Astronomy - February 2014

Searching for SMART LIFE around SMALL STARS
p. 28
OUR SUNS FATE
NEW LIGHT ON
p. 44
FEBRUARY 2014
The worlds best-selling astronomy magazine
Explore Titans strange rivers

p. 22
SPECIAL REPORT
Comet ISONs best photos

AND MORE
p. 50
Beautiful Saturn makes an impressive backdrop for the giant haze-shrouded moon Titan.
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Pushing the limits of astrophotography p. 52

What cosmic dust teaches us p. 56 Discover open star clusters p. 62
BONUS ONLINE CONTENT CODE p. 4
Vol. 42
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ON THE COVER
The giant moon Titan appears in silhouette against Saturns cloud tops and edge-on rings.
FEATURES
CONTENTS
44 New light on our Suns fate
The Sun will lose 46 percent of its mass before becoming a carbon and oxygen cinder in 6.5 billion years. Heres how astronomers know its destiny. JASON KALIRAI Tiny particles in the solar system may answer some of its biggest questions.
MEENAKSHI WADHWA
22
56 What are we learning from cosmic dust?
COLUMNS
Strange Universe 11
BOB BERMAN
22 COVER STORY Does methane flow on Titan?

Scientists are eager to prove that the river valleys and streambeds on Saturns largest moon carry liquid methane to its vast lakes.
ROBERT ZIMMERMAN
Secret Sky 14
STEPHEN JAMES OMEARA
Observing Basics 18
GLENN CHAPLE
Astro Sketching 65
ERIKA RIX
Cosmic Imaging 66
TONY HALLAS
28 Searching for smart life around small stars

Researchers have set their sights on red dwarfs in hopes of making a big discovery. SETH SHOSTAK
50 Comet ISONs opening act

The most anticipated comet in decades got off to a good start.
MICHAEL E. BAKICH
60 Astronomy tests Levenhuks new refractor

The Ra R110 ED Doublet OTA offers high-quality optics, good portability, and nice styling all at a great price. TOM TRUSOCK
QUANTUM GRAVITY
Snapshot 9 Breakthrough 10 Astro News 12
34 Ask Astro
An iron meteorite on Mars.
52 Where other astrophotographers fear to tread

THOMAS V. DAVIS is committed to shedding light on the dusty, dark parts of the universe through his portraits of nebulae.
IN EVERY ISSUE
From the Editor 6 Letters 11, 66 New Products 67 Web Talk 67 Reader Gallery 68 Advertiser Index 73 Final Frontier 74
36 The Sky this Month 38 StarDome and Path of the Planets

Visit Astronomy.com/toc for bonus material its exclusive to Astronomy magazine subscribers.
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62 Explore the Trumpler classes of clusters

Since 1930, astronomers have divided the thousands of open clusters into 36 types. Find out what makes them different.
MICHAEL E. BAKICH
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FROM THE EDITOR

BY D AV I D J . E I C H E R
The realization of comets
Editor David J. Eicher Art Director LuAnn Williams Belter

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EDITORIAL ADVISORY BOARD
omet ISON (C/2012 S1) is now a memory, and weve begun publishing some galleries of the best images readers shot of it (see p. 50). Humans didnt know what comets were or how they moved until the time of Isaac Newton in the 17th century. When it came to progress in understanding comets, few eras could match the meaning of Newtons renewed interest in the subject that accompanied the comet that would variously come to be known as C/1680 V1, the Great Comet of 1680, or Kirchs Comet. This, the first comet to be found telescopically, made a huge impact on the interpretation of comets. Newton observed the comet and calculated details of its physical nature. At first, he believed comets seen in November and December 1680 were two different objects on different sides of the Sun moving on rectilinear paths. But after seeing correspondence about the comet between his colleagues John Flamsteed and Edmond Halley, Newton began to ponder this comet seriously. On February 28, 1681, Newton still believed that the November and December observations represented two objects. He offered some advice on what he thought was Flamsteeds incorrect
conclusion that the observations were of the same comet, but with the object having moved to the other side of the Sun. He pointed out that magnetism could not be responsible for pulling the comet around the Sun because a red-hot lodestone loses its magnetism, and the Sun is certainly quite warm. Newton argued that if the observations represented the
Comet ISON (C/2012 S1) imaged in late October 2013. DAMIAN PEACH
same comet, then it would have had to undergo rapid acceleration and deceleration, which wouldnt make sense. But Newton had been using the observations that were available, and some were flawed. When he replied on March 7, 1681, Flamsteed corrected the erroneous observations and suggested that the Suns magnetism might not be like that of a lodestone. Newton held on but began to convert to the one-comet hypothesis. Three years later, Newton had come to accept the idea that comets travel in closed
elliptical orbits. It was partly for the purpose of explaining cometary orbits that he set about to produce his masterwork on gravity and allied subjects, Mathematical Principles of Natural Philosophy, in 1687. None other than Edmond Halley underwrote the publication. In the last of the works three substantial books, Newton outlined his method for determining the parabolic orbits of comets. He employed three identical observations that were nearly evenly spaced in time. As an example, he provided the details for his analysis of the orbit of the Great Comet of 1680. The method was still somewhat crude relative to modern precision, but now completely correct in spirit and analytical approach. Fred Whipple, the man who defined what comets are, was not born yet. But in 1,700 years, philosophers, astrologers, and astronomers had gone from pure superstition and speculation on the nature of comets to a mathematical understanding of them and their place among other celestial bodies. Yours truly,
Buzz Aldrin, Marcia Bartusiak, Timothy Ferris, Alex Filippenko, Adam Frank, John S. Gallagher lll, Daniel W. E. Green, William K. Hartmann, Paul Hodge, Anne L. Kinney, Edward Kolb, Stephen P. Maran, Brian May, S. Alan Stern, James Trefil
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David J. Eicher Editor
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Q G
HOT BYTES >>
TRENDING TO THE TOP
SNAPSHOT
EVERYTHING YOU NEED TO KNOW ABOUT THE UNIVERSE THIS MONTH . . .

IDENTIFY A CAUSE Research in the October 3 issue of Nature suggests an ancient volcanic eruption instead of an impact formed the Eden Patera Basin on Mars. HEAVY METAL Astronomers report in the October 31 issue of Nature their discovery that iron is uniform across the Perseus Galaxy Cluster, some 11 million light-years wide.
QUANTUM GRAVITY
MAGNETIC CLOUD The Smith Cloud has a magnetic eld that may help it survive its future Milky Way collision, say scientists November 1 in The Astrophysical Journal.
Charles Messier and comets

One of historys comet lovers is remembered for something else.
French astronomer Charles Messier (17301817), who was born in Badonviller, Lorraine, and died in Paris, spent much of his career targeting comets. Messier was lured into astronomy by his excitement at seeing the Great Comet of 1744, with its multiple tails, and by observations of an annular eclipse of the Sun in 1748. And it was the return of Halleys Comet in 1759 that played a critical role in pushing Messier forward into his studies and cataloging of comets and cometlike objects. Not only was Messier greatly interested in observing comets, but he also was repeatedly irritated by running across objects in his eyepieces that appeared like comets but did not move relative to the stars fixed objects that could be confused with comet discoveries. So he set about creating a list of these celestial nuisances and published it in the 1771 Mmoires de l Acadmie, which was actually printed in 1774. This publication contained a list of 45 objects, from the Crab Nebula (M1) in Taurus to the Pleiades star cluster (M45). The so-called Messier catalog became the gold standard for observers of star clusters, nebulae, and galaxies (although the nature of galaxies would not be known until 1923), despite the fact that Messier created it as a nuisance list of things to avoid for potential comet discoverers. The Crab Nebula (M1) in Taurus became the first object Charles Messier listed in his catalog of non-cometary bodies that could
David J. Eicher
be confused with comets. Today, the so-called Messier catalog is the best listing of bright deep-sky objects for observers.
BOB FERA (CRAB NEBULA); BILL SAXTON, NRAO/AUI/NSF (MAGNETIC CLOUD); NASA/JPL/GSFC (IDENTIFY A CAUSE); CANADA-FRANCE-HAWAII TELESCOPE/COELUM (HEAVY METAL)
THROUGH
A colorful menagerie
Many people think of globular star clusters as old and boring. The old part is true, but this recent Hubble image of M15 in Pegasus shows boring should not be part of our globular vocabulary. This dense cluster lies some 35,000 light-years from Earth and contains more than 100,000 stars. The brightest ones are relatively cool red giants that glow with a golden hue. The hottest stars shine with a striking bluish color. Hubbles Wide Field Camera 3 and Advanced Camera for Surveys captured this image through filters sensitive to infrared, optical, and ultraviolet light. NASA/ESA
BREAK
10
STRANGEUNIVERSE
BY B O B B E R M A N
FROM OUR INBOX

Planetary prediction
The article Top 10 exoplanets in the October 2013 issue makes much of the confusing array of solar systems and how surprised many astronomers were to find that exosystems dont reflect our assumptions about planet formation. Isnt it likely that planet formation is a chaotic process (in the mathematical sense)? Perhaps sensitive dependence on initial conditions gives rise to many different branches of the planet formation process. While perhaps we can speak of hierarchical development once a system has begun to organize itself, we cannot predict exactly the path it will follow. Jack Butler, Eureka, California
We welcome your comments at Astronomy Letters, P. O. Box 1612, Waukesha, WI 53187; or email to letters@astronomy.com. Please include your name, city, state, and country. Letters may be edited for space and clarity.
Balls of crushed fire
Seek out some strangely dense objects this winter.
atter arranges itself in wildly different ways. Museums display dense cannonball chunks of iron pyrite too heavy to lift, while wispy, barely-there hydrogen dominates the cosmos. Its everywhere. You wouldnt float in water if your body didnt have more hydrogen atoms than anything else. Why explore this topic? Simple: Some of the most famous weird-density objects now parade overhead. We express a materials density by revealing how much a cubic centimeter (cm3) of it would weigh. One cm3 is the size of a sugar cube, so picture a sugar cube composed of water, iron, or gold. If water, it weighs 1 gram, which is 8 of an ounce. If iron, the sugar cube weighs 7.87 grams. If it is made of gold, the little cube tips the scale at a whopping 19.28 grams. We know the average density of planets by how quickly they make orbiting spacecraft or natural moons whip around them. Turns out, the three nearest worlds to the Sun Mercury, Venus, and Earth all share similar densities, between 5.2 and 5.5 grams per sugar cube. Thats more than five times the weight of water. Theyre the densest objects in the solar system. To achieve such a high average density, Earths fluffy surface items like oceans, oaks, and olives must be balanced by a very dense interior: its nickel and iron core. We know Earth cant be solid gold beneath the
surface because our overall density would then be 19 g/cm3 instead of the actual 5.5. By contrast, the Sun and the planets from Jupiter outward have densities between 0.7 and 1.6 g/cm3. This isnt surprising considering theyre mostly compressed hydrogen. The Sun is actually quite normal: Most star densities more or less resemble that of water. Now were ready for the weird stuff. Weve known about Sirius the Dog Stars little companion, Sirius B (affectionately called the Pup), since the Civil War. Small and compact, this white dwarf has collapsed to the size of Earth. Conveniently, its now a nice 10 arcseconds from Sirius, a separation that approaches
items at a novelty store: Hey Mike, could you pass me those little dice? White dwarfs arent composed of exotic elements. Theyre ordinary carbon and oxygen, crushed super-solid. Despite off-the-scale surface gravities, they stop imploding when Earth-sized. Everything changes if a white dwarf possesses more than 1.4 times the Suns mass. Then when its nuclear furnace grows too weak to support its heavy
A SUGAR CUBE OF WHITE DWARF MATERIAL WEIGHS A TON. IMAGINE NEEDING A FORKLIFT TO PICK UP A SUGAR CUBE.
the widest in the pairs elliptical 50-year orbit. Steady nights and a good telescope let you glimpse the Pup firsthand. Even easier is 40 Eridini B to the right of Orions foot star Rigel. The first white dwarf identified, its 9th-magnitude glow stands out easily through even the crummiest telescopes. Both 40 Eridini B and the Pup are more than merely tiny stars that, oddly enough, spin slowly. Theyre crushed down to a density of 1 million g/cm3 a million times waters density. A sugar cube of their material weighs a ton. Imagine needing a forklift to pick up a sugar cube. They would make excellent gag outer layers, it keeps collapsing until its a ball just 12 miles (20 kilometers) wide smaller than Arches National Park. The most famous such neutron star floats overhead on winter nights. You can find it next to Taurus the Bulls left horn the Crab Pulsar. You need at least a 14-inch telescope to glimpse this faint 16th-magnitude pinpoint in the heart of the Crab Nebula. (Some say its a challenge even through a 20-incher.) If you spot it, youve beheld the smallest deep-space object anyone has ever seen. And among the fastest spinning. Neutron stars are strangely different from
their white-dwarf cousins, which leisurely spin in about a day. Instead, these whirl dozens of times per second. One performs 716 spins in the same time youd say Mississippi. The Crab Pulsars density is 100 trillion g/cm3. A sugar cube of its material weighs a hundred million tons. Imagine taking a giant cruise ship and crushing it down until its size matches the ball in a ballpoint pen. Were talking about a ballpoint containing thousands of tons of steel. Then alone youd attain neutron star density. Interestingly, this about matches the density of each proton and neutron in your body. So you yourself are already made of such stuff some 30 octillion teensy specks of it. Who can doubt we live in a funny old universe? Only a black hole could top a neutron stars density. The nearest, V616 Monocerotis, is also out these nights to the left of Orions Belt. But we cant quantify its density. Theoretically, the density could be infinite, which has no physical meaning at all. And when density reaches this level of strangeness, its time for a new topic. Contact me about my strange universe by visiting
http://skymanbob.com.
BROWSE THE STRANGE UNIVERSE ARCHIVE AT www.Astronomy.com/Berman.

11
WAVES WARM THE SUNS CORONA

HEAT WAVE. Researchers examined a coronal hole like the dark region at the bottom of this image, where magnetic field lines extend far into space. Here, they discovered that magnetic waves are sufficient to heat up the corona, solving a long-standing mystery. NASA/GSFC/SDO
ASTRONEWS
COLLABORATIVE SCIENCE. Astronomers announced October 24 their Frontier Fields program to image six massive galaxy clusters and what lies beyond them with NASAs Spitzer, Hubble, and Chandra space telescopes.
BRIEFCASE
PARTICLE PRIZE
Franois Englert and Peter W.Higgs were awarded the 2013 Nobel Prize in physics October 8. The scientists first independently theorized the existence of the Higgs boson the elementary particle that imbues other particles with mass in 1964. Experiments at the Large Hadron Collider showed in 2012 that this long-sought boson is real, placing the last missing puzzle piece into the standard model of particle physics.
he Suns corona its outer atmosphere is surprisingly hot. Our stars surface is 10,300 F (5700 C), but just above that, the temperature rockets up to nearly 2 million degrees F (1.1 million degrees C). That heat has to be coming from somewhere, but its source has been a mystery for the past 70 years. The leading theories suggest the energy comes from magnetic loops, magnetic waves, or a combination of the two. Scientists Michael Hahn and Daniel Wolf Savin, both of
Columbia University in New York, report in the October 20 issue of The Astrophysical Journal that waves alone could account for the coronas ability to act as a flame coming out of an ice cube, as the institutions press release says. To find the fount of the coronas energy, the scientists looked at a polar coronal hole, where open magnetic field lines extend deep into interplanetary space. Such a hole appears as a dark region in ultraviolet light, which is how the Extreme Ultraviolet Imaging Spectrometer aboard the Japanese satellite Hinode, which the scientists used to take their data, saw it. In looking at this polar coronal hole, the astronomers saw evidence that below the Suns surface, waves develop. These undulations swell up to the surface and then release their magnetic energy outward into the corona. These deposits that originate within our stars interior are enough to explain the significant temperature difference between the surface, where the energy is still trapped in the waves, and the corona, where that energy is discharged, heating the area and spurring the solar wind. Sarah Scoles
OUTCAST ORB
Just 80 light-years away floats a lone-wolf exoplanet, according to a study published in the November 10 issue of The Astrophysical Journal Letters. PSO J318.522 is huge six times as massive as Jupiter but it does not orbit a star or have any planetary siblings. Scientists suspect this rogue planet formed on its own, as a star would, and has remained so for its 12-million-year life.
FUELING UP
Scientists have found cold lanes of old hydrogen falling onto a distant galaxy. This atomic gas is fueling the galaxys rapid star formation. Astronomers long have suspected that such streams of primordial gas spur and sustain galactic fertility. This is, however, the first time anyone has seen the material actually entering an actively star-forming galaxy. The results appeared in the October 20 issue of The Astrophysical Journal Letters. S. S.
TRENDING SEARCHES
Black hole
Record-breaking black hole found Relative number of Google searches Voyager 1 leaving solar system, reaches magnetic highway How bright will ISON shine?
People perform 550,000 Google searches each month for the keyword space.
FAST FACT
SEARCH TERM ISON Dark matter

Year of the comets: 2013 may see brightest comet show in years Voyager 1 has exited the solar system
Voyager 1
Voyager 1 probe has exited the solar system NASAs Voyager 1 set to exit the solar system Comet ISON to y by Mars
Scientists nd possible hint of dark matter
Jan. 2013
Apr. 2013
July 2013
Oct. 2013
SPACE SEARCH. This plot shows the relative popularity of four Google search terms between January 2013 and November 2013. The text boxes are news headlines associated with search peaks. ASTRONOMY: SARAH SCOLES AND ROEN KELLY
In the February 1989 issue of Astronomy, Editor-in-Chief Richard Berry wrote the feature story Searching for the Real Triton about Voyager 2s impending approach to Neptunes mysterious moon. No one knows which Triton Voyager 2 will find, wrote Berry. It may be a large body, dark in color, and wrapped in a clear atmosphere, or small, bright, and totally cloud-covered. That August, Voyager 2 revealed it to be 1,700 miles (2,700 kilometers) in diameter. It reflects 60 to 90 percent of the sunlight that hits it.
25 years ago in Astronomy
10 years ago in Astronomy
Michael E. Bakich, then an associate and now a senior editor, showcased inspiring images in The 25 greatest astrophotos in history in the February 2004 issue. From quasars to martian gullies, the article covered the game-changing not necessarily the prettiest astronomical pictures. Future astronomical images will be better than any weve seen so far, Bakich proclaimed. That is as true today as it was 10 years ago, as more sensitive observatories go into orbit and earthbound telescopes mirrors and dishes continue to grow. S. S.
12
FAST FACT
Curiositys older sibling, the Opportunity rover, has been exploring the Red Planet for a decade.
QUICK TAKES
MAVEN TO MARS
NASAs Mars Atmosphere and Volatile Evolution (MAVEN) spacecraft launched November 18 at 1:28 P.M. EST.
Curiosity smells no methane on Mars

