ELEC 382 ELECTRONIC COMMUNICATIONS Chapter 9: Wired Digital Communications Communication Links and Protocols Some of the earliest

forms of electrical communications like telegraph used coding to send messages rather than direct transmission of voice. Again with advances in technology, digital communication is the promise to help ease the problems of overcrowded voice transmission facilities. The future will certainly bring more and more coded speech, transmitted in digital format because of the following advantages: 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. Less sensitive to noise, Less crosstalk (cochannel interference), Lower distortion levels, Faded signals more easily regenerated, Greater transmission efficiency

Coding is transforming messages or signals in accordance with a definite set of rules. There are many different codes available for use and most of the coding systems use two levels like a binary system. Communication Protocols (applied to both analog and digital systems): 1. Simplex: Communication is in one direction only. 2. Half Duplex: Communication is in both directions but only one can talk at a time. 3. Full-duplex: Both parties can talk at the same time. Synchronous Communication: The transmit and receive data clocks are locked together. Asynchronous Communication: The transmit and receive data clocks are not locked together. Protocol Functions: To maintain order during the interchange of data, rules to control the process are necessary. Initially, procedures, allowing orderly interchange between a central computer and remote sites were needed. These rules and procedures were called handshaking. As the complexity of data communication system is increased, the need grew for more. A protocol is a set of rules designed to force the devices sharing a channel to observe orderly communication procedures. Protocols have four major functions: 1. Framing: Data are normally transmitted in blocks. The framing function deals with the separation of blocks into the information (text) and the control sections. A maximum block size is dictated by the protocol. Each block will normally contain information such as an address field to indicate the intended recipient(s) of the data and block check character (BCC) for error detection. 2. Line Control is the procedure to decide which device has permission to transmit at any given time. In a simple full duplex system, with just two devices, line control is not necessary. However, systems with three or more devices, line control is obviously not necessary. However, systems with three or more devices (multipoint circuits) require line control. 3. Flow Control: Often, there is a limit to the rate at which a receiving device can accept data. Flow control is the protocol to monitor and control these rates

4. Sequence Control keeps message blocks from being lost or duplicated and ensures that they are received in the proper sequence. This is necessary for complex systems where a message must pass through numerous links before it reaches its final destination.

Example, Bit-oriented protocols (BOPs) use frame made up of well-defined fields between 8-bit start and stop flags. A flag is fixed in both length and pattern.

Figure 9-3 Bit-oriented protocol format, SDLC frame format 9.6. Delta and Pulse Modulation: Delta Modulation, sometimes called slope modulation is a digital coding system. It transmits information to indicate whether the analog signal it encodes is to go up or go down as shown in Figure 9-11. The system will work very well for slowly varying signals such as voice signals.

Figure 9-11 Linear delta modulation A delta modulator schematic is shown in Figure 9-12 A. A demodulator would consist of an integrator (just like the one in Figure 9-12) followed by a sharp-cutoff low-pas filter. The integrator output would look like the wavef orm in B. The filter smooths it out to provide the final analog signal. The major advantage of delta modulation is its simplicity. A difficulty faced by these systems is slope overload. When the analog signal has a high rate of change, the delta modulator can fall behind and a distorted output results.

Figure 9-12 Delta Modulator

Figure 9-13 Demodulation circuit for delta modulator Pulse Modulation Methods: There are four basic forms of pulse modulation: 1. Pulse-amplitude modulation (PAM) The PAM signal is a series of constant-width pulses whose amplitudes vary in accordance with the analog signal.

2. Pulse-width modulation (PWM) The PWM signal is binary in amplitude (has only two levels). The information signal varies the width or time duration of the pulse. 3. Pulse-position modulation (PPM) In PPM, the pulses change position according to the amplitude of the analog signal. 4. Pulse-code modulation (PCM). .. Of the four types of pulse modulation, PAM is the simplest and least expensive to implement. In all three cases, the analog signal is sampled, as it would be in A/D conversion.

Fig 9-14 Types of Pulse Modulation The most widely used technique for digitizing information signals for electronic data transmission is pulse-code modulation (PCM). PCM signals are serial digital data. There are two ways to generate: 1. Use an S/H circuit and traditional A/D converter to sample and convert the analog signal into a sequence of binary words, convert the parallel binary words into serial form, and transmit the data serially. 2. Use a delta modulator.

In traditional PCM, the analog signal is sampled and converted into a sequence of parallel binary words by an A/D converter. The parallel binary output word is converted into a serial signal by a shift register. Each time a sample is taken, an 8-bit word is generated by the A/D converter. This word must be transmitted serially before another sample is taken and another word is generated. The clock and start conversion signals are synchronized so that the resulting output signal is a continuous train of binary words. Data Transmission via AM The most elementary form of transmitting highs and lows is simply to key a transmitters carrier on and off. The carrier is conveying the intelligence by simply turning it on or off according to a prearranged code. This type of transmission is called continuous wave (CW) or interrupted continuous wave (ICW)

Figure 9-22 CW waveform The steep sides of the waveform are rich in harmonic content. This requires the channel bandwidth for transmission to be extremely wide or else adjacent channel interference would occur. The situation is remedied by use of an LC filter as shown in Figure 9-23. The filter is known as a keying filter and is also effective in blocking the radio frequency interference (RFI), generated by the arcing of the key contacts, from being transmitted.

