and convection to the internal
and external environments)
The solar radiation absorbed by the opaque part of the internal window
and construction is released to the room and to the cavity air by conduc-
tion and convection while the long wave radiation heat transmission from
the opaque surfaces is neglected.
Double Skin Faades
70
When the cavity is closed, the average inter-space air temperature in
the DSF is determined from the heat balance equation, depending on air
circulation in the cavity. In the case of an open cavity the average inter-
space air temperature depends on airflow. The authors include results of
experimental studies on DSF inter-space air temperature depending on
outside air temperature, cloudiness of the sky and faade orientation.
Dominating diffuse or direct solar radiation has a different impact on
the temperature in the double-faade cavity. It is possible to include these
differences by differentiating of the outside air temperature in two groups
(for cloudy and clear days). The direct solar radiation dominates on clear
days and the diffuse radiation on cloudy days.
There is no information provided on the convective heat transfer co-
efficient and the expression for the long wave radiation exchange is very
general.
In the literature the model is regarded as one of the first models which
is focused on predicting the DSF performance. This model belongs to
the period when the authors have not yet distinguished the three govern-
ing issues (elements) in predicting of the DSF performance. Neverthe-
less, the authors find it important to count on absorbed solar radiation
for the temperature distribution in the cavity space.
Haddad and Elmahdy, (1998)
This article includes information on a simple numerical model and also
a discussion of that model. The model is developed on the basis of a
program identical to the Vision software tool which includes the hourly
weather data file and is intended to study monthly variation in the ther-
mal performance of a supply air window. The model considers two cases,
the conventional triple glazed window and a supply air window. The
primary difference between the supply air window and the DSF is the
smaller cavity depth of the former. Based on the work of other researches
and by considering comparably small gaps for the air path the authors
assume that the flow in the gap: is laminar and hydrodynamically fully
developed with unequal wall temperatures. The expressions for the local
Nusselt number are integrated in order to obtain the general heat flux at
the cavity surfaces. The information on internal and external convective
coefficients is unavailable.
Every glass pane is represented by a node and characterized by tem-
perature. The heat balance is set up for each node. The heat balance
includes the long wave radiation with internal and external environments,
convection and absorption of solar radiation. There is no detailed infor-
71
mation provided on absorption of solar radiation, while the total long
wave radiosity is calculated as a sum of the emitted energy and reflected
part of the incident energy.
The total long wave radiosity and the total heat flux from the surfaces
are combined with correlations for the heat transfer coefficient, which
are obtained from the Vision software (no more details provided in the
article). The problem is then solved by an iterative technique which is
based on the Newtons method. The initial guess of the node tempera-
tures is made between the indoor and outdoor temperature.
The mass rate flow is a known value as it is expected to satisfy ventilation
requirement.
Di Maio and van Paassen, (2000)
The modelling approach explained in the paper is very similar to the one
described by van Paassen and Stec, (2001). It is composed of two main
subsystems:
Ventilation model
Thermal model
The ventilation model should calculate the flows through the inlet and cavi-
ties, based on the outputs of the thermal model, the stack effect generator, the
pressure generator, the wind generator and on the weather data The ven-
tilation and thermal models are calculated separately. The Simulink simu-
lation code is used for this model.
The air flow through the cavities (the cavity is separated into two
shafts by a shading device) is calculated similarly to the methods explained
in the following model (van Paassen and Stec, 2001). Di Maio and van
Paassen compute the air flow in cavities from the total pressure differ-
ence between the bottom and top opening, which includes buoyancy,
wind force and resistances of the grids at each floor. The pressure differ-
ence due to wind is calculated following Chandra and Swami, (1994).
The pressure difference due to buoyancy forces is calculated following
Liddament, (1996).
The DSF facade is vertically subdivided into one storey high parti-
tions. Each layer of the DSF construction is representing a node in the
thermal model: thus the temperatures in the DSF are lumped together
per storey. The heat balance is set up for each node and includes conduc-
tion, convection and radiation. When the air flows are calculated, the
output is used to calculate the convective heat transfer coefficients from
the following expression:
Double Skin Faades
72
542 . 0 448 . 0 ) 68 . 8 52 . 7 ( + + = d v d o
o = convective heat transfer coefficient [W/m
2
K]
v = air velocity in the cavity [m/s]
d = width of cavity [m]
The solar radiation absorbed by glass is calculated by solar radiation fac-
tors which are not defined in the paper. The radiation heat transfer coef-
ficient is undefined as well.
Both the thermal model and the ventilation model are highly interact-
ing. Thus the output from the temperature element is used as an input
for the flow element and then the output from the flow element is used
again as an input for the temperature element and so forth.
van Paassen and Stec, (2001)
The model has been developed to evaluate the overall energy perform-
ance of a DSF and to be simulated with the MATLAB and SIMULINK
software. The modelling of blinds is included.
Similarly to the previously defined elements of DSF physics the au-
thors distinguish three simultaneously interacting models:
Air flow model
Thermal model of the DSF
Thermal model of the building
Figure 4.9 Scheme of construction of the simulation model in Matlab (van
Paassen and Stec, 2001).
The construction of this model is visualized in Figure 4.9, according to
the author: the weather data and the first approximation of temperatures in
the cavity are used to calculate the differences in pressure and the air flow in
73
the cavities. The data obtained in the air flow model, together with the
weather data, are used to make the next approximation of temperatures
and so on.
The article includes clarification of how the air flow and thermal models
are organised and solved. The air flow model assumes that the air flow
through the DSF is caused by wind and buoyancy forces. There is a sig-
nificant simplification made: the outside facade window panels are in-
stalled in such a way, that the openings between the junctions exist. The air
goes in and out due to the turbulence of the outside air. The higher the wind
velocity, the higher the airflow will be. It is assumed that the turbulence
airflow does not change the flow in the cavity. The same amount of outside
air enters the cavity through the junction openings and leaves it again after
mixing, through the same opening. Consequently the turbulence airflow only
affects the temperature in the cavity because of mixing with the cavity air. To
conclude, it is not taken into account in the airflow generator. By such
simplifications the junctions have a function of openings, located in the
DSF of multistorey building. There is also a possibility for the cavity air
to enter the room behind the DSF due to mechanical ventilation in the
room. The detailed explanation can be found in the article of Stec and
van Paassen, (2003), which describes a similar model by the same au-
thors.
The air flow through the cavity is calculated from the total pressure
difference:
P
tot
= P
stack
+ P
wind
P
tot
=total pressure difference between inlet and outlet opening in the
DSF
P
stack
=buoyancy pressure difference in the DSF
P
wind
=pressure difference, caused by wind in the DSF
The pressure coefficients are used to calculate the wind-generated pres-
sure difference between the bottom and top openings using the expres-
sions developed by Swami-Chandra (van Paassen and Stec, 2001).
For the thermal model the facade is vertically divided into segments
which have a height of one storey. The segment is represented by the
nodes in each layer of the DSF (air and material layer) and the heat bal-
ance is set up for each node.
The article provides the reference to an expression for determination
of convective heat transfer which depends on the air flow and the dimen-
sions in the cavity. The radiant heat transfer coefficient and calculation
of optical properties of the DSF are not explained.
Double Skin Faades
74
A similar model is described in the article of Stec and van Paassen,
(2003). Some changes are made to the air flow element, but the main
approach is kept the same. This model (Stec and van Paassen, 2003), is
developed in order to determine DSF thermal/flow performance and to
discover how to combine the DSF with the building systems (HVAC).
Saelens, (2002)
A two-dimensional numerical model for single storey multiple-skin fa-
cades with mechanical as well as natural ventilation was developed by
Saelens, (2002), and described in his PhD thesis. As the author describes,
The model is based on a cell centered control volume method. The cavity
layers are only vertically subdivided and the temperature of the cavity control
volume is represented by a bulk temperature. It is assumed that enthalpy
flows only occur in the vertical direction. This restricts the use of the model to
multiple-skin facades with roller blinds.
To estimate the convective heat transfer coefficient, existing relations ob-
tained from experimental research and numerical simulations are imple-
mented. Distinction is made between natural, forced and mixed convection
regimes. In most cases, the flow in one storey high multiple-skin can be re-
garded as a developing flow. For the naturally ventilated as well as the me-
chanically ventilated multiple-skin facade heat transfer correlations for flow
over a single vertical plate are then suggested. During night time and during
situations with low solar radiation, uniform wall temperature expressions are
used. For all other situations, uniform heat flux correlations are implemented.
A limited experimental evaluation of the correlations is presented. The spread
on the results, however, shows that obtaining a reliable expression for the heat
transfer coefficient is difficult.
The solar radiation absorbed in the different layers depends on the angle
of incidence, takes into account multiple reflections and deals with vertical
shadowing. The long-wave radiation is calculated by the net-radiation
method.
A numerical model developed by D. Saelens also takes into account
all three elements. The techniques to describe the heat transfer element,
optical element and the flow element are investigated by the author and
a reasonable accuracy of the techniques is demonstrated.
The model has been implemented in the energy simulation software
TRNSYS and validated with the experimental results. The author has
performed a study of the modelling assumptions and has demonstrated
that the results of simulation are very sensitive to two issues:
Whether the angular solar properties are taken into account
Whether the inlet air temperature is properly described
75
In the section of conclusions and advice for further research D. Saelens
explains that conduction and radiation are relatively well-known issues,
but convective heat transfer and modelling of airflow are not. Therefore,
the future improvements of the DSF model are required in these fields.
In order to develop the model, the author has implemented existing
techniques and relations to describe the airflow and convection phenom-
ena. The air flow through the naturally ventilated cavity is the result of
the buoyancy and the wind pressure differences. Some experiments were
conducted on the naturally ventilated windows of the Postcheque build-
ing. The experimental results have shown mainly the wind driven airflow
in the winter season. According to Saelens, in winter it is difficult to
find a relationship between the airflow rate and the wind speed or wind
direction. In summer, the airflow was mainly caused by thermal buoyancyIt
was shown that thermal buoyancy models can predict the airflow through
naturally ventilated active envelopes adequately for low wind speeds. For
higher wind speeds, simple models fail to predict the complexity of the air-
flow.
As a result of comparison between models of low complexity and nu-
merical models Saelens reached a conclusion that: not separating ra-
diation and convection in the cavity is an unacceptable simplification.
The accuracy of analytical models is determined by the capability to pre-
dict the temperature profile. Saelens numerical model performs best
because it uses the net-radiation method to calculate the radiation heat
exchange and is able to account for shadowing.
Grabe, (2002)
In order to be able to make quick decisions and to avoid fairly compli-
cated CFD tools in DSF modelling, J.V. Grabe developed a software
tool, described in the article (Grabe, 2002).
The author distinguishes the temperature and flow functions (similar
to the three governing elements in the DSF physics) under steady state
conditions. The energy transport equation and the Bernoulli equation
are applied as a background and the basic steps of their modifications are
later outlined in the paper. The temperature and the flow functions are
solved by an iterative process. According to the author, the iteration
can be started with an arbitrary value for the mass flow and sensible values
for the heat transfer coefficients, the resulting mass flow density caused
by the buoyancy can be calculated and used as an improved value for the
temperature function. Within the time step, the heat transfer coefficients should
be newly determined.
The algorithm does not include the air exchange between the cavity
and a room.
Double Skin Faades
76
The temperature function
The temperature function is described by the energy transport equation.
The authors do not consider the molecular heat transport within the
cavity air. They also assume that the net heat flow in and out of the gap
takes place only in x-direction (for three-dimensional coordinate system).
Besides, it is considered that the convective heat transfer exists as the net
heat flow in y-direction and there are no single heat sources. In corre-
spondence with the explained simplifications, the energy transport equa-
tion reduces to:

dy y T y T h y dT cD m
s p c s
)) ( ) ( ( ) ( =
-

-
m
= mass flow density [kg/(s m
2
)]
c = specific heat capacity [Ws/(kgK)]
D = depth of shaft [m]
T
s
= temperature in the shaft [K]
y =y-direction
T
s
= surface temperature [K]
h
c
= convective heat transfer coefficient [W/(m
2
K)]
There is a shading device (blinds) installed and it separates the cavity into
two shafts. Since the heat transfer coefficients may vary due to different
air temperatures and air velocities in the shafts, the convective coeffi-
cients for each shaft are treated separately. The Michejews approach
(Elsner, et al., 1992/1993; Elsner, et al., 1993) has been used for calcula-
tions of convective heat transfer coefficients, averaged for the height of
the DSF. Normally, this approach is used for free convection flows on
vertical planes.
The radiative heat exchange between surfaces is approximated by a
radiative heat exchange factor (for two infinite parallel planes), which is
also averaged over the height of the DSF (the details can be found in the
original article).
The author provides references for calculation of the heat exchange
with the ambient air.
The absorbed solar radiation is calculated from the solar intensity and
absorption properties of the material. Absorbed solar energy equals the
total heat flow in the cavity. As a result the author transforms the above
equation into the set of energy balance equations for all surfaces.
77
The flow function
For the motion of the air only, buoyancy forces are taken into account. The
author starts with the Bernoulli equation, which is transformed as:

2 1
2
2

+ + =
diss
ms
ms
ms
ex
ex
e
w p p

p
ex
= external pressure [Pa]
p
ms
= pressure in the shaft, mean value over height [Pa]
ex
= external air density [kg/m
3
]
ms
= air density in the shaft, mean value over height [kg/m
3
]
w
ms
= velocity in the shaft, mean value over height [m/s]
e
diss1-2
= dissipated energy, between two points [W/kg]
With the buoyancy driven natural ventilation it is very common thing, to
determine the dissipated energy in a similar way to the determination of the
turbulence losses of pipes, which are normally expressed through the flow
resistance coefficients. In the article the method to interpret the dissipa-
tion energy into the form of resistance coefficients is demonstrated. In
addition, the author suggests the use of different resistances for the dif-
ferent types of losses. The local velocities at the resistances are deter-
mined from the continuity equation as described in detail in the article.
Since the flow motion in the shaft is driven by buoyancy forces, and
the dissipation of energy expressed through the resistance coefficients the
author describes the mean air shaft velocity as:

=
2 1
2
diss
ms
ms ex
ms
e gH w

p
ex
= external pressure [Pa]
p
ms
= pressure in the shaft, mean value over height [Pa]
ex
= external air density [kg/m
3
]
ms
= air density in the shaft, mean value over height [kg/m
3
]
w
ms
= velocity in the shaft, mean value over height [m/s]
e
diss1-2
= dissipated energy, between two points [W/kg]
Later on, the author finalizes the equation of the mean air shaft velocity,
as can be seen in the article.
Double Skin Faades
78
Balocco, (2002)
The article represents a numerical model for simulation of the energy
performance of ventilated facades. In the paper the facade is represented
as a Trombe wall with the air intake and extract from and to the outside.
The faade is vertically divided into segments which are the control vol-
umes in the model. The steady state energy and mass balances are applied
to each control volume. As a result a set of equations is obtained, where
each equation represents the heat balance for the surface or the air mass
in the cavity. The model is based on finite element method and imple-
mented into the computer program ventilcam. The model is solved
iteratively, for each control volume, different surface and air mass tem-
peratures are calculated. The mass flow rate is calculated as overall natural
draught.
The air velocity in the DSF is expressed as for a solar chimney, based
on mass and energy balance:

) 25 . 0 / (
) 1 / (
2
2
+
=
D H
t t
gH v
e ma
v = mean air velocity in the cavity [m/s]

g = acceleration of gravity [m/s
2
]
H = height of the cavity [m]
t
ma
= temperature of the air mass in the cavity [
o
C]
t
e
= external air temperature [
o
C]
= friction factor
D = equivalent diameter [m]
The friction factor of pressure losses is found by the Moody expression
(Holman, 1991) as a function of Reynolds number. The external convec-
tion heat transfer coefficient is calculated by expressions available in the
literature developed by Holman or Warren (Holman, 1991; Warren, et
al., 1998).
The internal convection coefficient is calculated for the turbulent flow
following. Warren, et al. (1998). There are no details provided on the
radiative and convective heat exchange in the double facade.
Faggembauu, et al. (2003)
The code described in the paper is designed for the simulation of con-
ventional and ventilated facades (DSF). According to the article: the
discrete equations are obtained from the continuous governing equations us-
79
ing the finite volume method. The building skin is assumed to be divided
into a number of independent facades and each faade is in turn divided into
a number of zones (approximately 1 m high), which are only coupled due to
presence of the air channel. One-dimensional discretisation is used for the air
channel and for each of the zones (orthogonally to the faade). This approach
is between a one-dimensional and a two-dimensional model.
The article includes a chapter with a detailed explanation of the inter-
nal and external boundary conditions and weather data sets to be used. A
standard data set, which is introduced in the code, consists of monthly
averaged daily integrated values of global horizontal solar radiation, maxi-
mum and minimum temperatures, wind velocities with directions, and
humidity of the air.
External surface
There are references to methods for calculation of diffuse or total solar
radiation. The ambient temperature distribution is described by a sinu-
soidal function between the minimal and maximal values. The long wave
radiation heat exchange of the external surface with the sky is determined
after Berdahl and Martins expression (Duffie and Beckman, 1991). The
radiation exchange with the ground is calculated depending on the view
factor between the ground and facade (the ground is assumed to be adi-
abatic with a certain reflectivity). The convective heat transfer coefficient
is calculated as a function of the wind velocity by application of the em-
pirical expressions developed by Rohsenow, et al. (1985).
Internal surface (facing the room)
Regarding to the indoor conditions it is assumed that a single constant in-
door air and walls temperature exists to evaluate the convective and radiative
heat transfers respectively. For the calculation of indoor convective heat
transfer coefficients the natural convection is assumed and the empirical
equations of Mills, (1992), are employed.
The authors carefully describe the studies of:
Conduction in each glass layer
Natural convection between glass layers
Thermal radiation between glass layers
Solar radiation
Air channel heat transfer and fluid flow, depending on governing
flow conditions:
Forced convection: a known air flow rate is imposed.
Double Skin Faades
80
Natural convection: the flow rate is driven by the temperature dif-
ference between the air and the channel walls. Time dependent
flow rate.
Closed channel: recalculating natural convection flow.
Global model algorithm
The DSF is modelled as a vertical transient algorithm. The governing
equations (mass, momentum, energy conservation) are solved by the fi-
nite volume method. When the air flow is known (mechanical ventila-
tion), then the step-by-step algorithm is applied to find the temperature,
pressure and velocity. The heat transfer coefficients are determined from
the empirical equations for the Nusselt number which is defined for the
developing and turbulent flow. The approach for calculation of Nusselt
number is specified in the article. The authors are aware of possible inac-
curacy caused by the expressions used to calculate the heat transfer coef-
ficient: however, they argue that: these are the best expressions attested to in
published literature
In the case of natural ventilation only the buoyancy forces are in-
cluded in the model, while the wind forces are neglected. It is assumed
that the pressure at the outlet opening in the DSF is a function of the
inlet velocity and the density differences at inlet and outlet. The equation
is solved iteratively.
The details of the global algorithm and the solution process can be
found in the article.
van Dijk and Oversloot, (2003)
The paper highlights the main features of WIS software for simulation of
thermal and optical properties of a solar shading device installed in the
DSF construction. The algorithms in WIS are based on international
standards ISO DIS 15099. According to the authors: WIS also contains
advanced calculation routines for those components or conditions where no
standards are available yet or current standards do not apply. As explained
in the article one of the unique elements in the software tool is the combina-
tion of glazing and shading devices with the option of free or forced air circu-
lation between the components in the sealed cavity space.
First, the modelling of the shading devices is discussed and the main
difficulties are identified. There are two cases explained with the sealed
cavity space: one with the air motion induced by fan and another in-
duced by natural (buoyancy) forces. The sensitivity of the transmitted
solar radiation through the window with blinds and sensitivity of solar
radiation on the angle of incidence are investigated by means of the men-
tioned software.
81
The DSF is modelled by WIS and CFD tools: some of the results are
compared.
Park, et al. (2003)
The authors of this model aimed to develop an occupant responsive op-
timal control for DSF. The model includes blinds and it is prepared for
transient simulations. As described in the article, there are four processes
which are involved in the DSF performance:
Direct diffuse and reflected solar radiation
Long wave radiation between surfaces
Convective heat transfer
Air movements through the DSF
From the above is seen that the authors recognize the governing elements
of the DSF physics, similar to the other models and research.
The temperature distribution over the height of the DSF is assumed
to be constant. In the modelling of the convection processes there are six
unknown convective coefficients defined: the external and internal heat
transfer coefficient, the coefficient in the air layer of the double glazing,
at the external and internal window inside the cavity and at the surface of
the open slats of the shading device (blinds), as depicted in the Figure
4.10. These coefficients are estimated from literature. The references are
specified in the article.
Figure 4.10 Heat transfer coefficients, Park, et al. (2003).
Double Skin Faades
82
According to the author:In mathematical formulating the direct, diffuse
and reflected solar radiation and long wave radiation between surfaces the
theoretical model suggested by Rheault, et.al (1989).
The model deals with ten different flow regimes, which are depicted
in Figure 4.11.
Figure 4.11 Ten air flow regimes (louver slats not drawn for clarity), Park, et al.
(2003).
In the modes 1-2 the modelling of air flow has been explained in another
article, but it is based on a conventional 1-dimensional formulation utiliz-
ing momentum and energy conservation. By combining the momentum equa-
tion and the total flow resistance parameter, the mean air velocity in the
cavity is solved algebraically, where it depends on the cavity depth and length,
indoor air temperature, cavity air temperature and the form loss factor. More
details can be found in the original paper (Park, et al., 2003).
In the modes 3-4 the overall velocity (wind) pressure is expressed by a
modified Bernoulli equation. The power law equation describes the rela-
tionship between the flow rate and the pressure difference. Sherman,
(1992), suggests the relationship between the air flow caused by com-
bined wind and buoyancy and the authors of the model derive a final
expression to calculate mean velocity in the cavity.
In the modes 5-8, the diagonal flow is modelled. The total pressure
difference also includes a st at ic pressure difference caused by
(de)pressurization of an interior space and the air flow is described by the
power law equation.
The modes 9-10 were not included in model.
Takemasa, et al. (2004)
The intention of developing this model was to calculate the year-round
performance of the DSF. The process of the DSF modelling and of the
DSF simulation is roughly described, but the interesting fact is that the
83
model was developed on a basis of a large set of experiments which show
a strong correlation between the incident solar radiation and the tem-
perature difference in DSF and the external environment as can be seen
in Figures 4.12 and 4.13:
Figure 4.12 Correlation between vertical solar radiation and temperature dif-
ference in Summer, (Takemasa, et al., 2004).
Figure 4.13 Correlation between vertical solar radiation and temperature dif-
ference in Winter, (Takemasa, et al., 2004).
Double Skin Faades
84
According to the article (Takemasa, et al., 2004): The building incorpo-
rates a hybrid ventilation system (natural ventilation integrated with air-
conditioning system) The inner wall of the faade has windows that can be
opened In order to promote utilization of natural ventilation, the system
incorporates a sophisticated automatic control strategy that takes into account
outdoor conditions such as air temperature, humidity and wind velocity. The
inner air intake openings can be opened to 5 openings angles including com-
pletely closed and completely open according to the outside conditions.
The control strategy applied during the measurements has not been
explained in the article and it is not possible to assess the changes in the
air flow rate during the experiments (see Figure 4.12 and Figure 4.13)
but it is reasonable to expect constant or slightly varying air flows for
these Figures.
According to the authors: the temperature difference between the inside
and the outside of the DSF is independent of the outside temperature, but
dependent on the vertical solar radiation transmitted
The starting point in the model are known boundary conditions such
as outside air temperature and the incident solar radiation. Thus from
the Figures 4.12 and 4.13 the air temperature in the cavity of the DSF
can be estimated. By interpolation the exhaust air temperature is found
and it is possible to calculate the air change rate.
The DSF is vertically subdivided into four sections. The surface heat
balance for each section is set up and solved and the final value of the
DSF air temperature is calculated.
4.3.3.3 Discussion of network models
The introduced network models have a varying complexity of nodal con-
nections which depend on the authors decision about the elements gov-
erning the physics of DSF (i.e. flow element, thermal element, optical
element). When these elements are distinguished then the technique for
estimation of their impact has to be defined and expressed in the model
by the author. As mentioned before, authors may neglect some of the
elements or use very rough approaches, while some of the elements are
more thoroughly investigated. In this way the structure of the model
becomes unbalanced and weak. The beneficial side of this situation is
that single studies of elements already exist and work is needed to inte-
grate them into one product (model). A significant contribution to the
list of three-elements-integrated-models was made by Saelens, (2002),
who came up with the model where the impact of all elements is fairly
estimated; in addition, he revised the available approaches for dealing
with separate elements and documented the reasons for the chosen tech-
niques.
85
Such models, as described by Faggembauu, et al. (2003), Di Maio and
van Paassen, (2000), Lehar and Glickman, (2004), and others, are also
remarkable for the attempt to integrate different physical elements of
DSF physics.
It is possible to define various modes of the double-faade function-
ing: some of them may involve HVAC systems. A mode of DSF func-
tioning and a contribution of HVAC systems are essential for estimation
of heat and mass transfer processes through the cavity space. Conse-
quently, a mode and an application of HVAC must be included into the
model by means of nodes and internodal connections. This fact increases
the complexity of the predictions as the modelling of stand alone DSF
has not yet succeeded and the integration of the DSF with the whole
building is even more complex. There are some models that integrate the
DSF with the building systems (see Stec and van Paassen, 2003, Takemasa,
et al. 2004, Park, et al. 2003, and others).
The network model typically describes the bulk temperatures, veloci-
ties, etc. in the zones. The term zone is associated with the whole room
(or even a few rooms). In this case the DSF is treated as one zone and the
accuracy of the predictions appears to be unacceptably low. In the case
when the predictions are performed with the CFD software tool, then, as
mentioned earlier, the distribution of velocity, temperature and energy
dissipation is calculated for every single grid in a room, and as a conse-
quence the approach is regarded as too accurate for the design needs. To
overcome the lack of accuracy in the network method and overaccuracy
in CFD modelling the technique of coupling the models was introduced
by Manz, (2004), Manz, et al. (2004), Hensen, et al., (2002), Beausoleil-
Morrison, et al. (2001), Beausoleil-Morrison, (2001) as explained in the
above sections.
However, another tendency in DSF modelling exists. These are the
models developed on the basis of the traditional network approach which
has been highly evaluated for the modelling of conventional buildings
and systems. The successful part of the model (related to the conven-
tional part of the building) is kept unchanged and solved by the tradi-
tional network approach, while the model of the DSF zone has been
improved. Different procedures for DSF zone enhancement can be seen
between models developed by Saelens, (2002), Grabe, (2002), Ciampi,
et al. (2003), etc. It is performed in a way that the DSF is represented by
a few nodes instead of one and as a result solved with a better accuracy.
The number of nodes and their distribution in the DSF may vary, but
the approach stays the same: an additional number of nodes is intro-
duced for improvement in accuracy of DSF simulation by means of the
network method.
Double Skin Faades
86
In the literature this approach is often regarded as the most promising
for the DSF simulations for predesign stage. The illustration of this tech-
nique corresponds to the case (e) in Figure 4.14.
Saelens, (2002), performed an investigation of an accuracy change
with stepwise enhancement of the network model. The diagram, depicted
in the Figure 4.14, represents the stepwise change in the network models
starting from the simplest case (a) a single zone model.
Figure 4.14 Diagram of the different models with raised shading device, (Saelens,
2002).
According to the author:
(SZ) The first model is a single zone model in which each cavity is
represented by a single node. Radiation and convection in the cavity
are combined. The heat transfer through the cavity surfaces is described
by a single U-factor. The solar radiation is inserted in the air node
and the cavity surface temperatures are not calculated.
87
(SZRC) As a first improvement, radiation and convection in the cav-
ity are treated separately. In addition to the heat balance for the air
nodes, a heat balance for each cavity layer is written. The absorbed
solar energy is inserted in the cavity layers and is function of the angle
of incidence. It is calculated for each pane with the embedded tech-
nique.
(AL) A further improvement consists of accounting for the tempera-
ture gradient along the height of the cavity. In order to allow an ana-
lytical solution, a temperature profile has to be chosen. As a first, easy
choice, a linear temperature gradient is assumed.
(AE) A theoretical study of the temperature distribution in a venti-
lated cavity shows that the temperature profile is exponential. Conse-
quently, an exponential temperature gradient is assumed as a further
improvement for the analytical model.
(NUM) The outline of the numerical model which is based on a cell
centered finite volume method. As improvement over the other mod-
els, the radiation heat transfer in the cavity is treated more correctly
and shadowing is taken into account.
In order to allow a correct comparison, the convective heat transfer coefficient
as calculated by the numerical model is implemented in the models which
separate convection and radiation.
These five cases can be useful as a scale to estimate the complexity of
any network model, especially when it is necessary to characterize a model
in a few words instead of listing all applied techniques and approaches.
In order to make the scaling as practical as possible, the definition for the
above models (SZ, SZRC, AL, AE and NUM) has to be simplified. In
this way every case would be able to cover wider modelling ranges.
This chapter includes Table 1, which provides an overview on DSF
modelling approaches. A major part of the reviewed articles includes in-
formation on simplifications used during the modelling. The physical
processes covered by the optical element, the heat transfer element and
the flow element exist independently of whether the author of the model
identifies them or not. However, it is up to the author to decide which
elements in the model are to be simplified or to be neglected. Often the
scientific papers include records of particular difficulties and consequences
for taken decisions. These facts can be essential and will be investigated
in the following sections:
Heat transfer
Air flow
Optical and solar properties
Double Skin Faades
88
However, some information overlaps because the physical processes are
interconnected.
Table 4.1 The overview of the available models for prediction of DSF per-
formance.
89
O
p
t
i
c
a
l

e
l
e
m
e
n
t

T
h
e
r
m
a
l

e
l
e
m
e
n
t

A
u
t
h
o
r
/
y
e
a
r

N
o
d
a
l
-
s
t
r
u
c
t
u
r
e

O
p
t
i
c
a
l

a
n
d

s
o
l
a
r

p
r
o
p
e
r
t
i
e
s

L
o
n
g

w
a
v
e

r
a
d
i
a
t
i
o
n

C
o
n
v
e
c
t
i
o
n

A
i
r

f
l
o
w

e
l
e
m
e
n
t

M
e
a
s
u
r
e
m
e
n
t
s

p
e
r
f
o
r
m
e
d

C
h
o
,

e
t

a
l
.

(
1
9
9
5
)

D
S
F

i
s

d
e
s
c
r
i
b
e
d

b
y

b
u
l
k

t
e
m
p
e
r
a
t
u
r
e

N
o
t

d
e
s
c
r
i
b
e
d

T
h
e

r
a
y

t
r
a
c
i
n
g

m
e
t
h
o
d

t
o

c
a
l
c
u
l
a
t
e

o
v
e
r
a
l
l

t
h
e
r
m
a
l

c
h
a
r
a
c
t
e
r
i
s
t
i
c
s
.

T
h
e

e
q
u
a
t
i
o
n

f
o
r

t
h
e

l
o
n
g

w
a
v
e

r
a
d
i
a
t
i
o
n

e
x
c
h
a
n
g
e

i
s

s
p
e
c
i
f
i
e
d

b
y

a
u
t
h
o
r

T
h
e

e
x
t
e
r
n
a
l

a
n
d

i
n
t
e
r
n
a
l

c
o
n
v
e
c
t
i
v
e

c
o
e
f
f
i
c
i
e
n
t
s

f
r
o
m

L
o
c
k
m
a
n
h
e
k
i
n

(
1
9
7
5
)

N
o

a
i
r

m
o
t
i
o
n

n
o

T
a
n
i
m
o
t
o

a
n
d

K
i
m
u
r
a

(
1
9
9
7
)

M
o
r
e

t
h
a
n

o
n
e

n
o
d
e

i
n

t
h
e

D
S
F

z
o
n
e

T
h
e

a
b
s
o
r
b
e
d

s
o
l
a
r

r
a
d
i
a
t
i
o
n

i
s

e
x
p
r
e
s
s
e
d

t
h
r
o
u
g
h

t
h
e

i
n
c
i
d
e
n
t

s
o
l
a
r

r
a
d
i
a
t
i
o
n

a
n
d

t
h
r
o
u
g
h

t
h
e

a
b
s
o
r
p
t
i
o
n

p
r
o
p
e
r
t
y

o
f

t
h
e

s
u
r
f
a
c
e

T
h
e

l
o
n
g

w
a
v
e

r
a
d
i
a
t
i
o
n

w
i
t
h
i
n

t
h
e

c
a
v
i
t
y

s
p
a
c
e

i
s

e
x
p
r
e
s
s
e
d

t
h
r
o
u
g
h

t
h
e

l
i
n
e
a
r
i
z
e
d

r
a
d
i
a
t
i
v
e

h
e
a
t

t
r
a
n
s
f
e
r

c
o
e
f
f
i
c
i
e
n
t

a
n
d

n
o
d
a
l

t
e
m
p
e
r
a
t
u
r
e
s
.