Despite previous reports that the martian atmosphere was home to methane, NASAs Curiosity rover failed to detect such molecules. The chemical, composed of four hydrogen atoms and one carbon atom, is of special interest to scientists because metabolizing microbes sometimes produce it. Although not slam-dunk evidence, the presence of methane could have hinted at life on the Red Planet. Curiosity sampled Mars atmosphere six times between October 2012 and June 2013, and analysis revealed that if methane is there, it must be less than 1.3 parts per billion. Other missions either in orbit around Earth or Mars had reported pockets of up to 45 parts per billion, but Curiosity is newer, more sensitive, and on the ground. Its results, therefore, trump others prior work. This result, published in the October 18 issue of Science, does not quite put a nail in the microbes coffin. It reduces the probability of current methane-producing martian microbes, says Michael Meyer, NASAs lead scientist for Mars exploration, but this addresses only one type of microbial metabolism. As we know, there are many types of terrestrial microbes that dont generate NULL RESULT. The Curiosity rover, which has been on Mars for more than a year, methane. S. S. failed to detect methane, a chemical that could have been a sign of microbial life.
LIGHT TANTRUM
An October Astronomy & Astrophysics paper describes X-ray observations of gas clouds 30 to 100 light-years from the Milky Ways supermassive black hole, which suggest the region became a million times brighter during outbursts in the past few hundred years.
JOVIAN JOURNEY
NASAs Juno spacecraft entered safe mode October 9 as it flew by Earth for a gravity boost on its way to Jupiter. Two days later, the craft was fully operational and all systems functional.
NASA/JPL-CALTECH/MALIN SPACE SCIENCE SYSTEMS
IN MEMORIAM
George H. Herbig, known for his important research on star formation, died October 12 at the age of 93.
t t
COMET PIECE
A black pebble found years ago in the Sahara is a fragment of a comet nucleus that exploded in Earths atmosphere some 28 million years ago, say scientists in the November 15 Earth and Planetary Science Letters.
Water found in exoplanet remnants

of the building blocks of solar systems beyond our own. The only way to see what distant planets or asteroids are made of is to break them apart, and a white dwarfs extreme gravitational pull on nearby worlds does just that. In the case of the white dwarf GD 61, its shredding revealed that parts of its planetary system survived its transition from a star somewhat larger than the Sun, and this debris had water amounts similar to those found on Ceres, the largest asteroid in our solar system. This planetary graveyard swirling around the embers of its parent star is a rich source of information about its former life, says co-author Boris Gnsicke of the University of Warwick. In these remnants lie chemical clues which point towards a previous existence as a water-rich terrestrial body. Adds lead author Jay Farihi of the University of Cambridges Institute of Astronomy: The finding of water in a large asteroid means the building blocks of habitable planets existed and may still exist in the GD 61 system and likely also around a substantial number of similar parent stars.
Karri Ferron
FAST WORLDS
Researchers found six likely exoplanets that orbit their stars in fewer than 12 hours. They presented their finding October 8 at the Division for Planetary Sciences meeting.
t t
CLOUD CHAMBER
A study in the September issue of the Journal of Geophysical Research: Planets describes how scientists recreated Mars-like temperature and humidity conditions and found that martian clouds required 190 percent of the chambers relative humidity to form.
WATER-RICH REMNANTS. Scientists have discovered the remnants of a rocky, water-rich asteroid that was torn apart by the strong gravity of its white dwarf parent star, as this illustration portrays. MARK A. GARLICK (SPACE-ART.CO.UK)/UNIV. OF WARWICK/UNIV. OF CAMBRIDGE
HOT STUFF
Astronomers discovered an unexpected cloud of glowing hot ionized hydrogen gas around the red supergiant star W26. They published their finding online October 16 in the Monthly Notices of the Royal Astronomical Society Letters. Liz Kruesi
While studying the debris disks around stellar remnant white dwarfs, astronomers came across two ingredients for habitable worlds no scientist had previously found together: water and a rocky surface. What they uncovered was the shattered remains of an
asteroid composed of 26 percent water by mass that likely was once at least 55 miles (90 kilometers) in diameter. The scientists report their findings in the October 11 issue of Science. White dwarfs provide an excellent laboratory for studying the composition
13
SECRETSKY
BY S T E P H E N J A M E S OM E A R A
Three little planetaries
This month, fight the doldrums by checking out these diminutive planetary nebulae located in the Winter Hexagon.
The star at the center of the Crimson Butterfly (NGC 2346) varies between magnitude 11.1 and 13.5. Catch it at its brightest to see the planetary best. NASA/HUBBLE/STSCI
hen Nova Delphini 2013 emerged last August, I pondered the curious illusion of its stellar appearance. What we see as a new star actually is an enormous shell of hydrogen gas exploding off the surface of a white dwarf star in a close binary system. The novas shell appears stellar because it lies at a great distance in this case some 11,400 to 17,900 light-years from Earth. Sometimes, when a nova cools and fades, major observatories are able to image its structure rings and shells that look much like those displayed by planetary nebulae. While we cannot see a novas shell through our backyard telescopes, we can see some distant planetary nebulae with similar
features. The area within the asterism the Winter Hexagon Sirius, Procyon, Pollux and Castor, Capella, Aldebaran, and Rigel contains three tiny planetary nebulae within the range of a 4-inch telescope. Each of these fuzzy objects presents its own set of challenges.
IC 2165 (6h22m; 1259')
Fortunately, this minute object takes high power well, so dont be afraid to magnify this planetary. Place an Oxygen-III filter between your eye and the eyepiece, and the nebula will pop out from the stellar backdrop as the stars around IC 2165 fade. At powers of 350x and higher, some observers have seen the shell as a ring. Its central star burns faintly at magnitude 17.5.
NGC 23712 (7h26m, +2929')
The smallest of the bunch, IC 2165, lies in Canis Major, about 7 west-northwest of Sirius (Alpha [] Canis Majoris). It is a respectable 2,500 light-years distant, yet it shines at magnitude 10.5, making it an easy stellar target at low power. The nebula wont reveal its tiny 4"-diameter disk, however, unless you use significant magnifications, starting with a minimum of at least 175x.
NGC 2346 (7h09m; 048')
COSMIC WORLD
NASA/JPL-CALTECH/MALIN SPACE SCIENCE SYSTEMS (DEAD ZONE); JOURNAL OF COSMOLOGY/WAINRIGHT, ET AL. (ATMOSPHERIC ALIENS); X-RAY: NASA/UIUC/Y. CHU & R. GRUENDL, ET AL.; OPTICAL: SDSU/MLO/Y. CHU, ET AL. (ROCK STARS); VICTOR ROGUS (RECALCULATING)
Cold as space
A look at the best and the worst that astronomy and space science have to offer. by Sarah Scoles
Supernova hot
Dead zone
Atmospheric aliens
Rock stars
Recalculating
The Mars Curiosity rover fails to find methane, a potential signature of microscopic life or flatulence. If tiny life did exist on Mars, it was a little classier than the kind on Earth.
Scientists report alien microbes clinging to a research balloon. Life couldnt have traveled so far from Earth, they say. Which is what the aliens said when they saw humans in the space shuttle.
NASA proclaims that the Crescent Nebula has the motto Live fast, blow hard, and die young. Until this press release, I never knew how much I had in common with hot clouds of gas.
Scientists win an Ig Nobel Prize for finding that dung beetles use the Milky Ways light to navigate their dung balls along straight paths. In light-polluted areas, dung balls roll all over.
Otherwise known as the Crimson Butterfly, NGC 2346 is a bipolar planetary nebula some 40' west-southwest of Delta () Monocerotis. On average, its about 2 magnitudes fainter than IC 2165 but is 15 times larger at 1' across. At a distance of 2,000 lightyears, NGC 2346s true physical extent is about one-third of a light-year. Lucky observers get to claim it by spotting its bright central star first. With that located, using averted vision to detect its tightly bound nebular ring, oriented northeast to southeast, is not too difficult. But heres the rub: The central star varies between magnitude 11.1 and 13.5 and back every 16 days. Trying to see the nebula alone when the central star is at its faintest level may be difficult if you are looking through a small telescope, especially if the skies have any light pollution. While small scopes will show the ring when the central star is bright, you will need a larger instrument to spot the perpendicular lobes stretching northwest to southeast.
The Double Bubble Nebula (NGC 23712) is a twin-lobed planetary nebula in Gemini. Located 4,300 light-years away, its physical size is 1 light-year, making it one of the largest planetaries known. Owing to its distance from us, however, we see the nebula shining no larger than about 1' in apparent diameter. But while its central star is also faint (magnitude 14.8), the nebula itself is, fortunately, rather bright (magnitude 11.3). Nevertheless, the object is of low surface brightness, so dark skies are needed to see it well, if you can see it at all. You will find it 1.7 north of magnitude 3.8 Iota () Geminorum. Its discoverer, William Herschel, saw the twin lobes, oriented southwest to northeast, as two separate nebulae and gave them each their own catalog number (thus the Double Bubbles double NGC number); the southwestern lobe is NGC 2371. If youre using a small telescope, remember to tap the tube gently because your eye responds best to an object in motion. Through a 5-inch instrument, I could glimpse the nebula as a tiny fleck of fuzz at 33x by doing this. Triple the power to see the binary nature. The dim outer wings are perpendicular to those twin lobes and extend twice as far. Take the challenge to see all three of these planetaries this winter and, as always, send me the details of what you see at sjomeara31@gmail.com.
BROWSE THE SECRET SKY ARCHIVE AT www.Astronomy.com/OMeara.
14
ASTRONEWS
FAST FACT
. KSPL (ESA)/A. MOR (KONKOLY OBSERVATORY)
C70 fullerene, which contains 70 carbon atoms, is the largest molecule found in space so far.
COSMIC MOLECULES
40 2 atoms Carbon monoxide 3 atoms H3+ 35
DUST BUSTER. The Atacama Large Millimeter/submillimeter Array observed dust (left) and gas (right) in the HD 21997 solar system, where planets are still forming. Scientists previously believed stars and giant planets collected all the gas before the system was filled with collision dust, but this hybrid disk shows that not to be the case.
Number of types of dierent molecules detected in space
Planets are born in hybrid disks

Conventional wisdom holds that the disks that form planets run out of gas after 10 million years, by which point the growing star and its gas giants have siphoned it out of the system. Astronomers have discovered, however, that the system HD 21997, 235 light-years away and just 30 million years old, has clung to its gas far longer than that. Even more surprisingly, they saw this gas mingling with the pulverized
rock that results when planetesimals smash into each other. The simultaneous presence of gas and dusty debris is a previously unobserved stage of solar-system formation and evolution. Astronomers used the Atacama Large Millimeter/ submillimeter Array (ALMA) and the Herschel Space Observatory which see in radio and infrared light, respectively to observe both the dust and gas. The gas, which scientists did not expect, is some 30 to 60 times Earths mass. The results appeared in the October 20 issue of The Astrophysical Journal and the November 10 issue of The Astrophysical Journal Letters. S. S.
30
25
4 atoms Formaldehyde
20
5 atoms Methane 6 atoms Formamide 8 atoms Acetic acid (vinegar) 9 atoms Ethanol 10 atoms Acetone 11 atoms Cyanooctatetrayne
15
10
ALMA watches black hole in action

0
ALMA (ESO/NAOJ/NRAO)/NASA/ESA/F. COMBES
MOLECULAR MASHUPS. Space is full of complicated molecules. Scientists have discovered structures composed of up to 70 atoms. But the more complicated a compound is, the less of it exists in interstellar space. For example, scientists have found 39 different molecules made of two atoms like carbon monoxide in space, while they have only found three types of 11-atom compounds like cyanooctatetrayne.
ASTRONOMY: SARAH SCOLES AND ROEN KELLY; DATA FROM UNIVERSITT ZU KLN
JETTISONING JETS. Scientists used the Atacama Large Millimeter/ submillimeter Array (ALMA) to spy on the center of NGC 1433, seen here in visible (blue) and radio (orange/red) light. The black hole hiding there is quiet and calm, but ALMAs sharp eye revealed that the object is getting some action, according to a paper in the October Astronomy & Astrophysics. The molecular gas around the galactic center has woven itself into a spiral that feeds into the black hole, which then shoots jets of material outward. NGC 1433s puny jets are just 150 light-years long, 1,000 times smaller than those of active galaxies. S. S.
The angle at which the inner planets in the Kepler-56 system orbit their host star, reported researchers in the October 18 issue of Science.
15
45
W W W.ASTR ONOMY.CO M
ASTRONEWS
MARS ROCKS. The Curiosity rovers recent measurements of two kinds of argon gas in the martian atmosphere conrm that some meteorites found on Earth are in fact from Mars, reported scientists online November 6 in Geophysical Research Letters.
SPACE SCIENCE UPDATE
PLANET WITH EARTH-LIKE COMPOSITION FOUND
Supernovas original star confirmed

Scientists observe the sky looking for objects that change over short intervals, like the rapid brightening of a supernova. Such explosions mark the death of stars, but learning the original suns Before supernova characteristics is difficult. SUPERNOVA SUN. Astronomers using the Astronomers compared intermediate Palomar the location of a June Transient Factory (iPTF) search have identified the 2013 supernova (top) with archived Hubble Space initial star of Supernova Telescope images (below) iPTF13bvn, which to determine what star appeared in the nearby (circled) likely exploded galaxy NGC 5806 in June in the supernova. IAIR ARCAVI 2013. This supernova was (WEIZMANN INSTITUTE OF SCIENCE) a rare type Ib, and the study published online October 4 in Astronomy & Astrophysics marked the first time scientists confirmed the original star of this kind of stellar blast. After comparing archived Hubble Space Telescope images to those taken after the explosion had faded away, Jose Groh of Geneva Observatory and colleagues could confirm the star that exploded. It was a Wolf-Rayet, which is a hot massive star that sheds its outer gaseous layer in a violent stellar wind. The star, says Grohs team, had about 11 times the Suns mass right before it exploded. L. K.
After supernova blast
EARTH TWIN? Kepler-78bs density is similar to our planets, and this world likely has an Earth-like composition of rock and iron. CFA
Astronomers have discovered more than 1,000 planets orbiting stars other than the Sun, but uncovering those worlds characteristics is much more difficult. The main method for finding exoplanets is to watch a stars light dim, which happens if a body passes between it and Earth. NASAs Kepler mission used this transit technique to tally some 3,500 candidate planets; scientists have confirmed about 160 of those. But a planetary transit can tell astronomers only how wide the planet is it says nothing about mass and thus density. And without a mass measurement, researchers have no way of knowing the planets composition. Two groups report online October 30 in Nature their studies of an exoplanet orbiting extremely close to a Sun-like star. That world has a size and density nearly identical to Earths. Andrew Howard of the University of Hawaii at Manoa and Francesco Pepe of the University of Geneva lead separate teams that studied the planet now known as Kepler-78b. From Kepler observations, the scientists knew the world is about 1.2 times as wide as Earth and completes an orbit in just 8.5 hours. Both teams used ground-based telescopes to observe how the light from Kepler-78bs host star shifts. This shift is a result of the planets gravity pulling slightly on the star toward and away from Earth. 16
(When moving toward, the light appears bluer, when away, redder.) They could determine how massive the planet is from how much the light shifts. The answer: Howards team measured 1.69 Earth masses while Pepes team calculated 1.86. By combining Kepler-78bs volume (calculated from its radius) and mass, the two teams found slightly different density values, but both remarkably similar to Earths: Howards team calculated 5.3 grams/cm3 and Pepes team 5.6 g/cm3 (our planets is 5.5 g/cm3). The astronomers also tried to determine Kepler-78bs composition by comparing their calculations to different computational models. Pepes team wrote that the planet has a rocky interior and most probably a relatively large iron core (perhaps comprising 40 percent of the planet by mass). Howards team calculated that iron makes up anywhere from 0 to 53 percent of Kepler-78bs mass. Earths composition by mass is roughly 67 percent silicate rock and 33 percent iron. While this newly analyzed world might seem like an Earth twin at first glance, the reality is much different. Kepler-78b orbits its star extraordinarily close-in onehundredth of our planets distance from the Sun. That proximity means its surface is a searing 2300 to 3100 kelvins (3700 to 5100 Fahrenheit). L. K.
Polaris ranks as the skys 48th-brightest star. It shines at magnitude 2.0.
FAST FACT
HOW THE NORTH STAR MOVES

12 h
Polaris (2102) 6h 5h59m Polaris (2013)
1
0.5
NCP
18 h
2h48m 0h
ZOOM GOES POLARIS. Polaris (Alpha [] Ursae Minoris), our North Star, does not sit at the exact position of the North Celestial Pole (NCP). Currently, Polaris lies 0.68 from the NCP and is moving closer. It will reach its nearest point in 2102, when it will lie at a distance of 0.47. ASTRONOMY: MICHAEL E. BAKICH AND ROEN KELLY
FAST FACT
Hebes Chasma sits at the northern edge of its big brother, the vast Valles Marineris canyon that stretches nearly 2,500 miles (4,000 kilometers).
scope out more selection at
A deep canyon on the Red Planet

MARTIAN ABYSS. Located near Mars equator, Hebes Chasma is a fissure some 200 miles (320 kilometers) long, 80 miles (130km) wide, and 5 miles (8km) deep. The nearby volcanic Tharsis Region likely contributed to the canyons formation. A large flat-topped mesa spanning about 75 miles (120km) by 25 miles (40km) fills much of Hebes Chasmas interior. Wind and water likely shaped this structure, say scientists. The mesa is composed of many layers of rock and debris, but the materials look geologically different from the fissures. The walls of the two bodies also appear to be weathering differently. Scientists with the European Space Agencys Mars Express mission released this composite image of the Red Planets Hebes Chasma on October 10. It combines eight images taken with the spacecrafts High Resolution Stereo Camera between 2004 and 2009. L. K.
ESA/DLR/FU BERLIN (G. NEUKUM)
Expand your view with all the top telescopes, binoculars, night vision, rangenders and more!
The number of years it has taken light emitted from the most distant gravitational lens to reach us. Astronomers describe the discovery in the November 1 issue of The Astrophysical Journal Letters.
9.4 BILLION
Scan to visit Adorama.com
17
OBSERVINGBASICS
BY G L E N N C H A P L E
Everyday accessories
A trip to the local hardware or sporting goods store is a must for a backyard observer.
here does the amateur astronomer go to purchase astronomy gear? If not online, most of us would probably head for a nearby optical goods shop. But did you know you can find items that enhance your enjoyment of the hobby in unlikely places? Lets take some of the cash we saved from last months column when we garnered astronomical freebies from the Internet and use it for a backyard astronomers shopping trip. First stop: the cosmetics section at the local department store. Lipstick and nail polish may not do much to improve a telescopic view of the Orion Nebula, but a rechargeable hair dryer might. If used gently and set at the lowest air volume, this device will help combat the dew that shrouds telescope optics and fogs up the image. The fix is temporary well need to repeat the process several times in an evening but thats better than having to return indoors. Once optics are rid of dew, the serious astronomy hobbyist will keep a logbook to organize the notes and sketches that document each nights observing. Well stop by an office supply store and pick up a three-ring binder and some unlined notebook paper. For basic eyepiece sketching and note taking, lets add a clipboard and some #2 pencils. What about something to illuminate the clipboard in the dark? For that, lets head to the local sporting goods store. Visit the camping section in search of a hikers headlamp
an LED flashlight that straps around the head, keeping hands free to operate the telescope and take notes. To preserve night vision, well select one with a red-light option. While here, lets pick up a folding canvas chair to relax in during breaks or while scanning the sky with binoculars. With luck, well also find a lightweight folding table to keep accessories and charts within reach and off the damp ground. From the camping area, lets move on to fishing tackle. Here well find two useful items a fishing vest and a tackle box. The vest pockets, in which anglers stow lures and hooks, also can keep eyepieces and accessories near. The tackle box will hold these items more securely, whether in storage or in the field. Need quality binoculars? Hunters do. The size (10x50) recommended for backyard astronomy is a mainstay for hunters who want to spot game under low-light conditions. Need a finder for a telescope? Were in luck! In the hunting department, well also come across red-dot BB gun finders essentially identical to the red-dot finders found on telescopes. You might be tempted to get a BB gun as well and go after the irritating lights that invade your backyard. Not so fast, my friend! Rambo tactics arent necessary when we can visit the hardware store and purchase the materials to construct a simple light shield. With PVC pipe, adhesive, connector joints, a few plastic tarps, and bungee cords, well construct a box-like enclosure to keep our telescopes in the dark and maintain neighborhood peace.
A fishing tackle box is a great observing kit for a night under the stars. To learn some basic items to put in this kit, visit www.Astronomy.com/observingkit. MICHAEL E. BAKICH
Have you ever had a loose bolt or screw tumble from your scope and disappear in the grass? Lets be proactive and pick up any hardware odds and ends (nuts and bolts, thumbscrews, rubber washers, etc.) that might get lost or worn. To take care of on-thespot repair needs, well pick up a compact all-in-one tool (screwdriver, pliers, scissors, etc.). For quick temporary repairs, lets also grab a roll of duct tape the universal fix-it material. At a hardware store, well also come across a single-drawer tool caddy a workable alternative to the tackle box as a carryall for eyepieces and accessories. Its my preference. Having two tackle boxes, one for fishing and one for astronomy, creates the real possibility that I might absentmindedly take the wrong one on my next fishing trip. A Plssl eyepiece is not the best bait for a largemouth bass! The tool caddy lets me see what Im bringing, so the Plssl arrives at the observing area, not the lake. Tired of torturing your knees on the hard, cold ground? A foam
gardeners kneeling pad will be a blessing! Need something to protect a telescope from dust and dirt? Pick up a box of largecapacity (approximately 50 gallons), industrial-strength barrel liners, and slip one over your scope when its not in use. Finally, get a can of WD-40 to keep your telescope mount working smoothly. Remember, the telescope and eyepieces are only part of what we need to enjoy a starry night. We can find most of the auxiliary items in places not normally associated with astronomy. Now if youll excuse me, Im moving on to the local supermarket for my final astronomy purchases chips, cookies, and a few cans of soda. Cant enjoy an evening under the stars without a midnight snack! A quick shout-out to Barlow Bob Godfrey for the idea behind this article. Questions, comments, or suggestions? Email me at gchaple@hotmail. com. Next month: An asteroid takes out a 1st-magnitude star. Clear skies!
BROWSE THE OBSERVING BASICS ARCHIVE AT www.Astronomy.com/Chaple.
18
ASTRONEWS
TESTING, TESTING. NASA launched a sounding rocket October 21 to use when calibrating an ultraviolet instrument aboard the Solar Dynamics Observatory. Its 173-mile-high (278 kilometers) ight took 15 minutes.
New shape to the coldest place in space