Figure 9-23 Keying Filter and resulting waveform

Figure 9-24 Two tone Modulation System (AM) Two-Tone Modulation: Two-tone modulation is a form of AM, but in it the carrier is always transmitted. Instead of simply turning the carrier on and off, the carrier is amplitude-modulated by two different frequencies representing either a one or zero. The telegraphy system on Figure 9-24 is an example. When the carrier is keyed, the carrier is modulated by 470-Hz signal (1 condition); it is modulated by a 300-Hz signal for the 0 condition. At the receiver, after detection either 300- or 470-Hz signals are present. A 470-Hz bandpass filter provides an output for the 1 condition that makes the output high whenever 470 Hz is present and low otherwise.

Example 9-6: The two-tone modulation system in Figure 9-24 operates with a 10-MHz carrier. Determine all possible transmitted frequencies and the required bandwidth for this system.

ELEC 382 Electronic Communications Lab 13: Pulse Width Modulation

The input voltage in the circuit is adjusted with the pot and measured with the multimeter. Output of the comparator in the circuit is a periodic pulse whose width depends on the input voltage amplitude. Experimental Work: 1- Open the file PulseWMod file in MULTISIM. Adjust the input voltage to zero volts. Turn on the circuit and verify that the voltage is zero volts. If the voltage is not zero volts adjust it to zero volts using the pot. 2- Measure the pulse width and write it to the line with zero volt input voltage on the table below. Input voltage (volts) Pulse width at the output

0.0

3- Change the input values to three values between 0 volts and -5 volts using the pot. Write the input voltage and the output pulse width values to the table above. 4- Repeat step 3 for three voltages between 0 volts and +5 volts. 5- Sketch variation of the output pulse width with the input voltage on a graph.

6- As the input voltage increases the pulse width becomes smaller. What can you change in the circuit so that the pulse width becomes larger as you increase the input voltage?

7- Remove the multimeter, +12-source and -12-volt source. Connect the negative input of the comparator to an AC voltage source with 12-volt amplitude and 30 Hz frequency. Observe the input and the output voltages on the scope screen. Comment on the results.

8- Can you convert the output to an optical (light) signal? How?

9- How can the light signal you generated be received and converted to a sinusoidal circuit again?

Good luck Dr. Ahmet Turkmen

ELEC 382 Homework 6: Choose the one alternative that best completes the statement or answers the question. 1) A two-tone amplitude modulation system uses 400 Hz for a "one" and 550 Hz for a "zero" and a carrier frequency of 9.35 MHz. The required bandwidth for this communication channel is: A) 950 Hz B) 400 Hz. C) 1100 Hz D) 550 Hz E) 800 Hz 2) A certain language has 18 letters in its alphabet. How many bits are required to represent the 18 letters? A) 5 B) 4 C) 6 D) 3 3) Another name for delta modulation is ______________________. A) slope modulation B) codec C) pulse modulation D) all of the above 4) Which is not an advantage of digital data communication systems over analog communications? A) They eliminate errors in the received signal B) They have narrower bandwidths C) They have superior noise performance D) They have the ability to process the signal at the transmitter and receiver using digital signal processing techniques 5) Which of the following is not a major protocol function? A) flow control B) character insertion C) framing

D) line control

6) In ______________ protocol data flow is in one direction only. A) Half duplex B)Full duplex C) handshaking D) simplex 7) The other name of delta modulation is ________________________ A) PPM B) PWM C) Slope Modulation D) Linear Modulation 8) The high frequency components in interrupted continuous wave can be eliminated with a sharp A) knife B) saw D) filter D) demodulator 9) ____________________ protocol keeps message blocks from being lost or duplicated and ensures that they are received in the proper sequence. A) Flow Control B) Sequence Control D) Framing D) line Control 10) Position of a pulse changes according to the amplitude of the analog signal in ______________ system. A) PWMB) PAM C) PCM D) PPM 11) __________________ signal is a series of constant-width pulses whose amplitudes vary in accordance with the analog signal. A) PWMB) PAM C) PCM D) PPM 12) ______________ system generates a binary signal (with only two levels). The information signal varies the width or time duration of the pulse. A) PWM B) PAM C) PCM D) PPM 13) In a _______________ system, the input voltage value appears as a series port binary signal. A) PWMB) PAM C) PCM D) PPM

Good luck Dr. Ahmet Turkmen