T
h
e

l
o
n
g

w
a
v
e

r
a
d
i
a
t
i
o
n

w
i
t
h

e
x
t
e
r
i
o
r

a
n
d

i
n
t
e
r
i
o
r

e
n
v
i
r
o
n
m
e
n
t

h
a
s

n
o
t

b
e
e
n

d
e
s
c
r
i
b
e
d

C
o
n
v
e
c
t
i
v
e

c
o
e
f
f
i
c
i
e
n
t
s

a
r
e

n
o
t

d
e
s
c
r
i
b
e
d

b
u
t

t
h
e

t
e
x
t

s
u
p
p
o
s
e
s

t
h
e
i
r

c
o
n
s
i
d
e
r
a
t
i
o
n

d
u
r
i
n
g

t
h
e

r
e
s
e
a
r
c
h
.

T
h
e

a
c
c
u
m
u
l
a
t
i
o
n

o
f

h
e
a
t

i
n

t
h
e

c
o
n
s
t
r
u
c
t
i
o
n
s

i
s

i
n
c
l
u
d
e
d

T
h
e

a
i
r

f
l
o
w

i
n
d
u
c
e
d

b
y

t
h
e

e
x
h
a
u
s
t

f
a
n

a
n
d

s
t
a
c
k

e
f
f
e
c
t
.

I
n

t
h
e

f
i
r
s
t

c
a
s
e

t
h
e

a
i
r

f
l
o
w

i
s

k
n
o
w
n
,

a
n
d

i
n

t
h
e

o
t
h
e
r

i
t

i
s

c
a
l
c
u
l
a
t
e
d

f
r
o
m

t
h
e

r
e
s
u
l
t
s

o
f

i
t
e
r
a
t
i
o
n
s

b
y

t
e
m
p
e
r
a
t
u
r
e

y
e
s

T
o
d
o
r
o
v
i
c

a
n
d

M
a
r
i
k

(
1
9
9
8
)

D
S
F

i
s

d
e
s
c
r
i
b
e
d

b
y

b
u
l
k

t
e
m
p
e
r
a
t
u
r
e

I
t
=
I
k

I
t

-

t
r
a
n
s
m
i
t
t
e
d

s
o
l
a
r

r
a
d
i
a
t
i
o
n

I

i
n
c
i
d
e
n
t

s
o
l
a
r

r
a
d
i
a
t
i
o
n

k
-

t
r
a
n
s
m
i
t
t
a
n
c
e

c
o
e
f
.

)
(
o
s
T
T
A
C
q

A

-

a
r
e
a

t
e
m
p
e
r
a
t
u
r
e

c
o
e
f
f
i
c
i
e
n
t

T
s
,

T
o

-

t
e
m
p
e
r
a
t
u
r
e
s

o
f

e
x
c
h
a
n
g
i
n
g

s
u
r
f
a
c
e
s

C
o
n
v
e
c
t
i
o
n

c
o
e
f
f
i
c
i
e
n
t
s

a
r
e

u
n
d
e
f
i
n
e
d

T
h
e

a
i
r

f
l
o
w

h
a
s

t
o

b
e

k
n
o
w
n

y
e
s

H
a
d
d
a
d

a
n
d

E
l
m
a
h
d
y

(
1
9
9
8
)

M
o
r
e

t
h
a
n

o
n
e

n
o
d
e

i
n

t
h
e

D
S
F

z
o
n
e

N
o
t

d
e
s
c
r
i
b
e
d

C
a
l
c
u
l
a
t
e
d

a
s

a

s
u
m

o
f

e
m
i
t
t
e
d

e
n
e
r
g
y

a
n
d

r
e
f
l
e
c
t
e
d

p
a
r
t

o
f

t
h
e

i
n
c
i
d
e
n
t

e
n
e
r
g
y

F
u
l
l
y

d
e
v
e
l
o
p
e
d

l
a
m
i
n
a
r

f
l
o
w
.

T
h
e

N
u
s
s
e
l
t

n
u
m
b
e
r

i
s

c
a
l
c
u
l
a
t
e
d

f
r
o
m

e
m
p
i
r
i
c
a
l

r
e
l
a
t
i
o
n
s
h
i
p
s

p
r
o
v
i
d
e
d

b
y

a
u
t
h
o
r

M
a
s
s

f
l
o
w

i
s

a
c
c
e
p
t
e
d

a
c
c
o
r
d
i
n
g
l
y

t
o

v
e
n
t
i
l
a
t
i
o
n

r
e
q
u
i
r
e
m
e
n
t
s
.

A
i
r

f
l
o
w

m
o
d
e
l
l
e
d

a
c
c
.

t
h
e

r
e
f
e
r
e
n
c
e
s

s
p
e
c
i
f
i
e
d

b
y

a
u
t
h
o
r

n
o

D
i

M
a
i
o

a
n
d

v
a
n

P
a
a
s
s
e
n

(
2
0
0
0
)

O
n
e

b
u
l
k

s
e
g
m
e
n
t

i
s

o
f

t
h
e

h
e
i
g
h
t

o
f

o
n
e

s
t
o
r
y

q
=
I
A
1
A
2
A
3
A
4

A
1
-
4

-

s
o
l
a
r

r
a
d
i
a
t
i
o
n

f
a
c
t
o
r
s

I

-
s
o
l
a
r

r
a
d
i
a
t
i
o
n

o
n

s
u
r
f
a
c
e

)
(
2
1
T
T
A
q

-

l
o
n
g

w
a
v
e

r
a
d
i
a
t
i
o
n

h
e
a
t

t
r
a
n
s
f
e
r

c
o
e
f
f
i
c
i
e
n
t
,

w
h
i
c
h

i
s

u
n
d
e
f
i
n
e
d

A
-

a
r
e
a

C
o
n
v
e
c
t
i
v
e

c
o
e
f
f
i
c
i
e
n
t

d
e
s
c
r
i
b
e
d

b
y

e
q
u
a
t
i
o
n
:

5
4
2
.
0
4
4
8
.
0
)
6
8
.
8
5
2
.
7
(
d
v
d

d
-

w
i
d
t
h

o
f

c
a
v
i
t
y
,

v
-

v
e
l
o
c
i
t
y

T
h
e

a
i
r

f
l
o
w

t
h
r
o
u
g
h

D
S
F

i
s

c
a
l
c
u
l
a
t
e
d

f
r
o
m

t
h
e

t
o
t
a
l

p
r
e
s
s
u
r
e

d
i
f
f
e
r
e
n
c
e
s

b
e
t
w
e
e
n

t
h
e

i
n
l
e
t

a
n
d

o
u
t
l
e
t

o
p
e
n
i
n
g
s
,

w
h
i
c
h

i
s

c
a
u
s
e
d

b
y

b
u
o
y
a
n
c
y

a
n
d

w
i
n
d

f
o
r
c
e
s

a
n
d

f
l
o
w

r
e
s
i
s
t
a
n
c
e

c
o
e
f
f
i
c
i
e
n
t
s
.

T
h
e

w
i
n
d

f
o
r
c
e

i
s

c
a
l
c
u
l
a
t
e
d

f
o
r

t
h
e

h
i
g
h
-
r
a
i
s
e

b
u
i
l
d
i
n
g
s

b
y

a
p
p
l
i
c
a
t
i
o
n

o
f

w
i
n
d

p
r
e
s
s
u
r
e

c
o
e
f
f
i
c
i
e
n
t
s

c
a
l
c
u
l
a
t
e
d

a
c
c
.

C
h
a
n
d
r
a

a
n
d

S
w
a
m
i
,

(
1
9
9
4
)
,

a
n
d

t
h
e

s
t
a
c
k

e
f
f
e
c
t

a
c
c
.

L
i
d
d
a
m
e
n
t
,

(
1
9
9
6
)

n
o

v
a
n

P
a
s
s
e
n

a
n
d

S
t
e
c

(
2
0
0
1
)

M
o
r
e

t
h
a
n

1

n
o
d
e

i
n

t
h
e

D
S
F

z
o
n
e

N
o
t

d
e
s
c
r
i
b
e
d

N
o
t

d
e
s
c
r
i
b
e
d

H
e
a
t

b
a
l
a
n
c
e

i
s

w
r
i
t
t
e
n

f
o
r

e
a
c
h

n
o
d
e

i
n

e
a
c
h

l
a
y
e
r
.

C
o
n
v
e
c
t
i
v
e

h
e
a
t

t
r
a
n
s
f
e
r

c
o
e
f
f
i
c
i
e
n
t

i
s

c
a
l
c
u
l
a
t
e
d

u
s
i
n
g

a
n

e
x
p
r
e
s
s
i
o
n
,

s
p
e
c
i
f
i
e
d

b
y

a
u
t
h
o
r

T
h
e

a
i
r

f
l
o
w

t
h
r
o
u
g
h

D
S
F

i
s

c
a
l
c
u
l
a
t
e
d

f
r
o
m

t
h
e

t
o
t
a
l

p
r
e
s
s
u
r
e

d
i
f
f
e
r
e
n
c
e
s

b
e
t
w
e
e
n

t
h
e

i
n
l
e
t

a
n
d

o
u
t
l
e
t

o
p
e
n
i
n
g
s
,

w
h
i
c
h

i
s

c
a
u
s
e
d

b
y

b
u
o
y
a
n
c
y

a
n
d

w
i
n
d

f
o
r
c
e
s
.

T
h
e

w
i
n
d

f
o
r
c
e

i
s

c
a
l
c
u
l
a
t
e
d

f
o
r

t
h
e

h
i
g
h
-
r
a
i
s
e

b
u
i
l
d
i
n
g
s
,

b
y

a
p
p
l
i
c
a
t
i
o
n

o
f

w
i
n
d

p
r
e
s
s
u
r
e

c
o
e
f
f
i
c
i
e
n
t
s

c
a
l
c
u
l
a
t
e
d

a
c
c
.

C
h
a
n
d
r
a

a
n
d

S
w
a
m
i
,

(
1
9
9
4
)

n
o

S
a
e
l
e
n
s

(
2
0
0
2
)

M
o
r
e

t
h
a
n

o
n
e

n
o
d
e

i
n

t
h
e

D
S
F

z
o
n
e

E
d
w
a
r
d
s

m
e
t
h
o
d

C
a
l
c
u
l
a
t
e
d

a
s

f
o
r

e
x
t
e
r
n
a
l

a
n
d

i
n
t
e
r
n
a
l

e
n
v
i
r
o
n
m
e
n
t
.

T
h
e

a
p
p
r
o
a
c
h
e
s

a
r
e

s
p
e
c
i
f
i
e
d

b
y

a
u
t
h
o
r

T
h
e

c
o
n
v
e
c
t
i
v
e

c
o
e
f
f
i
c
i
e
n
t

i
n
s
i
d
e

t
h
e

c
a
v
i
t
y

d
e
p
e
n
d
s

o
n

t
y
p
e

o
f

f
l
o
w
.

T
h
e

e
x
t
e
r
n
a
l

a
n
d

i
n
t
e
r
n
a
l

c
o
n
v
e
c
t
i
v
e

c
o
e
f
f
i
c
i
e
n
t
s

a
r
e

s
p
e
c
i
f
i
e
d

b
y

a
u
t
h
o
r

T
h
e

n
a
t
u
r
a
l
l
y

a
n
d

m
e
c
h
a
n
i
c
a
l
l
y

v
e
n
t
i
l
a
t
e
d

c
a
v
i
t
y
.

I
n

t
h
e

f
i
r
s
t

c
a
s
e

t
h
e

a
i
r

f
l
o
w

i
s

c
a
l
c
u
l
a
t
e
d

f
r
o
m

t
h
e

b
u
o
y
a
n
c
y

a
n
d

w
i
n
d

f
o
r
c
e
s

y
e
s

Double Skin Faades
90
O
p
t
i
c
a
l

e
l
e
m
e
n
t

T
h
e
r
m
a
l

e
l
e
m
e
n
t

A
u
t
h
o
r
/
y
e
a
r

N
o
d
a
l
-
s
t
r
u
c
t
u
r
e

O
p
t
i
c
a
l

a
n
d

s
o
l
a
r

p
r
o
p
e
r
t
i
e
s

L
o
n
g

w
a
v
e

r
a
d
i
a
t
i
o
n

C
o
n
v
e
c
t
i
o
n

A
i
r

f
l
o
w

e
l
e
m
e
n
t

M
e
a
s
u
r
e
m
e
n
t
s

p
e
r
f
o
r
m
e
d

G
r
a
b
e

(
2
0
0
2
)

T
h
e

t
e
m
p
e
r
a
t
u
r
e

v
a
r
i
e
s

b
e
t
w
e
e
n

t
w
o

p
o
i
n
t
:

1
.

t
h
e

i
n
l
e
t

2
.

t
h
e

o
u
t
l
e
t

N
o
t

d
e
s
c
r
i
b
e
d

A
p
p
r
o
x
i
m
a
t
e
d

b
y

r
a
d
i
a
t
i
v
e

h
e
a
t

e
x
c
h
a
n
g
e

f
a
c
t
o
r

(
f
o
r

t
w
o

p
a
r
a
l
l
e
l

p
l
a
n
e
s

w
i
t
h

i
n
f
i
n
i
t
e

e
x
p
a
n
s
i
o
n
)
,

w
h
i
c
h

i
s

a
v
e
r
a
g
e
d

b
y

t
h
e

h
e
i
g
h
t

o
f

D
S
F

C
o
n
v
e
c
t
i
v
e

c
o
e
f
f
i
c
i
e
n
t
s

a
r
e

t
r
e
a
t
e
d

s
e
p
a
r
a
t
e
l
y

f
o
r

t
h
e

i
n
t
e
r
n
a
l

a
n
d

e
x
t
e
r
n
a
l

s
h
a
f
t
s
.

T
h
e
s
e

a
r
e

c
a
l
c
u
l
a
t
e
d

f
o
r

f
r
e
e

c
o
n
v
e
c
t
i
o
n

f
o
r

v
e
r
t
i
c
a
l

p
a
n
e
s

(
s
p
e
c
i
f
i
e
d

b
y

a
u
t
h
o
r
)

T
r
a
n
s
f
o
r
m
e
d

B
e
r
n
o
u
l
l
i

e
q
u
a
t
i
o
n
,

t
h
e

b
a
s
i
c

s
t
e
p
s

o
f

t
r
a
n
s
f
o
r
m
a
t
i
o
n
s

e
x
p
l
a
i
n
e
d

i
n

t
h
e

a
r
t
i
c
l
e
.

F
r
i
c
t
i
o
n

f
a
c
t
o
r
s

f
o
r

m
e
c
h
a
n
i
c
a
l

a
n
d

n
a
t
u
r
a
l

v
e
n
t
i
l
a
t
i
o
n

a
r
e

d
i
f
f
e
r
e
n
t

y
e
s

B
a
l
o
c
c
o

(
2
0
0
2
)

M
o
r
e

t
h
a
n

o
n
e

n
o
d
e

i
n

t
h
e

D
S
F

z
o
n
e

N
o
t

d
e
s
c
r
i
b
e
d

N
o
t

d
e
s
c
r
i
b
e
d

T
h
e

c
o
n
v
e
c
t
i
v
e

h
e
a
t

t
r
a
n
s
f
e
r

c
o
e
f
f
i
c
i
e
n
t

i
s

c
a
l
c
u
l
a
t
e
d

f
o
r

t
h
e

t
u
r
b
u
l
e
n
t

f
l
o
w
,

t
h
e

a
p
p
r
o
a
c
h

f
o
r

c
a
l
c
u
l
a
t
i
o
n
s

i
s

s
p
e
c
i
f
i
e
d

b
y

a
u
t
h
o
r

V
e
l
o
c
i
t
y

i
n

t
h
e

c
a
v
i
t
y

i
s

c
a
l
c
u
l
a
t
e
d

a
s

f
o
r

t
h
e

s
o
l
a
r

c
h
i
m
n
e
y

w
h
e
r
e

t
h
e

f
r
i
c
t
i
o
n

f
a
c
t
o
r

i
s

c
a
l
c
u
l
a
t
e
d
.

A
p
p
r
o
a
c
h

i
s

s
p
e
c
i
f
i
e
d

b
y

a
u
t
h
o
r

n
o

F
a
g
g
e
m
b
a
u
u

e
t

a
l
.

(
2
0
0
3
)

M
o
r
e

t
h
a
n

o
n
e

n
o
d
e

i
n

t
h
e

D
S
F

z
o
n
e

R
e
f
e
r
e
n
c
e
s

f
o
r

c
a
l
c
u
l
a
t
i
o
n

o
f

t
h
e

d
i
f
f
u
s
e

r
a
d
i
a
t
i
o
n

a
r
e

a
v
a
i
l
a
b
l
e
.

T
r
a
n
s
m
i
t
t
e
d

s
o
l
a
r

r
a
d
i
a
t
i
o
n

i
s

c
a
l
c
u
l
a
t
e
d

b
y

I
t
e
r
a
t
i
v
e

N
e
t

H
e
a
t

R
a
d
i
a
t
i
o
n

A
l
g
o
r
i
t
h
m
.

t
h
e

r
e
f
e
r
e
n
c
e

i
s

a
v
a
i
l
a
b
l
e

R
a
d
i
a
t
i
o
n

h
e
a
t

e
x
c
h
a
n
g
e

w
i
t
h

i
n
t
e
r
n
a
l

e
n
v
i
r
o
n
m
e
n
t

i
s

c
a
l
c
u
l
a
t
e
d

a
s

f
o
r

t
h
e

n
e
t

h
e
a
t

t
r
a
n
s
f
e
r

b
e
t
w
e
e
n

t
w
o

i
n
f
i
n
i
t
e

o
p
a
q
u
e

p
a
r
a
l
l
e
l

p
l
a
t
e
s
,

a
s
:

)
1
(
)
(
2
1
2
4
2
4
1
2
1
T
T
q

R
a
d
i
a
t
i
o
n

h
e
a
t

e
x
c
h
a
n
g
e

w
i
t
h

e
x
t
e
r
n
a
l

e
n
v
i
r
o
n
m
e
n
t

i
s

c
a
l
c
u
l
a
t
e
d

a
s

t
h
e

h
e
a
t

e
x
c
h
a
n
g
e

w
i
t
h

t
h
e

s
k
y
.

R
e
f
e
r
e
n
c
e

f
o
r

c
a
l
c
u
l
a
t
i
o
n

o
f

s
k
y

t
e
m
p
e
r
a
t
u
r
e

i
s

a
v
a
i
l
a
b
l
e
.

R
a
d
i
a
t
i
o
n

h
e
a
t

e
x
c
h
a
n
g
e

w
i
t
h

t
h
e

g
r
o
u
n
d

-

c
a
l
c
u
l
a
t
e
d

w
i
t
h

t
h
e

h
e
l
p

o
f

v
i
e
w

f
a
c
t
o
r
.

F
r
e
e
/
F
o
r
c
e
d

c
o
n
v
e
c
t
i
o
n

E
x
t
e
r
n
a
l

c
o
n
v
e
c
t
i
v
e

c
o
e
f
f
i
c
i
e
n
t

i
s

c
a
l
c
u
l
a
t
e
d

a
s

a

f
u
n
c
t
i
o
n

o
f

w
i
n
d

v
e
l
o
c
i
t
y

a
n
d

d
i
r
e
c
t
i
o
n

.

T
h
e

r
e
f
e
r
e
n
c
e

i
s

a
v
a
i
l
a
b
l
e

(
R
o
h
s
e
n
o
w
,

1
9
8
5
)
.

I
n
t
e
r
n
a
l

c
o
n
v
e
c
t
i
v
e

c
o
e
f
f
i
c
i
e
n
t

i
s

c
a
l
c
u
l
a
t
e
d

f
o
r

n
a
t
u
r
a
l

c
o
n
v
e
c
t
i
o
n
,

t
h
e

r
e
f
e
r
e
n
c
e

i
s

a
v
a
i
l
a
b
l
e
.

C
a
l
c
u
l
a
t
e
d

f
o
r

t
h
e

b
u
o
y
a
n
c
y

f
o
r
c
e
s
.

N
o

w
i
n
d

c
o
n
s
i
d
e
r
e
d

y
e
s

v
a
n

D
i
j
k

a
n
d

O
v
e
r
s
l
o
o
t

(
2
0
0
3
)

T
h
i
s

m
o
d
e
l

i
s

s
l
i
g
h
t
l
y

r
e
l
a
t
e
d

t
o

t
h
e

D
S
F

m
o
d
e
l
l
i
n
g

a
n
d

t
h
e
r
e

i
s

n
o
t

e
n
o
u
g
h

i
n
f
o
r
m
a
t
i
o
n

o
n

t
h
i
s

m
o
d
e
l

P
a
r
k
,

e
t

a
l
.

(
2
0
0
3
)

B
u
l
k

t
e
m
p
e
r
a
t
u
r
e

C
a
l
c
u
l
a
t
e
d

a
c
c
.

R
h
e
a
u
l
t
,

1
9
8
9

N
o
t

d
e
s
c
r
i
b
e
d

S
i
x

d
i
f
f
e
r
e
n
t

c
o
n
v
e
c
t
i
v
e

h
e
a
t

t
r
a
n
s
f
e
r

c
o
e
f
f
i
c
i
e
n
t
s

w
h
i
c
h

a
r
e

e
s
t
i
m
a
t
e
d

a
c
c
.

r
e
f
e
r
e
n
c
e
s

p
r
o
v
i
d
e
d

b
y

a
u
t
h
o
r

1
0

d
i
f
f
e
r
e
n
t

m
o
d
e
l
s

a
r
e

a
p
p
l
i
e
d
:

i
n
s
i
d
e

c
i
r
c
u
l
a
t
i
o
n

o
u
t
s
i
d
e

c
i
r
c
u
l
a
t
i
o
n

d
i
a
g
o
n
a
l

f
l
o
w

T
h
e

a
i
r

f
l
o
w

i
s

s
o
l
v
e
d

d
i
f
f
e
r
e
n
t
l
y

f
o
r

d
i
f
f
e
r
e
n
t

c
a
s
e
s

n
o

T
a
k
e
m
a
s
a

e
t

a
l
.

(
2
0
0
4
)

T
h
e
r
e

a
r
e

f
o
u
r

s
e
c
t
i
o
n
s

w
i
t
h

b
u
l
k

t
e
m
p
e
r
a
t
u
r
e
s

N
o
t

d
e
s
c
r
i
b
e
d

N
o
t

d
e
s
c
r
i
b
e
d

T
e
m
p
e
r
a
t
u
r
e

i
s

c
a
l
c
u
l
a
t
e
d

f
r
o
m

t
h
e

e
x
p
e
r
i
m
e
n
t
a
l
l
y

o
b
t
a
i
n
e
d

f
i
g
u
r
e
s

H
y
b
r
i
d

v
e
n
t
i
l
a
t
i
o
n
.

T
h
e

D
S
F

i
s

i
n
t
e
g
r
a
t
e
d

w
i
t
h

t
h
e

b
u
i
l
d
i
n
g

y
e
s

91
Heat transfer
In the beginning it is necessary to call attention to the fact that: Global
heat transfer coefficients, such as overall heat transfer coefficient (U-value)
and the solar heat gain coefficient (g-value) are commonly studied to deter-
mine the thermal behavior of the faades. Standard coefficients assume steady
state and one directional heat flow and this cannot be directly applied to
ventilated facades (Faggembauu, et al., 2003).
Saelens, (2002), came to the same conclusion: the use of standard en-
ergy performance indicators such as U-factor and g-value is shown to be
unsuitable to assess the overall energy performance of multiple skin facades,
besides a comparison of numerical model with models of lower complexity
revealed that not separating radiation and convection in the cavity is unac-
ceptable simplification.
The first dilemmas appear when the heat transfer coefficients are sepa-
rated and the convective heat transfer coefficient is to be estimated, as
argued in Mei, et al. (2003): The convective heat transfer coefficients within
the gap are far from straightforward to estimate. This is because, in reality,
the heat transfer processes involve a combination of forced and natural con-
vection, laminar and turbulent flow and, certainly in the entrance region,
simultaneously developing flow (in which the hydrodynamic and thermal
flow profiles are both evolving). In addition, the necessity of appropriate
modelling of diverse types of flows in one model (turbulent/laminar, free/
forced), is emphasised.
Additional difficulties arise when a shading device is installed in the
gap. The double skin cavity is then divided into two sections and differ-
ences in the flow regimes may appear. In this case it is necessary to esti-
mate the convective heat transfer coefficients for each flow regime in
each subcavity. Also, different shading devices exist, some of them allow-
ing an exchange of air between the sub-cavities. In the case of Venetian
blinds being installed as a shading device, in addition to the potential for
flow between the cavities flow disturbance at the blinds exists and further
complicates the situation of estimating the convection heat transfer coef-
ficient. It is noted in Park, et al. (2003): Especially the convective heat
transports in the cavity occur with rotating curve louver slats in the various
airflow regimes (upward or downward airflow either in the closed cavity or
the open cavity). Unfortunately there is a very limited data available on these
behaviours. Thus these coefficients are estimated with parameter estimation
technique, based on the extensive data points obtained from the experiments.
Venetian blinds, as a shading device, may cause many difficulties also
when the radiative heat exchange is predicted, especially when they are
partly or fully open. This topic will be expanded in the section of optical
and solar properties.
Double Skin Faades
92
The temperature of the inlet air and the vertical temperature profile in
the DSF has been noted as important factors in the double facade
simulations. According to Saelens, (2002): the results are the most sensi-
tive to the uncertainty of the inlet temperature and the modeling of inlet
temperature is very important for the output, especially when the shading
device is raised. The non-uniform vertical temperature distribution in
the cavity is important from the heat transfer point of view, as it is the
main reason for the variable heat flux through the double facade. At the
same time it is a difficult issue to simulate because the vertical tempera-
ture profile is a function of the inlet temperature, transmitted solar radia-
tion and air flow. The last two matters are complex and will be explained
in the following sections.
Air flow
In some articles experiments are performed in order to develop a numeri-
cal model for the calculation of the air flow and the temperatures inside
the double skin facade cavity. Saelens, (2002), mentions that, most re-
searchers provide models to simulate specific multiple-skin facade typologies.
Only few models for naturally ventilated multiple-skin facades are available.
Most multiple-skin facade models have been developed for mechanically ven-
tilated types.
In the case of mechanical ventilation, the air flow rate is normally
known and the air flow element is therefore straightforward. In the case
of natural ventilation there are two components that determine the air
flow through the DSF. These components are the buoyancy force and the
driving pressure due to wind. Both of these components can be problem-
atic to describe as the stack effect entirely depends on the temperature
and thus on the heat transfer and optical properties. In addition the wind
force is related to the highly fluctuating ambient conditions. Further-
more, the occupants behaviour and the conditions inside the room may
be essential when the DSF is also open to the inside.
According to Hensen, et al. (2002), another difficulty in DSF model-
ling concerns the difference between the microclimate near the building
and the weather data, which is usually representative of a location more or
less distant from the building. These differences are most pronounced in terms
of temperature, wind speed and direction, the main driving potential vari-
ables for the heat and mass transfer processes in buildings!
Models to predict wind speed reduction between the local wind speed
and the wind speed at the meteorological measurement site are quite
rough (Hensen, et al., 2002) and the wind pressure coefficients for the
DSF openings are difficult to determine. Moreover, the flow resistance
coefficients are complex to estimate for the naturally ventilated cavities,
93
because the velocity profiles for the naturally ventilated cavities differ
from the mechanically ventilated ones. The new resistance coefficients
therefore have to be obtained.
In the article Grabe, (2002), the author points out the difficulties
with modelling of the flow resistances: There are many factors involved,
but the main problem is caused by assuming the same flow conditions for
natural as those used for mechanical ventilation (using values from mechani-
cal engineering tables). These values have been developed in the past for ve-
locity profiles as they occur in pipes: symmetric and having the highest veloc-
ity at the center (see Figure 7).
With natural ventilation, however, the driving force is the reduction of
the density due to increase of air temperature. This increase is greater near the
heat sources, thus near the panes and the shading device. Further on it might
be non-symmetric because of different magnitudes of the heat sources. A
laminar profile might look like the one shown on Figure 4.15.
1 2 3
Figure 4.15 Drawing 1, 2-velocity profile for laminar and turbulent flow (pipe,
mechanically ventilated). Drawing 3 - Possible laminar velocity
profile for natural ventilation, (Grabe, 2002).
Hensen, et al. (2002), suggest to use CFD in separate studies to predict
appropriate local loss factors and friction factors for use in network methods
Strigner and Janak, (2001), describe an example of such a CFD approach by
predicting the aerodynamic performance of a particular double-skin faade
component, at inlet grille.
Park, et al. (2003), define challenges in prediction of performance
and control of DSF systems: The nature of the dynamics of these systems
involves complex 3D geometry where turbulent airflows and each solid and
non-solid component is linked to other components by radiative and convec-
tive heat exchange, exists high nonlinearity of the physical mathematical
representation of the system, complicated by change of the airflow regime and
thus of the mathematical representation. In other words, the difficulties of
modelling the air flow regime related not only to the type of flow, which
is questionable, but also to the flow regime instability.
Double Skin Faades
94
According to Stec and van Paassen, (2003), further research is needed
for modelling of air flow in double skin facade. This concerns especially
the following topics:
The induction of the flow in the double skin faade due to the wind
pressure and buoyancy effect under the real weather conditions.
The airflow between the cavity and the interior of the building through
the window openings in case of overpressure or underpressure is in-
duced by a mechanical ventilation system.
The influence of the construction details of double skin faade on the
airflow inside
It is necessary to add to this list:
The different flow regimes and the flow instability.
The statement of Stec and van Paassen, (2003), about the influence of
construction details on airflow in the cavity, is also remarked by Grabe,
(2002), where he defines the design parameters which have the govern-
ing role in influencing the air mass flow and temperatures in the double
facade cavity space. These parameters are:
The size of the upper and the lower vent of the faade;
The depth of the faade and the position of the shading device in the
depth of the faade gap;
The material of the shading device, especially the absorption coeffi-
cient;
The size of the vents of the shading device;
The quality of the outer and the inner pane, especially the solar trans-
mission factor but also the U-value and the absorption coefficient.
Optical and solar properties
Very often the main difficulties related to optical and solar properties of
the DSF are associated with the decision of choosing the technique for
calculation. The optical properties of materials, such as transmission,
reflectance and absorptance of incident solar radiation depend on:
Wave length (spectral dependence)
Angle of incidence
Polarization
Knowledge is available to perform the necessary calculation of material
optical properties, but the process of calculation might be time consum-
ing, especially when the Venetian blinds are installed in the double skin
95
cavity as stated in van Dijk and Oversloot, (2003): An exact description
of the way solar radiation travels through the system would require a full
three-dimensional calculation using the full matrix of transmission, absorp-
tion and forward and backward reflection for each angle of incidence at each
component. For venetian blinds this would include the curvature of the slats
and taking into account possible specularity of solar reflection at its surface.
Manz, (2004):If solar radiation is not normal to the faade, it will be
shielded by the frame and shading will occur on all layers, with part of the
radiation being absorbed by or reflected from the frame surfaces. This results
in asymmetric distribution of absorbed solar energy on the layers and may
influence the temperature distribution in the cavity. Therefore it is essen-
tial to be able to express the optical properties as a function of the angle
of incidence and to be able to account for shadowing.
The difficulties regarding the modelling of shading devices and espe-
cially the Venetian blinds are caused by their porous structure, as listed
below, following van Dijk and Oversloot, (2003). The Venetian blinds
are:
Partially transparent for solar radiation
Partially transparent for long wave (thermal) radiation
Have an effect of scattering when transmitting the solar radiation
Open for the air movements between the gaps
The above chapter summarizes the main issues in DSF numerical model-
ling It is shown that there are many particular details involved in each
issue. Therefore this work may only give an overview of the common
conclusions and difficulties.
According to the reviewed literature the DSF modelling assignment is
ascertained to be very complex, but the available research is encouraging
and more substantial than just a few years ago.
4.3.4 Building simulation software for DSF modelling
This section is based on the BBRI report by Flamant, et al. (2004).
In the previous chapters the theoretical approaches for the DSF mod-
elling are analyzed and the difficulties associated with the modelling proc-
ess are emphasized. However, attempts to model different DSF design
possibilities have been made and they involve diverse building simula-
tion software.
The age of building simulation software varies from 0 to 30 years.
Software tools develop continuously, but the need for modelling of DSF
constructions has appeared during recent years and has not yet reached
Double Skin Faades
96
an advanced level. The user needs a thorough knowledge of thermophysics,
experience in modelling and knowledge of software abilities and limita-
tions.
DSF modelling aspects and applicability of different building simula-
tion software have been investigated at the Belgian Building Research
Institute in December, 2004: the results are included in a report by
Flamant, et al. (2004). The authors of the report recognize different op-
tions of DSF functions. They are conscious about the difficulties of mod-
elling the ventilated DSF, especially when the air flow in a cavity is natu-
rally driven. The issues of modelling the DSF control strategies are con-
sidered: therefore, the document comprises information on modelling of
the DSF together with a whole building system. Different building simu-
lation software has been investigated as to: the possibility to model dou-
ble faade cavity, its influence on the building energy performance, pos-
sibility for the DSF control and incorporation of DSF into the building
systems. The document can be helpful when the simulation tool has to
be chosen. Detailed information on the modelling procedure with dif-
ferent software tools is provided in the report; the authors give some
tips, which are necessary when the DSF is to be modelled, etc. The
building simulation tools are described with their limitations, advan-
tages, disadvantages and sometimes, they are rated by their user-friendli-
ness.
The authors consider only publicly available simulation software, the
ones developed by different research groups and unavailable for the ma-
jority of users are not considered. Flamant, et al. (2004) distinguishes
between two types of simulation software:
Component simulation software, which are able to simulate a faade
component in order to predict its thermal, energetic and visual behavior
and performances on the basis of the material properties of the compo-
nent,
Building simulation software, which are able to simulate a whole build-
ing (faade included) in order to predict the thermal dynamic behavior
of the building, the indoor temperatures, the energy consumption, etc.
The software tools described in the report are listed in the following
Table with the classification, according to the above two definitions
(Flamant, et al., 2004):
97
Table 4.2 Simulation software considered in the report by Flamant, et al.
(2004).
Software Faade component Building
WIS !
BISCO/TRISCO/VOLTRA !
CAPSOL ! !
TRNSYS ! !
ESP-r ! !
TAS ! !
In order to set up the model with the correct physical processes the au-
thors distinguish between four groups of parameters that have to be cor-
rectly represented in the model (Flamant, et al., 2004):
1. Outdoor climate
2. Model of DSF (glass and frame properties, shading device properties, air
flow in DSF, etc.)
3. Model of building (interaction between the DSF and the buildings sys-
tems)
4. Control strategies
Fulfilment of the requirements for each group would provide a user with
the ideal model (the best possible to achieve), (Flamant, et al., 2004).
Regarding the outdoor climate, authors set the necessary input pa-
rameters. The exact requirements vary from program to program, but
may include:
Outdoor air temperature
Sky temperature
Surroundings temperature
Wind speed
Wind direction
Humidity
Incident solar radiation on a vertical surface/horizontal surface/
normal to surface
Incident solar radiation Direct+Diffuse+Reflected (by the ground)
Spectral data of incident solar radiation
Angle of incidence
Regarding the DSF these factors are found to be essential and necessary
to model as accurate as possible (Flamant, et al., 2004):
Double Skin Faades
98
FAADE LAYERS Comments
Glass layers
- Optical
properties
Spectral?
Angular dependent?
Optical properties different for direct,
diffuse and reflected (incident) solar
radiation?