BRISK BOOMERANG. Using the Atacama Large Millimeter/submillimeter Array (ALMA), astronomers have revealed the true shape of the coldest known object in the universe, the Boomerang Nebula. This preplanetary nebula, which represents the stage before the remnant star produces enough ultraviolet radiation to produce a planetary nebulas characteristic glow, got its name because it looks like a double lobe with a narrow waist in visible light. ALMA, however, discovered that the Boomerangs cold molecular gas actually creates a more elongated shape, shown in red atop blue Hubble Space Telescope data in this image released October 24. At 458 Fahrenheit (272 Celsius), the nebula is colder than the faint afterglow of the Big Bang, the natural background temperature of space. K. F.
MISSION OVER. The European Space Agencys Planck mission officially ended October 23. ESA
Planck mission over

On October 23, the Planck mission team sent the final command to the telescope, marking the end of operations. The spacecraft launched May 14, 2009, and observed the microwave sky for nearly 4.5 years. Planck had two detectors: the High Frequency Instrument (HFI) studied shorter wavelengths (higher energies and higher temperatures), and the Low Frequency Instrument (LFI) observed longer wavelengths (which correspond to lower energies and cooler temperatures). While the HFI took its last data in January 2012, the LFI continued observing until October 3, 2013. Scientists have used this data to uncover thousands of cold objects like clouds of gas and dust that will form stars. But the projects main goal was to measure the tiny differences in temperature across the sky in whats called the cosmic microwave background (CMB). In March 2013, the Planck team released its first cosmology results, which incorporated 15.5 months of observations. Part of that release included a detailed map of the CMBs temperature fluctuations, thus achieving the projects goal. According to the crafts CMB measurements, the universe is 13.8 billion years old and contains 4.9 percent normal matter, 26.8 percent dark matter (an invisible mass), and 68.3 percent dark energy (the mysterious something thats speeding up the universes expansion). Astronomers also teased out of the Planck data the universes overall mass distribution. While this map doesnt show individual structures, it does provide scientists with a general view of how matter clusters together in the cosmos. The distribution matches that expected for a universe composed of about two-thirds dark energy. The Planck team plans to release another set of results later this year, which will incorporate all observations collected. L. K.
BILL SAXTON; NRAO/AUI/NSF; NASA/HUBBLE; RAGHVENDRA SAHAI
WHAT EXOPLANETS MIGHT BE HABITABLE?

Mercury Venus Earth Mars
1 0.9
G star
HD 40307 g
Kepler-22b
Kepler-69c
0.7
Mass of star (solar mass)
HD 85512 b Kepler-62e Kepler-62f
K star
0.5
Kepler-61b
The chance that a supernova explosion will occur in our galaxy in the next 50 years and will be visible in infrared light, according to a study published in the December 1 issue of The Astrophysical Journal.
100%
M star
Gliese 163 c Gliese 667C e Gliese 581 d
Scientists still have a lot of Kepler data to comb through; it holds another roughly three dozen possible habitable-zone planets.
FAST FACT
Gliese 667C c Gliese 667C f
0.3 0.1
0.4 Average radius of orbit (astronomical unit)
1.0
EARTH TWINS? A stars habitable zone (HZ) is the orbital region with the right temperature to allow liquid water on a planets surface. Both Earth and, perhaps surprisingly, Mars sit within the Suns HZ. This diagram shows the potentially habitable worlds so far discovered. The HZ edges are based on research from Ravi Kumar Kopparapu of Pennsylvania State University and colleagues published in 2013 in The Astrophysical Journal. They ignored the effects of water clouds in their model, which would push the inner boundaries nearer to their stars. ASTRONOMY: LIZ KRUESI AND ROEN KELLY
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ASTRONEWS
UNEXPECTED CHEMICAL. Gas around the active supermassive black hole at NGC 1097s center shows a stronger than expected hydrogen cyanide signal, the National Astronomical Observatory of Japan announced October 24.
The Milky Way wobbles

Our galaxy rotates around the supermassive black hole at its center. But, as scientists describe online October 3 in the Monthly Notices of the Royal Astronomical Society, it also wobbles and squishes in the north-south direction perpendicular to the galaxys main disk, or its plane.
WONKY WAY. The stars in the Milky Way do not simply orbit the galactic center in straightforward ellipses but bob up and down in complicated patterns. The movement is perpendicular to the galactic plane, seen here over the Cerro Paranal in Chile. BRUNO GILLI/ESO
As part of the RAdial Velocity Experiment (RAVE), astronomers looked at the movements and speeds of red clump stars metal-rich giant suns that all shine with the same brightness that are 6,500 light-years from the Sun in any given direction. Because of the giants predictable luminosity,
scientists can tell how distant each star is by how much its light has dimmed on its path to Earth. With that distance in their pockets, they then can make a map of how stars in different regions are moving around. This three-dimensional analysis revealed that while the Milky Way is
rotating, its stars are sloshing in waves, making a more complicated movie than scientists expected. Now they just have to figure out why. The galaxys spiral arms could be leaving a wake in which other stars bob, or the ripples could be remnants of the galaxys collision with a smaller galaxy. S. S.
ASTROCONFIDENTIAL
More than 200 asteroids are known to possess a satellite, and astronomers have found them in all populations of small solar system objects. (87) Sylvia was the first triple asteroid system ever discovered. When we announced the existence of two moons, now called Romulus and Remus (twin sons of the mythological figure Rhea Sylvia), we had only a basic understanding of their orbits around their large primary asteroid. But with 65 observations spanning 2001 to 2011, we were able to better characterize the orbits of the satellites and derive the shape and size of the primary asteroid. From this precious data set, we confirmed the asteroids density to be slightly more than water and less than carbonaceous chondrite meteorite and revealed that the primary might be differentiated, made of a dense core surrounded by fluffy material. Our model was robust enough to foretell the positions of the moons at the time of an occultation across Earth on January 6, 2013, when the triple asteroid system was predicted to pass in front 20
BY K ARRI FERRON
Although astronomers have discovered a moon orbiting more than 200 asteroids, they have only uncovered ve with two satellites each.
FAST FACT
WHAT ARE WE LEARNING ABOUT TRIPLE ASTEROIDS?

planetary astronomer at Franck Marchis Senior the Carl Sagan Center of the SETI
of a bright star as seen from Europe. Fifty amateur and professional observers were mobilized to observe this event during a cold winter night. Combining the exact details of the occultation observations, we derived a precise estimate of Romulus size about 15 miles (24 kilometers) and showed that its shape is extremely elongated, most likely stretched by the tides from the 170-mile-wide (270km) primary. Our observations are extremely useful in understanding the origin and evolution of multiple asteroid systems, and we are planning to expand this program to 20 multiple asteroid systems for which we have good satellite orbit models. We are very thankful for the commitment of the large community of amateur astronomers around the world without whom this project would not have been a success.
Institute, Mountain View, California
COURTESY FRANCK MARCHIS
ASTRONEWS
FINAL PIECE. The Atacama Large Millimeter/submillimeter Array received its 66th and final antenna, the collaboration announced October 1.
Telescopes.net
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Are distant galaxies hiding?

Astronomers have discovered and confirmed one of the most distant galaxies yet: It was rapidly forming stars when the universe was just 700 million years old. Steven Finkelstein of the University of Texas at Austin and colleagues reported their discovery in the October 24 issue of Nature. To hunt distant galaxies, the scientists looked for a specific wavelength of energy that corresponds to hydrogen. The universes expansion stretches this ultraviolet Lymanalpha (Ly) emission to infrared. The team looked for this wavelength in 43 candidate galaxies and found it in just one z8_GND_5296. They also measured the rate of star formation; the galaxy is converting about 330 times the Suns mass of gas into stars every year. Finkelsteins team expected to observe Ly light from six of the 43 candidate galaxies it studied. The astronomers say the lack of this radiation implies that some process is making this light in the early universe difficult to detect. Telescopes that can study longer wavelengths in more detail like the Atacama Large Millimeter/submillimeter Array and the future James Webb Space Telescope and CCAT projects should help this research. Those instruments will be able to study the gas within distant galaxies. L. K.
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Cassini takes extraordinary Saturn portrait

SATURNIAN SYSTEM. On July 19, 2013, the Cassini spacecraft watched as Saturn eclipsed the Sun. Members of the Cassini team took advantage of the geometric alignment to capture 323 images in four hours of the backlit planet, seven of its moons, and its inner rings. Cassini also photographed Earth, the Moon, Venus, and Mars. This natural-color mosaic, released November 12, incorporates 141 of those wide-angle pictures. The outermost ring shown here is Saturns E ring, which lies about 149,000 miles (240,000 kilometers) from the ringed world. Geysers erupting from the surface of the saturnian moon Enceladus supply the ice particles that make up this ring. Smaller satellites help keep the shape of the planets many other rings. Cassini was 746,000 miles (1.2 million km) from Saturn when it imaged the system. This picture is about 400,000 miles (640,000km) across and captures details on Saturn as small as 45 miles (72km) wide per pixel. When processing the image, the Cassini team brightened many of the moons and rings in addition to Earth, Venus, and Mars to make them more visible in the released picture. Scientists can use the images taken during the eclipse to learn more about the faint rings of Saturn. L. K.
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Planetary science
Does meth ow
Scientists are eager to prove that the meandering river valleys and braided streambeds seen on Saturns largest moon carry liquid methane to its vast lakes.
by Robert Zimmerman
The Huygens probe captured this 360 panorama of Titans surface from an altitude of 6 miles (10 kilometers) as it descended through the saturnian moons atmosphere January 14, 2005. Dark drainage channels in the brighter highland terrain appear to feed into a darker region that scientists suspect could be a lakebed.
ESA/NASA/JPL/UNIVERSITY OF ARIZONA
ine years ago, Europes Huygens probe dropped through the atmosphere of Saturns moon Titan and landed on the surface. Planetary scientists reacted with unbridled joy to the missions success. I have to say I was blown away by what I saw, said David Southwood, then director of science programs for the European Space Agency (ESA) and now president of the Royal Astronomical Society. The scientific data that we are collecting now shall unveil the secrets of this
new world, raved Jean-Jacques Dordain, ESAs director general. Im shocked! Its remarkable! enthused Carolyn Porco, leader of the imaging team for NASAs Cassini spacecraft, which delivered Huygens to Titan and continues to orbit Saturn. Porco then proceeded to describe what all these scientists had found so astonishing: There are river channels. There are channels cut by something a fluid of some sort is my best guess. For almost three decades before Huygens triumph, planetary scientists had
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ane on TITAN?
theorized that methane might be able to flow on Titan like water does on Earth. Once they got close enough to get a good look, the thinking went, probes might detect methane rainstorms feeding rivers, lakes, and even oceans on that cold and distant moon, the second largest in the solar system. And that is exactly what Huygens apparently had found in January 2005 in practically its first images: meandering river channels flowing into what looked like a large lake. For these researchers, it was almost too good to believe. Now, nearly a decade later, planetary scientists remain as excited and baffled by Titan as they did before Huygens arrived. In the years since, the Cassini spacecraft repeatedly has flown past this giant moon, detecting what look like numerous additional phenomena that resemble things we find on Earth large rainstorms, river channels, and lakes all produced not by water but by liquid methane. It is as if Titan is a frozen and dark twin of Earth, similar in many ways yet also completely and weirdly alien.
Before the two probes

Dutch astronomer Christiaan Huygens discovered Titan in 1655. For centuries, scientists thought this moon was the solar systems largest. In the mid-20th century, however, observations revealed that the moon has a thick atmosphere,
When not writing articles for Astronomy, Robert Zimmerman reports on science and culture at his website, Behind the Black (http:// behindtheblack.com). His first book, Genesis: The Story of Apollo 8, has just been re-released in a new e-book edition.
W W W.ASTR O NO M Y.CO M
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Huygens took this series of images as it neared Titans surface January 14, 2005. From left to right, the probe captured the moon from altitudes of 95 miles (150 kilometers),
and its presumed large size was in part an illusion caused by that atmosphere. Jupiters moon Ganymede, which has a diameter of 3,270 miles (5,262 kilometers), ranks as the solar systems biggest moon. Still, with a diameter of 3,200 miles (5,150km), Titan is larger than Mercury. If it were in an independent orbit around the Sun, scientists would consider it a planet. By the 1970s, just before the twin Voyager spacecraft flew past Saturn, scientists were still unsure what made up Titans thick atmosphere. Some believed methane was the major component while others argued that nitrogen reigned supreme. A handful of scientists even proposed that
conditions on Titan might allow oceans of liquid methane to exist, but few listened to this wild idea. Then in November 1980, Voyager 1 zipped just 4,033 miles (6,490km) above the moons surface. Images revealed a featureless orange ball, the surface shrouded by a smog-filled atmosphere 125 miles (200km) thick with an additional haze layer that varies in altitude between roughly 240 and 310 miles (380 and 500km). The atmosphere itself turns out to be about 95 percent nitrogen with methane making up most of the rest. The surface temperature hovers at a bone-chilling 290 Fahrenheit (178 Celsius) while the surface pressure measures 50 percent higher than on Earth. The Voyager measurements showed that conditions on Titan were perfect for the existence of both liquid methane and ethane. It even seemed possible that these molecules could mimic the evaporation cycle of water on Earth, which might result in methane storms that produce methane rain falling into methane rivers that flow across the moons surface into methane lakes.
This close-up view of the south polar vortex shows the swirling atmospheric feature from a distance of 301,000 miles (484,000 kilometers). Taken June 27, 2012, the true-color image shows the moons south pole as winter approaches.
NASA/JPL-CALTECH/SSI
Until the arrival of Cassini and Huygens, however, these possibilities remained mere hypotheses. Although planetary scientists knew that liquid methane could exist on Titans surface, no one had seen it.
Alien planet
Then Huygens descended through Titans atmosphere and landed on what appeared to be a dry lakebed. On its way down, the probe snapped some amazing pictures of what looked like ordinary meandering rivers draining into a dark area that appeared just like a lake. Huygens photographed two different riverlike complexes. The more exciting image showed what seemed to be a river with many branches merging to form a single large channel that emptied into a lake. The channels themselves meandered back and forth like rivers do on Earth. In the second image, the main channel appeared as straight as an arrow, with its tributaries joining it at sharp right angles. It seemed almost as if the flowing liquid, rather than meandering, was following natural cracks in the geology as it surged downhill to the lake. Since the Huygens mission, the Cassini orbiter has flown past Titan nearly 100 times. It has snapped visible-light, infrared, and radar images that cover more than 50 percent of the moons surface. The three key instruments used during these flybys have been the Imaging Science Subsystem (ISS), the Visual and Infrared Mapping Spectrometer (VIMS), and, most importantly, the Cassini Radar Mapper. The first two instruments take relatively low-resolution images and spectra (which break the light down into its component colors, or wavelengths) from the near ultraviolet to the infrared. Titans thick hazy atmosphere limits the value of these tools
Titans south polar vortex appears at the bottom of this true-color Cassini image. The spacecraft took the photo July 25, 2012, from a distance of about 64,000 miles (103,000 kilometers). NASA/JPL-CALTECH/SSI
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12 miles (20km), 4 miles (6km), 1.2 miles (2km), 0.4 mile (0.6km), and 0.12 mile (0.2km). ESA/NASA/JPL/UNIVERSITY OF ARIZONA
A lake by any other name