- Thermal
properties
Function of the temperature?
Shading device
- Type of shading
device
Modelling of any type of shading device?
(roller blind, Venetian blind with
orientable slats, etc.)
Overhang?

- Optical
properties
Spectral?
Angular dependent?

- Position of
shading device
in the cavity
Attached to the internal or external glass
skins?
Placed in center of the cavity?

- Control Can the shading device be controlled? Pull down or roll up the blind according to the
sunshine level, temperature, etc.
Frame
- Modelling Possible?
- Thermal
properties
Can ventilation air pass through the frame?
Thermal properties function of the airflow
rate passing through the frame?

Possibility to set an inlet temperature (air
entering the ventilated cavity) different to
the exterior or interior temperature?
For certain applications, it is important that the
frame of the ventilated double facade can be
modelled. The heat transmission through the
frame can represent a non-negligible part of the
total heat transmission losses through the
complete faade.
Air entering the ventilated cavity can be heated
and cooled down due to contact with the
bounding surfaces and heating due to solar
radiation. The inlet temperature in the cavity
influences both the transmission losses and the
enthalpy change of the air flowing through the
cavity.
Cavity subdivision
- Vertical Vertical subdivision? The number of zones into which the faade must
be divided is not straightforward. This vertical
subdivision is needed to take into account the
temperature profile in the cavity.
- Horizontal Horizontal subdivision? Fictive vertical walls can be simulated? (in some
programs it is needed to model fictive vertical
walls to represent the shading device rolled up)

Heat exchange process around the shading device and the glass
panes
Air flow in the cavity due to buoyancy and wind effects
Issues of concern in the modelling of the faade element are combined in
Table 4.3 by the authors (Flamant, et al., 2004):
Table 4.3 Simulation of the faade component (Flamant, et al., 2004).
99
HEAT TRANSFER
Convective heat transfer in the cavity
- Forced
convection
Convective heat transfer coefficient:
- must it be given (fixed value?)
Possibility to modify the value of
the coefficient during the
simulation (in function of some
inputs)?
- is calculated from some
parameters? (flow regime, airflow
rate, temperature difference, etc.)

- Natural
convection
Possibility to model natural ventilation in
the cavity? (naturally ventilated facades)
See also Air flow modelling (see below)
Radiative heat transfer
- In the cavity Radiation and convection treated
separately?
Radiation heat transfer coefficient is a
function of the temperature?

- Exterior
radiation heat
transfer
Calculated from sky temperature and
environment temperature?

- View factor Correct determination of the view factor
between facing panes?

Short wave radiation
- All panes Inter-reflections between the glass panes
and the shading device?

- Venetian blind Inter-reflections between the slats of the
Venetian blind?

AIR FLOW MODELLING
- Coupling air
flow modelling
and thermal
modelling
- Combination of a thermal and an airflow
network in the same software?
- Possibility to combine the software to
airflow models? (other software)

- Natural
ventilation
Buoyancy effect? (stack effect)
Wind effect?
Airflow between the cavity and the interior
of the building through the window
openings?

- Coupling faade
and building
Possibility to connect the faade model
with the building and its installations

The concern about the lack of simulation programs that are able to model
shading devices such as Venetian blinds or louvers is expressed in the
report (Flamant, et al., 2004), as these are the most used shading devices
in practice. Only some software tools (i.e. WIS) are able to perform the
intricate modelling of the porous structure of these devices. The detailed
explanation on the complexity of modelling the Venetian blinds is given
in the section 4.3.3.3.
The other difficulty in modelling of the DSF component has also
been discussed in section 4.3.3.3. It is easier to model mechanically ven-
tilated DSF compared with the naturally ventilated one. As has been
Double Skin Faades
100
argued before, the convective heat transfer processes in mechanically and
naturally ventilated spaces differ: therefore, the expressions for the con-
vective heat transfer with the mechanical driving force cannot be applied
when the flow is naturally driven. The flow regime in the cavity may vary
with the change of thermal conditions and flow rate. Consequently the
simulation software must be able to change the value of the convective
heat transmission coefficient dynamically, depending on the flow regime.
There are two functions distinguished in the building simulation soft-
ware:
Thermal function - calculates the thermal properties of the model
Air flow function - calculates the mass flow in the modelled do-
main
Some software tools may incorporate only one of these functions, al-
though they can be coupled with another software tool to calculate the
air flows and temperatures together. The programs that incorporate both
of the functions can have different ways for coupling of the air flow and
thermal functions. In the report (Flamant, et al., 2004) these are classi-
fied as depicted in Figure 4.16:
Figure 4.16 Onions, ping-pong and global onion approaches (Flamant, et al.,
2004).
The full integration approach: both ventilation model equations and
thermal model equations are solved simultaneously, by incorporating
both sets of equations into a single equation (e.g. ESP-r).
The onions approach: airflow rates are passed from the ventilation
model to the thermal model, which calculates new air temperatures
and pass them to the ventilation model, which calculates new airflow
rates until convergence is reached. The procedure is then repeated
for the next time step.
101
The ping-pong approach: airflow rates calculated in the ventilation
model at time t are used as input by the thermal model to calculate
new temperatures at time t. These temperatures are then used by the
ventilation model to calculate new airflow rates at time t+1. This
approach has as main disadvantage that it can generate substantial
errors and should be used with care.
The global onion approach: the thermal model is run for the whole
period. The resulting temperatures are introduced to the ventilation
model, which calculates ventilation rates for the all period. These air-
flow rates are introduced in the thermal model to calculate new tem-
peratures, and so on up to convergence of both models. This method
presents a major limitation: it is not possible to implement a ventila-
tion control strategy that is not fixed in advance
The simulation software assessed in the report has been listed before in
Table 4.2. A short description of the main features of different software
tools is given in the following Table 4.4, which is organized with infor-
mation provided in the BBRI report (Flamant, et al., 2004). Since the
BBRI report was written in 2004, more software tools have been further
developed including modeling of Double Skin Facade cavities, such as
EnergyPlus and the upcoming version of IDA ICE 4.0. Further descrip-
tion of software is given by D. B. Crawley et al., (2005) and also listed in
the U.S. DOE tools site.
Double Skin Faades
102
Table 4.4 Characteristics for the DSF modelling with different software
tools.
Software tool Main characteristics for DSF modelling

WIS is developed to calculate
thermal and solar
characteristics of window
systems

- One of the unique elements in the software tool is the
combination of glazing and shading devices, with the option of
free or forced circulation between both. This makes the tool
particular suited to calculate the thermal and solar performance
of complex windows and active facades
- The shading device is considered as a scattering layer of different
categories. Calculations are performed with different approaches,
depending on the category (type) of shading device
- WIS performs calculation of the transfer of the short wave
radiation for all angles of incidence, but is unable to perform
dynamic calculations
- It is possible to model natural convection, caused by stack effect
(wind induced convection is not covered by WIS)

BISCO/TRISCO/VOLTRA is
aimed to model heat transfer
of building details, able to
calculate the thermal bridging
effect between the components
(only VOLTRA is described in
the BBRI report)

- The unique feature of this software group is the potential to
perform thermal calculations in combination with thermal
bridging effect with the components
- The solar glazing characteristics must be calculated in advance
with the help of WIS software
- Convective heat transfer coefficients can not vary during a
simulation
- It is possible to model forced ventilation of DSF, but not the
natural ventilation

CAPSOL calculates multi-
zone transient heat transfer

- The characteristics of shading device have to be calculated with
another software (i.e. WIS) and then it can be introduced to the
CAPSOL. Solar transmission is angular-dependent, but the
calculation for transmitted radiation through the cavity with the
shading device may be more accurate when obtained by WIS
software (WIS simulates shading device as a scattering layer).
- It is possible to set up a model, where the vertical thermal
stratification could be taken into account. Mechanical ventilation
can be modelled as one of the control options, while natural
ventilation requires coupling CAPSOL with the ventilation
model. Convective heat transfer is constant during the simulation
- CAPSOL is a user-friendly tool

103
Software tool Main characteristics for DSF modelling

TRNSYS is developed to
simulate dynamic thermal
behaviour of buildings and
systems

- A user can easily generate a TRNSYS model that does not exist
in the standard package
- When simulating thermal behaviour of a building, TRNSYS can
manage airflows, but does not calculate them. In order to do that
TRNSYS must be coupled with COMIS, which has been
completely integrated into TRANSYS
- The window model in TRNSYS uses output data from the
WINDOW 5 software tool where each glazing absorbs and
reflects a part of incoming solar radiation, depending on the
glazing material and the incident angle
- The convective heat transfer coefficient is not necessarily
constant, it varies according to flow regime in the cavity
- There is no detailed model for Venetian blinds that would take
into account inter-reflections between the slat

ESP-r is modelling the energy
and fluid flows within
combined building and plant
systems

- The important aspect of this tool is its ability to perform
modelling in different levels of resolution (one or more zones in
the building can be associated with the 3D CFD domain)
- In the thermal, airflow and lightning domains all heat and mass
transfer processes are solved simultaneously at each time step of
simulation
- It is possible to control which correlations are used for the
convective heat transfer in the cavity.
- Optical properties for glazing systems can be calculated with the
help of WIS software
- Prior to simulation, the insolation distribution is advised to be
calculated via ESP-r solar tracking facility
- The view factors can be calculated based on area weighting or
according to the analytical solution (simple case) or by ray
tracing approach
- Modelling of Venetian blinds is complex

TAS is capable of thermal
performance of buildings and
their systems

- TAS software incorporates a module, which is capable to
perform dynamic building simulation with integrated forced and
natural flow, arising from wind and stack effects.
- The internal convection heat transfer coefficient may vary from
hour to hour
- Transmission and absorption characteristics of transparent
constructions depend on the angle of incidence
- There is no principal difference in modelling of roller and
Venetian blinds, inter-reflections between Venetian blind slats
are not considered
- Simplified method is used to calculate radiant heat exchange

Double Skin Faades
104
Flamant, et al. (2004) examines the simulation tools, with the particular
goal of modelling the DSF. In the report guidance and examples are given
for the procedure of setting up the model. The sensitivity of the tool to
some particular parameters is notified. The original paper has to be found
if more information is needed on the details of modelling.
In the BBRI report (Flamant, et al., 2004) the authors have analyzed
six kinds of simulation software, and according to them: The software
TRNSYS, ESP-r and TAS are powerful transient energy simulation pro-
grams and are able to simulate a ventilated double faade, the building, the
HVAC systems and strategies in a certain extent. These programs can make
the coupling between thermal and airflow models. Nevertheless, all these pro-
grams face similar obstacles regarding the level of resolution necessary to model
some major thermodynamic flow paths in ventilated double facades. Time
and experience are required in order to use properly these quite complex soft-
ware. The software CAPSOL shows less functionalities than the three previ-
ous ones but this software can be recommended for specific points of interest
due to its facility of use.
The software WIS combines a user-friendly interface with the most ad-
vanced calculations of thermal and solar properties of window and facades.
The WIS algorithms are based on international (CEN, ISO) standards, but
WIS also contains advanced calculation routines for components or condi-
tions where current standards do not apply Finally, BISCO, TRISCO and
VOLTRA belong to a series of software aimed at modelling the heat transfer
of building details using the energy balance technique. These programs are
well adapted to calculate the interaction between the glass skins and the shad-
ing layer in combination with the thermal bridging effect of the subcomponents
around the VDF (ventilated double faade)
This paper (Flamant, et al., 2004) does not give any recommendation
of which is the most suitable tool for DSF modelling, as it depends only
on the objectives for setting up the model and users experience to work
with the simulation tools.
105
4.4 Thermal Performance
According to Bartk, Dunovsk and Hensen, (2001), inside a double-
skin faade, the air temperature will mainly depend on heat gains and on the
amount of air flow. However, in a naturally ventilated double-skin faade
the air flow itself is mainly governed by the temperature difference with out-
side and possibly, also by wind induced pressure differences; the air flow is
typically highly erratic.
Todorovic and Maric, (1998) developed a model for the thermal per-
formance of a Double Skin Faade system. According to the authors The
paper presents methods for estimating the inter-space air temperature and the
associated cooling/heating load per hour. Calculations are made for specific
double-faade constructions designed for the climatic conditions of mid-lati-
tude Europe (45 N). The used outdoor air temperatures and solar radiation
are typical for Belgrade. Results for each of the double faade cases are com-
pared with those for a traditional, single faade building.
Grabe, (2002) presented a paper which deals with the development
and validation of a simulation algorithm for the temperature behaviour
and the flow characteristics of double facades. According to the author,
It has been developed in order to obtain a tool which enables the energy
consultant to make quick design decisions without being required to use fairly
complicated CFD tools. In order to determine the degree of accuracy of the
algorithm, a double facade has been monitored under controlled conditions
and the results have been compared against the predicted values for several
design situations. The resulting inaccuracy in some cases can be traced back to
how the flow resistance of various geometries is modeled.
Poirazis et al., (2003) studied 4 different types (panes) of Double Skin
Facades and calculated the temperatures at different heights of the cavity
and for each layer. The calculations were made partly using two comput-
ing programs (WIS and MathCAD) and partly implementing their own
numerical model. Each type was simulated for daytime and night time,
during the winter and summer, with and without blinds, for mechanical
and natural ventilation with openings (air inlet-outlet) of 50 and 8000
mm. The 104 case studies were simulated and results were concluded in
order to gain knowledge of the performance and flexibility of Double
Skin Facades. The variation of each construction type is shown below:
Double Skin Faades
106
Table 4.5 Variation of construction types for different Double Skin Faade
cases.
Case Venetian Air flow rate Inlet/Outlet gap T
in
T
out
Q
sol
blinds (Natural - Mechanical)
(dm
3
/s) (mm) (C) (C) (W/m
2
)
1 No Mechanical (50 dm
3
/s) Not relevant 20 0 0
2 No Natural - Calculated 800 20 0 0
4 Yes Mechanical (50 dm
3
5 Yes Natural - Calculated 800 20 0 0
3
3
3
3
3
3
The authors concluded that both U-value and U
vent
(U
vent
is the energy
transmitted to the ventilation air) decrease when blinds are placed in the
cavity, both for winter and summer. Both values increase slightly during the
summer period. The highest U
vent
values are when the gap is 800 mm and
the lowest when the gap is 50 mm. In the summer when the outdoor and the
indoor temperature differ by 5C, the stack effect is not so intense and U
vent
decreases in a similar way for the cases with and without the blinds. Q
loss
and
Q
vent
decrease slightly when blinds are placed in the cavity, for winter. On
the other hand in summer time there is no difference. The highest Q
vent
values are when the gap is 800 mm and the lowest when the gap is 50 mm.
In the Modelling the air infiltrations in the second skin facades in
2001, Di Maio and van Paassen carried out different simulations in or-
der to show the possibility of the system to deliver hot air to the roof of
107
the building. As the authors claim, the main propose of this work is to find
out if the openings positioned toward the external part of the building can
affect this possibility. The models were simulated for opening junction
area of 0.072 m
2
and 0.144 m
2.
Saelens and Hens, (2001a) presented a paper in which a numerical
model that evaluates the thermal behaviour of active envelopes is dis-
cussed and compared with in situ measurements. As they found, the
agreement between the measurements and the simulations is good for the
mechanical flow active envelope, but less so for the natural flow variant.
The numerical model has been implemented in an energy simulation pro-
gram, and an annual energy simulation has been performed on a select number
of active envelope typologies. The results were compared to those of a tradi-
tional cladding system. Compared to the traditional cladding solution, active
envelopes proved to have lower transmission losses but higher transmission
gains. These results cannot, however, be extrapolated to the office heating and
cooling load.
The naturally ventilated envelope has a somewhat higher heating load
but a slightly lower cooling load than the traditional envelope. However,
some reservations have to be made because of the uncertainty about the air-
flow rate in the cavity. Regarding mechanically ventilated active envelopes,
the lower transmission gains of the mechanically ventilated active envelopes
are offset by the enthalpy change of the cavity return air for airflow rates that
surpass the ventilation airflow rate. In summer, we have to conclude that free
cooling is an important measure in preventing overheating rather than that
active envelopes reduce the cooling load.
The energy demand analysis shows that the energy performance strongly
depends on the way the return cavity air is used. In order to correctly evaluate
the energy efficiency of active envelopes, it is imperative to take into account
the enthalpy change of the cavity air.
A dynamic simulation of a four-floor building was carried out by Di
Maio and van Paaseen, (2001) in order to reduce the energy use for heat-
ing and cooling by coupling properly the integration of Double Skin
Facades and HVAC systems. As the authors describe, the model used in
this simulation has been built up step by step, but the main framework can be
regarded as an interaction of two main subsystems: The ventilation model
and the thermal model. The ventilation model that the authors devel-
oped calculates the flows through the inlet and cavities of the second skin
based on the outputs of the thermal model, the stack effect generator, the
pressure generator, the wind generator and on the weather data coming
from the Matlab Workspace. According to the authors, the thermal model
is able to compute the temperatures of all points in the thermal network.
The authors concluded that a simple simulation of the Double Skin Faade
Double Skin Faades
108
can be delivered from the heat balances and airflow models. Additionally
in this paper as an example the effect of the depths of the cavity has been
shown.
Shiou Li, (2001) presented a protocol for experimentally determining
the performance of a south facing double glass envelope system. As the
author describes, Two modular full-scale double glazed window models
with naturally or mechanically assisted ventilation were constructed and
monitored for a range of weather conditions. The goals of this investigation
were to develop and apply the test protocol and to monitor and analyze the
thermal performance of these two systems and to improve our understanding
of the double faade system.
4.5 Daylight Performance
4.5.1 Daylight Simulations
Viljoen, Dubiel, Wilson and Fontoynont, (1997), presented a study that
looks at the daylight implications of several options for the refurbish-
ment of an existing office building in Brussels with a perimeter ceiling
height of 2.5 m and a width of 16 m. Each side has a Double Skin Faade,
with a 1.4 m wide maintenance walkway in the space between the inter-
nal and external glazing. The computing program used was RADIANCE.
As the authors describe, scale models in an artificial sky and computer
simulations, were used to examine the effects of changes to the walkway. Two
changes in the building form were also examined, re-entrant slots in the faade
and lowering of the central area floor. The results of these experiments are
generally applicable to buildings designed with Double Skin Faades, build-
ings using horizontal solar shading devices, light shelves, or buildings with
low floor ceiling heights. If an area of the floor space is considered to be daylit
when it receives at least 300 Lux for over 50% of the working year, it was
found that using the walkway options alone, the daylit area can be increased
by up to 23%. Re-entrant faade slots produced no increase in the daylit area.
Lowering the central floor area produced an increase of up to 14%. None of
the walkway options were able to produce daylit area of greater than 53% of
the total floor space. Thus, until redirecting glazing becomes commercially
viable, it is clear that shallow plan designs are the best option for new build-
ings.
Hendriksen, Srensen, Svensson and Aaqvist focus mostly on the heat
loss the indoor climate and the energy aspects of Double Skin Facades.
Examining four different cases of Double Skin Facades, they provide useful
109
information concerning daylight, climate and energy aspects. The first
case is with simple double glazing and the other three with D.S.F. as
described below:
Simple double glazing
Double inner - single outer glazing
Single inner double outer glazing
Double inner - double outer glazing
According to the authors, when a single layer of glazing is added to a
double low-E glazing in a double skin faade construction the reduction in
heat loss expressed by the U-value is modest (<20%). Introducing an extra
double low-E glazing will reduce the heat loss by approximately 50%. It is
obvious that a traditional window facade offers better conditions regarding
heat loss than a fully glazed or a double skin facade, due to the reduced heat
loss from non-transparent parts of a traditional faade.
A report from the University of Waterloo by Straube and Straaten,
(2001) provides a critical review, at a general level, of a Double Skin
Faade System. The paper refers to the provision of proper daylighting,
suggesting glazing types and shading devices. The authors calculate the
solar heat gain coefficient and the visual transmittance for the following
types of facades:
Opaque wall
Double spectrally selective glass
Double spectrally selective glass with exterior shades
Double glass reflective coating
Triple spectrally selective glass
Double Faade vented outer with shades
Double Faade exhaust vented with shades
As the authors conclude, Daylighting and Double Facades are not tightly
connected issues. Most types of facades can be designed to provide an appro-
priate amount of daylighting. The amount of window area required to pro-
vide daylighting depends on a number of factors, but Double Facades are
certainly not the only or best way to achieve excellent daylighting in commer-
cial buildings. Properly placed windows (e.g., lightselves and similar) have
long been successfully used for daylighting. Double Facades have pros (they
can allow lots of light in when it is dull and overcast) and cons (they allow too
much light and glare in most of the time and too much heat out during all
winter nights).
Double Skin Faades
110
Oesterle et al., (2001) claim that the daylight properties of Double
Skin Facades are the same with all the rest of the glazed facades types.
However, the authors focus on the main differences specific to Double
Skin Facades and as they describe, these include:
the reduction of the quantity of light entering the rooms as a result of the
additional external skin;
the additional effective room depth caused by the faade projection;
the compensatory effect of larger areas of glazing and
the scope of installing light reflecting elements in the faade intermediate
space where they are protected against the weather.
4.5.2 Shading - lighting devices
Both Lee et al., (2002) and Oesterle et al., (2001) insist on the impor-
tance of the position of the shading devices inside the Double Skin Faade
cavity. The authors claim that in order to protect the sun shading systems
from rain, wind etc, it is recommended to place them inside the interme-
diate cavity. As a result, the cavity will be divided into two sub cavities.
The position of the shading within this space therefore plays a major role
in the distribution of the heat gains in the intermediate space. As Oesterle
et al., (2001) describe, the smaller space will heat up to a greater extend
than the larger. If the sun shading is situated just in front of the inner faade
and if the inner space between the two is not optimally ventilated, the air in
front of the window can heat up considerably an unsatisfactory phenom-
enon, regardless whether the windows are open or closed. When they are closed,
a secondary heat emission occurs; when they are open, the situation is even
worse, since there will be a direct inflow of heated air.
Thus, the authors agree that the sun shading should be positioned in
the outer half of the intermediate space. The ideal position is roughly a
third of the faade cavity, with good ventilation to the outer space above
and below the sun shading. It should not be too close to the outer pane of
glass, either, so as to avoid excessive heating up and thermal loading of
this layer. For the mentioned reason and for proper ventilation purposes
is recommended a minimum distance of 15 cm between the sun shading
and the external skin of the faade.
According to Jager, (2003) the absorbance of the shading device should
not exceed 40%, and the proper shading device suggested is the venetian
blinds.
Arons, (2000) refers to the way that different materials of the interme-
diate blinds influence the thermal comfort and the energy consumption
during the occupation stage. According to the author Heat absorbed by
111
the sun-shading device can be removed by convection if air is moved along
the surface of the blinds and then removed from the cavity. The effectiveness
of this heat removal is evidenced by a reduced solar heat gain coefficient
(SHGC or solar factor, SF). If in addition, the air that passes through the
cavity is cooler than the outside air, then the difference in temperature across
the inner glazing will be reduced. This results in a lower heat flow across the
inner pane as evidenced by a reduced U-value. The SF can be adjusted by
adjusting the blinds. During the heating period, the U-value will be im-
proved if the blinds absorb some heat, thereby increasing the cavity tempera-
ture and reducing the difference in temperature between the cavity and the
interior.
Lighting devices can also be placed in double envelope system. Lee et
al., (2002) present a case study where exterior prismatic panels were ap-
plied. The architect was Herzog and De Meuron and the building is lo-
cated in Basel, Switzerland. As the authors describe, the double-skin faade
reduces heat losses in the winter and heat gain in the summer through optical
control of sunlight. Within one floor height, the double-skin faade can be
divided into three sections. The upper section is made of insulating glass with
integrated prismatic panels which automatically adjusts itself as a function of
the altitude of the sun. This panel has two functions: reflecting sunlight to-
ward the outside and admitting daylight into the interior space. The vision
window is made of clear insulating glass and is manually operated by the
occupant during the daytime. The lower level window is automatically con-
trolled to stay closed when solar and thermal insulation are desired.
4.6 Energy Performance of Double Skin
Faades
A complete study of energy performance was presented by Saelens,
Carmeliet and Hens in Energy performance Assessment of Multiple Skin
Facades in 2003. The authors claim that only few combinations of Multi
Storey Faade -modelling and building energy simulation are available.
According to the authors, most of these papers are restricted to only one
MSF-typology. Mller and Balowski [1983] analyse airflow windows, Oesterle
et al [2001] give a comprehensive survey of double skin facades and Haddad
and Elmahdy [1998] discuss the behaviour of supply air windows.
In the above mentioned paper the authors focus on the energy saving
objectives of three Multi Storey Faade typologies used in a single office.
The MSF-model is coupled with TRNSYS. As they describe, to simulate
the energy demand of the office, a cell centred control volume model, describ-
Double Skin Faades
112
ing the MSF, is coupled to a dynamic energy simulation program. The results
of the energy simulations are compared and confronted with the objectives
found in literature.
The authors focus on one storey high solutions:
a conventional facade with an insulated glazing unit (IGU)
a naturally ventilated double skin facade (DSF)
a mechanically ventilated airflow window (AFW)
a mechanically ventilated supply air window (SUP)
The reduction of the transmission losses, the possibility of recovering the
transmission losses by the airflow, the position of the shading device shel-
tered from climatic conditions and the ability to remove the absorbed
solar heat are the most commonly mentioned energy advantages.
The authors conclude that: It is shown that it is possible to improve the
buildings energy efficiency in some way by using multiple skin facades. Un-
fortunately, most typologies are incapable of lowering both the annual heat-
ing and cooling demand. Only by combining typologies or changing the sys-
tem settings according to the particular situation, a substantial overall im-
provement over the traditional insulated glazing unit with exterior shading
is possible. This implies that sophisticated control mechanisms are inevitable
to make multiple skin facades work efficiently throughout the year. In order
to correctly evaluate the energy efficiency an annual energy simulation focus-
ing on both heating and cooling load is necessary.
Furthermore, the analysis shows that the energy performance strongly de-
pends on the way the cavity air is used. In order to correctly evaluate the
energy efficiency of multiple skin facades, it is imperative not only to study
the transmission gains and losses but also to take into account the enthalpy
change of the cavity air and to perform a whole building energy analysis.
Advantages Disadvantages of a Double Skin Faade System
113
5 Advantages
Disadvantages of a Double
Skin Faade System
Some of the advantages of the Double Skin Faade System are mentioned
in the chapter Concept of Double Skin Facades. However, in order to
clarify the desired goals and the weak points of this construction a more
detailed description follows presenting the point of view as described by
the authors in some of the literature sources:
5.1 Advantages of the Double Skin Faade
concept
Lo Lo Lo Lo Low ww wwer constr er constr er constr er constr er construction cost uction cost uction cost uction cost uction cost compared to solutions that can be provided by
the use of electrochromic, thermochromic or photochromic panes (their
properties change according to climatic or environmental conditions).
Although these panes can be very promising, they are very expensive. On
the other hand, Double Skin facades can achieve a quality of variability
through a coordinated combination of components which are both known
and available.
A AA AAcoustic insulation: coustic insulation: coustic insulation: coustic insulation: coustic insulation: In view of some authors the sound insulation
can be one of the most important reasons to use a Double Skin Faade.
Reduced internal noise levels inside an office building can be achieved by
reducing both the transmission from room to room (internal noise pol-
lution) and the transmission from outdoor sources i.e. heavy traffic (ex-
ternal noise pollution). The type of the Double Skin Faade and the
number of openings can be really critical for the sound insulation con-
cerning the internal and the external noise pollution. Jager, (2003) claims,
that for sound insulation, minimum 100 mm has to be proposed. Faist,
(1998) wrote a report calculating acoustic aspects of Double Skin Fa-
Double Skin Faades
114
cades. In this report both calculations and real measurements are pre-
sented. Finally, there is an extensive description of the acoustic perform-
ance in Oesterle et al., (2001).
Thermal I Thermal I Thermal I Thermal I Thermal Insulation: nsulation: nsulation: nsulation: nsulation: Many authors claim that the Double Skin Faade
System can provide greater thermal insulation due to the outer skin both
in winter and in summer.
D DD DDuring the winter uring the winter uring the winter uring the winter uring the winter the external additional skin provides improved
insulation by increasing the external heat transfer resistance. Although
the equivalent thermal transmission coefficient U
eq
- Value for a per-
manently ventilated faade will be poorer in part, (than with a single
skin faade), the results will improve if the intermediate space (cavity)
is closed (partially or completely) during the heating period. The re-
duced speed of the air flow and the increased temperature of the air
inside the cavity lower the heat transfer rate on the surface of the glass
which leads to reduction of heat losses. This has the effect of main-
taining higher temperatures on the inside part of the interior pane.
Oesterle et al., (2001) describe which the proportion of the opening
area should be, in order to improve the thermal insulation. Addition-
ally, the authors provide the results of measurements in existing build-
ings when the width of the intermediate cavity is changed.
Stec and van Paassen in Controlled Double Facades and HVAC
in 2000 wrote a paper that deals with the preheating aspects of Dou-
ble Skin Facades. The authors claim that The highest values of heat
recovery efficiency are found for thinner cavities. Thin cavities have higher
air velocity inside and therefore higher heat transfer coefficients. Thus,
during winter, more useful are thin cavities, because they can ensure the
desired ventilation airflow in the cavity and has the highest efficiency for
preheating the ventilation air.
D DD DDuring the summer uring the summer uring the summer uring the summer uring the summer the warm air inside the cavity can be extracted
when it is ventilated (naturally or mechanically). As Lee et al., (2002)
describe, as reradiation from absorbed radiation is emitted into the in-
termediate cavity, a natural stack effect results, which causes the air to
rise, taking with it additional heat. For proper ventilation of the cav-
ity it is really important to select carefully the combination of the
type of the panes and the type of the shading devices so as not to
overheat the cavity and thus the interior space. The geometry of the
cavity can be really critical since the width and height of the cavity
and the size of the openings can be crucial for the intermediate tem-
peratures and for the airflow (if the cavity is naturally ventilated).
Another important parameter that should be considered is the posi-
tioning of the shading devices. Both Oesterle et al., (2001) and Lee et
115
al., (2002) describe the proper position of the sun shading (as they
claim, it should be positioned in the outer half of the intermediate
space).
Stec et al, (2000) claim that half of the inner faade should be insu-
lated if comfort with natural ventilation is the objective. Otherwise me-
chanical cooling should be applied.
N NN NNight time ight time ight time ight time ight time V VV VVentilation: entilation: entilation: entilation: entilation: During the hot summer days, when the exter-
nal temperature is more than 26C there is a possibility that the interior
spaces may be easily overheated. In this case, it may be energy saving to
pre-cool the offices during the night using natural ventilation. In this
case, the indoor temperatures will be lower during the early morning
hours providing thermal comfort and improved air quality for the occu-
pants. In the same time, the use of natural night time ventilation affects
the heat storage of the surrounding materials (furnishing, ceilings, walls,
etc). If on the other hand windows and doors are closed and if the me-
chanical ventilation and cooling systems cease to work at night, the heat
will be trapped inside causing discomfort the early morning hours. One
main advantage of the Double Skin Facades is that they can provide natural
night ventilation that is both burglar proof and protected against the
weather. According to Lee et al., (2002) Double-skin facades have been
designed for the purposes of allowing night time ventilation, with the reasons
of security and rain protection cited as main advantage.
According to Stec et al, (2000)night cooling by natural cross ventilation
requires large openings in the outer faade (for example open junctions be-
tween the panels with an effective opening of 2% of the floor area).
E EE EEnergy savings and r nergy savings and r nergy savings and r nergy savings and r nergy savings and reduced envir educed envir educed envir educed envir educed environmental impacts: onmental impacts: onmental impacts: onmental impacts: onmental impacts: In principle,
Double Skin Faades can save energy when properly designed. Often,
when the conventional insulation of the exterior wall is poor, the savings
that can be obtained with the additional skin may seem impressive. Ac-
cording to Oesterle et al., (2001) Significant energy savings can be achieved
only where Double Skin Facades make window ventilation possible or where
they considerably extend the period in which natural ventilation can be ex-
ploited. By obviating a mechanical air supply, electricity costs for air supply
can be reduced. This will greatly exceed the savings mentioned before.
According to Arons, (2001), energy savings attributed to Double Skin
Facades are achieved by minimising solar loading at the perimeter of build-
ings. Providing low solar factor and low U Value minimises cooling load of
adjacent spaces. Additionally, as the author describes in his MSc thesis,
although no study has been yet published of operational costs versus con-
Double Skin Faades
116
struction/embodied energy impacts, the Gartnet Company claims that
the Double Skin Facades save natural resources by reducing energy con-
sumption during the operational life of the building.
B BB BBetter pr etter pr etter pr etter pr etter protection of the shading or lighting devices: otection of the shading or lighting devices: otection of the shading or lighting devices: otection of the shading or lighting devices: otection of the shading or lighting devices: Since the shad-
ing or lighting devices are placed inside the intermediate cavity of the
Double Skin Facades they are protected both from the wind and the rain.
R RR RReduction of the wind pr eduction of the wind pr eduction of the wind pr eduction of the wind pr eduction of the wind pressur essur essur essur essure effects: e effects: e effects: e effects: e effects: The Double Skin Facades
around high rise buildings can serve to reduce the effects of wind pres-
sure. Oesterle et al., (2001) claim that: although that it is certainly possi-
ble to reduce short-term pressure fluctuations caused for example by gusts of
wind, this is facilitated by the buffer effect of the intermediate space. Con-
stant pressure on the faade however can spread unhindered into the interme-
diate space and if the windows are opened into the rooms.
T TT TTranspar ranspar ranspar ranspar ransparency Ar ency Ar ency Ar ency Ar ency Architectural design: chitectural design: chitectural design: chitectural design: chitectural design: In almost all the literature
sources, is mentioned the desire of the architects to use bigger portions of
glazing surfaces. As Lee et al., (2002) claim, the double skin faade is a
European Union architectural phenomenon driven by the aesthetic desire for
an all-glass faade.
According to Kragh, (2000) transparency in architecture has always
been desirable and the problem has always been to realise a transparent building
envelope without compromising energy performance and indoor climate. For
years the development of advanced faade and environmental systems has
aimed at creating fully glazed buildings with low energy consumption and
high level of occupant comfort. Ventilated double skin facades reducing solar
gains in summer and providing thermal insulation in winter is an example
of a technology, which is becoming still more common.
N NN NNatural atural atural atural atural V VV VVentilation: entilation: entilation: entilation: entilation: One of the main advantages of the Double Skin
Faade systems is that they can allow natural (or fan supported) ventila-
tion. Different types can be applied in different climates, orientations,
locations and building types in order to provide fresh air before and dur-
ing the working hours. The selection of Double Skin Faade type can be
crucial for temperatures, the air velocity, and the quality of the intro-
duced air inside the building. If designed well, the natural ventilation
can lead to reduction of energy consumption during the occupation stage
and improve the comfort of the occupants. Lee et al., (2002) describe
that Natural ventilation can be introduced in a variety of ways: 1) with
operable windows, ventilation can be driven by wind or thermal buoyancy
(or stack effect) to ventilate a single side of a building or to cross ventilate the
width of a building; 2) stack-induced ventilation uses a variety of exterior
openings (windows in addition to ventilation boxes connected to underfloor
ducts, structural fins, multi-storey chimneys, roof vents, etc.) to draw in fresh
air at a low level and exhaust air at a high level and 3) atria enables one to
117
realize a variant of stack ventilation, where the multi-storey volume created
for circulation and social interaction can also be used to ventilate adjacent
spaces.
Thermal comfor Thermal comfor Thermal comfor Thermal comfor Thermal comfort temperatur t temperatur t temperatur t temperatur t temperatures of the internal wall: es of the internal wall: es of the internal wall: es of the internal wall: es of the internal wall: Since the air
inside the Double Skin Faade cavity is warmer (compared to the out-
door air temperature) during the heating period, the interior part of the
faade can maintain temperatures that are more close to the thermal com-
fort levels (compared to the single skin facades). On the other hand,
during the summer it is really important that the system is well designed
so as the temperatures inside the cavity will not increase dramatically.
Proper combination of Double Skin Faade type and geometry, size of
openings, type and positioning of shading devices and pane types can
assure improved results for every building type and climate.
F FF FFir ir ir ir ire escape: e escape: e escape: e escape: e escape: Claessens and De Hedre mention that the glazed space of
a Double Skin Faade may be used as a fire escape.
Lo Lo Lo Lo Low U-V w U-V w U-V w U-V w U-Value and g-v alue and g-v alue and g-v alue and g-v alue and g-value: alue: alue: alue: alue: Kragh, (2000) claims that the two main
advantages of the Double Skin Faades are the low thermal transmission
(U-Value) and the low solar heat gain coefficient (g value).
Double Skin Faades
118
O
e
s
t
e
r
l
e