This is just one of Titans strange parallels with Earth. Cassini observations also have revealed hundreds of dark patches on the moons surface that scientists interpret as lakes. Some of them appear filled with liquid while others seem to have dried up partially. Sinuous channels lead into some of them, but others look like lakes that have filled ancient impact craters or calderas depressions at volcanoes centers created when their magma chambers empty and the overlying surfaces collapse. In one case, Cassini images show that the southwestern shoreline of Ontario Lacus at 146 miles (235km) across, the largest lake known in Titans southern hemisphere retreated by several miles (10km) between 2005 and 2009. This suggests that the lake is drying up slowly. In another instance, repeated observations of one area showed what looked like several new lakes forming shortly after a storm burst. Radar images taken several years later showed that these dark patches had disappeared, once again implying that they had dried up. Figuring out the exact nature of these geological features remains a difficult challenge, however. Looking at an image produced by radar is not the same as looking at an ordinary photograph. With radar, the brightness of the reflection correlates with the roughness of the surface. Thus, the smooth surface of a Titan lake looks dark in radar images, while bright areas usually suggest rough hilly terrain. The problem is that the data dont always follow this pattern. For example, a large number of the detected river valleys and lakes appear bright compared to the surrounding terrain. Scientists think that the radar brightness in such images suggests a generally dry riverbed or lakebed filled with gravel, cobble, and rocks typically
Voyager 2 captured Titan from 1.4 million miles (2.3 million kilometers) away as it ew past in August 1981. Unfortunately, the lters used on Voyagers camera could not penetrate the hazy atmosphere to show any surface detail. NASA/JPL
for mapping surface details. The radar mapper, however, can penetrate the haze and see objects as small as about 1,150 feet (350 meters) in diameter. What these observations have shown scientists is that Titan is an alien environment that mimics Earth only in the most superficial ways. For example, the moons crust is made of water ice, which is as solid as granite at the frigid surface temperature. Moreover, liquid methane does not dissolve water, so the methane flows over this frozen water without eroding it much. The ice acts like bedrock. Yet geologists know that flowing water on Earth erodes bedrock it just takes a long time. Similarly, as liquid methane flows downhill across Titans bedrock, it slowly erodes the rock-hard ice and picks up small pebbles, transporting it all downstream as sediment. In the process, the methane has carved a variety of Earth-like valleys, channels, and canyons.
The only image taken from Titans surface shows the dry riverbed the Huygens probe landed in. The foreground rocks measure some 6 inches (15 centimeters) across while those in the distance are roughly 3 feet (1 meter) in diameter. Huygens took this photo January 14, 2005. ESA/NASA/JPL/UNIVERSITY OF ARIZONA
The mere existence of the meandering channels poses an even more perplexing puzzle. On Earth, plants help hold the banks of a meandering river in place. There are no plants and no life that we know of on Titan, so the presence of meandering river valleys requires some other, as yet unknown mechanism to keep the shoreline stable for long periods.
Rain and oods

To create Titans river channels and fluctuating lakes requires rainfall. Although scientists think the moons methane cycle of evaporation, precipitation, and runoff mimics the water cycle on Earth, most of the details how much rain falls how often and where remain uncertain. Because Titan is so far away from the Sun and doesnt get as much energy as Earth, there isnt as much rainfall or precipitation, explains Burr. When it does occur, however, it has been storing itself up for a long time and therefore can be very energetic. Based on Cassini and Huygens data, scientists estimate that the heaviest thunderstorms on Titan can drop as much as 100 inches (250cm) of methane in only two hours. Compare that with the largest Earth storm on record, which dumped 12 inches (30.5cm) of water in one hour. Once again, the analogy of the dry washes and flash floods of the American Southwest come to mind, though the ones on Titan occur on a much more violent
Cassinis Visible and Infrared Mapping Spectrometer took this infrared view of Titan on September 12, 2013. Green represents the water-ice bedrock that covers most of the moon. Orange reveals areas where liquid methane likely evaporated, similar to salt ats on Earth. NASA/JPL-CALTECH/UNIVERSITY OF ARIZONA/UNIVERSITY OF IDAHO
bigger than an inch (a couple of centimeters) across. In this scenario, methane flows only in narrow braided streams that wind and intertwine through different parts of the wider cobble-filled valley, similar to the dry washes seen in the American Southwest. A desert wash is a very good analogy, says planetary scientist Devon Burr of the University of Tennessee, Knoxville. They have wonderful rounded stones that are transported during summer monsoons, but most of the time they are dry or the flows are confined to the lowest parts of the wash. As for the dark meandering river valleys, researchers have devised several theories. One idea is that they are deeply incised bedrock channels, which look dark in radar images because the valleys steep walls shadow the signal. A second possibility is that the eroded sediment in the riverbed possesses a much finer, sandlike consistency. The dry riverbed
thus has a smooth beachlike surface made up of a dry soft snow sediment laid down by a methane river that flows intermittently. Finally, it is even possible that the dark channels are dark because they, like the lakes, are filled with liquid methane. Unfortunately, the observations cannot yet tell scientists which of these possibilities might be true.
Methane rain falls from Titans clouds, producing the changes seen here. The left image shows an area near the moons equator May 13, 2007, while the other two were taken 15 hours apart January 15, 2011. The bright points in the latter two appear to be low clouds above where rain fell recently. NASA/JPL/SSI
On April 10, 2007, Cassinis radar mapper took this swath that spans more than 4,100 miles (6,700 kilometers). Dunelike features appear near the left edge, but the terrain changes as the view moves northward (to the right) to reveal several large lakes. NASA/JPL-CALTECH/ASI
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scale. Such megastorms would produce horrendous flash floods that could easily carve out the many meandering channels and canyons that Cassini and Huygens have detected. These are extremes. Cassini observations indicate that methane rain on Titan also can occur in a gentle steady drizzle. It remains unclear how frequently and with what strength these rainstorms occur. So far, most of the observed storms that have taken place have been in the high latitudes of the southern hemisphere, which experienced more direct sunlight during Cassinis first several years in orbit. Some clouds built and disappeared in as little as two hours. Spring arrived in Titans northern hemisphere in 2009. Scientists expect that as sunlight grows stronger in the north, the rainstorms will migrate there as well. But the changes will come slowly because each of the moons four seasons lasts a bit more than seven years.
Fuzzy vision
Unfortunately, the reality of Titans rivers remains uncertain. The chief problem is the haze-choked atmosphere and the resulting lack of resolution. Without sharp optical images of the surface, scientists must depend on the radar data. And although radar provides better resolution, it leaves many questions unanswered. The only high-resolution images of Titans surface scientists can study are those sent back by Huygens during its descent and landing. As the probe parachuted through the thick atmosphere, it took images that revealed objects as small as 65 feet (20m) across. Once on the ground, Huygens took a single image that showed a cobble-strewn flat plain fading away into the distance with rocks and pebbles ranging from 0.1 inch (2.5 millimeters) to about 6 inches (15cm) across. Thus, except for this handful of Huygens images, all the so-called river networks identified on Titans surface to date are not rivers but wide valleys. If rivers of methane actually run down these
Titan appears silhouetted against Saturns edge-on rings and massive atmosphere in this true-color image taken May 6, 2012. Cassinis Imaging Science Subsystem wide-angle camera captured this view from a distance of 483,000 miles (778,000 kilometers) from Titan. NASA/JPL-CALTECH/SSI
meandering valleys, scientists have not yet been able to see them. Moreover, the lack of crisp resolution means that many of Titans most important surface details remain either unseen or undetermined. For example, it is difficult from radar measurements alone to determine the downstream direction for many of these valleys. In some cases, the valleys wind from a bright area thought to be mountainous to a dark area thought to be a dry or wet lakebed. Although the radar instrument includes an altimeter to measure elevations, the observations typically dont resolve features as small as the valleys. As often is the case, the way to resolve these questions is to go back to Titan with better equipment. Planetary scientists have proposed several missions to accomplish this: an orbiter to circle the moon, a hot air balloon designed to float through Titans atmosphere for years, and a boat that would land in one of Titans lakes and remain afloat to gather data for up to 30 days.
Although budget cuts at NASA have slashed the agencys planetary program for the next decade, they have not prevented any of these missions from getting underway. Instead, planetary scientists decided that the technology for many of these missions was simply not ready, so they chose not to include them in their recommendations to NASA in 2011. The researchers asked for the engineering design work to continue but wanted to defer mission funding until the following decade. In 2017, the Cassini mission will end. NASA will send the spacecraft into Saturns atmosphere, where it will collect its last data before the growing pressure crushes it. Once that happens, scientists will have no probe available to study Titans surface. It will then be years, and probably decades, before another spacecraft returns. Until then, the meandering rivers of Titan shall remain veiled beneath the moons hazy atmosphere, unmapped and unseen by human eyes.
TO SEE A MOVIE OF HUYGENS DESCENT AND LANDING, VISIT www.Astronomy.com/toc.

W W W.ASTR O NO MY.CO M
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Alien life
SMART LIFE
SETI researchers have set their sights on red dwarfs in hopes of making a big discovery. by Seth Shostak
Searching for around
SMALL STARS
This artists impression shows the red dwarf sunset from the surface of rocky planet Gliese 667Cc, which orbits a red dwarf. Tens of billions of planets like this one likely surround small, dim, but perfectly life-friendly stars. ESO/L. CALADA
C
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ould the brighter inhabitants of our galaxy be hunkered down around its dimmer stars? Smile if you must, but small stars may mark the best neighborhoods to search for savvy species. Of course, this conjecture is at loggerheads with conventional wisdom. For more than 50 years, astronomers embarking on the search for extraterrestrial intelligence (SETI) have slewed their radio antennas mostly toward
Seth Shostak is a senior astronomer at the SETI Institute in Mountain View, California, and the author of three books about SETI.
Sun-like stars. This choice was more than just mindless nepotism: The usual assumption of SETI practitioners is that if a neighborhood around a G-type star befits us, it also will befit the aliens. But other stellar locales are closer, more plentiful, and frankly better bets for housing clever beings: the dim bulbs of the cosmos known as red dwarfs.
Plenty of habitats
If you look at the night sky from a dark site, youll behold hundreds of stars even before you set up your telescope. A nice view for sure, but this horde isnt representative of
most stars, any more than a grove of redwoods represents most trees. The majority of the prominent naked-eye stars are giants or supergiants. The latter are 10 or more times the mass of the Sun and considerably brighter, which is why we can see them so well from Earth. These hefty stars are exceptionally visible because brightness and mass dont scale linearly. Multiply a stars mass by just 10, and the intrinsic brightness the luminosity goes up by a factor of 3,000. This is why supergiants are celestial superstars, dominating the night sky despite their rarity (fewer than 0.2 percent of all stars are
supergiants). Like top tennis players, there arent many, but they have high visibility. This mass-luminosity relationship also works in the other direction. A star thats only one-tenth the mass of the Sun a small red dwarf will shine with only 0.08 percent of our stars brightness. Because of this lackluster luminosity, red dwarfs are hard to see. Theres not one you can pick out without reaching for some optics. In the north, Barnards Star, 6 light-years distant and with a modest apparent magnitude of 9.5, is the nearest. In the south, Proxima Centauri is closer (4.23 light-years) but even harder to identify at magnitude 11. But
what does this have to do with intelligent alien beings? Only this: Red dwarfs might be the lowlights of the cosmos, but what they lack in luminance they make up in numbers. They easily dominate the galaxy, constituting the majority of its stellar population. This shouldnt surprise you, as natural processes frequently result in more small things than large (think field mice versus elephants). According to Georgia State astronomer Todd Henry, 74 percent of the stars in the solar neighborhood our corner of the Milky Way are red dwarfs. They might be small, but collectively they make up
more of the galaxys mass than any other type of star. Despite the stars ubiquity, SETI researchers have spent little time searching the environs of these pint-sized suns. Thats because scientists believed red dwarfs had some discomfiting characteristics that would make them unlikely hosts for truly advanced life.
The negatives
The first dwarf downside is that these stars have low power output. If habitable worlds exist around red dwarfs, they will have to be star-huggers. Otherwise, they wont be
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Residential area
M-type
0.14 AU 0.2 AU 0.1 AU
Intensity (relative)
Visible light
15,000 kelvin star Sun (5800 K) 3000 K
G-type
101
102 103 104 Wavelength (nanometers)
105
Inner edge of habitable zone
0.8 AU
Earths orbit Earth
K-type
1 AU
Ha
bitable zone
Outer edge of habitable zone
A stars color depends solely on its temperature. A star is a black body an opaque object at a constant temperature. A black body emits radiation across a range of energies, but its peak which corresponds to the color it appears is bluer the hotter the object is. Red dwarfs appear red because they are relatively cool. ASTRONOMY: ROEN KELLY
0.3 AU 2 AU
0.5 AU 1 AU
A final black mark against the dwarfs is that the space weather in their neighborhoods could be nasty. The stellar surfaces occasionally erupt in giant flares, and the radiation they spew into space could deal a knock-out blow to life gaining a foothold on a closely orbiting world. This short list of demerits has traditionally kept red dwarfs from being first-round draft picks for SETI research. But new insights and data suggest that these workaday stars may have been the victims of a bum rap.
A stars habitable zone is the volume of space where liquid water can exist. Although astronomers are still debating the habitable zone boundaries and discovering factors that aect them, it is safe to say that the larger a star is, the larger its habitable zone will be. Here, the habitable zone of a G-type star, a Sun-like type, is compared to those of a smaller K-type star and a tiny red dwarf, or M-type, star. The red dwarfs zone extends from 0.14 to 0.1 astronomical unit (AU). An AU is the distance from Earth to the Sun. ASTRONOMY: ROEN KELLY
warm enough to have liquid water sloshing over their surfaces. Such planets will race around their suns in orbits even smaller than Mercurys. But huddling so close comes at a price. These worlds will quickly become tidally locked, like the Moon is tidally locked to Earth. Their rotational and orbital periods will be identical, and one hemisphere will endlessly roast in the stars warmth, while the other will shiver in an eternal stygian night. This sounds like a recipe for climatic Armageddon, as any atmosphere will soon freeze out on the dark side and pile up in snowy drifts. If youre a land-dwelling lifeform, the lack of air will ruin your whole day, every day. A second problem dogging the dwarfs is yet another consequence of their halfhearted shine. Their surface temperatures range from 5700 Fahrenheit (3150 Celsius) to 5900 F (3260 C). By comparison, the Suns photosphere is far hotter, close to 10,000 F (5540 C). Because of their lower surface temperatures, dwarfs radiate less energy, and their light is skewed toward the red end of the spectrum. These guys pump only low-octane fuel and produce few highpotency blue photons. Consequently, some researchers argue that dwarfs light doesnt have the oomph to power photosynthesis. A further concern is the small size of the habitable zone (often called the Goldilocks zone) that surrounds red dwarfs. This is the temperate doughnut of space
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around a star where a planet might have a temperature suitable for maintaining liquid water. Simple high-school geometry tells you that the small doughnuts around dim stars have less volume than the larger ones around their brighter cousins. This suggests that planets around dwarfs are less likely to be located in that happy region where they might qualify to host biology.
Belt of life
Perhaps the most stinging criticism from the SETI camp has been the tidal locking problem. A yin-and-yang world of blistering heat and unremitting cold hardly sounds like a good bet for biology. Even microbial extremophiles would have difficulty in such outrageous climes. But the notion of a planet thats half parched rock and half frozen ocean with no atmosphere anywhere is not only grim, its unduly simplistic. Any atmosphere thats at least moderately dense could save itself from turning to ice. In particular, the large temperature difference between the two hemispheres would immediately produce winds, high-altitude air streams that would bring heat from the hot side to the cold. This would prevent the atmosphere from condensing out and piling up in worthless, frozen heaps. Astronomers Martin Heath of the Biosphere Project in London; Laurance Doyle of the SETI Institute in Mountain View, California; and Manoj Joshi and Robert Haberle of the NASA Ames Research Center in Moffet Field, California, worked out these details more than a dozen years ago. They made computer models of tidally
The Research Consortium on Nearby Stars (RECONS) searched the volume of space within 10 parsecs (32.6 light-years) of Earth to take a complete census. Since 2000, when RECONS began its study, the number of known nearby red dwarf (M-type) stars has increased by 25 percent. If these most abundant neighbors are able to host life, many astrobiological possibilities exist. ASTRONOMY: ROEN KELLY, AFTER RECONS
A planet that orbits a red dwarf likely would not be uniformly habitable. It would be tidally locked, like the Moon is to Earth, rotating on its axis and revolving around its sun in the same amount of time. A strip of land with mild temperatures would form a belt around the planet. Such a ring-world, half dark and half light, would be able to sustain both liquid water and a gaseous atmosphere. The author created this rendition in his garage with ashlights and lamp shades. SETH SHOSTAK
locked planets with simple atmospheres of carbon dioxide. If these simulated worlds had at least 10 percent as much atmosphere (by mass) as Earth, enough heat would be shuttled to the dark side to prevent freezing. If the atmosphere was somewhat thicker, oceans could slosh unboiled and unfrozen over most of the planet. In addition, the oceans themselves would provide a further mechanism for smoothing out temperature extremes. Just as the Gulf Stream ferries tropical heat to England and Scandinavia on Earth, so would oceanic currents on a dwarfs planet prevent water on the dark side from turning into a granite-hard mass of ice. Recently, researchers at the University of Chicago have calculated that any tidally locked planet with water will quickly produce thick clouds above its sun-facing surface. This would reduce the planets temperatures on the hot side and is another mechanism that could increase the fraction of habitable planets orbiting red dwarfs. As a result of these and other simulations, the view of tidally locked worlds is considerably more upbeat than it once was. Instead of an airless bipolar planet veneered by scalding deserts and frozen seas, we now envision a strip of land with mild temperatures straddling the sunny and darkened hemispheres a ring-world where the climate is as salubrious as our own and where both liquid water and a gaseous atmosphere are available to spawn and sustain life.
If life exists in these oases, it might display some interesting adaptations. Without nighttime or seasons, plant growth can proceed uninterrupted. Since the sun is always in the same place in the sky, theres no necessity to adjust the position of leaves (or other light-gathering appendages). And for worlds with sophisticated inhabitants, erecting high-efficiency solar-power installations would be a cinch, given the fixed (albeit, low) position of the sun. The tidally locked world we know best our own Moon is as sterile as an autoclave. Consequently, we are biased to think that if a world doesnt have a diurnal cycle if it doesnt spin faster than it orbits its probably not a decent place for brainy biology. But the truth seems quite different.
stretches from roughly 0.8 to 2 astronomical units from the Sun (1 astronomical unit, or AU, is the distance between Earth and our star). In other words, it exists from just beyond Venus to the vicinity of Mars. But for red dwarfs, the Goldilocks zone is less than half that, typically a few tenths of an AU or less across. With this reduced size, habitable spaces around most of the red dwarfs may be ungratifyingly empty. But consider our solar system. The inner region is stuffed with planets compared to
Stellar sizes
B
No-fry zones
Even if scientists are optimistic about the chances for life on red dwarfs planets, they need to know how many such planets actually exist. In our solar system, the habitable zone
F A M
Red dwarfs, or M-type stars, are 10 percent as massive as G-type Sun-like stars, whereas O-type stars are 16 times as massive as G-type stars. But what M dwarfs lack in size and brightness, they make up in number. ASTRONOMY: ROEN KELLY
Just 20 light-years from Earth, the Gliese 581 red dwarf system is home to a nearly Earth-sized planet. GJ 581g 1.3 times Earths radius hugs the middle of the habitable zone, orbiting its star every 37 days.
the emptier realms farther out, a hint that perhaps the dwarfs do house some attractive worlds. Recent data from the Kepler space telescope have shown this to be the case. Harvard astronomers Courtney Dressing and David Charbonneau have examined 3,897 red dwarfs that are under Keplers loupe, including 64 that have planet candidates. Within this sample, 16 percent have an Earth-sized Goldilocks world. Thats a stunningly large fraction if you extrapolate to the whole galaxy if 75 percent of the galaxys 200 billion stars are red dwarfs, then they house 24 billion habitable Earthsized planets. Of course, red dwarfs, while as common as phone polls, are not the only stars in the sky. Roughly 20 percent of all stars are cousins of the Sun types G and K. Berkeley astronomers Erik Petigura and Geoff Marcy, together with their University of Hawaii colleague Andrew Howard, have analyzed Kepler observations of such systems and found that 22 percent are likely to have a planet in the Goldilocks zone. That adds another 9 billion worlds to the Milky Ways inventory of life-friendly locales. However, its clear that the majority of the Goldilocks worlds are hanging out around the galaxys smallest stars. According to Charbonneau, In terms of stars with habitable worlds in the galaxy, the red dwarfs dominate. This is all encouraging news for SETI practitioners. But what about those other red-dwarf bugaboos: low-grade sunlight and sterilizing flares? Just because dwarfs sport habitable real estate is no guarantee that they actually are inhabited. Heath and colleagues reckon that the photosynthetically relevant sunlight the
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light that plants actually can use on red dwarf worlds is 5 to 25 percent as strong as that flooding Earth. But even this feeble illumination would be enough to support many interesting terrestrial plants, including rice, wheat, and a number of vegetables. In addition, theres photosynthesis and then theres photosynthesis. While most plants use red light with a wavelength of about 670 nanometers, various kinds of exotic bacteria perform their photosynthetic magic with light waves of about 900 nanometers. That lower-energy light is in the near-infrared part of the spectrum a perfect match for the glow of red dwarfs. We can reasonably expect that Darwinian evolution would have little trouble producing rich flora appropriate for animal life around these dim bulbs. As for the flares, its not hard to imagine numerous adaptive strategies that life could use. Obviously, simpler life could stay underwater, cower beneath rocks, or armor
itself with shells. Another easy defense would be opportunistic: Simply retreat into nearby shelter as the stellar flare slowly builds in intensity. A more intriguing possibility is that organisms will develop biological means of coping. Numerous terrestrial bacteria can repair damage to their DNA caused by ultraviolet light. Obviously, if earthly lifeforms can figure out how to heal radiation damage, the flora and fauna that evolve on a planet orbiting a red dwarf where flares might be a perennial environmental danger could do the same. In addition, and as Henry notes about his own observations: Weve spent more than a decade studying the variability of red dwarfs, and we rarely see a flare. At visible wavelengths, they hardly vary at all, usually less than 2 percent. And those that emit truly harmful X-rays are mostly dwarfs younger than 100 million years. After that brief period of youthful exuberance, they seem to settle down. And indeed, as Doyle points out, flares might be only an inconvenience. While red dwarf stars have flare activity, this only lasts for less than an hour or so, he says.
NASA/LYNETTE COOK
Advantages for SETI

Given the evidence that the majority of habitable galactic real estate is situated in dwarf star systems, SETI observers have adequate incentive to focus their searches for extraterrestrial intelligence on these abundant neighborhoods. But wait! As they say on the television commercials, theres more. SETI programs including both radio and optical experiments often examine a finite target list of a specific type of object. As an example, the SETI Institutes Project Phoenix program, which was carried out
352 223 100 9

B
10
A F G K
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M
In 1960, astronomer Frank Drake undertook the rst search for extraterrestrial intelligence. Using the 85-foot Howard Tatel Telescope in Green Bank, West Virginia, he observed two Sun-like stars Tau () Ceti and Epsilon () Eridani for purposeful signals from smart aliens. He came up empty, but eorts long continued to focus on star systems similar to our own. NRAO
Scientists have found the largest number of planets around Sun-like stars. However, the search for exoplanets has focused largely on stars like our own because scientists thought them most likely to harbor life. New research, though, suggests that the more-abundant red dwarfs (M-type stars) might be suitable homes for extraterrestrials.
ASTRONOMY: ROEN KELLY, AFTER EXOPLANET ENCYCLOPEDIA
Extremophiles live in conditions on Earth that do not seem conducive to life what scientists thought were uninhabitable zones on our planet. Deinococcus radiodurans, listed in the Guinness Book of World Records as the toughest bacterium, can withstand 1,000 times as much radiation as humans and repair all resulting DNA damage. It also carries on through dehydration, acid baths, and high and low temperatures. Organisms like this remind us that life could be hiding in unexpected places on other planets. MICHAEL DALY/OAK RIDGE
NATIONAL LABORATORY
between 1995 and 2004, took observations of approximately 1,000 nearby and mostly Sun-like stars. Because red dwarfs outnumber G-type (Sun-like) stars by nearly 10 to one, if you made a target list composed only of dwarfs, the stars will, on average, be closer. Put another way, if you look at 1,000 red dwarfs instead of the same number of type G stars, the dwarfs will be only half as far away, on average. The signals from a hypothetical E.T. civilization will be four times stronger and easier to find. In addition, red dwarfs low luminosity has an upside for biology. While solar-type stars have a main sequence lifetime of roughly 10 billion years, the dwarfs last at least 10 times longer. Given their low power output, they are the eternal flames of the cosmos. In other words, every red dwarf that has been born since the Big Bang is still alive and kicking. As Charbonneau puts it: Red dwarfs dont show their age. They dont age. A planet around a Sun-like star is only habitable for about 6 billion years. Around a bright type O or A star, you only have half a billion years. But red dwarfs well, we could find a 10-billion-year-old Earth. This longevity has important consequences for brainy beings. For the first 3
NASAs Kepler space telescope revolutionized exoplanet science, discovering hundreds of conrmed planets and thousands of candidates by watching for dimming when these planets transit their stars. This plot shows simulations of the star systems by size and color (and thus by temperature). As scientists analyze more of Keplers data, they nd smaller planets around dimmer stars. NASA
billion years of lifes existence on Earth, all organisms were microscopic. Intelligent, technically sophisticated beings didnt make it onto the scene until 4.6 billion years into the life of our home star. Given that changes in the Suns brightness will make our planet uninhabitable within only a billion years or so, you could say that sentient life in the solar system arrived just in time. No such chancy circumstances apply to red dwarfs, obviously. Their inhabitants if there are any have plenty of time to become smart and communicative. And at least as important for SETI, to stay that way. On average, a random red dwarf will be several billion years older than a random G-type star, and since intelligence seems to require a while to evolve, older is better. Scientists could expect a higher percentage of dwarfs to house sentient beings. Given these advantages, SETI researchers are considering more scrutiny of these oft-neglected star systems. And how many dwarfs do we need to examine before tripping across an alien signal? Obviously, we dont know. But heres a simple reckoning:
16 percent of dwarfs have an Earth-sized planet in their habitable zone. Suppose one in 10 of these develops intelligent beings after 5 billion years, and that sentience remains present thereafter for one in 10 those. Then in a sample of 700 dwarfs, there will be at least one thats currently home to intelligent beings. That rough-and-ready estimate may be unduly optimistic, but the numbers are still compelling. Examining dwarfs for brainy beings is, well, a no-brainer. Indeed, according to Charbonneau, This is where E.T. lives! Doyle agrees: If I were an inhabitant of a planet around a dwarf, I would find it hard to believe that any beings could exist on a planet around a solar-type star. I would probably argue for pointing radio telescopes only at red dwarfs. But beings do exist around at least one solar-type star our star. Doyles comment is an argument for thinking outside our own box and realizing that in such a diverse universe, life could arise in diverse environments. Sounds like good advice.
DOWNLOAD SHOSTAKS MAY 2012 ARTICLE WHAT HAPPENS WHEN WE DETECT ALIEN LIFE? AT www.Astronomy.com/toc.
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ASKASTR0
Astronomys experts from around the globe answer your cosmic questions.
ALIEN MARTIAN
Q: WHAT IS THE MASS OF THE HEAT SHIELD ROCK METEORITE ON MARS? SHOULDNT IT HAVE LEFT A CRATER WHEN IT HIT? INSTEAD, IT LOOKS LIKE IT IS JUST SITTING PASSIVELY ON THE SURFACE AS IF GENTLY PLACED THERE.
Dennis Barnes, Seneca, South Carolina
A: In early January 2005, on the 339th martian day (each day is a sol) of its mission, the Mars Exploration Rover (MER) Opportunity discovered a nickel-iron meteorite on the surface of Mars Meridiani Planum. It was the first meteorite found on another planet. Because the meteorite lies near the rovers discarded heat shield, the MER team dubbed it Heat Shield Rock. (Its formal name is Meridiani Planum, but many scientists use its informal name.) The meteorite is 12 inches (31 centimeters) long and shows the characteristic pits, hollows, and voids common in nickel-iron meteorites on Earth. Scientists estimate Heat Shield Rocks mass is 88 pounds (40 kilograms).
Currently, the meteorite is resting on a flat plain of sulfate-rich sandstone, named the Burns Formation. Theres no sign of a crater near it, and a small drift of wind-blown sand has collected around the meteorite. Scientists have studied the nearby rocky geography, and they believe it erodes relatively easily. According to planetary researchers, Heat Shield Rock might have landed 3 billion years ago or 300,000 years ago. Scientists have no way to tell for sure. Its also unclear whether it landed as an individual meteorite, broke off from a larger incoming mass, or survived a crater-making impact. Heat Shield Rock does have some interesting features. It has an oxide coating that the MER
The Mars Exploration Rover Opportunity captured this photograph of Heat Shield Rock on the Red Planet; it is the rst meteorite found on another world. NASA/
JPL/CORNELL
Quark and antiquark annihilate each Electron other

Up quark
team thinks might be rust instead of a fusion crust, which we typically expect for a meteorite due to its flight through an atmosphere. The meteorite also displays sculpting from windblown sand grains. Such details offer glimpses of a harsh environmental history for the region. For example, Block Island (a nickel-iron meteorite about twice the size of Heat Shield Rock discovered in 2009 on Mars) rests on a 2-inch-high (5cm) pedestal of Burns Formation sandstone, which suggests that much rock has eroded from around and underneath the meteorite since it landed. So why isnt there a crater at Heat Shield Rock? Long story short, the meteorite landed ages and ages ago, and its a great deal tougher than the rocks its sitting on.
Robert Burnham Mars Space Flight Facility, Arizona State University
Antineutrino Down antiquark Up quark
Up antiquark Bottom quark
Bottom antiquark
When a quark collides with its antiquark, the interaction produces energy in the form of moving particles, antiparticles, and energy. Because scientists can detect these particles and energy, they are not the mysterious dark energy.
Q: COULD THE ENERGY PRODUCED DURING MATTER-ANTIMATTER ANNIHILATION IN THE EARLY UNIVERSE BE DARK ENERGY? IF NOT, WHERE IS THAT PRODUCED ENERGY TODAY?
Michael Lynch Dallas
A: Astronomers see galaxies flying away from each other faster than expected. Some sort of energy dubbed dark energy because we cannot identify what it is must be causing this repulsion. We know that dark energy composes an amazing 68 percent of the universe, so it produces an extremely big effect. Normal matter like stars, gas, and planets is only 5 percent of the cosmos. Scientists believe that the laws of physics are constant everywhere and at all times. Decades of experiments have tested this principle and shown that it is valid. Therefore, we can use our current theory to predict what happened at the Big Bang, even though no one was around to observe the universes beginning. We can study and measure matter-antimatter annihilations in high-energy accelerators. For instance, when quarks interact with antiquarks, we can measure the newly produced particles that have energy we can observe. Thus, the collisions arent creating dark energy (we cant see dark energy; we can only detect its effect). Accelerator experiments also show no hint of dark matter the mysterious mass that makes up 27 percent of the cosmos.
ASTRONOMY: ROEN KELLY
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Physicists believe that the simplest explanation of a scientific question is often the best, so we conclude that throughout the universe, when matter collides with antimatter, the interaction produces the same energy we see on Earth. If the laws of physics are constant over time, we assert that when the cosmos was full of matter and antimatter, starting around one-trillionth of a second after the Big Bang, collisions between them produced the same energy we see and feel every day. As the universe expanded and cooled, the collisions energy went right back to where it came from: matter, antimatter, and energy. For some reason, however, there was one slight asymmetry; the process created more matter than antimatter, which is why we see only matter today. The early universes antimatter and matter simply converted into our matter. Thank goodness, too an astronaut would not want to meet up with antimatter debris.
Howard Matis Lawrence Berkeley National Laboratory, California
The Soul Nebula (Sharpless 2199) contains open clusters with young stars. The hot forming suns emit ultraviolet energy, ionizing nearby sulfur atoms. The photographer processed this image so that the sulfur gas glows red, while hydrogen shows up as green and oxygen as blue. BOB FRANKE
Q: DO THE GAS GIANT PLANETS HAVE DISCERNIBLE SURFACES? IF SO, WOULD THEY SUPPORT OBJECTS?
Al Kuyper Clive, Iowa
A: Gas giants like Jupiter and Saturn do not have solid surfaces in the sense that if you dropped in a penny, it would never land with a clink. These bodies are mostly composed of hydrogen at temperatures above the critical point for hydrogen, meaning there is no sharp boundary between solid, liquid, and gas regions. But gas giants do have layers. For example, if you could somehow endure the high
temperatures, pressures, and radiation levels and survive a dive into Jupiter, you would first swim through a stormy atmosphere of hydrogen. You would pass through layers of ammonia clouds, sulfide clouds, and then water clouds. You would probably even begin to float when the density of the gas around you matched that of your body. But if you could weigh yourself down, you could keep sinking and enter a thick layer of metallic hydrogen, where electrons and protons move separately from one another. The temperature would get hotter and hotter as you kept diving up to about 20,000 kelvins (35,000 Fahrenheit). Finally, in Jupiters core, the metallic hydrogen would give way to heavier elements like silicon and iron. Here, your body, crushed to 5 its size and stripped of most of its electrons, would probably rest forever.
Marc Kuchner NASAs Goddard Space Flight Center, Greenbelt, Maryland
Q: WHY IS ONE OF THE THREE FILTERS IN THE HUBBLE PALETTE IONIZED SULFUR? IS SULFUR REALLY THAT PREVALENT IN THE UNIVERSE?
Dennis Demcheck Baton Rouge, Louisiana
A: Sulfur is not terribly abundant in the universe. It shows up, however, near high-energy regions and objects such as supernova shock fronts and hot massive stars. We typically see this element near areas where high-speed gases are colliding. The gaseous remains of exploded stars called supernova remnants tend to have relatively strong sulfur emission. We also see it in the gas ejected from dying Sun-like stars and their remnants, planetary nebulae. Hot young stars emit ultraviolet light, which kicks electrons off nearby atoms, thus ionizing them. Sulfur is one of the ionized gases we see near these young suns. Sulfur is useful to
astronomers as a diagnostic tool that shows us where shocked gases and high amounts of ultraviolet radiation are. Thus, to capture images of such regions, the Hubble Space Telescopes Wide Field Planetary Camera 2 (19932009) included a narrowband sulfur filter. This filter let only a small range of light around a wavelength of 672 nanometers pass through to the camera.
Howard E. Bond Pennsylvania State University, University Park
Send us your questions
Send your astronomy questions via email to askastro@astronomy.com, or write to Ask Astro, P. O. Box 1612, Waukesha, WI 53187. Be sure to tell us your full name and where you live. Unfortunately, we cannot answer all questions submitted.
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SKYTHIS MONTH
The Moon and Mercury
MARTIN RATCLIFFE and ALISTER LING describe the
solar systems changing landscape as it appears in Earths sky.
Visible to the naked eye Visible with binoculars Visible with a telescope
February 2014: Venus shines brilliantly

PEGASUS
Moon Enif
AQUARIUS
Mercury 10 Fomalhaut February 1, 30 minutes after sunset Looking west-southwest The Moon points the way to Mercury in early February, when the innermost planet appears near its maximum altitude after sunset. ASTRONOMY: ROEN KELLY
lanets adorn the night sky from dusk to dawn in February. Just one month removed from its peak visibility, Jupiter provides a smorgasbord of details from sunset until the wee hours. Mercury continues to shine brightly in the evening sky in early February, but it soon passes between the Sun and Earth and re-emerges before dawn at months end. The morning sky also offers superb views of Mars and Saturn as they approach their springtime peaks. But the focus of naked-eye observers during the predawn hours has to be Venus, which shines at its brightest this month. As February opens, innermost Mercury is in the midst of its best evening apparition for northern observers during
Martin Ratcliffe provides planetarium development for Sky-Skan, Inc., from his home in Wichita, Kansas. Meteorologist Alister Ling works for Environment Canada in Edmonton, Alberta.
2014. (It peaked at greatest elongation January 31.) On the 1st, the planet lies 11 high in the west-southwest 30 minutes after sunset. Coincidentally, Mercury appears the same distance below a slender crescent Moon. Grab your binoculars and scan halfway between the Moon and the horizon. You shouldnt have any trouble spying the planet, which shines brightly at magnitude 0.6. Mercury fades quickly during the next week, dimming by 0.2 magnitude with each passing day. It dips to 1st magnitude by February 7 and becomes difficult to spot in the twilight. Just a week later, on February 15, it passes between the Sun and Earth and slips into the morning sky, where we will visit later. Uranus provides more of a challenge to binocular observers. In mid-February, the magnitude 5.9 planet stands about 20 above the western horizon as twilight fades to darkness. Look for it
in southern Pisces some 5 southwest of 4th-magnitude Delta () Piscium. On February 3, the planet lies 3 south of the crescent Moon. Dont confuse Uranus with a similarly bright star just 0.5 to its east. You can tell the two apart through a telescope, which reveals the planets 3.4"-diameter disk and bluegreen color. Uranus lies within 0.25 of this same star from February 11 to 18, and their relative motion from night to night should be easy to spot. After the challenge of spotting Uranus, Jupiter will seem like a breeze. The planet gleams at magnitude 2.5 and stands some two-thirds of the way to the zenith in the eastern sky as darkness falls. Jupiter reached opposition and peak visibility in early January and shows little decline this month. The giant worlds disk shrinks only slightly, from 46" to 42" across, which is still plenty big enough to show fine details through telescopes of any aperture. Look for two dark equatorial belts sandwiched around a brighter equatorial zone on
any clear night. When Earths turbulent atmosphere settles down and the jovian disk appears exceptionally crisp, look for a whole series of alternating belts and zones. Jupiter lies in the central part of Gemini the Twins. This region passes nearly overhead for Northern Hemisphere observers in mid-evening and doesnt set until after 4 a.m. local time. The planet moves westward against the starry background during February, ending the month some 2 south of 3rd-magnitude Epsilon () Geminorum. The worlds four bright moons offer endless entertainment. Once in a while, the satellites line up in order of their distance from the planet. The evening of February 24 provides perhaps the months best opportunity to see such an alignment. Io then lies east of and closest to the planet with Europa, Ganymede, and Callisto lined up in order west of Jupiter. As each moon orbits the giant planet this month, it experiences a similar sequence
Mars and Saturn grow brighter

VIRGO
Mars
OPHIUCHUS
Spica
C ORVU S
Saturn
LIBR A
Antares
SC ORPIUS LUPUS CENTAURUS
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Mid-February, 4 A.M. Looking south

Mars and Saturn climb higher in the sky after midnight as they both prepare to reach their peak this spring. ASTRONOMY: ROEN KELLY
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RISINGMOON Searching beyond the normal lunar limb

The first few evenings of February offer great views of rugged craters along the waxing crescent Moons terminator, the line that divides sunlight from darkness on the lunar surface. But after enjoying the sights for a few minutes, you might start to wonder if something is different about the scene. Then it dawns on you theres a lot more terrain than usual between Mare Crisium and the limb. Mare Marginis and Mare Smythii appear as huge dark splotches instead of thin channels. Early February offers the best perspective (or libration) we can get on the Moons eastern zone. Our satellites rotation and revolution combine to let us see a bit beyond what our normal face-on view provides. These two large dark zones are ponds of lava that welled up from below and froze billions of years ago. The northern one is Mare Marginis (the Border Sea), and the southern one is Mare Smythii, whose name honors British amateur astronomer Admiral Smyth. The white wall on the limb beyond Smythii consists of a series of crater rims, the largest belonging to Hirayama, Purkyne, and Babcock. In between the two maria is Neper, a prominent crater with a lava-filled basin and central mountain. On Marginis northern flank, the rugged walls of Goddard ring a flat lava lake that
Peeking around the Moons eastern edge