e
t

a
l
.
,

(
2
0
0
1
)
C
o
m
p
a
g
n
o
,

(
2
0
0
2
)
C
l
a
e
s
s
e
n
s

e
t

a
l
.
L
e
e

e
t

a
l
.
,

(
2
0
0
2
)
B
.
B
.
R
.
I
.
,

(
2
0
0
2
)
A
r
o
n
s
,

(
2
0
0
0
)
F
a
i
s
t
,

(
1
9
9
8
)
K
r
a
g
h
,

(
2
0
0
0
)
J
a
g
e
r
,

(
2
0
0
3
)
Table 5.1 Advantages mentioned in different literature sources. Some of
the statements are mentioned in the text.
Advantages mentioned by author
Lower construction cost (comparing to
electrochromic, thermochromic photo-
chromic panes)
Acoustic insulation
Thermal insulation during the winter
Thermal insulation during the summer
Night time ventilation
Energy savings and reduced
environmental impacts
Better protection of the shading or
lighting devices
Reduction of the wind pressure effects
Transparency Architectural design
Natural ventilation
Thermal comfort temperatures of the
internal wall
Fire escape
Low U-Value and g-value
5.2 Disadvantages of the Double Skin
Faade Concept
The disadvantages mentioned in literature concerning the Double Skin
Faade concept are described below:
H HH HHigher constr igher constr igher constr igher constr igher construction uction uction uction uction costs costs costs costs costs compared to a conventional faade. As
Oesterle et al., (2001) describe, no one would dispute that double skin
facades are more expensive than single skin forms: the construction of the
outer layer and the space between the two skins makes the former type more
elaborate.
119
F FF FFir ir ir ir ire pr e pr e pr e pr e protection: otection: otection: otection: otection: There is not yet very clear whether the Double Skin
Facades can be positive or not, concerning the fire protection of a build-
ing. Oesterle et al., (2001) claim that: Virtually, no information exists on
the behaviour of this kind of faade in the case of fire. Jager (2003) gives a
detailed description of the fire protection of each type of Double Skin
Faade for different building types. Some authors mention possible prob-
lems cause by the room to room transmission of smoke in case of fire.
R RR RReduction of r eduction of r eduction of r eduction of r eduction of rentable office space: entable office space: entable office space: entable office space: entable office space: As mentioned above, the width
of the intermediate cavity of a Double Skin Faade can vary from 20 cm
to several meters. This, results to the loss of useful space Oesterle et al.,
(2001) describe it as the additional effective room depth caused by the
faade projection. Often the width of the cavity influences the properties
inside it (i.e. the deeper the cavity is, the less heat is transmitted by con-
vection when the cavity is closed) and sometimes the deeper the cavity is,
the more improved thermal comfort conditions are next to the external
walls. Thus, it is quite important to find the optimum depth of the faade
in order to be narrow enough so as not to loose space and deep enough so
as to be able to use the space close to the faade.
A AA AAdditional maintenance and operational costs: dditional maintenance and operational costs: dditional maintenance and operational costs: dditional maintenance and operational costs: dditional maintenance and operational costs: Comparing the
Double Skin and the Single Skin type of faade, one can easily see that
the Double Skin type has higher cost regarding construction, cleaning,
operating, inspection, servicing, and maintenance. Oesterle et al., (2001)
give an extensive description of the method to estimate the costs. As he
claims, still there is not a very efficient way to estimate the costs.
Ov Ov Ov Ov Overheating pr erheating pr erheating pr erheating pr erheating problems: oblems: oblems: oblems: oblems: As described above, if the Double Skin Faade
system is not properly designed it is possible that the temperature of the
air in the cavity is going to increase overheating the interior space. Jager,
(2003) claims that to avoid overheating, the minimum distance between
the internal and external pane should not be less than 200 mm.
Compagno, (2002) mentions that the key criteria are the width of the
cavity and the size of the ventilation openings.
I II IIncr ncr ncr ncr ncreased air flo eased air flo eased air flo eased air flo eased air flow v w v w v w v w velocity elocity elocity elocity elocity inside the cavity, mostly in multi storey-
high types. Possible important pressure differences are mentioned be-
tween offices in case of natural ventilation via the cavity.
I II IIncr ncr ncr ncr ncreased w eased w eased w eased w eased weight of the str eight of the str eight of the str eight of the str eight of the structur uctur uctur uctur ucture: e: e: e: e: As it is expected the additional
skin increases the weight of the construction which increases the cost.
D DD DDaylight: aylight: aylight: aylight: aylight: The daylight properties of Double Skin Facades are similar
to other types of glazed facades (i.e. single skin faade). This is the main
reason that the provision of daylight and the visual comfort is not exten-
sively described in this chapter of the literature review. However, Oesterle
et al., (2001) focus on the main differences specific to Double Skin Fa-
cades. As the authors describe, these include:
Double Skin Faades
120
O
e
s
t
e
r
l
e

e
t

a
l
.

(
2
0
0
1
)
C
o
m
p
a
g
n
o

(
2
0
0
2
)
C
l
a
e
s
s
e
n
s

e
t

a
l
.
L
e
e

e
t

a
l
.

(
2
0
0
2
)
B
.
B
.
R
.
I
.

(
2
0
0
2
)
A
r
o
n
s

(
2
0
0
0
)
F
a
i
s
t

(
1
9
9
8
)
K
r
a
g
h
,

(
2
0
0
0
)
J
a
g
e
r

(
2
0
0
3
)
the reduction of the quantity of light entering the rooms as a result of the
additional external skin and
the compensatory effect of larger areas of glazing.
A AA AAcoustic insulation: coustic insulation: coustic insulation: coustic insulation: coustic insulation: As described above, it is possible that sound trans-
mission problems (room to room or floor to floor) can take place if the
faade is not designed properly.
Table 5.2 Disadvantages mentioned in different literature sources. Some
of the statements are mentioned in the text.
Disadvantages mentioned by author
Higher construction costs
Fire protection
Reduction of rentable office space
Additional maintenance and
operational costs
Overheating problem
Increased air flow speed
Increased weight of the structure
Daylight
Acoustic insulation
5.3 Assessment of Double Skin Faade
types
In this part, different types of Double Skin Facades are compared as men-
tioned in several sources of literatue. The comparison is made for:
Sound insulation
Fire protection
Natural ventilation air quality
121
Table 5.3
Box window Shaft box faade Corridor faade Multi-storey
type facade
Sound Used both when The fewer Problems with Suitable when
insulation there are high openings sound external noise
external noise (compared with transmission levels are high,
levels or when the box window from room but problems
special type) provide to room of sound
requirements better insulation transmission
concerning against the within the
sound insulation external noise intermediate
between adjoining space
rooms exist
Fire Low risk factor Low risk factor Medium risk High risk factor
protection (not any room is (the rooms are factor (the rooms (all the rooms
linked to each only connected of the same are linked with
other) with the storey are linked) each other)
ventilation shaft)
Natural Openable Caution should Caution should As a rule, the
ventilation windows, proper be paid in the be paid so that rooms behind
air quality for natural way that the the exhaust air multi-storey
ventilation airstreams are from one room facades have to
grouped together doesnt enter the be mechanically
from a number room above. The ventilated
of faade cavities problem can be
into a single solved with the
shaft diagonal
configuration
Double Skin Faades
122
Measurements Test Room and Real Buildings
123
6 Measurements Test
Rooms and Real Buildings
In this section two types of studies are described. Measurements that
took place in test rooms and in real buildings.
Saelens and Hens, (2001) in Experimental evaluation of Airflow in
Naturally Ventilated Active Envelopes describe the most common meas-
urement techniques for calculating the air flow rates both in naturally
and mechanically ventilated active envelopes. The airflow in ducts and
cavities can be determined by measuring:
the pressure difference across an orifice, nozzle or venturi tube
the air velocity using anemometers
the air flow directly using tracer gas techniques
In the same paper the airflow through naturally ventilated active enve-
lopes has been experimentally analysed. As the author describes a method
was proposed to determine the airflow through the cavity by means of the
pressure difference over the lower ventilation grid. From the pressure differ-
ence over the lower ventilation grid, the airflow rate through the cavity can
be determined from the pressure characteristic of the active envelope. The
method has been verified by tracer gas measurements and proved to be reli-
able.
Saelens, refers to Onur et al., (1996) in his PhD thesis. As he de-
scribes, for mechanically ventilated cavities, measuring the pressure differ-
ence across an orifice placed in the exhaust duct is an excellent way to deter-
mine the airflow rate. However, this method is less suited for naturally
ventilated cavities. As Saelens in Experimental evaluation of Airflow in
Naturally Ventilated Active Envelopes, (2001) describes, the driving
forces are usually small and because of the high flow resistance of the orifice,
the flow in the cavity would be too much affected. Furthermore, it would be
difficult to find a suitable place for the orifice as no exhaust duct is avail-
able.
Double Skin Faades
124
Saelens, (2001) after studying reports of Park et al. (1989); Faist, (1998)
and Jones, described a second method to estimate the airflow rate meas-
uring the air velocity with anemometers. According to the author the
determination of the airflow rate from velocity measurements seems evident,
but is likely to produce erroneous results. The velocity in a naturally venti-
lated channel is not uniform across the section and is influenced by lowering
or raising the shading device. Furthermore, there is no guarantee that the
resulting velocity vector is perpendicular to the reference surface (a typical
concern using omnidirectional anemometers). Detailed information about
the velocity vectors may be obtained by placing an array of individual veloc-
ity measuring points, which however, may affect the development of the air-
flow in the cavity. Hence, determining the airflow rate in naturally venti-
lated active envelopes from measured velocities is a less recommendable method.
A third, less common method, is the use of tracer gas measurements (Ziller
(1999); Busselen and Mattelaer (2000)). Tracer gas techniques such as the
constant concentration, constant emission and tracer dilution method
(Raatschen, 1995 and ASHRAE, 1997) make it possible to determine the
airflow rate in both naturally and mechanically ventilated active envelopes
without interference with the driving forces. Busselen and Mattelaer (2000),
however, point out that it is difficult to perceive the highly fluctuating air-
flow rate accurately with the constant emission technique.
In Modeling of air and heat transport in active envelopes, Saelens,
Carmeliet and Hens, (2001) compare five models of a mechanically ven-
tilated active envelope with different complexity using measurements. As
the authors describe, It was shown that radiation and convection in the
cavity have to be modelled separately in order to become reliable results.
They also found that for an accurate prediction of active envelope perform-
ances, the vertical temperature profile has to be implemented properly (e.g. by
an exponential expression). A sensitivity study performed with the nu-
merical model reveals that the air temperature at the inlet of the cavity,
the airflow rate, the distribution of the airflow in the cavity and the angle
of solar incidence are the governing parameters.
Kragh, (2000) and (2001) describes 10 full-scale rooms made by
Permasteelisa. As he describes, the test rooms are being continuously
monitored in terms of energy consumption and indoor environment
(room temperatures and temperatures across the glazing systems). The
building envelope configurations comprise double skin walls (naturally
ventilated, mechanically ventilated, indoor-indoor and outdoor-outdoor)
demonstrating stand-alone systems as well as integration between faade
and environmental system.The measurements are described more in de-
tail below:
Measurements in each room:
Measurements Test Room and Real Buildings
125
Room ambient temperatures (3 heights, 3 distances from faade)
Faade surface temperatures (3 heights on the different layers of the
faade)
Faade cavity temperatures, when applicable
Room ambient humidity
Transmitted solar radiation through faade
Outlet/inlet airflow rate and temperature
Outlet/inlet water flow rate and temperature (hot and cold water)
Outdoor measurements:
Total solar irradiance (on vertical)
Long wave irradiance (on vertical)
Illuminance (on vertical)
Dry bulb temperature
Relative humidity
Wind speed and direction
Mobile measurements:
Indoor illuminance (3 positions)
Room ambient temperatures (3 positions)
Saelens, (2002) describes in his thesis measurements carried out at the
Vliet test building. According to him, two one storey high multiple-skin
facades and a traditional envelope were built and tested under real climatic
conditions. The aim of the measurements is twofold. Firstly, the measurement
set-up is used to extend the knowledge of the thermal behaviour of multiple-
skin facades. The set-up allows a more accurate control, measurement and
change of the different parameters compared to in situ measurements. Sec-
ondly, the data are used to evaluate modelling assumptions and to derive and
check relationships for modelling parameters.
The author compares different models for the convective heat transfer
coefficient with the measurements. Additionally, the measurements are
used to evaluate the numerical model and to assess the reliability of mod-
els with different levels of complexity. Finally, the data are used to assess
how the inlet temperature should be determined.
Shiou Li in 2001 wrote a MSc thesis which proposes a protocol for
experimentally determining the performance of a south facing double
glass envelope system. As he describes: As a proof of concept, the protocol
was applied to an experimental study of a south-facing, single story double
glazed ventilated wall system. Two modular full-scale double glazed window
Double Skin Faades
126
models with naturally or mechanically assisted ventilation were constructed
and monitored for a range of weather conditions. The goals of this investiga-
tion were to develop and apply the test protocol and to monitor and analyze
the thermal performance of these two systems and to improve our understand-
ing of the double faade system. Using this test protocol preliminary results
show the average cavity heat removal rate is approximately 25% higher for
the active system when compared to the naturally ventilated system. Also, the
passive system has a higher temperature difference between the indoor glass
surface and the indoor air than the active system. This experimental protocol
can be further applied to determine other performance issues of the double
envelope system.
Costs and Investments
127
7 Costs and Investments
The construction and maintenance cost of a Double Skin Faade system
is not very often described in the existing literature. It is impressive how
contradictory opinions one can find by reading reports from different
authors. In some of the documents, the Double Skin Faade system may
be mentioned as Energy Saving Faade. In others, the energy consump-
tion during the occupation stage and thus the cost, is noted as the main
disadvantage.
Without any doubt, the construction and the maintenance cost of a
Double Skin Faade is higher than a Single Skin one. However, if the
faade is designed properly, it is possible to reduce the energy consump-
tion mainly from heating, cooling and ventilating the building and thus
reduce the operational cost. At this point it has to be stressed that a
careful design has to take into account many different parameters con-
nected both with the use of building (building scheme and type, orienta-
tion, occupancy schedule, equipment etc) and its location (climate, day-
light availability, temperature, site & obstructions, latitude, atmospheric
conditions etc).
Straube, (2001) in The technical Merit of Double Skin Facades for
Office Buildings in Cool Humid Climates claims that Double facades
are merely one approach to overcoming the large energy consumption and
comfort problems that are created by the use of excessive glazing areas of
interior performance. The most environmentally sound and least expensive
construction and operating cost) solution avoids the problems that Double
Facades are intended to solve by reducing glazing area and increasing the
quality of the glazing product.
Jager, (2003) presented constructional and maintenance costs for Stand-
ard and Double Skin Facades. According to him:
Investments (in Central Europe)
Standard faade 300 to 500 Euro/ m!
Double Skin Standard 600 to 800 Euro/ m!
Double Skin with adjustable air in and outlet 700 to 1000 Euro/ m!
Double Skin with openable exterior sashes 800 to 1300 Euro/ m!
Double Skin Faades
128
Running Costs (in Central Europe)
Standard faade 2.5 to 3.5 Euro/ m! and cleaning operation
Double Skin faade 4 to 7.5 Euro/ m! and cleaning operation.
Oesterle et al., (2001) mention that, as yet, neither comprehensive, conclu-
sive cost calculations, nor generally applicable methods of assessing cost effec-
tiveness exist. The authors analyze the eight step method for planning of
buildings proposed by Drees and Hh. These are the eight steps:
1. Determining the purpose of the study
2. Listing the alternatives
3. Determining the investment costs
4. Determining the follow-up costs
5. Determining the effective costs for the use of the building
6. Determining and analyzing differential costs
7. Establishing a ranking and making recommendations
8. Supplementary cost-benefit analysis
The three different methods of calculating the costs for the use of a build-
ing:
Simplified calculating method
Calculation on the basis of annuity
Dynamization of costs for the use of the buildings
Oesterle et al., (2001) Drees and Hh agree that it is usually immaterial
which method is used for comparing alternatives. Therefore, a cost-effi-
ciency ranking will be independent of the method of calculation.
The authors affirm that, in general, economic analyses of faade alter-
natives should take account of both the investment and operating and
maintenance costs.
Examples of Office Buildings with Double Skin Faade
129
8 Examples of Office
Buildings with Double Skin
Faade
The main purpose of this section is mostly to provide references for build-
ing examples which are described briefly. In the following pages the build-
ing examples are categorized by country in order to make clear how the
type of construction is influenced by the climatic conditions. However,
not necessarily all the constructions are adapted to the climate.
8.1 Germany
8.1.1 Dsseldorf city gate (Dsseldorfer Stadttor)

a) b) c)
a) South face of City Gate (LBNL http://gaia.lbl.gov/hpbf/picture/
casestudy/dusseldorf/building.jpg).
b) View of the D.S.F. cavity (LBNL http://gaia.lbl.gov/hpbf/picture/
casestudy/dusseldorf/window3.jpg).
c) View of the interior glazing (LBNL http://gaia.lbl.gov/hpbf/pic-
ture/casestudy/dusseldorf/window1.jpg).
Double Skin Faades
130
Table 8.1 Dsseldorf city gate (Dsseldorfer Stadttor)
Authors Web sites BBRI, (2002), Oesterle et al., (2001), Lee et
al., (2002), Univ. of Waterloo, Compagno,
(2002)
Architect Petzinka
Location of the building Dsseldorf
Faade Type The faade is a corridor type. The intermedi-
ate space between the two skins is closed at
the level of each floor.
Ventilation of the cavity The air supply and exhaust openings in the
external faade layer are situated near the floor
and the ceiling. They are laid out in staggered
form from bay to bay to prevent vitiated air
extracted on one floor entering the space on
the floor immediately above.
Faade construction The entire building is enclosed in a glass skin
Pane type so that a 56-meter-high atrium space is cre-
ated at the centre. The outer layer consists of a
12 mm safety glass and the inner is a low E
glazing with a wooden frame. Two corridor
widths are encountered in the building (90 cm
and 140 cm).
Shading device type The solar blinds are situated near the outer
glazing layer.
HVAC The natural ventilation in the intermediate
space allows to naturally ventilate the rooms
with outside air during long periods of the year.
The first years of operation show that the
building can be naturally ventilated for roughly
70-75% of the year. No complete climatisation
of the office room was installed. The office
rooms are equipped with chilled ceiling.
131
8.1.2 ARAG 2000 Tower

a) b)
c)
a) View of ARAG 2000 Tower (http://www.josef-gartner.de/referenzen/
arag.htm)
b) View of the cavity (http://gaia.lbl.gov/hpbf/casest_a.htm)
c) View of the faade (Compagno, 2002, p. 157)
Table 8.2 ARAG 2000 Tower
Authors Web sites Oesterle et al., (2001), Compagno, (2002)
Architect RKW, Dsseldorf, in collaboration with Nor-
man Foster, London.
Location of the building Dsseldorf
Double Skin Faades
132
Faade Type The faade is designed as a shaft-box system.
Ventilation of the cavity Each of the box windows has its own 15 cm
high air-intake opening in the form of a
closable flap. Vitiated air is extracted into the
exhaust-air shaft via a bypass opening. The
shaft, in turn, is ventilated via louvers in front
of the services story. In order to exploit the
collector effect of the faade intermediate space
more efficiently in winter, the air-extract shaft
is also designed to be closed if required.
Faade construction The inner faade layer was constructed with
Pane type conventional vertically pivoting aluminium
casements with low-E glazing.
Shading device type Louvered blinds were installed in the outer
third of the roughly 70 cm deep intermediate
space between the faade layers.
HVAC The free window ventilation is possible for 50-
60 percent of the year. During periods of ex-
treme weather conditions, a high level of ther-
mal comfort can be attained with mechanical
ventilation.
133
8.1.3 Headquarters of Commerzbank

a) b) c)
a) Commerzbank (http://csw.art.pl/new/2001/arch.html)
b) Interior of Commerzbank (http://www.archleague.org/
tenshadesofgreen/commerz.html
c) Entrance of Commerzbank (http://www.archleague.org/
tenshadesofgreen/commerz.html
Table 8.3 Headquarters of Commerzbank
Authors Web sites Compagno, (2002)
Architect Foster and Partners
Location of the building Frankfurt
Faade Type It consists of a three storey sealed outer skin, a
continuous cavity and an inner faade with
operable windows.
Ventilation of the cavity Two variations on the principle of the buffer
zone for natural ventilation of the offices were
used: as a double skin faade and as a winter
garden.
Faade construction The outer skin consists of 1.4 2.25 m sheets
Pane type of 8 mm toughned glass. The 12 cm high air
inlets and outlets are located above and below
the grey fritted glass cladding on the parapets;
these vents are not closable.
Shading device type Air louvers were provided at the lower and
upper ends of the cavity.
HVAC No information given.
Double Skin Faades
134
8.1.4 Eurotheum

a) b)
c)
a) View of Eurotheum (Wolfgang Leonard http://home.t-online.de/
home/wleonhard/wlhdahch.htm).
b) Interior of Eurotheum (http://www.nma.de/euroth-4.htm).
c) Shading devices (http://gaia.lbl.gov/hpbf/picture/casestudy/euro/
window.jpg).
135
Table 8.4 Eurotheum
Authors Web sites Lee et al., (2002)
Architect Novotny Mhner and Associates
Location of the building Frankfurt
Faade Type The faade grid is 1350 mm wide and 3350
mm tall. Each unit, which is pre-fabricated off-
site, consists of a 6-grid span, one-storey tall.
Ventilation of the cavity Fresh air is supplied through 75-mm diam-
eter holes in the vertical metal fins on each
side of the glazing unit. Warm air is extracted
through an exterior opening at the ceiling level.
This opening is equipped with louvers to pre-
vent the penetration of rain and is covered with
anti-bird mesh.
Faade construction The internal skin consists of thermally-bro-
Pane type ken aluminium frames and double-pane,
manually-operated, tilt-and-turn windows.
The external skin consists of single-pane, fixed
glazing.
Shading device type Power-operated blinds are located in the 34-
cm-wide air cavity corridor.
Comments Residential and office mixed-use building is
100-m high and has a square 28 by 28 m plan.
Only part of the building is designed with a
double-skin faade, which provides natural
ventilation for most of the year. Office space
occupies the lower part of the Eurotheum
Tower while the top seven floors are used for
residential purposes.
Double Skin Faades
136
8.1.5 Debis headquarters

a) b) c)
a) South faade Debis headquarters (Space modulator http://
www.nsg.co.jp/spm/sm81~90/sm87_contents/sm87_e_debis.html).
b) Cavity of Debis headquarters (Compagno, 2002, p. 145).
c) Openable exerior skin (Space modulator http://www.nsg.co.jp/
spm/sm81~90/sm87_contents/sm87_e_debis.html
Table 8.5 Debis headquarters
Authors Web sites Lee et al., (2002), Crespo, Oesterle et al. (2001)
Architect Renzo Piano Building workshop, Paris, in col-
laborat ion wit h Christ oph Kohlbecker,
Gaggenau.
Location of the building Berlin
Faade Type Corridor faade.
Ventilation of the cavity In a closed position, there is a 1 cm periph-
eral gap around the louvers (with an overlap
of 5 cm). Opening the louvers to a greater angle
results in only a small increase in the air-ex-
change rate. On the other hand, opening the
external skin to a greater degree has a positive
influence on the ventilation, since it helps to
remove the heat in the intermediate space.
During the summer, the exterior glass louvers
are tilted to allow for outside air exchange. The
users can open the interior windows for natu-
137
ral ventilation. Night-time cooling of the
buildings thermal mass is automated. During
the winter, the exterior louvers are closed. The
user can open the internal windows to admit
to the warm air on sufficiently sunny days.
Faade construction The inner skin consists of a strip-window
Pane type faade with double low-E insulating glazing
in aluminium frames. In every faade bay, there
is a side and bottom-hung casement, supple-
mented by a motor-operated, bottom-hung
top light. The solid up-stand walls on the room
face are lined with insulated panels with a cov-
ering of toughened safety glass. On the west
side of the building, the upstand walls are clad
with terracotta elements fixed to an aluminium
supporting structure, which forms the inter-
nal section of the three-bay outer faade ele-
ments. The floors to the faade corridors con-
sist of sheets of toughened safety glass laid on
metal gratings. This construction provides a
smoke-proof division between the stories.
Walkway grills occur at every floor within the
70-cm wide interstitial space and are covered
with glass to prevent vertical smoke spread be-
tween floors.
Shading device type Sliding louver blinds were installed in front of
the inner faade. This allowed the sunshading
to be located close to the inner skin, while at
the same time still complying with airflow re
quirements into the rooms. In a closed posi-
tion, there is a 1 cm peripheral gap around
the louvers (with an overlap of 5 cm). The ex-
terior skin consists of automated, pivoting, 12-
mm thick laminated glass louvers. Minimal
air exchange occurs through these louvers
when closed.
HVAC The possibility of providing window ventila-
tion for the rooms was also investigated. The
scope for natural window ventilation is ap-
proximately 50 percent of the operating time
in the upper part of the building and 60 per-
Double Skin Faades
138
cent in the lower part. A mechanical ventila-
tion plan was installed to provide partial air-
conditioning for those periods in winter and
summer when extreme weather conditions
prevail. The building is mechanically ventilated
during peak winter and summer periods (To<
-5C, To>20C).The conditioned air is either
cooled or heated and is injected continuously
into the rooms, ensuring a threefold air change
every hour (3 ach).
Comments The main objective of the clients and the plan-
ner was to create an environmentally sustain-
able and user-friendly building. Various meas-
ures were implemented with this in mind: the
offices were provided with a natural system of
ventilation (air-intake and extract); the air-con-
ditioning plant was reduced to sensible pro-
portions; the thermal insulation was optimized
and concepts were introduced for the improve-
ment of the micro-climate (extensive roof
planting, the recycling of rainwater, the crea-
tion of areas of water, etc.). To achieve these
goals, large scale investigations and research
work were undertaken.
139
8.1.6 (GSW) Headquarters