Goddard
Neper Mare Marginis Mare Smythii E N A favorable libration brings Mare Smythii and Mare Marginis into view in early February. NASA/CLEMENTINE/ARIZONA STATE UNIVERSITY; INSET: NASA/GSFC/ASU
flooded the impact site higher than the craters central peak. For a few evenings, the lumpy rim of Al-Biruni pokes above the limb just beyond Goddard. Each night after First Quarter phase February 6, the Moons orbit and spin combine to give the impression that the eastern part of Luna is rolling away from
us. Watch for Goddards rim and Nepers peak to stick up above the limb when they are in profile. By Full Moon on February 14, all the features past Crisium have spun beyond the limb. This sequence of views brought by a favorable libration repeats the next couple of months, but less prominently than in February.
of events. First, the satellite crosses in front of, or transits, Jupiter. Soon thereafter, the moons shadow transits the jovian cloud tops. (The time delay depends on the moons distance from Jupiter and the Sun-Jupiter-Earth viewing angle.) Half an orbit later, the moon disappears behind Jupiters western limb. The sequence ends when the moon leaves Jupiters shadow at some distance off the planets eastern limb. As the eclipse ends, the moon brightens slowly as sunlight gradually returns to its surface. February features plenty of interesting satellite events. At 11:36 p.m. EST February 3, Io begins to transit Jupiters disk. The moons shadow starts its own journey across the planets face at 12:19 a.m. The transit ends at 1:52 a.m., and the shadow lifts back into space 42 minutes later. By the next evening, speedy Io has progressed halfway
Continued on page 42
METEORWATCH You dont need a shower to get wet

February is typically a quiet month for meteor observers. No major showers occur, and the only minor one (the Alpha Centaurids) lies deep in the southern sky. But the occasional sporadic meteor can appear at any time. Experienced observers can expect to see half a dozen sporadics per hour from a dark-sky site. As with all meteor viewing, the highest rates occur in the early morning hours. Before dawn, an observer lies on the part of Earth that faces in the direction of our planets orbital motion. And in the same way a car driving through a snowstorm picks up more snowflakes on its front windshield, Earth sweeps up more meteors on its leading edge.
Catch a sporadic meteor
Most meteor observers watch the annual showers, but dark skies can bring exceptional views of random aring dust particles. TONY ROWELL
OBSERVING HIGHLIGHT
Northern Hemisphere observers at dark sites should look for the zodiacal light after evening twilight from February 16 to March 1.
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STAR DOME
How to use this map: This map portrays the sky as seen near 35 north latitude. Located inside the border are the cardinal directions and their intermediate points. To find stars, hold the map overhead and orient it so one of the labels matches the direction youre facing. The stars above the maps horizon now match whats in the sky. The all-sky map shows how the sky looks at: 10 P.M. February 1 9 P.M. February 15 8 P.M. February 28 Planets are shown at midmonth
STAR MAGNITUDES
Sirius 0.0 1.0 2.0 3.0 4.0 5.0
STAR COLORS
A stars color depends on its surface temperature.
t t t t t t
The hottest stars shine blue Slightly cooler stars appear white Intermediate stars (like the Sun) glow yellow Lower-temperature stars appear orange The coolest stars glow red Fainter stars cant excite our eyes color receptors, so they appear white unless you use optical aid to gather more light
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FEBRUARY 2014
SUN. MON. TUES.
Note: Moon phases in the calendar vary in size due to the distance from Earth and are shown at 0h Universal Time.
WED. THURS. FRI. SAT.
10
11
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14
15
16
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Calendar of events
1 The Moon passes 4 north of Mercury, 2 A.M. EST The Moon passes 5 north of Neptune, 9 A.M. EST 3 The Moon passes 3 north of Uranus, 6 P.M. EST 6 Mercury is stationary, 2 A.M. EST First Quarter Moon occurs at 2:22 P.M. EST 11 The Moon passes 5 south of Jupiter, 1 A.M. EST 15 Mercury is in inferior conjunction, 3 P.M. EST 19 The Moon passes 3 south of Mars, 7 P.M. EST 21 The Moon passes 0.3 south of Saturn, 5 P.M. EST 22 Asteroid Pallas is at opposition, 4 A.M. EST Last Quarter Moon occurs at 12:15 P.M. EST 23 Neptune is in conjunction with the Sun, 1 P.M. EST
12 The Moon is at apogee (252,421 miles from Earth), 12:10 A.M. EST 25 The Moon passes 0.4 north of Venus, midnight EST 14 Full Moon occurs at 6:53 P.M. EST 27 The Moon is at perigee (223,967 miles from Earth), 2:51 P.M. EST SPECIAL OBSERVING DATE The Moon passes 3 north of 15 Venus shines at magnitude Mercury, 4 P.M. EST 4.9 this morning, the brightest it gets during this Mercury is stationary, 6 P.M. EST apparition.
BEGINNERS: WATCH A VIDEO ABOUT HOW TO READ A STAR CHART AT www.Astronomy.com/starchart.

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ILLUSTRATIONS BY ASTRONOMY: ROEN KELLY
PATH OF THE PLANETS
The planets in February 2014
The planets in the sky

Mercury
These illustrations show the size, phase, and orientation of each planet and the two brightest dwarf planets for the dates in the data table at bottom. South is at the top to match the view through a telescope.
Mars Uranus
S W N 10" E
Ceres Venus Jupiter
Saturn
Neptune
Pluto
Planets Date Magnitude Angular size Illumination Distance (AU) from Earth Distance (AU) from Sun Right ascension (2000.0) Declination (2000.0)
MERCURY Feb. 1 0.6 7.1" 51% 0.944 0.310 22h08.5m 1101'
VENUS Feb. 15 4.9 40.6" 26% 0.411 0.719 19h10.5m 1627'
MARS Feb. 15 0.1 10.1" 93% 0.926 1.657 13h40.7m 734'
CERES Feb. 15 8.0 0.7" 97% 2.029 2.595 14h13.7m 007'
JUPITER Feb. 15 2.5 44.2" 100% 4.465 5.209 6h47.3m 2312'
SATURN Feb. 15 0.5 17.0" 100% 9.788 9.891 15h24.5m 1616'
URANUS Feb. 15 5.9 3.4" 100% 20.732 20.031 0h37.1m 317'
NEPTUNE Feb. 15 8.0 2.2" 100% 30.954 29.978 22h26.5m 1029'
PLUTO Feb. 15 14.2 0.1" 100% 33.307 32.598 18h53.4m 2010'
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This map unfolds the entire night sky from sunset (at right) until sunrise (at left). Arrows and colored dots show motions and locations of solar system objects during the month.
Jupiters moons
Dots display positions of Galilean satellites at 11 P.M. EST on the date shown. South is at the top to match S the view E through a W N telescope.
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13
Io Europa
Ganymede Callisto
Ganymede
Jupiter
Jupiter Mercury Inferior conjunction is February 15 Earth Mars Venus Ceres
14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 23
Io
Callisto
Europa
25
The planets in their orbits

Arrows show the inner planets monthly motions and dots depict the outer planets positions at midmonth from high above their orbits.
Jupiter Uranus Saturn
26 27 28
Neptune Solar conjunction is February 23 Pluto
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ILLUSTRATIONS BY ASTRONOMY: ROEN KELLY
24
Continued from page 37
Jupiters moons line up in order

S W Callisto February 24, 9:30 P.M. EST Jupiter Io Europa
WHEN TO VIEW THE PLANETS

EVENING SKY
Mercury (west) Jupiter (east) Uranus (west) Neptune (west)
MIDNIGHT
Mars (southeast) Jupiter (west)
MORNING SKY
Mercury (southeast) Venus (southeast) Mars (southwest) Saturn (south)
Ganymede
1'
The apparent distances from Jupiter of the four Galilean moons often dont match their orbital hierarchy, but they do February 24. ASTRONOMY: ROEN KELLY
along its orbit. The moon moves behind Jupiter starting at 8:56 p.m. EST. Exactly three hours later, Io returns to view as it exits Jupiters shadow 13" from Jupiters eastern limb. It takes this satellite three minutes to fully brighten. Jupiters outermost major moon, Callisto, transits Jupiter on February 5 starting at 9:10 p.m. EST. Because Callisto travels a wider orbit than Io, it moves more slowly and takes longer to cross Jupiters disk. The transit doesnt wrap up until 12:34 a.m. Its worth staying up even later to see Europa transit Jupiter. This event begins at 3:53 a.m. EST;
12 minutes later, a large shadow appears on the jovian cloud tops. Dont be fooled this is Callistos shadow, not Europas. The outer moons shadow trails its own disk by seven hours. Youll have to wait until late evening to view another planet. Mars rises shortly after 11 p.m. local time in early February and some 90 minutes earlier by months end. On the 1st, the Red Planet stands 5 north-northeast of blue-white Spica, Virgo the Maidens brightest star. At magnitude 0.2, Mars appears twice as bright as 1st-magnitude Spica. The planets slow easterly
motion carries it to a point some 6 northeast of Spica by February 28. Mars then shines at magnitude 0.4 and bests Spica by a factor of 3.6. The planets rapid brightening signals that it will soon be making a close approach to Earth. In early April, Mars will appear brighter than at any time since 2007 as it reaches opposition and peak visibility. The planets apparent diameter also grows larger as opposition looms. When viewed through a telescope in early February, it spans 8.9"; the disk swells by 30 percent (to 11.5") by months close.
Eight-inch and larger scopes should provide nice views of martian surface features. Plan to view Mars in the early morning when it climbs nearly halfway to the zenith in the southern sky. Peak elevation comes around 5 a.m. local time in early February and shortly after 3 a.m. late in the month. If you observe the planet at the same time each night, features slowly change position because Mars takes 24 hours and 37 minutes to complete a rotation. The giant volcano Olympus Mons lies near the martian disks center during
COMETSEARCH ISON starts its trek back to the Oort Cloud

As Comet ISON (C/2012 S1) begins a long goodbye as it departs from the inner solar system in February, it should remain a telescopic treat in the rich star fields of the Perseus Milky Way. After the waxing Moon sets during the first 10 days of February, a 4-inch telescope under a dark sky should pull in the diffuse comet. From the suburbs, however, the comet may remain a disappointing smudge even through an 8-inch instrument. In the second half of February, the Moon-free observing window moves to the evening sky as the celestial visitor fades. ISON should be fairly easy to track down. It lies roughly midway between brilliant Capella (Alpha [] Aurigae) and bright Mirfak (Alpha Persei), drifting near a crumpled box of stars that represents the curled hand of Perseus the Hero. Take a few minutes to enjoy the open star clusters NGC 1545 and NGC 1528. The former is smaller and looks like a dancing stick man, while the latter is a beautiful large group visible through finder scopes and binoculars. At low power, you might notice that ISON doesnt appear like a typical round cotton ball. Bump up the power to 100x or more and take a closer look. Picture a slice of thin-crust pizza oriented almost edge-on with the point close to your nose. The comets coma (the point) should glow brightest with welldefined wings on each side. The fan-shaped dust tail (the pizza toppings) spans a broad angle but peters out quickly to the
Comet ISON (C/2012 S1)

N 4 Feb 1
CAMELOPARDALIS
Path of Comet ISON E 2 3 1 7
10 13
PERSEUS
NGC 1528 h 1
NGC 1545
The bright comet of November and December dims considerably as it moves from Camelopardalis into Perseus in early February. ASTRONOMY: ROEN KELLY
north because of our shallow observing angle. Next month, we will leave ISON behind and pick up a fresh comet: PANSTARRS (C/2012 K1).
This dirty snowball promises to be a nice target from now until autumn. Meanwhile, well leave ISONs retreat to imagers and observers with large scopes.
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Venus reaches greatest brilliancy

Altair
AQUI L A OPHIUCHUS
LOCATINGASTEROIDS Herculina on display in Taurus the Bull

February provides a golden opportunity for observers to spot a high-numbered asteroid. On the 5th, point your telescope at 3rd-magnitude Zeta () Tauri, the southern horn of Taurus the Bull. The closest point of light in your eyepiece will be asteroid 532 Herculina. This main-belt asteroid remains a short hop away on other early February nights. While youre in the area, stop by the Crab Nebula (M1). A 4-inch instrument will reveal this supernova remnants diffuse form. German astronomer Max Wolf discovered Herculina on April 20, 1904, by noticing its displacement on images taken a few nights apart. You can use a similar technique to identify the space rock by making a quick sketch of the field and returning a night or two later to see which dot changed place. Herculina reaches 10th magnitude only when its orbit carries it close to Earth. It happens this year and next, but after that not until 2019. Herculina spans nearly 130 miles, which places it around 20th in size among all asteroids. It doesnt reflect as much light as typical asteroids, however, which is why astronomers discovered many smaller ones before Herculina.
Venus Shaula
SAGIT TARIUS SC ORPIUS
10 Mid-February, 45 minutes before sunrise Looking southeast

The brightest planet peaks at magnitude 4.9 in mid-February, when observers under dark skies might see it cast a shadow. ASTRONOMY: ROEN KELLY
Februarys first few mornings. During Februarys final week, the conspicuous dark feature Syrtis Major dominates the planets central region. Also look for Mars white north polar cap. Although the cap is now waning summer begins in the northern hemisphere February 14 it should stand out because the planets north pole tips in our direction. Saturn pokes above the horizon roughly two hours after Mars. The ringed planet lies against the backdrop of Libra the Balance. It shines at magnitude 0.5, two full magnitudes brighter than any of Libras stars. Saturns southerly position this year means that it wont climb high for observers at mid-northern latitudes. For the best views in February, wait until an hour or so before dawn. Even a small telescope reveals the planets 17"-diameter disk encircled by a ring system that spans 39" and tilts 23 to our line of sight. For amateur astronomers, Saturn offers more moons to view than Jupiter does. None rises to the brightness of Jupiters four largest, however. Only 8th-magnitude Titan shows up through the smallest scopes. Simply look for the brightest point of light near
the planet. Youll find Titan south of Saturn on February 2/3 and 18/19 and north of the planet February 11 and 27. Saturns outermost major moon, two-faced Iapetus, varies in brightness by a factor of five as it orbits the planet. The best time to look for it this month comes February 16 when it passes 2.2' due north of the ringed world. It then glows at 11th magnitude and should show up easily through a 6-inch scope. Three other moons appear through 4-inch instruments. Tethys, Dione, and Rhea glow at 10th magnitude and all orbit inside Titan. It is worth the effort to view the trio when they lie near one another before dawn February 11 and 21. On the 11th, the three form a 44"-long line west of Saturn; on the 21st, they make an even tighter triangle east of the planet. By the time twilight begins, Venus dominates the sky. The brilliant world rises some two hours before the Sun in early February, when it shines at magnitude 4.8. The morning star grows even more prominent as the month progresses and it climbs higher before dawn. Venus reaches greatest brilliancy
Perched on the Bulls southern horn

N March 1 25 21
TAURUS
Path of Herculina 17 13 9 M1 114
c 5 Feb 1
0.5
Although Herculina wasnt among the rst 500 asteroids discovered, its bright enough this month to spy through a small scope. ASTRONOMY: ROEN KELLY
(magnitude 4.9) February 15 before fading back to magnitude 4.8 by months end, when it comes up 2 hours before our star. The view of Venus through a telescope changes dramatically during February. On the 1st, Earths neighbor spans 51" and shows a thin crescent just 13 percent lit. By the 28th, Venus apparent diameter has shrunk to 33", but the Sun then illuminates 36 percent of the disk.
Youll find a crescent Moon nearby February 25 and 26 (with a phase of 20 percent and 11 percent, respectively). Mercury also appears in the morning sky late in the month, but it presents more of a challenge than it did on early February evenings. On the 27th, the innermost planet shines at 1st magnitude some 9 to the lower left of the waning crescent Moon. Binoculars offer you the best chance to spy the elusive planet.
GET DAILY UPDATES ON YOUR NIGHT SKY AT www.Astronomy.com/skythisweek.

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New light on our
Stellar science
In the late stages of stellar evolution, a Sunlike stars envelope is blown away into the surrounding interstellar medium, leaving the hot exposed core. In this image of a planetary nebula, the ultraviolet radiation from the core illuminates the expelled gas and dust, creating the shape that gives it the name Buttery Nebula. In the future, only the core of the initial hydrogen-burning star a white dwarf will remain. NASA/ESA/THE HUBBLE SM4 ERO TEAM
Suns fate
The Sun will lose 46 percent of its mass before becoming a carbon and oxygen cinder in 6.5 billion years. Heres how astronomers know its destiny. by Jason Kalirai
IN
the future, Earth will be inside the Sun. That new location will be a result of the Suns evolutionary path because our star will change dramatically in mass and, especially, size. If we think of todays Sun as a soccer ball, in the future it will grow enormously in size similar to a soccer field and then shrink down to an ant walking on that field. But the Sun is presently in a stable, long-lasting portion of its life, so how can we possibly know what it will do in the future? Well, weve observed such evolutionary life cycles for Sun-like stars in the Milky Way. These studies give us clues predicting our own stars life.
The life cycles of stars
A century ago, Danish scientist Ejnar Hertzsprung and American astronomer Henry Norris Russell independently made a remarkable observation while analyzing several of the stars nearest to the Sun. Some stars of the same color that lie at the same distance from us surprisingly have very different luminosities. Hertzsprung referred to those nearby stars with high luminosities as giants and those with low luminosities as dwarfs. Then, in a December 1913 talk, Russell presented an early version of what we now call the Hertzsprung-Russell diagram. This plot compares a stars brightness (on the vertical axis) to the stars color, or spectrum (on the horizontal axis). With these 20th-century observations, the first ideas on stellar physics emerged that a
Jason Kalirai is an astrophysicist at the Space Telescope Science Institute and the Center for Astrophysical Sciences at Johns Hopkins University, both in Baltimore. You can follow him on Twitter @JasonKalirai. Kalirai and collaborators recently published a scientific paper about their research of stellar mass loss.
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14
16
Brightness vs. color

47 Tucanae red giant branch Background Small Magellanic Cloud stars 47 Tucanae hydrogen-burning stars (main sequence)
18
20
Visible magnitude
22
24
26
28
47 Tucanae white dwarfs
The globular star cluster 47 Tucanae lies some 15,000 light-years from Earth and contains thousands of white dwarfs, which the author and colleagues studied with the Hubble Space Telescope and ground-based observatories. THOMAS V. DAVIS
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Blue
White
stars mass and luminosity are correlated. Astronomers also began to wonder how stars evolve and thought that perhaps they move across the H-R diagram. Over decades, weve learned that a stars mass controls its life; along the way, that property also determines its brightness and temperature. We now summarize all stages of stellar evolution on this important diagram. Today, astronomers use powerful telescopes, on the ground and in space, to measure stars brightnesses, colors, and positions. For example, the Hubble Space Telescope can observe individual Sun-like stars some 2.5 million light-years distant in the Andromeda Galaxy suns that appear 10 billion times fainter than the faintest star your unaided eye can see. For engineering marvels like Hubble, stars in our solar neighborhood are a piece of cake. By measuring their properties to exquisite precision, astronomers are able to study the process of stellar evolution in great detail. We know that long quiescent phases dominate the life cycles of most stars. Shortly after a star forms, its central core reaches a temperature of tens of millions of degrees, hot enough to fuse hydrogen into helium and energy. During this phase of nuclear burning, a stars appearance remains quite stable, with little change in its luminosity, size, and temperature. At the end of their lives, most stars (those less than 10 times the Suns mass) will use up their nuclear fuel, swell, and shed their outer layers. Their cores will simply cool over time as white dwarfs. This end product is a carbon-oxygen remnant because those elements are what the nuclear fusion of hydrogen and helium create in stellar cores with a thin surface layer of hydrogen. The stars have no nuclear energy sources, so they simply cool over time and radiate away stored heat.
46
Yellow Color
Orange
Red
This Herztsprung-Russell diagram shows the luminosity of the stars in cluster 47 Tucanae along the Y-axis and their colors (which correspond to their temperatures) along the X-axis. The data show three populations within the globular cluster in addition to hydrogenburning stars that belong to the background Small Magellanic Cloud (SMC) dwarf galaxy. This galaxy is 200,000 light-years behind 47 Tuc, but the Hubble Space Telescopes sensitivity and resolution detect the SMCs individual stars. ASTRONOMY: ROEN KELLY, AFTER J. KALIRAI, ET AL.
The missing pieces