a) b) c)
a) Exterior view of GSW Headquaters(LBNL - http://gaia.lbl.gov/hpbf/
picture/casestudy/gsw/gswm.jpg)
b) Interior view of the east triple faade system (LBNL - http://gaia.
lbl.gov/hpbf/picture/casestudy/gsw/gswd.jpg)
c) Interior view of the east triple faade system (LBNL - http://gaia.
lbl.gov/hpbf/picture/casestudy/gsw/gswf.jpg)
Table 8.6 (GSW) Headquarters
Architect Sauerbruch Hutton
Faade Type 22-storey, 11-m wide office building with cross
ventilation and a double-skin thermal flue on
the west-facing faade.
Ventilation of the cavity This 11-m wide office building allows for cross
ventilation. Outside air admitted from the east
faade provides cross ventilation to the oppos-
ing west faade. The prevailing window direc-
tion is from the east. The west faade acts as a
20-storey high shaft inducing vertical airflow
through stack effect and thermal buoyancy.
Where partitioned offices occur, sound-baf-
fled vents permit airflow across the building.
Double Skin Faades
140
Faade construction The east faade consists of automatically and
Pane type manually-operated triple-glazed windows with
between-pane blinds. The west faade consists
of a double-skin faade with interior double
pane windows that are operated both manu-
ally and automatically and a sealed 10-mm
exterior glazing layer. The interstitial space is
0.9 m wide.
Shading device type Exterior louvered metal panels also occur on
the east faade to admit fresh air independ-
ently from the windows. On the west faade
wide, vertical, perforated aluminium louvers
located in this interstitial space are also auto-
matically deployed and manually adjustable.
The louvers can be fully extended to shade the
entire west faade.
HVAC During the heating season, the air cavity be-
tween multi-layer faade acts as a thermal
buffer when all operable windows are closed.
Warm air is returned to the central plant via
risers for heat recovery. Fresh air is supplied
from the raised floor system. Radiant heating
and cooling are provided. Thermal storage in
the ceiling and floor was created using exposed
concrete soffits and a cementitious voided
screed system. Various building systems such
as lighting and diffusers are either integrated
into the soffit or into the voided screed.
141
8.1.7 Halenseestrae

a) b) c)
a) Exterior view of Halenseestrae (LBNL - http://gaia.lbl.gov/hpbf/pic-
ture/casestudy/halensee/building3.jpg)
b) Cavity (LBNL - http://gaia.lbl.gov/hpbf/picture/casestudy/halensee/
window.jpg)
c) Shading devices (LBNL - http://gaia.lbl.gov/hpbf/picture/casestudy/
halensee/window2.jpg)
Table 8.7 Halenseestrae
Architect Hilde Lon, Konrad Wohlhage
Faade Type The top west-facing seven stories of this ten-
storey building are designed with a double-
skin faade. Faades on other orientations are
conventional single-layer windows.
Ventilation of the cavity Fresh air is mechanically drawn from the roof,
then passed down to the intermediate space
of the double-skin faade through vertical
channels at both ends of the corridor. Air is
extracted through the horizontal ducts lead-
ing to vertical channels situated in the centre
of the faade.
Double Skin Faades
142
Faade construction The 12-mm single-pane external skin of this
Pane type double-skin faade is completely sealed while
the internal skin consists of sliding double-
pane glass doors.
Shading device type A blind was installed within the 85-cm wide,
1-storey high interstitial space.
HVAC During the summer, the blinds can be used to
block solar radiation while the interstitial space
is mechanically ventilated. At night, internal
heat gains are removed with mechanical ven-
tilation. During the winter, solar gains pre-
warm the air in the interstitial space.
Comments The double-skin faade reduces noise from the
adjacent highway towards the west.
8.1.8 Galleries Lafayette

a) b)
a) View of the Galleries Lafayette (Permasteelisa - http:/ / www.
permasteelisa.com.sg/images/galeries/01b.jpeg)
b) View of the Galleries Lafayette (Permasteelisa - http:/ / www.
permasteelisa.com.sg/images/galeries/06b.jpeg)
Table 8.8 Galleries Lafayette
Architect Jean Nouvel
Faade Type Storey high type (horizontally divided cavity)
Ventilation of the cavity The inlet and outlet vents are placed at each
floor, the lowest degree of air heating and there-
fore the most effective level of natural ventila-
143
tion is to be expected. The openings remain
permanently open and are fitted with wires to
keep birds out.
Faade construction The 29 mm thick insulating glass unit with
Pane type an 8 mm glass on the outside and a 6 mm low
E coated glass on the inside, has a cavity filled
with argon.
Shading device type Perforated louvre blinds of stainless steel are
fitted as solar control in the 200 mm wide cav-
ity.
HVAC The faade enables natural ventilation of the
offices for most of the year. If the outside tem-
perature is too low or too high, a mechanical
ventilation system is switched on.
Comments The unusually designed Double Skin Faade
is intended to serve as an information carrier
and act as an optical attraction. It also serves
protection against the external noise.
8.1.9 Potsdamer Platz 1

a) b)
a) View of the Potsdamer Platz 1
(http://berlin1.btm.de/infopool/jsp/e_sw_potsdamer-platz.jsp)
b) View of the Potsdamer Platz 1
(http://berlin1.btm.de/infopool/jsp/e_sw_potsdamer-platz.jsp)
Double Skin Faades
144
Table 8.9 Potsdamer Platz 1
Authors Web sites Oesterle et al., (2001)
Architect Hans Kollhoff
Faade Type Traditional engineering-brick faade with rec-
tangular window openings (box window con-
struction).
Ventilation of the cavity The outer pane of glass sits in a side-hung case-
ment. The ventilation of the intermediate space
and the internal rooms is effected via a gap 6
cm high beneath the outer pivoting casement.
Faade construction The internal window is designed as a side- and
Pane type bottom-hung casement with low-E glazing in
an oak frame and with aluminium cover strips
externally. The intermediate space between the
faade layers is roughly 22 cm deep.
Shading device type A louvered blind is installed, the location of
which was optimized in respect of its rear ven-
tilation by designing the upper louvers to be
fixed at a flatter angle, so that they remain per-
manently open, even when the blind is low-
ered.
HVAC The combination of window ventilation with
additional mechanical support under extreme
weather conditions allows a very high degree
of thermal comfort to be achieved.
145
8.1.10 Deutscher Ring Verwaltungsgebude

a) b)
a) View of the Deutscher Ring Verwaltungsgebude
(LBNL - http://gaia.lbl.gov/hpbf/casest_c.htm)
b) View of the Deutscher Ring Verwaltungsgebude cavity
(LBNL - http://gaia.lbl.gov/hpbf/casest_c.htm)
Table 8.10 Deutscher Ring Verwaltungsgebude
Architect Dipl.-Ing., von Bassewitz, Patschan, Hupertz
and Limbrock
Location of the building Hamburg
Faade Type Storey high Double faade.
Ventilation of the cavity The top of the four-storey faade has a rain-
proof opening with overlapping glass panes
that allow air exchange. For cooling, solar ra-
diation absorbed by the exterior glazing layer
is vented or extracted by natural convection
through the top opening at the fourth floor.
Faade construction The exterior skin is point-fixed, toughened,
Pane type solar control, single-pane glazing. The interior
skin consists of low-E coated, double-glazed,
punched windows and spandrels. There are
staggered exterior openings at the base of the
curtainwall (not clear whether at each floor or
simply at the base of the four-storey faade).
Double Skin Faades
146
Some of the interior windows are operable to
allow for cleaning within the interstitial space.
Walkway grills occur at every floor within this
interstitial space.
Shading device type Blinds are positioned interior to the internal
glass windows
8.1.11 Valentinskamp/Caffamacherreihe

a) b)
a) View of the Valentinskamp (http://gwm50.gad.de/rz/gwm/webdbs/
xfdifa.nsf/0/09f5ef4c16169b2d41256ba000256478?OpenDocument)
b) View of the faade (Oesterle et al., (2001), p. 122)
Table 8.11 Valentinskamp/Caffamacherreihe
Architect Reimer and Partner, Elmshorn
Location of the building Hamburg
Faade Type Double-skin faade in conventional form of
construction with permanently ventilated in-
termediate space.
Ventilation of the cavity No information given.
147
Faade construction Inner faade: aluminium prefabricated post-
Pane type and-rail construction, with side- and bottom-
hung casements in alternate faade bays.
Outer faade: steel supporting sections with
point-fixed toughened safety glass.
Shading device type Aluminium louver blinds (louver width: 80
mm).
8.1.12 RWE AG Headquarters

a) b) c)
a) View of the RWE AG Headquarters (LBNL - http://gaia.lbl.gov/hpbf/
casest_j.htm)
b) The boardroom on the upper most floor (Space Modulator - http://
www. fes. uwat erloo. ca/ archit ect ure/ facult y_project s/ t erri/
Gruchala.pdf)
c) View of the cavity (LBNL - http://gaia.lbl.gov/hpbf/casest_j.htm)
Table 8.12 RWE AG Headquarters
Authors Web sites Lee et al., (2002), Kragh, (2000), Collins,
(2000), Space modulator, Arons, (2000)
Architect Ingenhoven Overdiek and Partners
Location of the building Essen
Faade Type A transparent interactive faade system which
encompasses the entire building.
Double Skin Faades
148
Ventilation of the cavity Outside air admitted through the 15 cm high
ventilation slit at the base of one module is
then ventilated to the exterior out the top of
the adjacent module. The type of ventilation
is diagonal.
Faade construction The exterior layer of the double-skin faade is
Pane type 10-mm extra-white glass. The interior layer
consists of full-height, double-pane glass doors
that can be opened 13.5 cm wide by the occu-
pants (and wider for maintenance). The 50-
cm wide interstitial space is one-storey (3.59
m) high and one module (1.97 m) wide. An
anti-glare screen is positioned on the interior.
Shading device type Retractable venetian blinds are positioned just
outside the face of the sliding glass doors (con-
tributes to interior heat gains?) within the in-
terstitial space. Daylight, direct solar and glare
can be controlled with blinds and an interior
anti-glare screen.
HVAC The extra air cavity acts as a thermal buffer,
decreasing the rate of heat loss between out-
side and inside. Fresh air is supplied through
the opening at the bottom and warm air is
exhausted through the opening at the top of
the faade. During extreme cold conditions,
the windows are closed. Warm air is returned
to the central plant via risers for heat recovery
in the winter. The faade provides good insu-
lation in the winter and with the combination
of slatted blinds, effective solar protection in
the summer.
Comments The design of the RWE faade system was in-
fluenced by the clients desire for optimum use
of daylight, natural ventilation, and solar pro-
tection.
149
8.1.13 Print Media Academy

a) b)

c) d)
a) View of Print Media Academy (http://www.fes.uwaterloo.ca/archi-
tecture/faculty_projects/terri/ds/PMA.pdf)
b) Int erior at rium (ht t p:/ / www.fes.uwat erloo.ca/ archit ect ure/
faculty_projects/terri/ds/PMA.pdf)
c) View of the faade (http:/ / www.fes.uwaterloo.ca/ architecture/
d) View of the cavity (http:/ / www.fes.uwaterloo.ca/ architecture/
Double Skin Faades
150
Table 8.13 Print Media Academy
Authors Web sites Bohren and Boake, (2001)
Architect Schroder Architeckten and Studio Architekten
Bechtloff
Location of the building Heidelburg
Faade Type Box window type
Ventilation of the cavity Cross ventilation. A cross ventilation control
system exists that moderates the buffer space
between the outer and inner glazing. This is
done by opening sets of upswing glass louvers
to allow outside air flow to pass through and
push the heated air in the cavity out, thus cool-
ing the building envelope.
Faade construction The box unit comprised of a single glass pane
Pane type at the exterior side and a sealed double glass
pane on the inner side. Between the two panes
is a 46 cm air space.
Shading device type The shading system is a mechanical aluminium
blind system that controls solar heat gain.
These blinds roll down on the inside of the
cavity and angle according to the suns angle.
The aluminium reflects the solar heat into the
box unit heating the buffer space. The louver
venting system then manages the cavity to
minimize building heat loss and gain.
HVAC Fresh air can be gained by operating the inner
window slider. The slider allows air from the
office and cavity to exchange. The buildings
central system then controls the rate of air flow
into the cavity space; this is done by adjusting
the exterior glass louver to harmonize build-
ing pressure and temperature. It also prevents
destabilization of the building environment
from several weather conditions.
151
8.1.14 Victoria Life Insurance Buildings

a) b) c)
a) View of Victoria Life Insurance Buildings (LBNL - http://gaia.lbl.gov/
hpbf/picture/casestudy/ensemble/window3.jpg)
b) View of the cavity (LBNL - http://gaia.lbl.gov/hpbf/picture/casestudy/
ensemble/windowa.jpg)
c) View of the faade (LBNL - http://gaia.lbl.gov/hpbf/picture/casestudy/
ensemble/windowc.jpg)
Table 8.14 Victoria Life Insurance Buildings
Authors Web sites Lee et al., (2002), Compagno, (2002)
Architect Valentyn & Tillmann, Kln
Location of the building Sachsenring, Cologne
Faade Type Multi storey facade
Ventilation of the cavity Fresh air is supplied at the bottom level and is
extracted at 21 m height through power-op-
erated vents. Both layers of this buffer double
faade are completely sealed.
Faade construction The external skin consists of 15 mm laminated
Pane type solar control glazing; the internal skin consists
of solar control fixed glazing.
Shading device type Aluminum 50-mm-wide louvers are integrated
into the 80 cm-wide corridors, which are
equipped with walkway grilles for access.
Double Skin Faades
152
HVAC The building is conditioned with a conven-
tional HVAC system. Adjacent twin towers do
not utilize the double-skin faade system.
Comments The main advantage of the double-skin faade
system is the improvement in thermal com-
fort. In winter, the air vents in the corridor
can be closed, letting the air warm up, which
reduces the difference between inside and out-
side temperatures and consequently reduces
heat loss. Warm air increases the surface tem-
perature of the glass, which makes the area near
the windows more thermally comfortable. For
this building, the large glass area provides day-
light access, which enhances motivation, per-
formance and productivity at work.
8.1.15 Victoria Ensemble

a) b) c)
a) View of the Victoria Ensemble (van den Valentyn Architecture - http:/
/www.vandenvalentyn.de/98vv/ve/ve-15.htm)
b) Atrium (van den Valentyn Architecture - http://www.vandenvalentyn.
de/98vv/ve/ve-18.htm)
c) Entrance of the building (van den Valentyn Architecture - http://www.
vandenvalentyn.de/98vv/ve/ve-08.htm)
Table 8.15 Victoria Ensemble
Architect Thomas van den Valentyn.
Location of the building Cologne
Faade Type Double-skin faade splayed outward from
bottom to top at an angle of 2,6.
153
Ventilation of the cavity The faade is used exclusively as a means of
regulating thermal insulation for different
weather conditions. The intake of air is via a
trench at the foot of the building, while viti-
ated air is extracted at roof level.
Faade construction No information given.
Pane type
Shading device type Continuous strips of flaps were installed
around the entire building at the foot and the
top of the faade to control temperatures. The
flaps can be opened or closed according to
needs.
HVAC A central control system keeps the flaps closed
when external temperatures are low, so that
the layer of air trapped between the two skins
of the faade ensures maximum thermal insu-
lation. When external temperatures rise, the
flaps are opened to allow the ventilation of the
intermediate space and to prevent it overheat-
ing. The faade thus provides the building with
variable thermal protection that can be a
dapted, as required, to ambient conditions.
8.1.16 DB Cargo Building

a) b)
a) View of the DB Cargo Building (Oesterle et al., 2001, p. 129)
b) View of the faade (Oesterle et al., 2001, p. 129)
Double Skin Faades
154
Table 8.16 DB Cargo Building
Architect INFRA in collaboration with Rhode, Kelle-
mann, Wawrowsky + Partner.
Location of the building Mainz
Faade Type Double-skin strip-window faade. The con-
struction is a combination of box-window and
corridor-faade types: there are no vertical di-
visions on the structural axes, yet the shallow
depth of the cavity between the faade layers
means that this space is not a corridor in the
true sense.
Ventilation of the cavity Natural ventilation
Faade construction Inner faade: aluminium window construction
Pane type with side/bottom-hung casements.
Outer faade: aluminium load-bearing sec-
tions; point-fixed toughened safety glass.
The aim of reducing the sound-level by at least
5 dB, while at the same time ensuring natural
ventilation of the offices for as much of the
year as possible, was achieved by designing
continuous air-intake and extract slits with the
appropriate dimensions. These are laid out
horizontally on every floor. Vertical dividing
elements were not inserted in the intermedi-
ate space in view of the use of the building.
The shallow depth of the cavity and the high
level of traffic noise externally made a divi-
sion of this kind unnecessary. The intermedi-
ate spaces depth is approximately 23 cm.
Shading device type Aluminium louvered blind (louvered width:
80 cm).
HVAC The construction of a double-skin faade made
window ventilation possible, thereby overcom-
ing the problem of a non-openable faade with
inevitable air-conditioning of the adjoining
rooms. A partial air-conditioning system was
installed, providing a 2.2 fold hourly air change
(ach).
155
Comments Taking into account the savings made in the
air-conditioning, the simple form of construc-
tion and the high degree of prefabrication of
the faade resulted in an economical solution.
8.1.17 Gladbacher Bank

a) b)
a) Gladbacher Bank before the refurbishment (Oesterle et al., 2001, p. 174)
b) Gladbacher Bank after the refurbishment (Oesterle et al., 2001, p. 174)
Table 8.17 Gladbacher Bank
Architect Schrammen und Partner.
Location of the building Mnchengladbach
Faade Type The Double Skin Faade was a part of a refur-
bishment project. The outer layer is designed
as a virtually frameless glass construction, ar-
ticulated into a series of horizontal stepped-
back planes. The concept is based on the shaft-
box faade principle.
Faade construction A single layer of reflecting, sun-screen glazing
Pane type was inserted in the outer skin.
Shading device type Adjustable sunshading in the intermediate
space.
Double Skin Faades
156
HVAC The thermal uplift over the three upper sto-
ries and the appropriate dimensioning of the
air-intake and extract openings ensure a satis-
factory supply of external air for the rooms
when the inner faade is open.
8.1.18 Energie/Versorgung Schwaben (ENBW)

a) b) c)
a) View of the entrance (baggeridge - http://www.baggeridge.co.uk/
baggeridge/Exports/German_apps/app_image1/germany1_zoom.
htm)
b) Extension for ENBW (Oesterle et al., 2001, p. 126)
c) Detail of box window construction (Oesterle et al., 2001, p. 126)
Table 8.18 Energie/Versorgung Schwaben (ENBW)
Architect Lederer, Ragnarsdottir, Oei.
Location of the building Stuttgart.
Faade Type Box-window construction.
Faade construction Inner faade: Wood casements in laminated
Pane type construction board with bottom- and side-
hung opening lights in aluminium.
Outer faade: slide-down/push-out casement
construction, operated by electric motors.
157
Shading device type Aluminium louver blinds (louver width:
80mm).
8.1.19 BML Headquarters Building

a) b)
a) Photo of model of the building (Oesterle et al., 2001, p. 127)
b) Photo of model of refurbished faade (Oesterle et al., 2001, p. 127)
Table 8.19 BML Headquarters Building
Architect Ingenhoven Overdiek Kahlen
Location of the building Stuttgart
Faade Type Box-window construction.
Faade construction Inner faade: Wood casement construction
Pane type with side- and bottom-hung opening lights.
Outer faade: all-glass pivoting lights, oper-
ated by electric motors.
mm).
Double Skin Faades
158
8.1.20 Post Office Tower

a) b) c)
a) Photo of model of Post Office Tower (Oesterle et al., 2001, p. 160)
b) View of Post Office Tower (http://www.qscaudio.com/images/press/
2003/06_03/bonn_tower_hi.jpg)
c) View of the cavity (http://www.office-work.com/officework/Space/
228143.html)
Table 8.20 Post Office Tower
Architect Murphy/Jahn, Chicago
Location of the building Bonn
Faade Type Slenderly dimensioned, filigree double-skin
facades with automatic controls. The faade
construction is suspended in nine-story-high
sections.
Faade construction Flint glass is foreseen for the inner and outer
Pane type skins.
Shading device type The north side of the tower has a smooth pla-
nar external faade with integrated flaps. All
opening lights in the external skin are oper-
ated by electric motors controlled from a cen-
tral monitoring system.
159
HVAC The structural concept provides for a trans-
mission of horizontal (wind) loads via a series
of so-called wind needles situated on every
floor and every faade axis. The south face of
the tower has a scale-like construction, with
horizontally pivoting lights that allow an in-
termittent air-intake and extract and thus natu-
ral ventilation of the offices. The inner faade
skins contain narrow side-hung casements in
alternate faade bays. These are also operated
by electric motors and serve to ventilate the
offices by natural means.
8.1.21 Tower block at Olympic Park
a)
a) Photo of model of Tower at the Olympic Park (Oesterle et al., 2001,
p 131).
Table 8.21 Tower block at Olympic Park
Architect Ingenhoven, Overdiek and Partner.
Location of the building Munich
Double Skin Faades
160
Faade Type Double-skin curtain-wall faade in prefabri-
cated unit-construction system.
Faade construction Inner faade: aluminium window construction
Pane type with side- and bottom-hung casement doors.
Outer faade: aluminium supporting sections;
linear bedding of glass.
mm).
8.1.22 Business Tower

a) b)
c)
161
a) View of model of Bussiness Tower (Oesterle et al., 2001, p. 120)
b) Entrance of Business Tower (http://www.josef-gartner.de/referenzen/
referenzen2e.htm)
c) Faade of Business Tower (Oesterle et al., 2001, p. 121)
Table 8.22 Business Tower
Architect Architects Working Group, Drschinger+
Biefang/Jrg Spengler. Faade planning: DS-
Plan GmbH, Stuttgart.
Location of the building Nuremberg
Faade Type Double-skin faade with permanently venti-
lated cavity. Unit construction system with ex-
tremely high level of prefabrication.
Faade construction Inner faade: prefabricated aluminium special
Pane type frame construction with side- and bottom-
hung casements, and opening flaps, each in
every second bay.
Outer faade: prefabricated aluminium spe-
cial frame construction with screen-printed
glass panes over edges of floor slabs.
mm).
Double Skin Faades
162
8.1.23 Business Promotion Centre and the Technology
Centre

a) b)
a) View of Business Promotion Centre (Compagno, 2002, p. 120)
b) View of the faade (Compagno, 2002, p. 120)
Table 8.23 Business Promotion Centre and the Technology Centre
Architect Foster and Partners in cooperation with Kai-
ser Bautechnik
Location of the building Duisburg
Faade Type Curved double-skin faade.
Ventilation of the cavity Air is injected at slightly higher than ambient
pressure into the lower part of the cavity and
the warming effect results a natural stack ef-
fect. This air rises and removes heat from the
louver blinds and continues upwards to be
expelled into the open air through small open-
ings by the roof edge.
Faade construction Clear single glazing. The faade consists of
Pane type 1.50 3.30 m toughened, 12 mm thick panes
suspended in vertical aluminium mullions.
The inner faade skin consists of storey high
163
side-hung windows with thermally broken alu-
minium profiles and insulating glass units;
outside is a 6 mm float glass, inside is an 8
mm laminated glass with low-E and the cav-
ity between is filled with argon gas.
Shading device type Perforated, computer-controlled aluminium
louvers are incorporated into the cavity be-
tween the two skins.
HVAC As the building is situated next to a very busy
road the option of full air conditioning was
preferred to other solutions with natural air
ventilation. A displacement ventilation system
is used. The fresh air flows in through narrow
slits along the window front and spreads out
along the floor forming a fresh air pool.
Comments Since the building went into operation, over-
heating problems have been reported in the
top floors.
8.2 Finland
8.2.1 Sanomatalo

a) b)
Double Skin Faades
164
a) View of Sanomatalo (Uuttu, 2001, appendix A)
b) View of the vavity (Uuttu, 200, appendix A1)
Table 8.24 Sanomatalo
Authors Web sites Uuttu, (2001)
Architect Arkkitehtitoimisto Jan Sderlund & Co. Oy
Location of the building Helsinki
Faade Type The buildings east-, south- and west faades
are double-skin faades. Double-skin faade
5 000 m!. The faade type is multi storey
Ventilation of the cavity The cavity is closed and can be vented by
motor-operated vents at the top and bottom,
which are controlled by thermostats.
Faade construction The inner envelope consists of three glass lay
Pane type ers:
- inner glass: toughened and laminated 6+4
mm, in between a 0.76 mm PVB
- middle glass: toughened 4 mm
- outer glass: toughened and coated selective
sun protection glass 6 mm
- the space: argon and krypton gas
The outer envelop:
- toughened and laminated 6+6 mm glass
panes
The width of the intermediate space is 700
mm.
Shading device type Blinds exist inside the inner envelope.
Comments A maintenance gondola fixed onto the girders
of the roof enables outside maintenance. The
gondola has a rack for a glass pane. Inside
maintenance is handled from the intermedi-
ate space with a security cable wire.
165
8.2.2 SysOpen Tower

a) b)
a) View of SysOpen Tower (Uuttu, 2001, appendix C)
b) View of the faade (Uuttu, 2001, appendix C)
Table 8.25 SysOpen Tower
Architect Arkkitehdit Tommila Oy
Location of the building Helsinki, Pitjnmki
Faade Type Double-skin faade 5 800 m!. The faade type
is box window.
Faade construction The inner envelope consists of 2k=2k4-18, 26
Pane type mm thick glass and the outer envelope con-
sists of 1k=1k8 tempered, 8 mm thick glass.
The width of the cavity is 550 mm.
Shading device type Automatic solar blinds are placed inside the
cavity.
HVAC No information given
Double Skin Faades
166
8.2.3 Martela

a) b)
a) View of Martela (Uuttu, 2001, appendix D)
b) View of the faade (Uuttu, 2001, appendix D)
Table 8.26 Martela
Location of the building Helsinki, Pitjnmki
Faade Type The double-skin faade is totally separated
from the main frame of the office building.
The inner envelope is connected to a vertical
I-profile column going along the outer edges
of the intermediate floors from the founda-
tion to the top. Double-skin faade 1800 m
2
.
The faade type is multi storey
Ventilation of the cavity Each floor has two service doors to the cavity.
Ventilators are installed at the corners of the
cavity area. Their purpose is to move warm
air through the corners.
Faade construction Inner envelope: (850 mm high and 2700 mm
Pane type wide)
- heat insulating glass, 4 mm + 4 mm lami-
nated due to the rail requirements
Outer envelope: (one story high and 1350 mm
wide)
- 12 mm tempered glass
167
The thickness of the outer envelopes glass pane
would have been 15 to16 mm without a verti-
cal aluminium rod support. The width of the
cavity is 700 mm.
Shading device type A set of solar blinds is installed in the cavity.
8.2.4 Itmerentori

a) b)
a) View of Itmerentori (Uuttu, 2001, appendix E)
b) View of the cavity (Uuttu, 2001, appendix E)
Table 8.27 Itmerentori
Architect Arkkitehtitoimisto Helin & Co.
is multi storey.
Ventilation of the cavity The windows of the inner envelope are fixed.
However ventilation doors open to the inter-
mediate space. The intermediate space has
gravitational ventilation.
Faade construction The outer glazed skin consists of 6-8 mm
Pane type toughened glass. The circular part of the build-
ing has laminated glass. The glass panes were
Heat-Soak tested. The average size of one glass
pane is 2692 mm wide, 855 mm high and the
Double Skin Faades
168
weight is 30 kg. The horizontal joints of the
pane have weathering steel glazing bars and
the vertical joints are sealed with silicon seal-
ant. The width of the cavity is 925 mm.
Shading device type Motorized solar shading blinds are placed out-
side the inner envelopes windows.
Comments The cavity has no service platform. Mainte-
nance within the intermediate space is carried
out with a gondola fixed onto the girders of
the roof. The gondola can move freely within
the cavity because no service platform exists.
Outside maintenance is performed in a simi-
lar way.
8.2.5 Nokia Ruoholahti

a) b)
a) View of Nokia Ruoholahti (Uuttu, 2001, appendix F)
b) View of the cavity (Uuttu, 2001, appendix F)
Table 8.28 Nokia Ruoholahti
Architect Arkkitehtitoimisto Helin & Siitonen Oy
is multi storey.
169
Ventilation of the cavity The windows of the inner envelope are fixed.
However ventilation doors open to the inter-
mediate space. The intermediate space has
gravitational ventilation.
Faade construction Inner envelope:
Pane type - double insulating glass
Outer envelope:
- 6 mm thick, tempered glass with a silk pat-
tern, which was baked onto it with a ceramic
paint in connection with the annealing proc-
ess.
Shading device type The top of the intermediate space is provided
with an adjustable louvre, while the bottom is
open.
A gondola fixed onto the cantilever girders of
the roof provides access into the intermediate
space for maintenance purposes. There is no
service platform in the cavity.
Comments The glass cladding delimits a favourable
microclimate inside the building and helps to
restrict the excessive amount of solar heat and
traffic noise.
8.2.6 Sonera

a) b)
a) View of Sonera (Uuttu, 2001, appendix L)
b) Interior of Sonera (Uuttu, 2001, appendix L)
Double Skin Faades
170
Table 8.29 Sonera
Architect Arkkitehtitoimisto SARC
Faade Type The starting point was to create an office block
into the industrial environment. The street--
side faades are partly covered with almost
black, screen-printed and laminated glass
panes. Double-skin faade 1060 m!. The
faade type is multi storey.
Ventilation of the cavity The cavity formed is open at bottom and top.
Pane type - green 6 mm glass (outer)
- argon gas 15 mm (middle)
- selective 4 mm Ekoplus- glass (inner)
Outer envelope:
- 4+4 mm laminated glass (in between 0,76
mm opal sheet) elements. Both of the glasses
are tempered and Heat Soak tested. One of
the glasses is clear and the other one is grey
with a silk screen-printed pattern.
Shading device type No information given.
171
8.2.7 High Tech Centre

a) b)
a) View of High Tech Centre (Uuttu, 2001, appendix K)
b) View of the cavity (Uuttu, 2001, appendix K)
Table 8.30 Hi Tech Centre
Faade Type Double-skin faade 12 000 m!. The faade
is a corridor type one. The cavity is separated
at each intermediate floor.
Ventilation of the cavity No information given
Faade construction The inner envelope consists of two different
Pane type kinds of windows. The lower windows con-
sist of:
- float glass 6 mm
- argon gas 18 mm
- clear selective float glass 6 mm
and the upper windows consist of:
- tenpered float glass 6 mm
- argon gas 18 mm and tubes monitoring light
- clear selective float glass 4 mm
Double Skin Faades
172
The outer glass skin consists of 10 mm tem-
pered glass. The horizontal joint has an alu-
minium glazing bar and the vertical joints are
left open with a 10 mm gap. The cavity is only
342 mm deep and not accessible.
Shading device type No information given
Comments The inner envelopes windows can be opened
to perform cleaning inside the cavity. Outside
cleaning is performed from a hoist.
8.2.8 Radiolinja

a) b)
a) View of Radiolinja (Uuttu, 2001, appendix B)
b) View of the cavity (Uuttu, 2001, appendix B)
Table 8.31 Radiolinja
Location of the building Espoo, Keilalahti
Faade Type Double-skin faade 10 000 m!. The faade
type is multi storey.
Ventilation of the cavity The air in the cavity can be used for heating
and cooling purposes.
173
Faade construction Inner envelope windows: (aluminium frame)
Pane type - 6 mm selective glass (inner),
- 4 mm float glass (middle) and
- 6 mm tempered glass (outer)
The outer envelope: (1.3 m wide and 3.6 m
high)
- 12 mm thick tempered glass
The intermediate space is about 650 mm deep.
Shading device type Motorized solar shading blinds are placed in
the cavity.
8.2.9 Nokia K2