We have a solid understanding of both the hydrogen-burning phase and white dwarf stage of stellar evolution, but tracking what happens in the middle remains one of the biggest mysteries in stellar astrophysics. It is during these years that stars undergo dramatic changes and can rapidly transform over size scales of tens of thousands. This evolution begins when a star, depleted of hydrogen in its core, begins to burn hydrogen in a shell surrounding that interior. The suns outer layers become diffuse and expand; we classify it as a red giant. In this stage, the star is much brighter than a dwarf of the same temperature because it emits energy from a much greater surface area. As the star continues to evolve on this red giant branch, as its called on the H-R diagram, getting brighter as time passes, stellar winds can propel the outer layers away from the sun and dump material into the surrounding environment. The amount of mass that a star sheds as a red giant directly shapes its future. And knowing the details of what happens with other red giant stars can help us figure out what our Sun will experience later in life.
The amount of mass that a star sheds as a red giant directly shapes its future.
Comparing spectra
Blue giant
H H
White dwarf
H H H H
H Blue giant
White dwarf
Sun
H H
Sun
300 400 500 600 Wavelength (nanometers) 700 800
Ultraviolet
Visible
Infrared surface of white dwarfs, these lines are pressure-broadened and have much larger widths than hydrogen-burning stars. By observing these Balmer lines, scientists can accurately measure the remnants temperature and surface gravity. ASTRONOMY: ROEN KELLY, AFTER NASA/ESA/A. FIELD AND J. KALIRAI (STSCI)
While the Sun shows many dark absorption lines, hotter stars have simple spectra exhibiting just the Balmer sequence of hydrogen. Newly formed white dwarfs have temperatures similar to hot blue giants, and therefore also show Balmer lines. But given the intense pressure on the
After a stars red giant phase, it burns helium in its core. It again changes in temperature and size as it ascends the asymptotic giant branch and burns helium in a surrounding shell. A suns lifetime on this branch depends on how long it takes to fully blow off its gaseous envelope and the luminosity it will reach. If the star loses the envelope quickly, then the evolutionary stage ends and it forms a white dwarf; if the star instead loses the material slowly, it will live on the asymptotic giant branch longer and continue to become brighter and more bloated. Knowing how much material such a sun loses helps us understand this later phase of stellar evolution. This branch of evolution is extremely difficult to model theoretically, but by measuring the mass loss directly, we can refine computer models that predict stellar timescales and luminosities. We can take the color and brightness observations of stars and use models that predict how physical changes will affect the emergent spectrum (and therefore the color) to learn about the properties of the galaxies those suns live in, such as age, chemistry, and star formation rate. Ultimately, understanding a stars mass loss is an anchor for much of what astronomers do: interpreting unresolved red and infrared light from distant galaxies because, after all, galaxies are made of stars.
Each cluster gives us a snapshot of stars at a given age.
watch a given sun evolve. We have no way to infer the final white dwarf properties of a hydrogen-burning star shining in the night sky. Similarly, for a nearby white dwarf, we have no way to infer the initial suns mass. (Astronomers refer to this initial star as the progenitor.) But we do have laboratories to tackle the problem: star clusters, environments where thousands of suns are cut from the same cloth. All of the suns within a given cluster formed at the same time and with the same composition, yet over a range of individual masses. Each cluster gives us a snapshot of stars at a given age. We can directly see the impact that stellar evolution has played on stars with different masses. Star clusters are extremely dense environments. Over a distance similar to that between the Sun and its nearest neighbors a few light-years away a given cluster can contain hundreds of stars. All of these suns share incredible similarities and therefore represent a controlled environment for studying stellar evolution. To explore both the initial and final phases simultaneously, and therefore measure how much mass stars lose through their evolution, we can use a three-step process.
Step 1: Find needles in a haystack

In the past decade, research teams have measured the brightnesses and colors of all the stars in a cluster. In this step, we make sure not only to study the brighter hydrogen-burning and giant phases of stellar evolution, but also to hunt the much fainter remnant white dwarfs. Not long ago, these stars burned hydrogen in their cores, but they have evolved faster than their counterparts because they were initially more massive.
Connecting the dots

My colleagues and I have studied suns in different phases of evolution to piece together the process. To measure how much material stars lose through stellar evolution, we need to figure out both the initial and final masses for the same stars. Yet the timescales millions to billions of years are too long to
47
The author and colleagues used the Keck telescopes atop Mauna Kea, Hawaii, to gather the light signatures, called spectra, of white dwarfs in globular cluster 47 Tucanae. ETHAN TWEEDIE PHOTOGRAPHY
Following a study of nearby white dwarf stars, the author and colleagues concluded that the Sun will lose 46 percent of its mass through its evolution to become a white dwarf. NASA/SDO
My colleagues and I recently used Hubble to observe one of the nearest globular clusters, 47 Tucanae (NGC 104). Hubbles razor-sharp vision allowed us to see the faintest white dwarfs at nearly 30th magnitude. We plotted all the stars on the H-R diagram (see illustration on p. 46); with such figures, we can place tight constraints on the fundamental properties of each cluster, such as its age. This is because stars evolution corresponds to how massive they are at birth. To determine a clusters age, we can see what mass of stars in a cluster are still burning hydrogen and which have evolved past that point. With this diagram, we also can measure the census of brighter white dwarfs, which we will then observe in greater detail with other telescopes. Other teams of astronomers work with our group to make similar diagrams using ground- and space-based telescopes for clusters ranging in age from 50 million to 13 billion years; 47 Tuc is about 10.5 billion years old.
employ multi-object spectrographs on large 10-meter class telescopes, such as the Keck telescopes in Hawaii, to measure spectra for dozens of white dwarfs in a given cluster at one time. We then compare computer models of those hydrogen lines with a white dwarfs spectrum to measure its surface pressure, temperature, and surface gravity. From that information, we can accurately calculate the stars present-day mass and how long it has been since the original star spewed all of its outer gaseous layers and left its remnant core.
Step 3: Put it together

The age of each cluster (determined in step 1) is the same as the ages of all of its member stars. For the white dwarfs, that value is the sum of the already determined cooling time of each remnant and the hydrogen-burning lifetime of the progenitor. That means we can calculate the initial stars lifetime using the following equation: star clusters age white dwarf cooling time = progenitor lifetime. We can derive the initial stars mass simply from using well-tested theoretical models at that age. This novel method lets us explore both the initial and final masses of the same stars.
Step 2: Exploit natural labs
One of the most remarkable properties of white dwarf stars is their density. The mass of a typical white dwarf is about half that of the Sun, but its size is similar to Earths. So, the density of white-dwarf matter can be a million times higher than the Suns average. Because white dwarf densities are so high, we call these stellar remnants natural condensed-matter laboratories. The pressure at a white dwarfs surface is extreme because of that density, and that makes its characteristic light signature, or spectrum, unlike any other stars. These spectra hold important clues to stars properties. For a normal white dwarf with a temperature of 20,000 to 30,000 kelvins (36,000 to 54,000 Fahrenheit), the spectrum shows common lines of hydrogen. But these lines look nothing like what you would observe in a lab or even from a more typical hot, hydrogen-burning sun like Sirius A. The pressure on the surface of a white dwarf blurs the absorption lines to widths five to 10 times greater than those in normal stars (See Comparing spectra on p. 47). To observe these broadened lines, we use special instruments called spectrographs to split apart stellar light. Specifically, we
48
The mass of a typical white dwarf is about half that of the Sun, but its size is similar to Earths.
How much mass is lost?
After applying this calculation to decades of observations of white dwarfs in nearby star clusters including our study of 47 Tuc my colleagues and I find that hydrogen-burning stars will lose a significant amount of their mass through stellar evolution. The higher-mass suns will proportionally lose more material. For example, stars born with five times the Suns mass will lose 80 percent through evolution and end their lives as massive white dwarfs with approximately the Suns mass. (The nearest white dwarf to the Sun, Sirius B, matches that prediction, as it has a mass approximately the same as our star.) These larger suns are rarer because nature produces many more low-mass stars than high-mass ones. Whereas the evolution of Sun-like stars leads to more typical carbon-oxygen white dwarfs, the progenitors of such massive white dwarfs may reach much higher temperatures and
Stellar weight loss

100% 80% Mass loss
60%
40%
20% 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 Initial mass of hydrogen-burning star (solar masses)
The more massive a Sun-like star is initially, the larger fraction of material it will lose through stellar evolution. The author and colleagues compared the properties of white dwarfs in star clusters and correlated their masses to those of their original hydrogen-burning selves. While some of the plotted points come from research from other scientists, the data points for stars with masses less than twice the Suns mass are from the authors team.
ASTRONOMY: ROEN KELLY, AFTER J. KALIRAI, ET AL.
At the center of the Helix Nebula lies a white dwarf. That stellar remnants radiation causes the surrounding gas to glow in ultraviolet (shown in blue) and infrared (green and red). NASA/JPL-CALTECH
densities. In these extreme environments, even the carbon and oxygen in the stars cores can fuse into heavier elements such as neon and magnesium. Therefore, astronomers believe the cores of these massive white dwarfs have different compositions from more typical ones. At intermediate sizes of two to three times the mass of the Sun, a star will lose two-thirds to three-quarters of its mass.
The fate of our Sun (and Earth)

Our measurements of the initial and final masses of stars also extend to nearby Sun-like stars and therefore predict the fate of the Sun. We know that our star will exhaust the hydrogen within its core in about 6.5 billion years. (This information comes from a long-used scientific method comparing observations with theoretical models. Astronomers measure and characterize stars at different life cycles and then match those observations to theoretical models to predict the evolutionary future of stars.) With no hydrogen left in its core, our Sun will begin to burn the element within a surrounding layer, like normal red giants. This tenuous layer will expand due to the heat generated and grow to 200 times its present radius. The Suns surface temperature will drop to about half its present value about 3000 K (4900 F). However, given its much larger size, the Sun will be 1,000 times more luminous than it is now. As it expands, the Sun will completely engulf both Mercury and Venus. Earth, on the other hand, will attempt to play a
As a white dwarf, our star will slowly release its stored heat into space and dim as time passes.
catch me if you can game with our star. As the Sun loses mass, and hence gravitational influence, Earths orbit will expand to some 50 percent farther out than it currently is. Unfortunately for our planet, the Sun will lose mass rapidly as a red giant, and its outer layers will overtake Earths migration; our planet will cook. By that time, however, the heat will have already dried up the oceans and burned away our atmosphere. After encountering the gas particles in the Suns tenuous outer surface, Earth will feel a drag and begin to slow its rate around the Sun. Its orbit will then spiral toward the center of our star. According to stellar evolution models, after its giant phases, the Sun will have lost its envelope and only its core will remain. This core a white dwarf initially will be extremely hot, but without nuclear fuel, it will quickly cool. This is the fate of our Sun: After losing 46 percent of its mass, a value my colleagues and I calculated, it will be a normal white dwarf with 54 percent of its present weight (see Stellar weight loss above). Like the white-dwarf-progenitor stars within globular cluster 47 Tuc, our Sun will end up with a fraction of the mass it was born with. Just as it lived a relatively boring life while burning hydrogen in its core for billions of years, the Sun will enter another long state of stellar evolution. As a white dwarf, our star will slowly release its stored heat into space and dim as time passes. It will join the stellar graveyard of the Milky Way, a place where 98 percent of the galaxys stars end up.
VIEW A GALLERY OF PLANETARY NEBULAE, THE BEAUTIFUL REMNANTS OF SUN-LIKE STARS, AT www.Astronomy.com/toc.
49
COMET OF THE CENTURY?
Comet ISONs
opening act
The most anticipated comet in decades got off to a good start.
by Michael E. Bakich
This early image of Comet ISON (arrow) shows it glowing faintly at 16th magnitude just to the upper left of the 14th-magnitude galaxy IC 2196. The spiral to the upper right is magnitude 13.1 IC 2199. (20-inch RC Optical Systems Ritchey-Chrtien reector, SBIG 6303 CCD camera, 18 minutes total exposure, taken January 16, 2013, from Kitt Peak National Observatory) DEAN SALMAN/NOAO/AURA/NSF
omet ISON (C/2012 S1) first appeared September 21, 2012, on photographic images taken by astronomers Vitali Nevski of Belarus and Artyom Novichonok of Russia. Since then, it has basked in the hope fueled by enthusiastic forecasters (It will appear as bright as the Full Moon!) while simultaneously wallowing in the mire spewed by pessimistic prognosticators (The comet will break up as it gets close to the Sun!). The truth as to how bright it would be, it seemed, was going to lie somewhere in between. The first standout images of Comet ISON, shown on these two pages, started rolling in to the magazine during the fall. They show a seemingly healthy comet with a bright coma and a growing tail. So far, so good. Furthermore, at press time, the Minor Planet Centers brightness predictions for Comet ISON at maximum hadnt wavered in more than a month. It seemed in October at least that we were all in for a great show. For the next several issues, well print the finest images we received during the comets run. Through them, youll be able to relive ISONs entire visitation to our wonderful world and decide for yourself whether or not it lived up to the hype.
This image captures, in a once-in-a-lifetime lineup, (from left to right) Comet ISON, Mars, the dwarf spheroidal galaxy Leo I, and Regulus (Alpha [] Leonis). (2.6-inch Astro-Tech AT65EDQ refractor at f/7, Canon 5D Mark III DSLR, ISO 1600, thirty 1-minute exposures, stacked, taken October 15, 2013, between 4 A.M. and 5:30 A.M. PDT from the central Oregon coast) CHRIS LEVITAN
Michael E. Bakich is photo editor of Astronomy and has observed more than 100 comets.
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Big scopes collect lots of light, so its no surprise that a 32-inch Ritchey-Chrtien reector especially one at an altitude of 9,157 feet (2,791 meters) would make ISON look great. (32-inch RC Optical Systems Schulman Telescope, SBIG STX-16803 CCD camera, RGB image with exposures of 18, 18, and 16 minutes, respectively, taken October 8, 2013) ADAM BLOCK/MOUNT LEMMON SKYCENTER/UNIVERSITY OF ARIZONA
Comet ISON oated on the border between the constellations Leo the Lion and Cancer the Crab when the photographer captured this image of it. (17-inch PlaneWave Instruments corrected Dall-Kirkham reector, FLI PL6303e CCD camera, LRGB image with exposures of 15, 2, 2, and 2 minutes, respectively, taken September 24, 2013, at 11h36m UT) DAMIAN PEACH
The green coma that Comet ISON displayed on this date reminded the photographer of Comet 103P/ Hartley back in 2010. Here, ISON stands approximately 1 from Mars. (6-inch Explore Scientic 152mm David H. Levy Comet Hunter at f/4.8, Canon XSi DSLR, ISO 800, twenty-three 1-minute exposures, taken October 16, 2013, between 4:50 A.M. and 5:30 A.M. PDT from Julian, California) CHUCK KIMBALL
Comet ISON started to show some nice green color in early October, especially through large amateur instruments. This imager reported that, on the date he took this picture, it was distinctly visible through 8x50 binoculars. (12.5-inch homemade Newtonian reector at f/5, SBIG ST-10XME CCD camera, 75 minutes total exposure, taken October 4, 2013, from Payson, Arizona) CHRIS SCHUR
FIND MORE IMAGES OF COMET ISON AT www.Astronomy.com/ISON.

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DARK BEAUTY
Where other astrophotographers