a) b)
a) View of Nokia K2 (Uuttu, 2001, appendix G)
b) View of the cavity (Uuttu, 2001, appendix G)
Table 8.32 Nokia K2
Architect Arkkitehtitoimisto Helin & Co
Faade Type Double-skin faade 1900 m!. The faade type
is multi storey.
Double Skin Faades
174
Pane type - double insulating glass
Outer envelope: (900 mm high and 1500 mm
wide)
- 6 mm thick tempered glass
Shading device type Solar blinds are installed in the cavity.
Comments A maintenance rail exists only in the roof ar-
eas were it is difficult to reach with a hoist.
The cleaning within the intermediate space is
done from the service platform. A water post
is installed in the cavity.
8.2.10 Iso Omena mall

a) b)
a) View of Iso Omena mall (Uuttu, 2001, appendix H)
b) View of the faade (Uuttu, 2001, appendix H)
Table 8.33 Iso Omena mall
Location of the building Espoo, Matinkyl
175
Faade Type Two of the faades include a double-skin
faade. One of them is situated towards the
highway Lnsivyl and its purpose is to damp
the traffic noise. Double-skin faade 1000 m
2
.
The faade type is multi storey.
Ventilation of the cavity The cavity is not open at the top. The cavity is
closed at its sides. The bottom of the cavity is
closed with a laminated glass for sound insu-
lation purposes.
Faade construction The inner envelopes glass panes are float glass.
Pane type The outer envelope has 8 mm thick tempered
glass. The glass panes are 2600 mm wide and
2000 mm high. The width of the cavity is 1000
mm.
HVAC The roof will have a felt covering and a rain
moulding where a drain for rainwater starts
and goes to the HVAC-room through the in-
ner wall element.
Comments A gondola fixed onto the girders of the roof
enables inside maintenance. Outside mainte-
nance is done from a hydraulic hoist.
Double Skin Faades
176
8.2.11 Kone Building

a) b)
a) View of Kone Building (Uuttu, 2001, appendix I)
b) View of the cavity (Uuttu, 2001, appendix I)
Table 8.34 Kone Building
Architect Arkkitehtitoimisto SARC Oy
Faade Type The inner layer consists of one storey high
units suspended from the intermediate floors.
Double-skin faade 5000 m
2
. The faade type
is multi storey.
Ventilation of the cavity The cavity is open from the bottom and each
floor has vents, which can be opened.
Pane type - insulating glass
Outer envelope: (1350 mm wide and 3900
mm high)
- 8 mm tempered clear glass panes with a silk
screen pattern. The outer surface has varying
glasses depending on the orientation. Beside
the lift shaft there is a fire resistant glass. The
deflection of the outer glass pane is not sig-
177
nificant because the glass pane is supported
on each four sides. The width of the cavity is
580 mm.
Comments Inside maintenance is handled from the serv-
ice platform in the cavity, which is equipped
with a security wire rope. A gondola fixed onto
the girders of the roof enables outside mainte-
nance and cleaning.
8.2.12 Nokia Keilalahti

a) b)
a) View of Nokia Keilalahti (Uuttu, 2001, appendix J)
b) View of the faade (Uuttu, 2001, appendix J)
Table 8.35 Nokia Keilalahti
Faade Type Double-skin faade 8600 m!. The faade type
is multi storey.
Double Skin Faades
178
Ventilation of the cavity In summertime the louvres are mainly open
to let warm air go out and fresh air flow in at
the bottom of the cavity. In winter-time they
are closed to form a heat-insulating buffer.
Faade construction The outer envelope: (width 1350 mm and
Pane type height 3600 mm)
- 6 mm tempered clear glass
The inner envelope:
- 2k6-12 selective glass, argon gas in between
The outer glass pane is placed between a flat
bar and an acid resistant tube. It is sealed with
elastic butyl.
Shading device type Solar blinds are placed outside the inner enve-
lope to restrict the excessive amount of solar
heat. At the upper end of the intermediate
space motorized louvers are plced.
Comments The cleaning of the outer glasses is done from
a hoist. A maintenance rail only exists in the
roof areas where it is difficult to reach with a
hoist. Inside maintenance and cleaning of the
outer glass panes is done from the service plat-
form.
8.2.13 Korona

a) b)
a) View of the Korona building (Uuttu, 2001, appendix M)
b) View of the faade (Uuttu, 2001, appendix M)
179
Table 8.36 Korona
Architect ARK-house arkkitehdit Oy
Location of the building Viikki
Faade Type The cylindrical form of the building has an
energy saving effect; the area of the envelope
is small compared to the volume of the build-
ing. The double-skin faade covers 3/4 of the
buildings outer shell. Double-skin faade 2500
m!. The faade type is multi storey.
Ventilation of the cavity In winter fresh air is taken from the southern
side of the building and used in the HVAC-
system. In summer the fresh air is taken from
the northern side. The exhaust air is conducted
to the cavity when the cavitys enthalpy is
smaller than the enthalpy of outside air.
Faade construction The windows in the inner envelope have a
Pane type selective 2k insulating glass where the outer
glass is K Glass and the inner glass is clear 4-6
mm laminated glass. The outer envelope con-
sists of clear, 6 mm thick float glass and partly
also selective glass. Partly the cavity is about 2
meters wide and partly more to form winter
gardens.
HVAC Results have shown that up to 75% have been
saved energy costs for heating.
Comments The cleaning of the glass skins can be difficult
because no service platforms exist in the 13
meters high cavity area.
Double Skin Faades
180
8.2.14 JOT Automation Group
a)
a) View of JOT Automation Group Building (Uuttu, 2001, appendix N)
Table 8.37 JOT Automation Group
Architect ARK-house arkkitehdit Oy
Location of the building Viikki
Faade Type Double-skin faade 1000 m
2
. The faade type
is multi storey.
Faade construction Inner envelope: (triple)
Pane type - 6 mm antisun, green glass (outer)
- 4 mm clear glass (middle)
- 4 mm clear glass (inner)
Outer envelope: (3600 mm high and 1500 mm
wide)
- 10 mm tempered, Heat Soak-tested, green
sun protective glass panes. The cavity formed
is one meter deep.
181
Comments A service platform exists for maintenance. On
the southern and western side of the building
a double-skin faade is suspended from a steel
truss to reduce traffic noise and solar radia-
tion.
8.3 Sweden
8.3.1 Kista Science Tower, Kista

a) b) c)
a) View of Kista Science Tower
b) View of the cavity
c) Shading devices
Table 8.38 Kista Science Tower
Year of construction: 2002 2003
Size: 32 storeys, 6000 m!

double skin faade, floor
area 700 m!/storey i.e. appr. 22000 m!
Use: Office, cell-type or open-plan office
Architect: White arkitekter (participated during the en-
tire building process)
Contractor: NCC
Facade contractor FFT Feldhaus, Flexfasader, Trosa Glas
Motive: Image, commercial property development
project, fully glazed faade to give a feeling of
volume
Double Skin Faades
182
Principle of faade Two of the three facades (triangular floor
construction: plan)are double skin facades, the third (to the
north) is a single skin facade. The double skin
facades are of the type corridor faade with
diagonal ventilation. The cavity with gangways
on each floor and automatically controlled
(2.7 m sections) perforated Venetian blind.
Internal Venetian blinds will be installed on
the north side. Non-openable windows.
Sccho building system.
Construction, material: Prefabricate one-storey high aluminium con-
struction
Outer skin: 8/10 mm H, non-coloured
Inner skin: double-pane sealed glazing units
with LE glass, non-coloured, 1.35 m on cen-
tre
Climate system in rooms: Balanced ventilation with heat recovery, indoor
design temperature in winter 22 1,5C, in
summer 24C at design outdoor temperature
+26C. Active cooling beams 2.7 m on cen-
tre
Daylight: -
Energy: IDA ICE simulations by Theorells and NCC
Teknik.
Sound: Thanks to the double skin faade the require-
ments on the inner skin has been lowered.
Fire: Every fourth storey is fire sectioned. The of-
fice areas are equipped with a sprinkler sys-
tem.
183
8.3.2 NOKIA House, Kista

a) b)
a) View of the faade
b) View of the faade
Table 8.39 Nokia house
Year of construction: 1999-08 2001-03
Size: Floor area 42 350 m!, 23 400 m!

premises.
Appr. 3150 m!

double skin faade.
Use: Office and research centre
Architect: White arkitekter
Faade Contractor: Skanska Glasbyggarna
Motive: Image, reduced cooling demand, protection
for Venetian blinds, possibility to do without
radiators, aesthetics and futurist facade, sound
reduction from the highway E 4.
Principle of faade One-storey high cavity divided into five slits
construction: with openable glazed gables. 700 mm cavity
with gangways on each floor. Motorized
Venetian blinds, controlled by a pyranometer.
Perforated 5%.
Construction, material: Outer skin: 10 mm
Double Skin Faades
184
Inner skin: Double pane sealed glazing unit
with outer pane of soft coated LE glas, 12 mm
argon gas and inner pane of 300/30 clear glass
for the wall below the window.
Climate system in rooms: Winter +21C 2C. Operative 20C.
Summer +23C +23C.
Daylight: Daylight redirection with split Venetian blinds.
Energy: Radiators and active cooling beams. District
heating.
Sound: Good. Calculated values fulfil the require-
ments.
Fire: The building is equipped with a sprinkle sys-
tem. No sprinkler system in the double skin
facade.
8.3.3 Arlanda, Pir F, Sigtuna

a) b)
a) View of the Arlanda
185
Table 8.40 Arlanda pir F
Year of construction: 2001
Size: Floor area 67500 m!, appr. 13000 m!

double
skin faade
Use: Terminal building for the Star Alliance Group
Architect: KHR AS
Faade contractor: Flex facades
Motive: Image, reduced cooling demand. The Archi-
tect wanted a fully glazed facade. The HVAC
engineers allowed a solar factor of 0,15. With
a traditional faade solution this meant either
50% covered faade area or permanent exte-
rior solar shading. With a double skin faade
intermediate solar protection in the form of
Venetian blinds could fulfil the wishes of the
architect.
Principle of faade 800 mm (600 mm free/open) cavity the height
construction: of the building, with vertical sections of glass
60 m on centre. Motorized exhaust opening
at roof level. 9.5 m long (!!) Venetian blinds.
Non-openable windows. Cleaning with clean-
ing basket.
Construction, material: Outer skin: 6 mm float glass. Lower big panes:
12 mm H Diamant Securit (iron free).
Inner skin: 6 mm Planitherm Futur, 20 mm
argon, 6 mm clear float. Lower big panes: 8
mm Planitherm Futur,16 mm argon, 8,76 mm
Contrasplit.
Climate system in rooms: In the VIP-lounges the requirement is max.
operative temperature 26 and the remaining
lounges max. operative temperature 27. No
deviation upwards is tolerated.
Daylight: No daylight redirection.
Energy: Convectors and cooling beams. District heat-
ing from the Brista plant in Mrsta. District
cooling from own cooling plant free cool-
ing from Halmsjn.
Sound: Design sound reduction through the facades
is Rw= 40 dBA.
Fire: A sprinkler system is installed.
Double Skin Faades
186
8.3.4 ABB Business Center, Sollentuna

a) b)
c)
a) View of ABB
c) View of the cavity
Table 8.41 ABB Business Center
Year of construction: 2002
Size: Floor area 18 000 m!, ca 3200 m!

double skin
facade.
Use: Office, cell-type or open-plan office
Architect: BSK after ideas from Archus-Arosia
Faade contractor: Trosa Glas
Motive: Image. Calculations with double skin faade
resulted in lower cooling demand than single
skin facade. Sound proofing against the mo-
torway E4.
187
Principle of faade 3000 m
2
curved double skin faade facing west
construction: and north divided into four vertical shafts. 800
mm cavity the height of the building with
automatically controlled non-perforated
Venetian blinds and with grating gangway on
each floor. Air enters at the bottom through
the grating and leaves at the top through mo-
torized controlled dampers. Non-openable
windows. Inner curtains have been added for
daylight control.
Construction, material: Aluminium frame construction with 8 mm H
single panes in the outer skin and LE glass in
the inner skin (double pane sealed glazing unit)
with Argon filling.
Climate system in rooms: Balanced ventilation with heat recovery, active
cooling beams. Convectors to prevent draught
every second compartment. Winter to 21C ,
summer 25C.
Daylight: No redirection of daylight
Energy: District heating. Energy balance calculated
with BVF
2
and IDA ICE simulations by
Energo.
Sound:
Fire: A sprinkler system is installed
8.3.5 GlashusEtt

a) b) c)
a) View of GlashusEtt
b) View of the cavity
c) Shading devices
Double Skin Faades
188
Table 8.42 GlashusEtt
Location: Stockholm
Year of construction: 2001 2002
Size: 3 floors above and 2 floors below ground. Each
plan approximate 100 m!. 125 m! is double
skin faade. Also one stairwell is built as a 1.5
m large double skin faade at the two upper
floors.
Use: Exhibition, office, and conference. In ground
floors is a pump station and an electrical
switchgear for the district located. The upper
part is used as a technical information centre,
showing HVAC, use of solar energy, fuel cell,
biogas and municipal systems.
Architect: Stellan Fryksell, Tengbom Arkitekter AB.
Contractor: Grus och Betong AB
Facade contractor Skandinaviska Glassystem AB
Motive: Image, fully glazed faade to give a feeling of
volume and show the possibility of using dou-
ble skin faade for reducing energy consump-
tion for cooling and heating.
Principle of faade The facades towards SSE, including parts of
construction: the adjacent faades, are double skin faades.
The facades towards ESE are mostly made of
single skin faade.
The facade towards WSW contains an eleva-
tor, stairwell and shaft. Those are made of conc-
rete. The facade towards NNE are made as sin-
gle skin faade at the ground floor and con-
tains one stair-well, which is build as a 1.5 m
large double skin faade at the two upper
floors.
The double skin facades are of the type corri-
dor faade with vertical ventilation over the
whole height of the faade.
The cavity with gangways on each floor and
automatically controlled perforated Venetian
blind.
189
At the top and at the bottom there are auto-
matically controlled dampers for controlling
the airflow in the cavity. Non-openable win-
dows.
Construction, material: On-site erected steel construction.
Outer skin: 28 mm Planibel Top N. Sealed
glazing units with argon. Same parts are lami-
nated and hardened. U-value=1,1, and for the
faade < 1,3.
Inner skin: 8 mm single-pane hardened glass.
Climate system in rooms: Balanced ventilation with heat recovery.
Active cooling beams.
Indoor temperature is depending on the out-
door temperature, and varies between 22-
26C. With a dead zone of 1C in comfort
mode and 6C in economy mode.
Design outdoor conditions in summer is +27
C 50% RH.
Daylight: Daylight redirection with the automatically
controlled Venetian blinds, which also can be
manually controlled for each faade and floor.
Energy: SolarCAD simulations by Omedia AB and
IDA ICE simulations by WSP VVS-teknik.
Sound: Noise reduction in the outer skin is 36 dB.
Fire: The 3 floors over ground is one fire protec-
tion zone.
This is possible because these storeys are
equipped with a sprinkler system.
Double Skin Faades
190
8.4 United Kingdom (UK)
8.4.1 Helicon Finsbury Pavement

a) b) c)
a) View of Helicon Finsbury Pavement (http://www.permasteelisa.
com.sg/images/theelicon/01b.jpeg)
b) Shading devices (http://www.permasteelisa.com.sg/images/theelicon/
03b.jpeg)
c) View of the cavity(http://www.permasteelisa.com.sg/images/theelicon/
05b.jpeg)
Table 8.43 Helicon Finsbury Pavement
Authors Web sites Lee et al., (2002), Kragh, (2000)
Architect Sheppard Robson
Location of the building Finsbury Pavement, London
Faade Type Extensive, clear full height inner and outer
glazing due to the relatively deep floor plan.
Ventilation of the cavity Both the origin and destination of the air in
the cavity are external. In periods with no so-
lar radiation, the extra skin provides additional
thermal insulation. In periods with solar irra-
diation, the skin is naturally ventilated from/
to the outside by buoyancy (stack) effects - i.e.
the air in the cavity rises when heated by the
sun (the solar radiation is absorbed by blinds
in the cavity). Solar heat gains are reduced as
the warm air is expelled to the outside.
191
Faade construction Mirror or solar tinted glass.
Pane type
Shading device type Intermediate louvre blades (14% perforation
and 70% solar reflectance).
HVAC Building Boasts chilled ceilings and floor based
air supply as a lower energy, more comfort-
able alternative to high capacity VAV and fan
coil systems.
8.4.2 Briarcliff House

a) b)
a) View of Briarcliff House (Compagno, 2002, p. 119)
b) Air flow inside the cavity (Compagno, 2002, p. 119)
Table 8.44 Briarcliff House
Architect Leslie and Godwin
Location of the building Farnborough
Faade Type Predominantly an Active Wall (or Climate
Wall)
Double Skin Faades
192
Ventilation of the cavity Mechanically ventilated cavity. The air flow
rate is 75 m
3
/h per linear meter of faade. An
extra skin is applied to the inside of the build-
ing envelope; inside return air is passing
through the cavity of the faade and returning
to the ventilation system. In periods with so-
lar radiation the energy, which is absorbed by
the blinds, is removed by ventilation. In peri-
ods with heating loads, solar energy can be re-
covered by means of heat exchangers.
Faade construction External Double glazing unit 150 mm depth
Pane type of the cavity single pane internal glazing.
Shading device type Automatically controlled venetian blinds are
placed inside the cavity.
HVAC The active wall is combined with an air-han-
dling unit to provide thermal comfort, while
the ventilation air is used to control humidity
and indoor air quality.
8.4.3 Building Research Establishment

a) b) c)
a) View of the faade (LBNL - http://gaia.lbl.gov/hpbf/casest_a.htm)
b) Cross section of the faade (LBNL - http://gaia.lbl.gov/hpbf/casest_a
.htm)
c) Cross section thourgh the ventilation stack (LBNL - http://gaia.lbl.gov/
hpbf/casest_a.htm)
193
Table 8.45 Building Research Establishment
Architect Fielden Clegg
Location of the building Garston
Faade Type Low-rise, low-energy office building. A shal-
low open-office plan is coupled to a highly
glazed faade.
Ventilation of the cavity A passive stack ventilation system was designed
as an alternative ventilation strategy for the
open plan offices during extreme cooling con-
ditions. Vertical chimneys draw hot air
through the duct in the wave-form structure
as well as through bottom-hung, hopper,
etched windows. Low-resistance propeller fans
are mounted at the top-floor level, to provide
minimum ventilation and to flush internal heat
gains during the night.
Faade construction No information given.
Pane type
Shading device type Translucent motorized external glass louvers,
controlled by the building management sys-
tem. They can be overridden by the occupants.
The glass louvers can be rotated to diffuse di-
rect solar or to a horizontal position for view.
HVAC The floor plan is divided into open-plan and
cellular offices allowing cross ventilation in the
open plan arrangement while the 4.5-meter-
deep cellular offices are located on the north
side with single-sided natural ventilation.
Comments A key feature of this building is the integra-
tion between natural ventilation and daylight-
ing strategies.
Double Skin Faades
194
8.4.4 Inland Revenue Centre

a) b) c)
a) View of Inland Revenue Centre (LBNL - http://gaia.lbl.gov/hpbf/
casest_h.htm)
b) Cross section diagram for the ventilation strategy (LBNL - http://
gaia.lbl.gov/hpbf/casest_h.htm)
c) Section diagram for the faade strategy (LBNL - http://gaia.lbl.gov/
hpbf/casest_h.htm)
Table 8.46 Inland Revenue Centre
Architect Michael Hopkins & Partners
Location of the building Nottingham
Faade Type Low-rise L-shape buildings with corner stair-
case towers.
Ventilation of the cavity Fresh air is drawn through underfloor duct and
grill which can be mechanically-induced.
Warm air exhaust through the door, connected
to the stair tower. Solar gain in the tower in-
creases thermal buoyancy, warm air is drawn
up through the tower by stack effect. Oper-
able tower roof moves up and down to con-
trol the rate of air flow and the warm air is
exhausted at the roof ridge on the top floor.
Faade construction Triple glazing with between-pane adjustable
Pane type blinds.
195
Shading device type Integrated lightshelf shades are installed. Ex-
ternal brick piers provide lateral solar shad-
ing.
HVAC Cross ventilation in office area by open win-
dows.
Comments The main strategies of the building are the
maximization of daylight and engineered natu-
ral ventilation.
8.5 The Netherlands
8.5.1 Technical University of Delft Library

a) b) c)
a) View of the Library (Compagno, 2002, p. 116)
b) View of the faade (Compagno, 2002, p. 117)
c) Interior view
(http://www.smartarch.nl/smartgrid/items/014_library.htm)
Table 8.47 Technical University of Delft Library
Authors Web sites Kragh, (2000), Compagno, (2002)
Architect Mecanoo Architekten
Location of the building Delft
Wall).
Ventilation of the cavity Mechanically ventilated cavity. The air flow
rate is 75 m
3
/h per linear meter of faade. An
extra skin is applied to the inside of the build-
Double Skin Faades
196
ing envelope; inside return air is passing
through the cavity of the faade and returning
to the ventilation system. In periods with so-
lar radiation the energy, which is absorbed by
the blinds, is removed by ventilation. In peri-
ods with heating loads, solar energy can be re-
covered by means of heat exchangers.
Faade construction External Double glazing unit with U-value of
Pane type 1.5 W/m!K made up of an 8 mm outer sheet
and a 6 mm inner sheet with low-E coating
150 mm depth of the cavity single pane in-
ternal glazing 8 mm thick. It is a tougned glass
designed as a sliding door thet gives acces to
the cavity for cleaning.
Shading device type Automatically controlled aluminium venetian
blinds are placed inside the cavity.
HVAC The active wall is combined with an air-han-
dling unit to provide thermal comfort, while
the ventilation air is used to control humidity
and indoor air quality.
197
8.6 Switzerland
8.6.1 CAN-SUVA Building

a) b)
c)
a) View of the SUVA Building (http://people.deas.harvard.edu/~jones/
lab_arch/H_and_dM/translations/hdm_4/hdm_4.html)
b) View of the faade (http://www.dcue.dk/Default.asp?ID=286)
c) View of the faade (http://www.arcspace.com/kk_ann/Basel/)
Table 8.48 CAN-SUVA Building
Architect Herzog and De Meuron
Location of the building Basel
Faade Type Prismatic panel in double envelope system.
Double Skin Faades
198
Faade construction The double-skin faade is divided into three
Pane type sections. The upper section is made of insu-
lating glass with integrated prismatic panels
which automatically adjust itself as a function
of the altitude of the sun. The vision window
is made of clear insulating glass and is manu-
ally operated by the occupant during the day-
time. The lower level window is automatically
controlled to stay closed when solar and ther-
mal insulation is required.
8.7 Belgium
8.7.1 UCB Centre

a) b)
a) View of the UCB Centre (http://www.rics.org/about_us/awards/ucb_
centre.html)
b) View of the faade (BBRI - http://www.bbri.be/activefacades/images/
ucb_01_siteweb_assar.jpg)
Table 8.49 UCB Centre
Authors Web sites Kragh, (2000), BBRI, (2002)
Architect E. Bureau Verhaegen
Location of the building Brussels
199
Wall)
Ventilation of the cavity Mechanical ventilation is required in order to
extract the solar heat from the faade cavity.
The air flow rate is 40m"/h per module (width
1.5 m), corresponding to 27 m"/hm. The air
velocities are:
Inlet: 0.5 m/s
Cavity: 0.05 m/s
Outlet: 0.4 m/s
Faade construction External Double glazing unit with U-Value of
Pane type 1.3W/m!K 143mm depth of the cavity
clear single internal glazing.
Shading device type Motorized blinds are positioned in the venti-
lated cavity.
HVAC Heating: The heating is provided by the sup-
ply air, which results in lower installation costs,
and means that the glazing can be continued
down to the floor level. The ventilation air is
re-circulated when the building is not occu-
pied.
Cooling: The cooling is provided by mean of
chilled ceilings operating with water at tem-
peratures between 15C and 17C.
Double Skin Faades
200
8.7.2 Aula Magna

a) b)
a) View of Aula Magna (http://www.infosteel.com/nl/R%C3%A9
sultats%20Concours%202002%20cat%20A.htm)
b) View of the faade (BBRI - http://www.bbri.be/activefacades/images/
AulaMagna/AulaMagna.jpg)
Table 8.50 Aula Magna
Authors Web sites BBRI, (2002)
Architect Samyn & Partners
Location of the building Luvain (situated in a calm environment)
Faade Type There is no horizontal partitioning inside the
faade.
Ventilation of the cavity There is no interaction between the air used
to ventilate the building and the ventilation
of the faade. The ventilation pattern of the
faade is natural and is based on the stack ef-
fect. No fan assists the ventilation. When the
temperature in the cavity exceeds a given value,
motorised windows at the bottom and the top
of the faade are opened.
Pane type Faade Double glazing was placed in both sides of the
construction cavity 70mm depth of the cavity. Solar con-
trols are installed in the cavity.
Shading device type Venetian blinds. In principle the blinds are in
all circumstances lowered. They are placed near
the interior glazing layer.
201
HVAC The whole building is equipped with a me-
chanical ventilation system. The heating and
eventually the cooling of the building are real-
ised via the ventilation system. No heat ex-
changer is installed in the building.
8.7.3 DVV Building

a) b)
a) View of DVV Building (http://www.civil.uwaterloo.ca/beg/ArchTech/
Brussels%20Case%20Study.pdf)
b) View of the windows (http://www.civil.uwaterloo.ca/beg/ArchTech/
Brussels%20Case%20Study.pdf)
Table 8.51 DVV Building
Authors Web sites BBRI, (2002), Saelens, (2002)
Architect No information given
Location of the building Brussels (centre)
Faade Type Climate faade (double window system).
Ventilation of the cavity In the offices, the heat produced can be re-
moved with the exhaust air. The exhausted air
is then brought to the climate faade. Ducts
are therefore placed into the false ceiling. The
air direction of the faade is from the top to
the bottom of the faade.
Double Skin Faades
202
Faade construction It consists of a double window and a single
Pane type window separated approximately 15 cm from
each other. The double window is double
glazed at the exterior (U Value ~ 1.8 W/m
2
K)
and single glazed at the interior. The single
window is a single pane safety glass.
Shading device type The solar control is situated in the air cavity
near the inside glazing layer. It is centrally con-
trolled according to the orientation and the
storey of the faade. No user control is avail-
able.
HVAC The whole building is equipped with a cen-
tral mechanical ventilation system. The air is
centrally conditioned. The air is distributed
in the different offices and is centrally ex-
hausted. No heat exchanger on the exhaust air
is installed. During the summer, a free cool-
ing strategy can be applied if significant tem-
perature difference between the inside and the
outside is registered.
Comments Measurements and extensive description of the
building are given in Low-energy design and
airflow windows, some considerations illus-
trated with a case study of Saelens and Hens.
203
8.8 Czech Republic
8.8.1 Moravian Library

a) b)
c)
a) View of Moravian Library
b) View of the openable faade
c) View of the cavity - shading devices
Table 8.52 Moravian Librrary
Authors Web sites Pavel Charvat, Brno University of Technology
Date of completition Spring 2001
Location of the building Brno
Faade Type The facades are eight stories high and nearly
50 m long.
Ventilation of the cavity The building has openable double facades,
which are used for natural ventilation of the
building during warm seasons. One of the fa-
ades is used for solar preheating of ventila-
tion air in cold seasons.
Double Skin Faades
204
Faade construction The air cavity between the glass facade and
Pane type the building facade has a width of 550 mm.
Shading device type Two types of sunshades are used with the fa-
cades; fixed horizontal load bearing sunshades,
which can also be used for cleaning and main-
tenance and motorized vertical sunshades on
the building facade (windows).
HVAC In air preheating mode the facade is closed and
outdoor air enters the facade at the bottom
and is drawn to the ventilation system through
the openings at the top. In natural ventilation
mode the facade is opened and the building is
cross ventilated by means of opened windows.
8.9 United States of America
8.9.1 Seattle Justice Centre

a) b)
a) View of Seattle Justice Center Building (http://www.greenroofs.com/
Seattle%20Justice%20Center%20Model%20by%20NBBJ.jpg)
b) View of Seattle Justice Center Building (http://gaia.lbl.gov/hpbf/
picture/seattle.jpg)
205
Table 8.53 Seattle Justice Centre
Architect Hegedus
Location of the building Seattle
Faade Type A nine-storey high heat extraction double-skin
facade.
Faade construction Monolithic glazing on the outside and insu-
Pane type lated glass on the inside of the thermal buffer.
Shading device type Cat walks at the floor levels and light shelves
at 8 feet above finish floor.
8.9.2 Occidental Chemical Center

a) b) c)
a) View of the building (http://www.fes.uwaterloo.ca/architecture/
faculty_projects/terri/ds/hooker.pdf)
b) View of the cavity (http:/ / www.fes.uwaterloo.ca/ architecture/
faculty_projects/terri/ds/hooker.pdf)
c) Air flow inside the DSF cavity (http://www.fes.uwaterloo.ca/archi
tecture/faculty_projects/terri/ds/hooker.pdf)
Double Skin Faades
206
Table 8.54 Occidental Chemical Center
Authors Web sites Harrison
Architect Cannon Design Inc., Principal, Mark R.
Mendell
Location of the building New York
Faade Type Buffer Facade with undivided, full height air
space. Facade divided into four zones, one for
each orientation. They are independent of each
other as they respond to time of day and sun
angle. Steel Frame, metal decking.
Ventilation of the cavity Two systems: one for the extraction of air from
within the wall cavity the second for condi-
tioning of the interior spaces.
Faade construction The depth of the cavity is 1200 mm.
Pane type
Shading device type Operable louvers in air space with photocell
control and manual override.
HVAC Cooling - Electrically driven centrifugal chill-
ers (for year-round heat recovery). Heating -
gas-fired boilers. Ventilation - low pressure
variable air volume distribution.
All building systems (louvers, HVAC, fire
alarm, security) are controlled by a centralized
automated mainframe computer.
Comments Cost: US$12,500,000 (Bid January 1980)
Approximately US$62 per square foot.
Design Energy Budget: 114,000 BTU per
square foot per year.
207
8.10 Australia
8.10.1 Aurora Place office tower and residences

a) b)
c)
a) View of Aurora Place (http://www.dupont.com/safetyglass/lgn/stories/
15064.html)
b) View of Aurora Place (Compagno, 2002, p. 148)
c) Outer glazing (Compagno, 2002, p. 149)
Double Skin Faades
208
Table 8.55 Aurora Place office tower and residences
Architect Renzo Piano Building Workshop
Location of the building Sydney
Faade Type Double-skin faade with glass louvers. The
curved north south facades of the 44-storey
high-rise are of storey-high structural glazing
units. The offices are placed in the west east
faade and service places are in between.
Faade construction The glass in the view-out area of the building
Pane type is of 1.35 2.4 m insulating extra-white glass
with an edge frit. The outer skin is laminated
glass consisting of a 6 mm thick sheet with a
continuous white-fritted dot pattern on the
edge and a sheet of 6 mm low-E coated float-
glass. Inside is a 6 mm sheet of low-E coated
float-glass. The outer glazing consists of lami-
nated 12 mm toughened extra-white glass.
Shading device type Interior, textile blinds are provided for solar
control and glare protection. The opaque ar-
eas in front of the parapet and the columns
are clad with 2 6 mm laminated extra-white
glass fritted with a white dot pattern giving
60% cover; there are white powder-coated
metal sheets behind this glass. On the north
faade which is exposed to the sun, there are
horizontal metal sunscreens in addition to ex-
terior textile blinds.
HVAC In accordance with floor plan requirements,
the inner faade is fitted with doors, fixed glaz-
ing units and bottom-hung windows for ven-
tilation.
Important Information Sources
209
9 Important Information
Sources
9.1 Literature
9.1.1 Double Skin Facades, Integrated Planning
This book, written in 2001 by Oesterle, Lieb, Lutz and Heusler is one of
the most important ones that one can find, if interested in Double Skin
Faades. It covers a wide range of aspects that influence the function and
the efficiency of this system. The most important tasks that the book
refers to are:
a) Types of construction. Classification of Double Skin Facades and case
studies.
b) Detailed description of acoustics and sound transmission. The inter-
nal (room to room) and external sound insulation are examined. Case
studies are provided.
c) Thermal insulation. Both the thermal insulation during the winter
and the summer are examined.
d) Daylight. The daylight properties are not examined in detail, how-
ever this is not so important since these are related to glazed buildings
and not necessarily double skin facades.
e) Fire protection. The description of the measures is quite detailed. There
is also an interesting comparison of how safe the different types of
Double Skin Facades are.
f) Aerophysics. The authors start from basic principles of Aerophysics
in order to describe the airstreams and the thermal uplifts in Double
Skin Facades. There is also a helpful description of the air flows in
cavities.
g) High rise buildings.
h) Special characteristics of faade constructions case studies.
i) Special constructional details (i.e. types of panes, fixings, etc).
j) Air conditioning case studies.
Double Skin Faades
210
k) Economic viability. The authors suggest in a quite detailed way meth-
ods to estimate the cost during the construction and maintenance
stage.
The main advantage of this book is that it describes in an overall way the
Double Skin Faade system allowing the reader to understand its main
function. On the other hand it is often detailed providing useful infor-
mation for further research and detailed case studies. Thus, this book can
be used by readers with different background and interests.
9.1.2 Intelligent Glass Faades
This book, written by Compagno, (2002) refers not only to Double Skin,
but also to all types of glazed facades. The main advantage of the book is
that it starts with basic optical, thermal and technical properties of the
pane providing a satisfactory background. A detailed description of dif-
ferent types of panes follows informing the reader about every individual
pane type and coating. The book focuses on:
The Glass Pane
Base Glass (Clear-White Glass, Body Tinted Glass, Photosensitive
Glass, Photochromic Glass)
Surface Coatings (Reflective and selective coatings, Manufactur-
ing process, Cold Mirror Coatings, Anti Reflection Coatings, Di-
chroic Coatings, Ceramic-Enamel Coatings, Angular Selective
Coatings)
Laminated Glass
Functional layers (Angle-Selective Films, Holographic Diffractive
Films, Layers with Photovoltaic Modules)
Temperat ure Depended Layers (Thermot ropic Layers,
Thermochromic Layers)
Electro-Optic Layers (Liquid Crystal Layers, Electrochromic Lay-
ers)
Gasochromic Systems
Insulating Glass
Gas Fillings
Fillings with Insulating Properties
Fillings with Solar Shading Properties
Fillings with Light Redirecting Properties
211
Concerning the Building Faades, there is a satisfactory classification and
description of both single and double types. The case studies described,
help the reader to better understand the constructions and how these
technologies are applied in real buildings.
Although that the book does not focus only on Double Skin Faade
systems, it can be really useful to a reader who is interested to gain more
detailed knowledge in the main element of fully or highly glazed office
buildings.
9.1.3 Energy Performance Assessment of Single
Storey Multiple-Skin Faades
The PhD thesis of Saelens written in the Catholique University of Leuven
in 2002 is one of the most advanced document in the energy perform-
ance assessment of single storey multiple-skin facades. Both experiments
and numerical simulations have been made. As the author describes, Ex-
perimental work was done on naturally and mechanically ventilated single
storey multiple-skin facades. Field experiments showed that good design and
excellent workmanship are of crucial importance to obtain the desired per-
formances.
A numerical model was developed and validated using experimental
data provided from a controlled experimental set-up. In order to evaluate
the energy performance of multiple-skin facades, the numerical model
was implemented in an energy simulation tool. As Saelens describes, The
results for a traditional facade solution with exterior shading device, a natu-
rally ventilated double-skin facade and two mechanically ventilated multi-
ple-skin facades are compared. The results are particularly sensitive to the
modeling of the inlet temperature and the multiple-skin facade model com-
plexity. By using multiple-skin facades it is possible to improve some compo-
nents of the overall buildings energy use. Unfortunately, most typologies are
incapable of lowering the heating and cooling demand simultaneously. Only
by combining typologies or changing the system settings according to the par-
ticular situation, a substantial overall improvement over the traditional in-
sulated glazing unit with exterior shading can be obtained. The results fur-
ther indicate that evaluating the energy efficiency of multiple-skin facades
can not be performed by analyzing the transmission losses and gains solely. It
is imperative to take into account the enthalpy change of the cavity air and to
perform a whole building energy analysis. As a consequence of the diversity of
the results, designers should be aware that multiple-skin facades do not neces-
sarily improve the energy efficiency of their designs.
Double Skin Faades
212
9.1.4 Properties and Applications of Double Skin
Faades
The MSc thesis of Arons was written in 2000 in Massachusetts Institute
of Technology (MIT). In the beginning of the thesis the author defines
the Double Skin Faade system and classifies them mentioning the pri-
mary and secondary identifiers. The author does not present many case
studies, but gives a very detailed description providing the reader all the
necessary information he may need.
In the main part of the project, the author describes the existing cal-
culation methods. After this description, a simplified numerical model
of a typical Double Skin Faade is developed. This model is made for
energy performance evaluation of multiple types. As the author describes
the basic configuration for the window under study has a layer of insulating
glass on the exterior, an air cavity and a single interior layer of glass. An inlet
is assumed at the bottom and an outlet at the top.
Two Dimensional heat transfer, neglecting edge effects are considered. The
system is considered in the steady state condition, with constant temperatures
throughout. Conduction and radiation are considered in the horizontal plane
(one dimensional) and convection is considered in the vertical direction (also
one dimensional).
9.1.5 Study of Current Structures in Double Skin
Faades
A Msc thesis was written in Helsinki University of Technology in 2001
by Uuttu. The main purpose of this thesis was to investigate the current
structures in Double Skin Faades.
A short historical description and classification of double skin faades
is included in the thesis. The thesis focuses mostly on the structural sys-
tems in double-skin faades. Uuttu divides the systems into three main
types:
cantilever bracket structure
suspended structure and
frame structure.
As the author describes, Cantilever bracket structures and suspended struc-
tures are most commonly used in Finland. Further double-skin faades con-
structed in Finland differ greatly from the ones constructed in Germany. In
Finland, the cavities in double-skin faades are building-high, while in Ger-
213
many they are partitioned horizontally at each intermediate floor and verti-
cally on each window. This difference, results in the fact that the double-skin
faades in Germany enable natural window ventilation, while in Finland
their main purpose is to act as a raincoat for the inner faade.
In the last chapters of the thesis, interviews with different parties in-
volved in double skin faade projects are included. Opinions concerning
their past experience are given from architects, structural designers, con-
tractors, manufacturers and HVAC designers. Fourteen double-skin
faades in Finland and five double-skin faades in Germany are given in
the Appendix of the mentioned MSc thesis.
Finally, one additional reason that makes this thesis even more impor-
tant as a backround source, for this literature review study is that it is one
of the few documents written in English referring to Double Skin Faade
Systems located in Nordic Climate.
9.1.6 Source Book for Active Faades by the BBRI
The document named Source Book for Active Faades has been writ-
ten in the scope of a 2-year project from Belgian Building Research Insti-
tute (BBRI) in 2002. The document is subdivided in three main parts:
In the first part definitions and examples of active faades are given
in order to clarify the different existing concepts of these faade types.
Each faade concept is described, explained and illustrated by pic-
tures or figures.
The aim of the second part of the source book is to identify the differ-
ent considerations that are important in the decision making process
for choosing an active faade.
The third part of the document develops a classification system with
three different levels of the active faades:
General and technical information about the faades and the build-
ing
Invariable characteristics of the faade and the building
Variable characteristics of the faade and the building
As the authors describe, The Invariable characteristics are descriptive ele-
ments that stay invariable whatever the season or the buildings use. These
concepts can be deduced from the plans of the faade i.e. no knowledge of the
use of the building is necessary to classify the faade. Each faade gets only one
classification for each concept.
Double Skin Faades
214
The Variable characteristics make a distinction depending on the exter-
nal/internal environmental conditions and the use of the building during
different periods of time. Also knowledge of the systems scheme and perform-
ance is here necessary to classify the faade. A faade can have a time depend-
ent classification system.
This document provides basic information for better understanding
of the Double Skin Faade System. Although that it is not going very
deep in the aspects of this faade system, it fulfils its main goal, i.e. to
provide a satisfactory background for the reader.
9.1.7 High Performance Commercial Building Faades
This study, written in Lawrence Berkley National Laboratory (LBNL) in
2002 by Lee, Selkowitz, Vladimir Bazjanac, Vorapat Inkarojrit and Chris-
tian Kohler is organized around five major topics:
Technological solutions used to create high-performance building fa-
cades.
Design process (involves the conceptualization, analysis, procurement
and implementation of a faade).
Design tools.
Performance assessments of existing or proposed high-performance
faade systems.
Building case studies.
This document is one of the most important ones when it comes to
building facades. Apart from the well described case studies, it provides
interviews which help the reader understand how each system applies to
every building type. Additionally, it is a very satisfactory source for refer-
ences, if one is interested to find related literature or web sites.
9.2 Web Sites
Some of the most important Web Sites that were used for the report are
mentioned bellow:
Environmental Energy Technologies Division, Lawrence Berkeley Na-
tional Laboratory, Berkeley, California. http://eetd.lbl.gov.
Harvard University and M.I.T. Research on Advanced Building Enve-
lopes. http://www.buildingenvelopes.org
215
International Energy Agency (IEA), Solar Heating and Cooling Program
(SHC). http://www.iea-shc.org/.
Helsinki University of Technology (HUT) electronic academic disserta-
tions. http://lib.hut.fi/Diss/.
Helsinki University of Technology (HUT), Laboratory of Steel Struc-
tures. http://www.hut.fi/Units/Civil/Steel/index.html.
Katholieke Universiteit Leuven, Laboratorium Boufysica.
http://www.bwk.kuleuven.ac.be/bwf/index.htm.
Belgian Building Research Institute (BBRI).
http://www.bbri.be/activefacades/
University of Waterloo, School of Architecture.
http://www.fes.uwaterloo.ca/architecture/.
ESRU Publications.
http://www.esru.strath.ac.uk/publications.htm#books.
Energy Research Group, University College Dublin, School of Architec-
ture. Mid-Career Education, Solar Energy in European Office Build-
ings. http://erg.ucd.ie/mid_career/mid_career.html.
Energy Comfort 2000 project.
http://erg.ucd.ie/EC2000/download_main.html.
Battle McCarthys. Consulting Engineers & Landscape Architects.
http://www.battlemccarthy.com/.
Double Skin Faades
216
217
10 Discussion and Conclusions
10.1 Introduction
Double Skin Faades were developed mostly in Europe in order to arrive
at increased transparency combining acceptable indoor environment with
reduced energy use. Different literature sources prioritise in a different
way the main goals that can be achieved when choosing this faade type.
Thus, it is important to briefly describe the methodology which should
be followed when designing a faade, in order to optimize the function,
performance and use of the Double Skin Faade System.
First of all, the clients and users have to ask for quality by specifying
performance requirements for the building to be built or refurbished.
Then, the engineer/architect responsible for the faade design should
prioritise the main goals that need to be achieved during the design, con-
struction, and occupation stage of the building. This should be done in
close co-operation with all the other engineers or designers of the build-
ing. The design constraints and parameters can be complicated and often
interact with each other. These parameters and constrains are:
Design constrains are the ones that the designer should take into ac-
count in the early stage of the decision making process, in order to
achieve a more overall approach and to be more accurate in his pre-
dictions avoiding unpleasant surprises that will increase the construc-
tional or operating costs. These are:
Climate (solar radiation, outdoor temperature, etc)
Site and obstructions of the building (latitude, local daylight avail-
ability, atmospheric conditions, exterior obstructions, ground re-
flectance, etc)
Use of the building (operating hours, occupants tasks, etc)
Building and Design regulations
Double Skin Faades
218
Design parameters are the ones that the designer can influence during
the decision making process. When designing a Double Skin Faade
System, these parameters concern (not given in order of importance)
the:
Design and type of the faade
Structural design of the faade
Geometry of the cavity
Use of the air inside the cavity type of cavity ventilation HVAC
strategy of the entire building
Opening principles of the cavity, the interior and the exterior faade
Type of glazing, shading and lighting devices
Material choice for the panes and the shading devices
Positioning of shading devices
The interaction between these parameters is obvious. The more detailed
the prediction of the interaction of the design parameters is, the more
precise the estimation of the desired performance of the system can be,
leading to better understanding of the system.
In order to ensure that the engineer responsible for the faade design
can achieve desired results, the process should be gradual, iterative and
the approach overall. Thus, after defining the design constructions and
parameters, the main goals that need to be fulfilled should be analyzed.
These concern:
Energy use
During the construction stage (usually 10 to 20% of the total
energy use)
During the occupation stage (usually 80 to 90% of the total
energy use)
Indoor climate
Thermal comfort
Visual comfort
Acoustics
Air quality
Environmental profile of the faade building
Environmental impacts during the construction and demoli-
tion stage
Environmental impacts during the occupation stage
Architectural design
Aesthetics
219
Ergonomic design
Cost
Investment cost
Maintenance cost
Operation cost (see energy use)
After defining the importance of the individual mentioned goals, all the
involved participants (architects, HVAC designers, users, etc) in the project
must together prioritize them.
The main objective of the engineer responsible for the faade design is
to study the design parameters and suggest solutions that respond to the
prioritized expectations, in order to optimize the efficiency of the sys-
tem.
10.2 Classification of Double Skin Faades
The classification of Double Skin Faades can be crucial for the approach
of the concept of the system. In the existing literature different ways of
classification are mentioned. However, the most common one is to cat-
egorize the faade according to its geometry. The four types mentioned
are:
Multi Storey Faade
Shaft Box Faade
Corridor Faade
Box Window Faade
The opinion of the author is that since the geometry and type of Double
Skin Faades are crucial for the properties of the air inside the cavity,
such a classification can be a good starting point. The function of the
faade and thus the HVAC strategy is closely depending on the tempera-
ture and air flow of the air between the glass layers. The main character-
istics that influence the properties of the air in the cavity are the:
cavity depth
pane type
type and position of shading devices
size and position of the inlet and outlet openings of the cavity
ventilation strategy
Double Skin Faades
220
Repeated simulations when changing these characteristics can provide
useful information for the way that the temperature of the air at different
heights of the cavity changes for different configurations. These
simulations, when different design constraints are considered, can pro-
vide a better understanding of the performance of the system.
As described above, if the designer of the faade is able to understand
the function and the flexibility of the system, considering the prioritised
needs for the building, he can optimize the function of the faade (e.g.
provision of natural ventilation by preheating the air inside the cavity
before it enters into the building, better control of the heat losses of the
faade by changing the size of the cavity openings, etc) and determine
technical details with respect to the mentioned design parameters in or-
der to fulfil the mentioned goals.
It is clear that different classifications can lead to different system so-
lutions. It is very important to be focused on the main goals that have to
be achieved and on the main design constraints that can influence the
sensitivity of the desired performance, in order to make more secure pre-
dictions.
10.3 Design Parameters
In the existing literature, one can find basic information concerning the
structural design of Double Skin Facades. Reports written in Helsinki
Institute of Technology (Laboratory of Steel Structures) provide infor-
mation for construction technologies more oriented to Nordic countries.
The choice of proper pane type and shading devices can be crucial for
the function of the Double Skin Faade system. Different panes can in-
fluence the air temperature and thus the flow in case of a naturally venti-
lated cavity. A choice of panes which leads to preheating of the air inside
the cavity during winter providing natural ventilation with lower energy
use, can lead to overheating problems during the summer. The proper-
ties of the blinds (absorbance, reflection and transmission) and geometry
may also affect the type of air flow in the cavity. As mentioned in the
literature, in large scale projects, it is useful to find proper combinations
of the glazing types and (often) the solar shading devices placed inside
the cavity.
When designing a Double Skin Faade it is important to determine
type, size and positioning of interior and exterior openings of the cavity
since:
221
The type of exterior openings influence the type of air flow and the
air velocity in the cavity (more important in high-rise buildings). The
design of the interior openings is crucial for the air velocity and the
flow indoors and thus the ventilation rate and the thermal comfort of
the occupants.
The size of the openings is crucial for the air flow and the air velocity
and thus for the temperatures in the cavity. Openings that can be
controlled are more expensive but they are very important for the
faade design.
The positioning of the openings influences the type of air flow and
defines the origin and destination of the air inside the cavity. The
design of the faade is directly depended on this aspect since the use
of the air inside the cavity is a part of the decision making process.
The selection of pane types depends on the Double Skin Faade type
(depth and height of the cavity), the climatic conditions (location of the
building) and the HVAC strategy (natural, fan supported or mechanical
ventilation of the cavity). As described in the literature it is possible to
use Low-E coated, Solar Control, or other types of glazing units instead
of clear glass. Apart from the physical properties of the panes, their posi-
tioning has a fairly high impact on the cavity properties. For example,
the Low-E coatings as external layers increase the temperature inside the
cavity since they decrease the heat loses to the outside. Although that
during the summer it may be possible to overheat the cavity, during the
winter it is easier to preheat the air supplied into the building. If the
mentioned coating is applied as an interior layer then the heat losses
from the interior of the building to the cavity are decreased and the cav-
ity can maintain better temperatures during the summer but during the
winter the cavity is cooler. Similar interesting results can be concluded if
the double glazed unit is placed as an interior or exterior layer.
The material choice, the geometry and the positioning of the shading
devices are important for the type of air flow, the thermal properties of
the cavity and for the visual comfort of the occupants. As mentioned, it
is very often that the venetian blinds (probably the most popular shading
device used for this faade type) are placed inside the cavity for better
protection. The material properties of the blinds (absorbance, transmit-
tance and reflectance) should be considered in the design stage since they
influence the type of air flow and the thermal properties of the cavity.
Additionally, the exact position of the blinds inside the cavity should be
calculated since the closer the blinds are to the interior pane, the warmer
the inner layer gets, often overheating the part of the cavity between the
blinds and the inner layer during the cooling periods. It is the opinion of
Double Skin Faades
222
the author that it could be worth investigating the possibility of setting
two positions (or more if found necessary) inside the cavity that the blinds
could be placed (moved) during different periods of the year for im-
proved temperatures on the interior surface.
10.4 Building Physics Properties of the
Cavity
If the air flow and thus the temperatures at different heights of the Dou-
ble Skin Faade Cavity are calculated, then the mentioned design param-
eters of the Double Skin Faade can be optimized for efficient perform-
ance. The level of detail in air flow calculations can often be crucial for
the design of Double Skin Facades. On the other hand, the more detailed
the approach is, the more time and effort are needed.
Different approaches are mentioned in the existing literature. Clearly,
the CFD (Computational Fluid Dynamics) simulations are being used
more and more, since they can provide details of the temperature fields
and airflow patterns. This level of detail is important when designing the
cavity. The type of interior and exterior openings, the size and the geom-
etry of intermediate placed shading devices, and the type of ventilation
strategy can influence the type of air flow. Thus, CFD simulations can
provide useful details, decreasing the possibilities of unpredicted mis-
takes during the design stage. However, the airflow simulations are still
difficult. As Jaro! et al. describe, the applicability of the CFD simulation
is still restricted to the relatively simple cases. The authors conclude that
the capabilities of CFD simulation will grow with the increasing capabili-
ties of hardware and software.
Currently, computing programs and numerical models are developed
in order to calculate the air flow in natural ventilated cavities. The de-
tailed level is not high, but if the approximations are correct, useful re-
sults can be concluded. Poirazis et al., (2003) used partly the WIS soft-
ware in order to calculate the air flow and the temperatures of multi
storey Double Skin Facades when different panes are applied. The results
are interesting since the calculations took place for different hours and
temperatures, both with and without blinds and for different cavity in-
lets and outlets. These calculations can be very useful in understanding
how the system reacts in different conditions and how the individual
faade characteristics can interact with each other, influencing the sys-
tem performance. Probably when designing the faade, additional and
223
more detailed information e.g. provided by CFD will be needed, but
certainly more simple approaches can help the designer to understand
the system performance.
In different studies, results from measurements (both from real build-
ings and test rooms) are also presented. Measurements in real buildings
can be very useful. On the other hand, test rooms can provide flexibility
in the design of the faade since different cases can be examined and
compared. Additionally, the measurements in test rooms are also easier
to control and analyze. Both simulations and measurements of Double
Skin Faades are important for a better understanding of the concept.
Thus, a combination of measurements and simulations could definitely
lead to a more overall approach.
10.5 Advantages Disadvantages
In the studied literature different advantages and disadvantages of the
Double Skin Faade system are given, very much depending on location
and type of building. As described above, the mentioned system is com-
plicated. By prioritizing the main goals in a different way, different types
of faades could be suggested. Below, some examples are given, in order
to explain how each construction type influences the performance of the
mentioned system.
Acoustic Insulation
If the building is located in a heavily polluted area with high external
noise levels, then a multi storey double skin faade type is often sug-
gested. The outer layer does not have any openings, in order to avoid
noise transmission (from outdoors to indoors). On the other hand, ex-
actly for the same reason, the room to room noise transmission makes
this type inappropriate when the internal noise levels are high for certain
types of occupation.
The multi storey faade can be appropriate since the quality of the
outdoor air is poor and natural ventilation is avoided. Thus, no preheated
air is inserted in the offices during the heating period. The inlet and
outlet openings can be closed in order to provide additional thermal in-
sulation. However, the ventilation of the cavity is poorer during the sum-
mer months often causing overheating problems.
Double Skin Faades
224
Thermal Insulation
As already described, during the winter the external additional skin pro-
vides improved insulation. The reduced air velocity and the increased
temperature of the air inside the cavity lower the heat transfer rate on the
surface of the glass which leads to reduction of heat losses. This concept
highly depends on the location of the building, on climatic parameters
and on daylight availability. When the energy demand for heating is high,
the box window type can be suggested since the preheated air inside the
cavity can be introduced in the offices and still provide thermal comfort
and low energy use. During the summer, the warm air inside the cavity
can be extracted by mechanical, fan supported or natural ventilation.
Certain faade types may cause overheating problems. In central Eu-
rope the temperatures inside the cavity of a multi storey faade with natural
ventilation will increase dramatically leading to thermal discomfort of
the occupants. In this case fan supported or mechanical ventilation could
be suggested although the energy use would increase. A completely
openable outer layer can solve the overheating problem during the sum-
mer months, but will certainly increase the construction cost.
Natural Ventilation
One of the main advantages of the Double Skin Faade systems is that
they can allow natural (or fan supported) ventilation when possible. As
already mentioned, the selection of Double Skin Faade type can be cru-
cial for temperatures, air velocity, and the quality of the introduced air
inside the building. If designed well, the natural ventilation can lead to
reduction of energy consumption during the occupation stage and im-
prove the comfort of the occupants. It is obvious that each faade type
will preheat the supplied air more or less efficiently. Attention should be
paid in order to avoid systems mixing used and fresh air and thus de-
creasing the quality of the supplied air.
Others
Double Skin Facades can also:
Provide natural night ventilation that is both burglary proof and
protected against the weather
Save energy if designed properly for heating, cooling and lighting
the building
Provide better protection of the shading or lighting devices
Reduce the wind pressure effects
225
It is clear that the design of the system is crucial for the performance of
the building. It is a personal opinion and hypothesis of the author that
the Double Skin Facades can provide improved indoor climate compared
to a single skin faade with respect to the energy use if designed properly.
If the approach is overall and the goals are clear, then the mentioned
system is flexible enough to meet outdoor climatic changes for every type
of building use. Finally, it is necessary to clarify that optimum faade
design demands individual approach in order to determine the interac-
tions between the design parameters for every building case and under-
standing the sensitivity of each system.
Double Skin Faades
226
Summary
227
11 Summary
This report describes the Double Skin Faade concept, the design pa-
rameters, the building physics and finally the optimization of the system
when integrating into office buildings. Examples of buildings are also
described.
11.1 Definition Concept
The Double Skin Faade is a system consisting of two glass skins placed
in such a way that air flows in the intermediate cavity. The ventilation of
the cavity can be natural, fan supported or mechanical. Apart from the
type of the ventilation inside the cavity, the origin and destination of the
air can differ depending mostly on climatic conditions, the use, the loca-
tion, the occupational hours of the building and the HVAC strategy. The
glass skins can be single or double glazing units with a distance from 20
cm up to 2 meters. Often, for protection and heat extraction reasons
during the cooling period, solar shading devices are placed inside the
cavity.
The solar properties of the Double Skin Faade do not differ from the
Single Skin Faade. However, due to the additional skin, a thermal buffer
zone is formed which reduces the heat losses and enables passive solar
gains. During the heating period, the preheated air can be introduced
inside the building providing natural ventilation with retained good in-
door climate. On the other hand, during the summer overheating prob-
lems were mentioned when the faade was poorly ventilated. Different
configurations can result in different ways of using the faade, proving
the flexibility of the system and its adaptability to different climates and
locations.
Double Skin Faades
228
11.2 Classification
The classification of Double Skin Facades differs in the existing litera-
ture.
The most common way of categorization is according to the type
(geometry) of the cavity:
Multi storey Double Skin Faade: In this case no horizontal or
vertical partitioning exists between the two skins. The air cavity
ventilation is attained via openings near the floor and the roof of
the building.
Corridor faade: Horizontal partitioning is created for acoustical,
fire security or ventilation reasons.
Box window type: In this case horizontal and vertical partitioning
divide the faade in smaller and independent boxes.
Shaft box type: In this case a set of box window elements are placed
in the faade. These elements are connected via vertical shafts situ-
ated in the faade. These shafts ensure an increased stack effect.
The classification of the Double Skin Facades can also be made accord-
ing to the:
Type of ventilation
Natural
Fan supported
Mechanical
Origin of the airflow
From inside
From outside
Destination of the airflow
Towards inside
Towards outside
Airflow direction
To the top
To the bottom (only in case of mechanical ventilation)
Width of the air cavity
Narrow (10 - 20 cm)
Wide (0.5 1m)
Summary
229
Partitioning
Horizontal (at the level of each storey)
No horizontal partitioning
Vertical
11.3 Design Parameters
Apart from structural characteristics, the report focuses on the principles
of interior and exterior faade openings and types of panes and solar
shading devices. These two parameters and the geometry of the faade
define the function of the faade.
The most common pane types used for Double Skin Facades are:
The internal skin is often a thermal insulating double pane. The panes
are usually toughened or unhardened float glass. The gaps between
the panes are filled with air, argon or krypton.
The external skin is often a toughened (tempered) single pane. Some-
times it can be a laminated glass instead.
Cases with different panes are also mentioned. Lee et al., (2002) claim
that the most common exterior layer is a heat-strengthened safety glass or
laminated safety glass. The interior faade layer consists of fixed or oper-
able, double or single-pane, casement or hopper windows. Low-emittance
coatings on the interior glass faade reduce radiative heat exchange be-
tween indoors and outdoors (depends on winter/summer case).
Oesterle et al., (2001) suggest that for higher degree of transparency,
flint glass can be used as the exterior layer. Since the number of the layers
and the thickness of the panes are greater than in a single skin construc-
tion, it is really important to maintain a clear faade. The main disad-
vantage in this case is the higher construction costs since the flint glass is
more expensive than the normal one.
If specific safety reasons occur (i.e. bending of the glass or regulations
requiring protection against falling glass), then the toughened, partially
toughened or laminated safety glass can be used.
The shading devices used, are usually horizontal louvres placed inside
the cavity for protection. In the existing literature, there is no extended
description concerning the material and the geometry of the shading
devices. However, it is mentioned that in large scale projects, it is useful
to investigate the material and position inside the cavity of panes and
shading devices. It is also worth considering proper combination of these
two elements in order to reach the desired temperatures.
Double Skin Faades
230
11.4 Building Physics
The calculation of the air flow in a naturally ventilated cavity is necessary
in order to predict the temperatures at different heights. Since natural
ventilation is one of the main goals of this system, it is really important
to ensure an acceptable indoor climate, when introducing the air of the
cavity inside the offices. In the existing literature, results for air velocities
and temperatures inside the cavity are given as a result of:
Simulating the Double Skin Faade system using existing software
Developing numerical models
Building energy balance models
Zonal airflow network models
Computational Fluid Dynamics (CFD) models
Measurements in real buildings
Measurements in test rooms
There are different ways to calculate the air flow inside the cavity. Some
of the most important works are briefly mentioned below:
Arons, (2000) has developed a (two dimensional) simplified numeri-
cal model of a typical Double Skin Faade. The purpose of the model
is to predict the energy performance of multiple types of Double Skin
Facades.
Gan, (2001) presented in an article a numerical method that he de-
veloped for the prediction of thermal transmittance of multiple glaz-
ing based on Computational Fluid Dynamics.
A two-dimensional numerical model for single storey multiple-skin
facades with mechanical as well as natural ventilation was developed
by Saelens, (2002) in his PhD thesis.
Hensen, et al. (2002) give an overview of the methodology of a design
study in order to calculate the properties inside the Double Skin Faade
Cavity (temperatures, airflow, etc), using a network approach fully
integrated in a building thermal energy model.
Manz presented in 2003 an article concerning the development of a
numerical simulation model of heat transfer by natural convection in
cavities of faade elements.
Manz and Simmler, (2003) presented an experimental and numerical
study of a mechanically ventilated double glass faade with an inte-
grated shading device. Optical properties were calculated and a tran-
sient 2D computational fluid dynamic model was developed. The
computing program FLOVENT was used for the CFD simulations.
Summary
231
Poirazis et al., (2003) studied 4 different types (panes) of Double Skin
Facades and calculated the temperatures at different heights of the
cavity and for each layer. The calculations were made partly using two
computer programs (WIS and MathCAD) and partly implementing
their own numerical model.
Grabe, (2002) presented a paper which deals with the development
and validation of a simulation algorithm for the temperature behav-
iour and the flow characteristics of double facades.
Todorovic and Maric (1998) developed a model for estimating the
inter-space air temperature and the associated cooling/heating load
per hour. Calculations are made for specific double-faade construc-
tions designed for the climatic conditions of mid-latitude Europe (45
N).
Saelens and Hens, (2001) presented a numerical model that evaluates
the thermal behaviour of active envelopes showed and comparisons
with in situ measurements. The numerical model was implemented
in an energy simulation program, and an annual energy simulation
was carried out for a selected number of active envelope typologies.
Shiou Li, (2001) presented a protocol for experimentally determin-
ing the performance of a south facing double glass envelope system.
Two modular full-scale double glazed window models with naturally
or mechanically assisted ventilation were constructed and monitored
for a range of weather conditions. The goals of this investigation were
to develop and apply the test protocol and to monitor and analyze the
thermal performance of these two systems and to improve the under-
standing of the double faade system.
11.5 Advantages Disadvantages
The advantages and disadvantages of the Double Skin Faade system for
different locations and buildings mentioned in the existing literature are
described briefly below:
11.5.1 Advantages
Lo Lo Lo Lo Low ww wwer constr er constr er constr er constr er construction cost uction cost uction cost uction cost uction cost compared to solutions that can be provided by
the use of electrochromic, thermochromic or photochromic panes (their
properties change according to climatic or environmental conditions).
Double Skin Faades
232
A AA AAcoustic insulation: coustic insulation: coustic insulation: coustic insulation: coustic insulation: In view of some authors the sound insulation
can be one of the most important reasons to use a Double Skin Faade.
Reduced internal noise levels inside an office building can be achieved by
reducing both the transmission from room to room (internal noise pol-
lution) and the transmission from outdoor sources i.e. heavy traffic (ex-
ternal noise pollution). The type of the Double Skin Faade and the
number of openings can be really critical for the sound insulation con-
cerning the internal and the external noise pollution.
Thermal insulation: Thermal insulation: Thermal insulation: Thermal insulation: Thermal insulation: During the winter the external additional skin
provides improved insulation. The reduced speed of the air flow and the
increased temperature of the air inside the cavity lower the heat transfer
rate on the surface of the glass which leads to reduction of heat losses.
During the summer the warm air inside the cavity can be extracted by
mechanical, fan supported or natural ventilation. Certain faade types
can cause overheating problems. However, a completely openable outer
layer can solve the overheating problem during the summer months, but
will certainly increase the construction cost.
N NN NNight time v ight time v ight time v ight time v ight time ventilation: entilation: entilation: entilation: entilation: During the hot summer days, the interior
spaces can easily be overheated. In this case, it may be energy saving to
pre-cool the offices during the night using natural ventilation. The in-
door temperatures will then be lower during the early morning hours
providing thermal comfort and improved air quality for the occupants.
E EE EEnergy savings and r nergy savings and r nergy savings and r nergy savings and r nergy savings and reduced envir educed envir educed envir educed envir educed environmental impacts: onmental impacts: onmental impacts: onmental impacts: onmental impacts: In principle,
Double Skin Faades can save energy when properly designed. Often,
when the conventional insulation of the exterior wall is poor, the savings
that can be obtained with the additional skin can be important.
B BB BBetter pr etter pr etter pr etter pr etter protection of the shading or lighting devices: otection of the shading or lighting devices: otection of the shading or lighting devices: otection of the shading or lighting devices: otection of the shading or lighting devices: Since the shad-
ing or lighting devices are placed inside the intermediate cavity of the
Double Skin Facades they are protected both from wind and rain.
R RR RReduction of the wind pr eduction of the wind pr eduction of the wind pr eduction of the wind pr eduction of the wind pressur essur essur essur essure effects: e effects: e effects: e effects: e effects: The Double Skin Facades
around high rise buildings can serve to reduce the effects of wind pres-
sure.
T TT TTranspar ranspar ranspar ranspar ransparency ar ency ar ency ar ency ar ency architectural design: chitectural design: chitectural design: chitectural design: chitectural design: In almost all the literature, the
desire of the architects to use larger glazed facades is mentioned.
N NN NNatural v atural v atural v atural v atural ventilation: entilation: entilation: entilation: entilation: One of the main advantages of the Double Skin
Faade systems is that they can allow natural (or fan supported) ventila-
tion. Different types can be applied in different climates, orientations,
locations and building types in order to provide fresh air before and dur-
ing the working hours. The selection of Double Skin Faade type can be
crucial for temperatures, the air velocity, and the quality of the intro-
Summary
233
duced air inside the building. If designed well, the natural ventilation
can lead to reduction of energy consumption during the occupation stage
and improved comfort.
Thermal comfor Thermal comfor Thermal comfor Thermal comfor Thermal comfort temperatur t temperatur t temperatur t temperatur t temperatures of the internal wall: es of the internal wall: es of the internal wall: es of the internal wall: es of the internal wall: Since the air
inside the Double Skin Faade cavity is warmer (compared to the out-
door air temperature), the interior part of the faade can maintain tem-
peratures that are more close to the thermal comfort levels during the
heating period (compared to the single skin facades). On the other hand,
during the summer it is really important that the system is well designed
so as the temperatures inside the cavity will not increase dramatically.
F FF FFir ir ir ir ire escape: e escape: e escape: e escape: e escape: The glazed space of a Double Skin Faade may be used as
a fire escape.
Lo Lo Lo Lo Low U-V w U-V w U-V w U-V w U-Value and g-v alue and g-v alue and g-v alue and g-v alue and g-value: alue: alue: alue: alue: Two advantages of the Double Skin Faades
are the low thermal transmission (U-value) and the low solar heat gain
coefficient (g-value).
11.5.2 Disadvantages
H HH HHigher constr igher constr igher constr igher constr igher construction uction uction uction uction costs costs costs costs costs compared to a conventional faade.
F FF FFir ir ir ir ire pr e pr e pr e pr e protection: otection: otection: otection: otection: There is not yet very clear whether the Double Skin
Facades can be positive or not, concerning the fire protection of a build-
ing. However, some authors mention possible problems caused by the
room to room transmission of smoke in case of fire.
R RR RReduction of r eduction of r eduction of r eduction of r eduction of rentable office space: entable office space: entable office space: entable office space: entable office space: The width of the intermediate
cavity of a Double Skin Faade can vary from 20 cm to two meters. This
results in the loss of useful space. Often the width of the cavity influences
the properties inside it (i.e. the deeper the cavity is, the less heat is trans-
mitted by convection when the cavity is closed) and sometimes the deeper
the cavity is, the more improved thermal comfort conditions are next to
the external walls. Thus, it is quite important to find the optimum depth
of the faade in order to be narrow enough so as not to loose space and
deep enough so as to be able to use the space close to the faade.
A AA AAdditional maintenance and operational costs: dditional maintenance and operational costs: dditional maintenance and operational costs: dditional maintenance and operational costs: dditional maintenance and operational costs: Comparing the
Double Skin and the Single Skin type of faade, one can realize that the
Double Skin type can have higher costs regarding construction, cleaning,
operation, inspection, servicing, and maintenance.
Ov Ov Ov Ov Overheating pr erheating pr erheating pr erheating pr erheating problems: oblems: oblems: oblems: oblems: If the Double Skin Faade system is not prop-
erly designed it is possible that the temperature of the air in the cavity
may increase the overheating of the interior space.
I II IIncr ncr ncr ncr ncreased air flo eased air flo eased air flo eased air flo eased air flow v w v w v w v w velocity elocity elocity elocity elocity inside the cavity, mostly in multi storey-
high types. Considerable pressure differences are mentioned between of-
fices in case of natural ventilation via the cavity.
Double Skin Faades
234
I II IIncr ncr ncr ncr ncreased constr eased constr eased constr eased constr eased construction w uction w uction w uction w uction weight: eight: eight: eight: eight: As it is expected the additional skin
increases the weight of the construction which increases the cost.
D DD DDaylight: aylight: aylight: aylight: aylight: The Double Skin Facades are similar to other types of glazed
facades (i.e. single skin faade). However, Oesterle et al., (2001) describe,
that Double facades cause the reduction of the quantity of light entering
the rooms as a result of the additional external skin.
A AA AAcoustic insulation: coustic insulation: coustic insulation: coustic insulation: coustic insulation: It is possible that sound transmission problems
(room to room or floor to floor) can take place if the faade is not de-
signed properly.
11.6 Conclusions
Double Skin Faades for office buildings were developed mostly in Eu-
rope in order to arrive at increased transparency combining acceptable
indoor environment with reduced energy use. However, some of the lit-
erature sources claim that the main disadvantage of this system is that in
countries with high solar gains the air temperatures inside the cavity are
increased during periods with warm weather, leading to overheating prob-
lems. The thermal discomfort leads to higher energy consumption for
cooling. Thus, according to the opinion of some authors the Double
Skin Facades are not energy efficient.
The truth is that the Double Skin Facades are systems that highly
depend on the outdoor conditions (solar radiation, outdoor tempera-
ture, etc) since they allow the outside conditions to influence the indoor
climate. Thus, it is obvious that each Double Skin Faade has to be de-
signed for a certain building location and faade orientation otherwise
the performance of the system will not be satisfactory. The constraining
parameters that have to be taken into account in the early design stage
are:
Climate (solar radiation, outdoor temperature, etc)
Site and obstructions of the building (latitude, local daylight avail-
ability, atmospheric conditions, exterior obstructions, ground reflect-
ance, etc)
Use of the building (operating hours, occupants tasks, etc)
Building and design regulations
The design parameters that have to be studied in order to improve the
faade performance and ensure reduced energy use and good indoor en-
vironment are:
Summary
235
Design and type of the faade
Structural design of the faade
Geometry of the cavity
Use of the air inside the cavity type of cavity ventilation HVAC
strategy
Opening principles of the cavity, the interior and the exterior faade
Type of glazing, shading and lighting devices
Material choice for the panes and the shading devices
Positioning of shading devices
It is really important to understand the performance of the Double Skin
Faade by studying the physics inside the cavity. The geometry of the
faade influences the air flow and thus the temperatures at different heights
of the cavity. Different panes and shading devices result in different physi-
cal properties. The interior and exterior openings can influence the type
of flow and the air temperatures of the cavity. All together these param-
eters determine the use of the Double Skin Faade and the HVAC strat-
egy that has to be followed in order to succeed in improving the indoor
environment and reducing the energy use.
The individuality of the faade design is the key to a high perform-
ance. It is necessary for the design approach to be overall considering the
faade as an integrated part of the building and detailed enough in order
to determine all the parameters that will lead to a better performance.
Futher research and development are needed within the following fields:
Development of CFD techniques and simple approaches for predict-
ing the physical properties of the cavity
Feedback from real buildings
Comparison with a partially glazed faade single skin faade
Prediction of energy use for the entire building
Study application in Sweden.
Double Skin Faades
236
References
237
References
Afonso, C., & Oliveira, A. (2000). Solar chimneys: simulation and ex-
periment. Energy and Buildings 32 (2000) 71-79.
Andersen, M., Rubin, M. Powles, R., & Scartezzini, J.-L. (2005). Bi-
directional Transmission Properties of Venetian Blinds: Experimen-
tal Assessment Compared to Ray-Tracing Calculations. Solar Energy,
vol. 78, No. 2, February 2005, 187-198.
Arons, D. (2000). Properties and Applications of Double-Skin Building
Facades. MSc thesis in Building Technology, Massachusetts Institute
of Technology (MIT), USA.
Web address: http://libraries.mit.edu/docs
Arons, D.M.M., & Glicksman, L.R. (2001). Double Skin, Airflow Fa-
cades: will the Popular European Model work in the USA?, Proceed-
ings of ICBEST 2001, International Conference on Building Enve-
lope Systems and Technologies, Ottawa, Canada, vol. 1, pp. 203-
207.
Athienitis, A.K., & Ramadan, H. (2000). Numerical Model of a Build-
ing with Transparent Insulation. Solar Energy, Vol. 67, Nos. 1-3,
101-109, 1999, Great Britain.
Baker, P.H., & McEvoy, M.E. (1999) An Investigation into the Use of a
Supply Air Window as a Heat Reclaim Device. Proceedings CIBSE
A: Building Serv. Eng. Res. Technol. 20(3) 105-112 (1999), Great
Britain
Baker, P.H., & McEvoy, M.E. (2000) Test Cell Analysis of the Use of a
Supply Air Window as a Passive Solar Component. Solar Energy,
vol. 69, No. 2 , 113-130,2000, Great Britain.
Balocco, C. (2002). A Simple Model to Study Ventilated Facades Energy
Performance. Energy and Buildings 34 (2002) 469-475.
Double Skin Faades for Office Buildings
238
Bartk, M., Dunovsk, T., & Hensen, J. (2001). Design Support
Simulations for a Double Skin Faade. Proceedings of the 1st Int.
Conf. on Renewable Energy in Buildings Sustainable Buildings and
Solar Energy 2001, pp. 126-129, Brno, 15-16 November, Brno
University of Technology / Czech Academy of Sciences in Prague,
Czech Republic.
Web address: http://www.bwk.tue.nl/fago/hensen/publications/
01_brno_dskin_design_support.pdf
Belgian Building Research Institute (BBRI) (2002). Source book for a
better understanding of conceptual and operational aspects of active
facades. Department of Building Physics, Indoor Climate and Build-
ing Services, Belgian Building Research Institute. Version n
o
1.
Web address: http://www.bbri.be/activefacades/index2.htm
Beausoleil-Morrison, I. (1999). Modelling Mixed Convection Heat Trans-
fer at Internal Buildings Surfaces, Proceedings of Building Simula-
tion 99, (1), 313-320, Kyoto.
Beausoleil-Morrison, I. (2001). The Adaptive Coupling of Computa-
tional Fluid Dynamics with Whole-Building Thermal Simulation,
Proceedings of Building Simulation 01, (2), 1259-1266, Rio de Ja-
neiro.
Beausoleil-Morrison, I., Clarke, J.A., Denev, J., Macdonald, I.A., Melikov,
A., & Stankov, P. (2001). Further Developments in the Conflation
of CFD and Building Simulation, Proceedings of Building Simula-
tion 01, (2), 1267-1274, Rio de Janeiro.
Boake, T., & Bohren, A. (2001). Case Study Two - Print Media Academy
(94009885). University of Waterloo, School of Architecture.
Web address: http://www.fes.uwaterloo.ca/architecture/faculty_
projects/terri/ds/PMA.pdf
Campbell, N.S., & Whittle, J.K. (1997). Analyzing Radiation Transport
Through Complex Fenestration Systems. Proceedings Building Simu-
lation97, vol.1, 173-180, Prague, Czech Republic.
Champagne, C. (2002). Computational Fluid Dynamics and Double
Skin Facades. Assignment for the Architectural Engineering Com-
puter Labs, Pennsylvania State University, USA
Web address: http://www.arche.psu.edu/courses/ae597J/Champage-
Hw1.pdf
References
239
Chandra, M.V., & Swami, M.V. (1994). Correlations for pressure distri-
bution of buildings and calculation of natural ventilation airflows.
ASHRAE Transactions 94(1).
Chen, Q. (1997). Computational fluid dynamics for HVAC: successes
and failures. ASHRAE Transactions, 103(1), 178-187.
Cho, S.-H., Shin, K.-S., & Zaheer-Uddin, M. (1995). The Effect of Slat
Angle of Windows with Venetian Blinds on Heating and Cooling
Loads of Buildings in South Korea. Energy, Vol. 20, No12, pp. 1225-
1236, Great Britain.
Ciampi, M., Leccese, F., & Tuoni, G. (2003). Ventilated Facades Energy
Performance in Summer Cooling of Buildings. Solar Energy, vol. 75.
Claessens, J., & DeHerte, A. Active Solar Heating and Photovoltaics.
Solar Energy in European Office Buildings. Energy Research Group,
School of Architecture, University College of Dublin, Ireland.
Web address: http://erg.ucd.ie/mid_career/mid_career.html
Compagno, A. (2002). Intelligent Glass Facades (5
th
revised and updated
edition). Berlin: Birkhuser.
Crawley, D. B., Hand, J. W., Kummert, M., Griffith, B.T., (2005). Con-
trasting the capabilities of building energy performance simulation
programs, U.S. Department of Energy.
Crespo, A.M.L. History of the Double Skin Faades.
Web address: http://envelopes.cdi.harvard.edu/envelopes/content/
resources/PDF/doubleskins.pdf
van Dijk, D. H.A.L., & Oversloot, H.P. (2003). WIS, the European Tool
to Calculate Thermal and Solar Properties of Windows and Window
Components. Proceedings of Building Simulation 03, 259-266,
Net herlands.Web address: ht t p:/ / www.ibpsa.org/ PDFs/
BS03%20Papers/BS03_0259_266.pdf
Di Maio, F., & van Paassen, A.H.C. (2000). Second skin faade simula-
tion with Simulink code. International symposium air conditioning
in high rise buildings (Shanghai), s.n.,s.l.,ISBN 2-913149-07-3, cat
c, Projectcode: 06A-V
Ding, W., Hasemi, Y., & Yamada, T. (2004). Natural Ventilation of a
Double-Skin Faade with Solar Chimney. Energy and Buildings Vol.
37, No. 4, 411-418, 2005.
240
Djunaedy, E., Hensen, J.L.M., & Loomans, M.G.L.C. (2002). Towards
a Strategy for Airflow Simulation in Building Design Center for Build-
ing & Systems TNO - TU/e. Technische Universiteit Eindhoven, the
Netherlands.
Web address: http://sts.bwk.tue.nl/erdj/papers/roomvent2002.pdf
Djunaedy, E., Hensen, J.L.M., & Loomans, M.G.L.C. (2003). Develop-
ment of a guideline for selecting a simulation tool for airflow predic-
tion. Proceedings of 8th International IBPSA Conference Building
Simulation03, 267-274, Netherlands
Duffie, J., & Beckman, W. (1991). Solar Engineering of Thermal Proc-
esses. John Wiley & Sons Inc., New York.
Edwards, D.K. (1977). Solar absorption by each element in an absorber-
coverglass array, Solar Energy, vol. 19, pp. 401-402.
Elsner, Dittman (1992/1993). Grundlagen der Technischen Thermo-
dynamik: Band 1 Energielehre und Stoffverhalten, 8th Edition,
Akademie Verlag, Berlin, 1992/1993.
Elsner, Fischer, & Huhn. (1993). Grundlagen der Technischen
Thermodynamik: Band 2 Wrmeubertragung, 8th Edition, Akademie
Verlag, Berlin, 1993.
Faggembauu, D., Costa, M., Soria, M., & Oliva, A. (2003). Numerical
Analysis of the Thermal Behavior of Ventilated Glazed Facades in
Mediterranean Climates. Part I: Development and Validation of a
Numerical Model. Solar Energy 75 (2003) 217-228.
Faggembauu, D., Costa, M., Soria, M., & Oliva, A. (2003). Numerical
Analysis of the Thermal Behavior of Ventilated Glazed Facades in
Mediterranean Climates. Part II: Applications and Analysis of Re-
sults. Solar Energy 75 (2003) 229-239.
Faist, A. P. (1998). Double Skin Walls. Institut de technique du batiment.
Department d Architecture. cole Polytechnique Fdral de Lausanne
(EPFL), Switzerland
Flamant, G., Heijmans N., Guiot E., Gratia E., & Bruyere I. (2004).
Ventilated Double Facades. Determination of the energy perform-
ances of ventilated double facades by the use of simulation integrat-
ing the control aspects Modelling aspects and assessment of the
applicability of several simulation software. Final report, Belgian
Building Research Institute, Dept. of Building Physics, Indoor Cli-
mate and Building Services, December, 2004.
References
241
Gan, G. (2001). Thermal transmittance of multiple glazing: computa-
tional fluid dynamics prediction. Applied Thermal Engineering. 21
(2001) 1583-1592.
Gertis, K. (1999). Sind neuere Fassadenentwickelungen bauphysikalisch
sinnvoll? Teil 2: Glas-Doppelfassaden (GDF) (in German), Bauphysik,
vol. 21, pp. 54-66.
Grabe, J.V. (2002). A prediction tool for the temperature field of double
facades. Energy and Buildings 34 (2002) 891899
Gratia, E., & De Herde, (2004). A Natural cooling strategies efficiency
in an office building with a double-skin faade. Energy and Build-
ings, Vol. 36, No. 11, November 2004, 1139-1152.
Gratia, E., & De Herde, A. (2004). Natural Ventilation in a Double-
Skin Faade. Energy and Buildings 36(2004) 137-146.
Gratia, E., & De Herde, A. (2004). Optimal Operation of a South Dou-
ble-Skin Facade. Energy and Buildings 36(2004) 41-60.
Haddad, K.H., & Elmahdy, A.H. (1998). Comparison of the Monthly
Thermal Performance of a Conventional Window and a Supply-Air
Window, ASHRAE Transactions, vol. 104, Part 1 B, pp. 1261-1270.
Harrison, K., & Meyer-Boake, T. (2003). The Tectonics of the Environ-
mental Skin. University of Waterloo, School of Architecture.
Web address http:/ / www.fes.uwaterloo.ca/ architecture/ faculty
_projects/terri/ds/double.pdf
Hendriksen, O. J., Srensen, H., Svensson, A., & Aaqvist, P. Double
Skin Facades Fashion or a Step towards Sustainable Buildings
Hensen, J.L.M. (2002). Integrated Building (and) airflow Simulation:
an overview. Proceedings from the Ninth International Conference
on Computing in Civil and Building Engineering, Taipei, Taiwan.
02_icccbe_airflow.pdf
Hensen, J.L.M., Bartak, M., & Drkal, F. (2002). Modeling and simula-
tion of double-skin facade systems. ASHRAE Transactions, vol. 108:2,
American Society of Heating, Refrigerating, and Air-Conditioning
Engineers, Atlanta, GA.
02_ashrae_dskin.pdf
Holman, P.J. (1991). Heat Transfer, McGraw-Hill, New York, 1991.
242
Jager, W. (2003). Double Skin Facades Sustainable Concepts. Presenta-
tion of Hydro for Syd Bygg 2003, Malmo, Sweden.
Jaro!, M., Charvt, P., "vork, P., & Gorn#, R. Possibilities of CFD
Simulation of Solar Heated Spaces. Brno University of Technology,
Faculty of Mechanical Engineering. Institute of Power Engineering,
Dept. of Thermodynamics and Environmental Engng, Brno, Czech
Republic.
Web address: http://dt.fme.vutbr.cz/~cfd/solar/paper3.htm
Jaro!,, M., Gorny, R., Katolicky, J., & Sedlak, J. (2002). Numerical and
Experimental Investigation of the Conditions in the Double Solar
Energy Faade. Proceedings: Indoor Air 2002.
Kallioniemi, J. (1999). Joints and Fastenings in Steel-Glass Facades. MSc
thesis in Structural Engineering and Building Physics. Department
of Civil and Environmental Engineering, Helsinki University of Tech-
nology (HUT), Finland
Web address: http://www.hut.fi/Units/Civil/Steel/JKalL-DI.pdf
Karlsson, J., & Roos, A. (2000). Modelling the angular behaviour of the
total solar energy transmittance of windows, Solar Energy, vol. 69,
pp. 321-329.
Kragh, M. (2000).Building Envelopes and Environmental Systems. Pa-
per presented at Modern Faades of Office Buildings Delft Technical
University, the Netherlands
Web address: http:/ / www.permasteelisa.com/ upload/ docs/ pub
_TUD02001.pdf
Kragh, M. (2001). Monitoring of Advanced Facades and Environmental
Systems. Paper presented at the whole-life performance of facades
University of Bath, CWCT, April 2001, Bath, UK
Web address: http://www.bath.ac.uk/cwct/cladding_org/wlp2001/
paper9.pdf
Lee, E., Selkowitz, S., Bazjanac, V., Inkarojrit, V., & Kohler, C. (2002).
High-Performance Commercial Building Faades. Building Technolo-
gies Program, Environmental Energy Technologies Division, Ernest
Orlando Lawrence Berkeley National Laboratory (LBNL), Univer-
sity of California, Berkeley, USA (LBNL 50502)
Web address: http://gaia.lbl.gov/hpbf/documents/LBNL50502.pdf
References
243
Li, Shang-Shiou. (2001). A Protocol to Determine the Performance of
South Facing Double Glass Faade System MSc Thesis in Architec-
ture Submitted to the Faculty of the Virginia Polytechnic Institute
and State University, USA
Web address: http://scholar.lib.vt.edu/theses/available/etd-04212001-
152253/unrestricted/
Liddament, M.V. (1996). A guide to Energy Efficient Ventilation. Air
infiltration and Ventilation Center, University of Warwick.
Lockmanhekin, M. (1975). Procedure for determining Heating and Cool-
ing Loads for Computerized Energy Calculations - Algorithms for
Building Heat Transfer Subroutines. ASHRAE, Atlanta, GA (1975).
Magali, B. (2001). Proposition of climatic faades classification. IEA Task
27 Subtask A, Project A3, Case 2: Double envelope systems . Catho-
lic University of Leuven, Belgium (r-A3-B-1 UCL)
Manz, H., & Simmler, H. (2003). Experimental and numerical study of
a mechanically ventilated glass double faade with integrated shad-
ing device. Proceedings of the Building Physics Conference (2003)
in Belgium.
Manz, H. (2004). Total solar energy transmittance of glass double faades
with free convection, Energy and Buildings, Vol. 36, 2004, 127-136.
Manz, H., & Frank, Th. (2005). Thermal Simulation of Buildings with
Double-Skin Facades. Energy and Buildings, 37 (2005) 1114-1121.
Manz, H., Schaelin, A., & Simmler, H. (2004). Airflow patterns and
thermal behavior of mechanically ventilated glass double faades,
Building and Environment, Vol. 39, 2004, 1023-1033.
Mei, L., Infield, D., Eicker, U., & Fux, V. (2003). Thermal Modeling of
a Building with an Integrated Ventilated PV Faade. Energy and
Buildings 35(2003) 605-617.
Meyer Boake, T., Harrison, K., Collins, D., Balbaa, T., Chatham, A.,
Lee, R., & Bohren, A. The Tectonics of the Double Skin. School of
Architecture, University of Waterloo, USA
Web address: http://www.fes.uwaterloo.ca/architecture/faculty
_projects/terri/ds/tectonic.pdf
Mills, A. (1992). Heat Transfer, Irwing
Mootz, F., & Bezian, J.-J. (1996). Numerical Study of a Ventilated Faade
Panel. Solar Energy, Vol. 57, No 1, 29-36, 1996, Great Britain.
244
Oesterle, E., Lieb, R-D., Lutz, M., & Heusler, W. (2001). Double Skin
Facades Integrated Planning. Prestel Verlag: Munich, Germany
van Paassen, A.H.C., & Stec, W. (2001). Controlled Double Facades
and HVAC. 7th world congress Clima 2000/Napoli 2001, Septem-
ber 15-18 (CD-ROM). Indoor environment technology: towards a
global approach (Napels), REHVA, Brussels, 2001, p. 1-15
Park, C.-S., Augenbroe, G., Sadegh, N., Thitisawat, M., & Messadi, T.
(2003). Occupant Responsive Optimal Control of Smart Facade Sys-
tems. Proceedings of Building Simulation03, August, 2003, Nether-
lands.
Poirazis, H., & Rosenfeld, J.L.J. (2003). Modelling of Double Skin
Faades - Results obtained using WIS, Technical University of Den-
mark (DTU) Sagsrapport SR-03-08, ISSN 1601-8605.
Rheault, S., & Bilgen, E. (1989). Heat Transfer Analysis in an Auto-
mated Venetian Blind Window System. Journal of Solar Energy En-
gineering, vol. 111, No. 1, 89-95.
Rohsenow, W. Hartnett, J., & Ganic, E. (1985). Handbook of Heat Trans-
fer Applications. McGraw-Hill.
Saelens, D., & Hens, H. (1998). Active Envelopes - Essential in Urban
Areas? Proceedings of the 19th AIVC Annual Conference, Ventila-
tion Technologies in Urban Areas, Oslo 28-30 September, pp. 467-
476.
Saelens, D., & Hens, H. (2001), Evaluating the Thermal Performance of
Active envelopes, Proceedings of Performance of Exterior Envelopes
of Whole Buildings VIII: Integration of Building Envelopes,
Clearwater Beach, Florida, pp. 243-247.
Saelens, D., & Hens, H. (2001). Experimental evaluation of naturally
ventilated active envelopes, International Journal of Thermal Enve-
lopes and Building Science, vol. 25, nr. 2, pp. 101-127.
Saelens, D., Carmeliet, J., & Hens, H. (2001). Modeling of Air and
Heat Transport in Active Envelopes, Proceedings of ICBEST 2001,
International Conference on Building Envelope Systems and Tech-
nologies, Ottawa, Canada, pp. 243-247.
Saelens, D. (2002). Energy Performance Assessments of Single Storey
Multiple-Skin Facades. PhD thesis, Laboratory for Building Physics,
Department of Civil Engineering, Catholic University of Leuven,
Belgium.
References
245
Web address: http://envelopes.cdi.harvard.edu/envelopes/content/
resources/pdf/case_studies/PhD_Dirk_Saelens.pdf
Saelens, D., Carmeliet, J., & Hens, H. (2003). Energy performance as-
sessment of multiple skin facades. International Journal of HVAC&R
Research 9 (2): 167-186.
Web address: http://www.bwk.kuleuven.ac.be/bwf/pdf_artikels/
I_J_HVACR_DS_2003.pdf
Saelens, D., Roels, S., & Hens, H. (2003). On the Influence of the Inlet
Temperature in Multiple-Skin Facade Modelling. Proceedings Build-
ing Simulation03, 1139-1146, Netherlands.
Sherman, (1992). Superposition in Infiltration Modelling, Indoor Air
2:101-14.
SIA, (1999). Wrme- und Feuchteshutz im Hochbau, Schweizerischer
Ingenieur- und Architektenverein, Zrich, Switzerland.
Space Modulator architecture magazine, (1999). No. 86. RWE Tower - a
New Phase of Ecological and High-tech
Web address: http://www.nsg.co.jp/spm/sm81~90/sm86_contents/
sm86_e_index.html
Stec, W., & van Paassen, A.H.C. Integration of the Double Skin Faade
with the buildings, Energy in Built Environment, Energy Technol-
ogy, TU Delft, Mekelweg 2, 2628 CD, Delft, The Netherlands.
Stec, W., & van Paassen, A.H.C. (2003). Defining the Performance of
the Double Skin Facade with the Use of the Simulation Model. Pro-
ceedings of Building Simulation 03, 1243-1250, Netherlands.
Straube, J. F., & Straaten, R.V. The technical Merit of Double Skin Fa-
cades for office Buildings in cool humid climates. School of Archi-
tecture, University of Waterloo, USA
Web address: http:/ / www.civil.uwaterloo.ca/ beg/ Downloads/
DoubleFacadesPaper.pdf
Strigner, R., & Janak, M. (2001). Computer simulation of ventilated
double-skin faade of the metropolitan library in Brno, Proceedings
1st Int. Conf. on Renewable Energy in Buildings, Sustainable Build-
ings and Solar Energy 2001, Brno University of Technology/ Czech
Academy of Sciences in Prague, pp. 134-137.
246
Takemasa, Y., Hiraoka, M., Katoh, M., Tsukamoto, H., Tanabe, M., &
Tanaka, H. (2004). Performance of Hybrid Ventilation System Us-
ing Double-Skin Faade and Vertical Airshaft. KaiTRI Annual Re-
port, vol.52, Japan. Web address: http://www.kajima.co.jp/tech/katri/
technical/annualj/vol_52/pdf/52-33.pdf
Tanimoto, J., & Kimura, K. (1997). Simulation study on an air flow
window system with an integrated roll screen, Energy and Buildings,
vol. 26, pp. 317 - 325.
Tenhunen, O., Lintula, K., Lehtinen, T., Lehtovaara, J., Viljanen, M.,
Kesti1, J., & Mkelinen, P. (2002). Double Skin Facades - Struc-
tures and Building Physics. Laboratory of Steel Structures, Building
Technology, Department of Architecture, Laboratory of Structural
Engineering and Building Physics, Lighting Laboratory. Helsinki
University of Technology, Finland
Web address: http://www.hut.fi/Units/Civil/Steel/9NSCC.PDF
Todorovic, B., & Maric, B. The influence of double faades on building
heat losses and cooling loads. Faculty of Mechanical Engineering,
Belgrade University, Belgrade, Yugoslavia.
Web address: http:/ / www.rcub.bg.ac.yu/ ~todorom/ tutorials/
rad31.html
Uuttu, S. (2001). Study of Current Structures in Double-Skin Facades.
MSc thesis in Structural Engineering and Building Physics. Depart-
ment of Civil and Environmental Engineering, Helsinki University
of Technology (HUT), Finland.
Web address: http://www.hut.fi/Units/Civil/Steel/SINI2.PDF
Viljoen, A., Dubiel, J., Wilson, M., & Fontoynont, M. (1997). Investi-
gation for improving the Daylighting potential of Double Skinned
office buildings. Solar Energy 59 (1997) 179-194.
Wang, F., Davies, M., Cunliffe, B., & Heath, P. (1999). The Design of
Double Skin Faade: Modelling Study on some Design Parameters
Affecting Indoor Thermal Conditions. Proceedings CIBSE National
Conference, 1999, 540-567.
Warren, M.R., James, P.H., & Young, I.C. (1998). Handbook of Heat
Transfer, 3rd Edition, Mc Graw-Hill, 1998.
Zllner, A., Winter, E.R.F., & Viskanta, R. (2002). Experimental Stud-
ies of Combined Heat Transfer in Turbulent Mixed Convection fluid
Flows in Double-Skin-Facades. International Journal of Heat and
Mass Transfer 45 (2002) 4401-4408.
References
247
248
This report is a product of a joint effort between International Energy
Agency Solar Heating and Cooling (IEA SHC) Task 34 and Energy
Conservation in Buildings and Community Systems (ECBCS) Annex
43. Ron Judkoff of the National Renewable Energy Laboratory (NREL)
was the Operating Agent for IEA 34/43 on behalf of the United States
Department of Energy.
This report is based on the Literature review report Double Skin
Facades for office buildings, written by Harris Poirazis at Lund
University, in the Division of Energy and Building Design, Department
of Architecture and Built Environment. The main aim of the report is to
describe the concept of Double Skin Faades based on different
sources of literature. The literature survey covers a brief description of
the concept, history and common Double Skin Faade types and
classifications. A technical description including construction param-
eters, (faade) opening principles and choice of panes and shading
devices is also given. The possibilities and limitations of the system
are described and the advantages and disadvantages are presented.
In order to serve as a literature report for Task 34/Annex 43 an exten-
sive description of modelling approaches and methods for DSF is
included covering modelling issues including airflow and thermal
simulations. Daylight simulations control strategies are also discussed.
Finally, roughly 50 case studies are briefly described.

Annex 43 Task34-Double Skin Facades A Literature Review

Uploaded by

Copyright:

Available Formats

Annex 43 Task34-Double Skin Facades A Literature Review

Uploaded by

Document Information

Original Title

Copyright

Available Formats

Share this document

Share or Embed Document

Sharing Options

Did you find this document useful?

Is this content inappropriate?

Copyright:

Available Formats

Annex 43 Task34-Double Skin Facades A Literature Review

Uploaded by

Copyright:

Available Formats

xxxxx

v = mean air velocity in the cavity [m/s]

You might also like