Thomas V. Davis is committed to shedding light on the dusty, dark parts of the universe through his portraits of nebulae.
text and images by Thomas V. Davis
fear to tread
Knowing this, my parents bought me a telescope when I turned 12: a Sears 60mm refractor. What I saw through this instrument was nowhere near as stunning as what I had seen in print. Eventually, I turned the telescope toward the most photogenic gas giant planet Saturn and upon seeing its rings through this simple setup, I became dedicated once again to viewing the heavens. I continued to explore the night sky with my modest apparatus, but I also still marveled over the images from people using much larger telescopes.
s a child growing up in rural Utah, I was blessed with a relatively unspoiled view of a dark night sky. I looked up often, fascinated by space itself and by our newfound ability to explore it. As obsessive as I was about high-profile missions like Apollo, however, I was more interested in what was going on at home. The large, earthbound telescopes of the day were producing images that sparked my imagination. I spent hours at the local library poring over Palomar, Mount Wilson, and Lick observatories images of deep-space objects. Their observations of galaxies, stars clusters, and gaseous nebulae captivated me, and at first the secondhand beauty satisfied me. Soon, though, I wanted to see these objects through an eyepiece myself rather than just in the pages of books.
Idaho imager
After I grew older and went to college out of state, I put my telescope down for a while. In 1996, though, a move to southeast Idahos dark skies and transparent atmosphere inspired me to pick it up again. What I saw through the telescope lens, however, was
The Carina Nebula (NGC 3372) is mostly ionized hydrogen gas. It is home to the smaller, constituent Keyhole and Homonculus nebulae and the star Eta () Carinae, one of the most massive and luminous suns known. NGC 3372 hosts a large number of hot young stars that excite its gas, causing it to glow. (6-inch Astro-Physics 155 EDF refractor at f/5.4, 13.5 hours of H/SII/OIII/RGB exposure through an FLI ProLine 16803 CCD camera)
again not as vivid or detailed as the visions that had inspired me as a young child. I realized that the only way to see the universe as it had appeared to me then was to enhance my sight technologically speaking. Since I could not leave the shutters of my eyes open until they collected a lot of light, I decided to get a camera and take images myself. First, I bought a Celestron 8-inch Schmidt-Cassegrain telescope and an Olympus OM-1 film camera. Unfortunately, I discovered that its focal length did not work with my camera, so I decided to try piggyback imaging, where the camera lens did the optic work and the telescope served as its base. As my first targets, I chose the objects that had initially caught my childhood interest in astronomy. With black and white and color film, I recorded my first images of the Milky Way, the North America Nebula (NGC 7000), and the Orion Nebula (M42).
Thomas V. Davis images faint objects under the dark skies of Inkom, Idaho.
Author Thomas V. Davis long ago focused his imaging on dusty nebulae. Now, with a two-camera setup, he is in the middle of a journey to image all 159 van den Bergh objects deeply and in detail.
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The Iris Nebula (NGC 7023, top center) rst inspired the author to create portraits of dusty, dark places in the night sky. In the constellation Cepheus, dusty nebular material surrounds a massive, hot star in its formative years. Central laments of cosmic dust glow with a red photoluminesence as dust grains eectively convert the stars invisible ultraviolet radiation to visible red light. The dominant color of the nebula, however, is blue, characteristic of dust grains reecting starlight. (4.2-inch Takahashi FSQ-106 refractor at f/5, 14.25 hours of exposure through an SBIG STL-11000M CCD camera)
I had gone from recording with my eyes and memory to recording with a camera, and the difference between what I could see and what the camera could see fed my passion. I was determined to continue and improve. I soon purchased a Santa Barbara Instrument Group (SBIG) ST-237 CCD camera and embarked on my digitalimaging journey. But it wasnt until much later, after several changes in equipment, that I finally began to produce images that showed the celestial details I desired in my work the kind of details that resembled the universe of the books.
Dusty dreams
My imaging was bound to keep evolving. I purchased a 12-inch Astro Systeme Austria N12 f/3.8 corrected Newtonian astrograph a telescope made specifically for astrophotography, with a wide field of view (FOV) and a flat, undistorted projection onto the focal plane, where the projection of the target comes into focus. This I combined with an SBIG STL-11000M CCD camera.
Immediately after discovering the dark nebulosity surrounding NGC 7023, the author set his sights on van den Bergh 152 (upper left). The object glows with the characteristic blue color of reection nebulae at the end of a dusty curtain of dark gas and dust. It lies about 1,400 light-years away, along the northern Milky Way in Cepheus. Scientists think ultraviolet light from a nearby embedded sun is causing a dim reddish luminescence in the nebular dust. The entire complex is a huge molecular cloud that will form stars. (12-inch Astro Systeme Austria N12 astrograph at f/3.5, 7 hours of exposure through an SBIG STL-11000M CCD camera)
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The elongated shape of Cometary Globule 12 suggests that star formation is active within this region, on which the author focused for 9.5 hours to make this image. (6-inch Astro-Physics 155 EDF refractor at f/5.4, 9.5 hours of exposure through an FLI ProLine 16803 CCD camera) The Orion Nebula (M42), a great star-forming region of the Milky Way, is one of the objects that inspired the author to start capturing images of the universe. (6-inch Astro-Physics 155 EDF refractor at f/5.4, 8 hours of exposure through an FLI ProLine 16803 CCD camera)
BBWo56 in the constellation Puppis has components of both emission and reection nebulosity. Nearly 15 hours of exposure were necessary to create this view of the extremely faint and rarely imaged object. (6-inch Astro-Physics 155 EDF refractor at f/5.4, 14.8 hours of HLRGB exposure through an FLI ProLine 16803 CCD camera)
This colorful region of the southern constellation Scorpius is home to many emission, reection, and dark nebulae. In this image, the author shows the blue reection nebula IC 4605 adjacent to a small portion of the large yellow reection nebula IC 4606. (6-inch Astro-Physics 155 EDF refractor at f/5.4, 7 hours of exposure through an FLI ProLine 16803 CCD camera)
In 2007, I saw an image of the Iris Nebula (NGC 7023) that showed the beautiful object in detail. Instead of being awed by the blue of starlight reflecting off dust, though, I was struck by what seemed to be brown-red nebulosity at the far corners of the image. It was interstellar dust! Always up for a challenge, I began wondering if I could create pictures of this dust. How well could I record it with my wide FOV setup? The only way to find out was to try it. As the data from NGC 7023 began to come in that first night, I could already tell the dust was significant. After processing, the final
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image showed even more than I could have imagined and more than Id seen in photographs from other observers. Excited at my discovery, I decided to shoot another nearby nebula, van den Bergh (vdB) 152. The data again showed clouds of dust not visible in previously published images. These two successes ignited my passion for pursuing less frequently imaged objects, particularly dusty, dark, and reflection nebulae. Since then, I have been systematically imaging these mysterious objects in an attempt to make the astronomy world more aware of them. In 20082010, I had
the opportunity to continue that work in the Southern Hemisphere. I shared an observatory in Australia with famed narrowband imager John Gleason. There, I photographed many of the southern skies hidden dusty gems to add to the list of northern objects I was imaging from my home in Idaho.
Personal projects
With my personal observatory, I increased my productivity by using two separate setups at the same time. The first is a narrow FOV, high-resolution telescope
The van den Bergh catalog

vdB 130
Magnitude: 9.5 Surface brightness: bright (12-inch Astro-Physics Riccardi-Honders astrograph at f/3.8 and an FLI ProLine 16803 CCD camera, 4.2-inch Takahashi FSQ-106 refractor at f/5 and an SBIG STL-11000M CCD camera, 12.6 hours of H/ OIII/LRGB exposure)
vdB 27
Magnitude: 9.1 Surface brightness: faint (12-inch Astro Systeme Austria N12 astrograph at f/3.5, 10.6 hours of exposure through an SBIG STL-11000M CCD camera)
vdB 2023 vdB 24

Magnitude: 8.8 Surface brightness: moderate (4.2-inch Takahashi FSQ-106 refractor at f/5, 2.5 hours of exposure through an SBIG STL-11000M CCD camera) Magnitudes: 2.94.2 Surface brightnesses: moderate to very bright (12-inch Astro Systeme Austria N12 astrograph at f/3.5 and 4.2-inch Takahashi FSQ106 refractor at f/5, 10 hours of exposure through an SBIG STL-11000M CCD camera)
that records luminance data. The second is a wide FOV, low-resolution telescope that takes the color data. By combining these two data sets, I can create hybrid-composite images. This technique has allowed me to greatly increase my image production despite the fickle Idaho weather, as I can gather both types of data on a single night instead of needing to have two clear evenings. The two different FOVs have the added bonus of providing more perspective on the targeted object.
This type of double-setup facilitates my current project of imaging the 159-object van den Bergh catalog of reflection nebulae in its entirety. I currently use a 12-inch Astro-Physics 305mm f/3.8 Riccardi-Honders astrograph/FLI ProLine 16803 CCD camera combination for the luminance data and a 4.2-inch Takahashi FSQ-106 astrograph/SBIG STL-11000M CCD camera combination for the color data. As you can see, my commitment to the dust continues!
My telescopes, cameras, and I have come a long way from my first astroimaging days. Since I published those early nebula images, many other astrophotographers have begun to shoot this type of hidden night-sky object. I feel proud to have helped bring dusty nebulae into the forefront of astroimaging, and I look forward to many years of capturing these most elusive and previously overlooked deep-sky gems. You may see my collection at www.tvdavisastropics.com.
VIEW MORE VAN DEN BERGH OBJECTS FROM THOMAS V. DAVIS AT www.Astronomy.com/toc.
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Tiny particles in the solar system may answer some of its biggest questions.
by Meenakshi Wadhwa
What are we learning from
THROUGH THE MICROSCOPE
ost of us have had the wondrous experience of seeing shooting stars in the night sky. It is incredible to realize that the objects creating these bright streaks of light are mostly the size of a grain of sand or smaller. In fact, it is this dust, originating mostly from comets and asteroids in our solar system, that makes up much of the 50 to 100 tons of material astronomers estimate falls to Earth every day. Scientists have made several efforts to collect extraterrestrial particles after their arrival on Earth. For example, researchers have recovered such particles from deepsea sediments or from large quantities of ice that were melted in Greenland and Antarctica. But these particles change quite significantly because of their fiery entry through Earths atmosphere and from subsequent weathering on its surface. To obtain pristine extraterrestrial dust, NASA uses high-flying aircraft and spacecraft. Why go to such extraordinary effort to collect these tiny particles? And what have we learned from studying them?
Heres what all the fuss is about. This aggregate interplanetary dust particle can reveal much about conditions in our early solar system. It measures about 10 microns across. ALL IMAGES: NASA
Collecting cosmic dust

Astronomers call the thousands of tons of extraterrestrial particles that fall to Earth annually cosmic dust. The grains typically measure less than 100 microns, about the width of a human hair. While frictional heating with air destroys some of them, our atmosphere slows a majority sufficiently so that they fall gently to Earths surface. For more than three decades, NASA has used ER-2 and WB-57 high-flying aircraft to collect these particles at an altitude of about 12 miles (19 kilometers). Only about 10 percent of this material is cosmic dust. The rest is of terrestrial origin. Sticky surfaces (typically Lexan plates coated with silicone oil) beneath the wings of the aircraft collect the particles. Once the collectors arrive at the Cosmic Dust Laboratory, established in 1981 at NASAs John-
NASAs Stardust spacecraft obtained this falsecolor composite image of Comet 81P/Wild 2 on January 2, 2004, by combining a long exposure showing the jets of material streaming from the comets nucleus and a short exposure showing details of the nucleus itself.
son Space Center in Houston, the curator examines them through a microscope. The particles are then extracted from the collectors, rinsed in solvents to remove the silicone oil, and imaged and documented with a scanning electron microscope. The curator publishes information about the particles for the scientific community, and researchers can then request particular grains to study. Such studies have revealed that a large fraction of cosmic dust is material not present in any of the known types of meteorites, most of which originated from asteroids. Some of these particles represent dust from comets and are perhaps the most primitive, least-altered material in the solar system. They have not changed due to heating or by interaction with water, processes that have occurred on many asteroidal bodies.
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COSMIC DUST?
NASAs ER-2 high-altitude aircraft carries a Large Area Collector cosmic dust sensor under its wing. When the aircraft reaches 65,000 feet (19,800 meters), the clamshell-like doors (inset) open to reveal plates coated in silicone oil that trap dust particles.
PARTICLES FROM THE STARDUST MISSION
WHAT IS AEROGEL?
The main image shows two comet particle tracks in Stardust aerogel. The longer one stretches 0.43 inch (1.1 centimeters) while the shorter measures 0.33 inch (0.85cm). The five other images are comet particles found toward the end of the two tracks.
Aerogel is a silicon-based solid with a density about 1,000 times less than typical glass and a sponge-like structure that is 99.8 percent air. It was developed by American scientist Samuel Stephens Kistler in 1931. The block of aerogel above is similar to those used in the Stardust collector tray.
Some particles even preserve remnants of presolar silicate and organic grains, from which scientists can learn about processes occurring in other stars and in the interstellar medium (the space between stars). Researchers find the organics in cosmic dust particularly intriguing because these
grains could have seeded the early Earth with the raw materials necessary for life.
The Stardust mission

Rather than waiting for cometary and asteroidal dust to fall on us, two spacecraft missions have returned dust particles from
Meenakshi Wadhwa is director of the Center for Meteorite Studies and a professor in the School of Earth and Space Exploration at Arizona State University. She wrote this article while appointed as visiting scientist at the Lunar and Planetary Institute in Houston.
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On January 15, 2006, the Stardust sample return capsule separated from the spacecraft and streaked through Earths atmosphere before parachuting into the Utah Test and Training Range in the early morning hours. Searchers found the Stardust sample return capsule (inset) lying on the ground soon after it landed. The pod measures approximately 32 inches across by 20 inches high (0.8 by 0.5 meter).
Capsule
As Japans Hayabusa spacecraft re-entered Earths atmosphere over Australia on June 13, 2010, it broke up (left). The spacecrafts sample return capsule is the small dot at lower right. Mission team members (center) recovered the capsule after it fell near the Woomera Test Facility in South Australia. The Planetary Sample Curation Facility at Sagamihara, Kanagawa, Japan (right), is a specially built facility for handling and storing samples of the asteroid Itokawa.
such bodies the Stardust and Hayabusa missions, respectively. Stardust was a NASA Discovery class mission launched February 7, 1999. It encountered samples from Comet 81P/Wild in January 2004. As the spacecraft flew through the comets coma, several thousand dust particles embedded themselves in a specially designed collection tray containing 124 silica aerogel blocks, each measuring about 1.6 by 0.8 by 1.2 inches (4 by 2 by 3 centimeters). Stardust approached within 149 miles (240km) of the comets surface. Remote control moved the collection tray into a sample return capsule (SRC), and Stardust headed toward Earth. On close approach to our world in January 2006, the SRC separated from the spacecraft. It entered the atmosphere faster than any human-made object on record, slowing
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from a speed of nearly 28,600 mph (46,000 km/h) to about 10 mph (16 km/h) in only 13 minutes before parachuting into the U.S. Air Force Utah Test and Training Range. Two days later, workers transported the SRC to the curation facilities at the Johnson Space Center. Here, the collection tray sits in the Stardust Laboratory, a specially designed clean room. The particles from the comets coma, most of which are a fraction of the width of a human hair, hit the aerogel at about 3.7 miles per second (6 km/s), slowed down, and stopped at the end of carrot-shaped tracks. These tracks are visible through a microscope, and some are large enough to see with the naked eye. Scientists use these tracks to find the tiny cometary particles in the nearly transparent aerogel. They also developed precise
micro-tools for cutting a small wedge out of the part of the aerogel that includes a particle. Using an instrument called a microtome, they then can cut each particle into hundreds of slices for detailed compositional and textural studies. One of the most significant findings from the Stardust mission has been the discovery of some particles with minerals that formed at high temperatures in the inner solar nebula. Scientists think comets assembled in the cold outer reaches far from the Sun. The finding suggests that the solar system was a dynamic and turbulent environment with large-scale mixing of components that formed in both regions.
The Hayabusa mission

The other key mission came in 2003 when the Japanese Aerospace Exploration Agency
THE STARDUST MISSION

1 2
1) Members of the Stardust mission team carefully opened the sample return capsule in a specially-built, ultraclean curation laboratory at NASAs Johnson Space Center in Houston. 2) The curatorial team examined and documented the surfaces of the aerogel blocks in the Stardust collector tray using an optical microscope. 3) The tennis-racket-sized collector on the Stardust mission contained 124 blocks of aerogel and provided more than 155 square inches (1,000 square centimeters) of surface area to capture cometary and possibly some interstellar dust grains. 4) Science team members examine the aerogel collector array.
(JAXA) launched Hayabusa, originally called MUSES-C, to collect and return samples from the small near-Earth asteroid Itokawa. This minor planet belongs to the second most common class (S type, stony). The goal of the mission was to understand its composition and formation history. The Hayabusa spacecraft arrived at Itokawa in September 2005 and spent 2 months making remote observations of the asteroids shape and composition. Following these observations, JAXA scientists intended the spacecraft to perform three touch-and-go maneuvers during which a gun was to fire and broken-off asteroid chips were to be collected. But the gun failed to fire on two attempts. The collection mechanism did not perform as expected, and at the time researchers could not confirm whether sample collection was successful. Despite a series of subsequent communication and control failures, JAXA engineers returned Hayabusa to Earth in June 2010. They recovered its sample capsule in the Woomera Prohibited Area in South Australia. Although the sampling mechanism (primarily the gun) did not operate as scientists intended, the sample canisters contained thousands of tiny particles from Itokawa. Scientists extracted these particles and ini-
tially examined them in a specially designed laboratory in Sagamihara, Japan. According to an agreement with NASA, JAXA delivered 10 percent of the particles to the Johnson Space Center. Most of our current understanding of asteroids comes from studying meteorite samples that astronomers believe originated in asteroidal bodies. It has been difficult, however, to match the compositions of the different kinds of meteorites with those of the known types of asteroids because processes, such as bombardment by solar wind particles (space weathering), change the way asteroid surfaces appear in telescopic observations. The Itokawa particles are the first samples from an asteroid. Whats more, because of the remote observations the spacecraft made prior to sampling, researchers understand the geologic context for these particles. By studying these particles, we have learned that S-type asteroids are similar in composition to the most commonly found meteorites, ordinary chondrites. More specifically, Itokawa appears to be most similar to the low-iron variety of ordinary chondrites. So, studying these particles allows us to better understand asteroids. In particular, it appears that Itokawa was originally much larger but broke apart as a result of
This fragment is from the asteroid Itokawa. The Japanese Aerospace Exploration Agencys Hayabusa spacecraft returned the approximately 50-micron long specimen to Earth in June 2010.
impacts; only a small fraction of the original material reassembled.
Small is indeed beautiful

Scientists can glean a tremendous amount of information from the tiniest of extraterrestrial samples. In fact, the smallest materials in NASAs collections preserve the oldest records of solar system history. Technological advances in instrumentation are allowing researchers from around the world to handle and study these tiny fragments in fantastic detail. It all leads to some amazing insights into the origin of the solar system and possibly even how life developed on our planet.
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EQUIPMENT REVIEW
Levenhuks Ra R110 ED Doublet OTA is an apochromatic refractor with clean lines and great optics.
ALL PHOTOS: ASTRONOMY: WILLIAM ZUBACK
The Ra R110 ED Doublet OTA offers high-quality optics, good portability, and nice styling all at a great price.
By Tom Trusock
Levenhuks new refractor

I
n my opinion, the best telescope design for smaller apertures is the refractor. In the 3- to 5-inch range, these are typically small and light, easy to store and transport. They are simple to mount, make great wide-field instruments, and are relatively rugged. Their practically nonexistent cool-down times combine with their wide fields of view to make them fantastic graband-go telescopes. Perfectly suited for a peek at the summer Milky Way or some indepth lunar and planetary investigations, a refractor can do it all. For many years, the standard in refracting technology was the achromatic doublet. Such a telescope has a two-element front lens that features high-quality color correction. That said, bright objects like the Moon and Jupiter tend to show varying amounts of false color through such doublets. The types of glass used in the lens typically flint and crown dont bring all colors of light to the same focus. Manufacturers partially compensate for this problem by building in a long focal ratio. This means a long optical tube, which trades portability for optical quality.
Astronomy tests
The apochromat (meaning without color) is a decided improvement over the achromat, especially when it comes to fastfocal-ratio scopes. Apochromatic (APO) telescopes use special types of glass to bring the wavelengths of visible light closer to common focus, thus eliminating (or at least greatly reducing) the purple fringe seen in achromats.
Stats and features

The one drawback of the modern apochromatic refractor is cost. These special types of glass dont come cheap. Luckily, recent changes in the world economy have made them more affordable than ever. Into this market comes the affordably priced Levenhuk Ra R110 ED Doublet OTA. The ED in this refractors name indicates that the manufacturer uses extra-lowdispersion glass in one of the two lens elements. Another nice feature is that Levenhuk fully multicoats all lens faces. And just in case youre new to telescope reviews, the OTA means optical tube assembly. When you see that designation,
Tom Trusock is a seasoned skywatcher and equipment guru who observes from his home in Ubly, Michigan.
The objective lens in the R110 is a 4.3-inch f/7 doublet with one element manufactured from FPL-53 extra-low dispersion glass.
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PRODUCT INFORMATION
Levenhuk Ra R110 ED Doublet OTA
Optical design: Apochromatic refractor Lens: two-element design Diameter: 4.3 inches (110 millimeters) Focal length: 770 millimeters Focal ratio: f/7 Weight: 12.2 pounds (5.5 kilograms) Includes: Vixen-style dovetail plate, tube rings, 2" dual-speed Crayford focuser, dew shield with a screw-on lens cap, aluminum travel case Price: $1,329.95 Contact: Levenhuk, Inc. 1935 Brandon Court, Suite A1 Glendale Heights, IL 60139 [t] 800.342.1706 [w] www.levenhuk.com
Under the sky

When I set the R110 up on several clear nights, this telescope really strutted its stuff. Factory collimation (the alignment of the optical elements) was spot on, ensuring that the views were as good as they could be. Under steady skies, the telescope star-tested well with nearly identical intra- and extra-focal diffraction patterns. Focus tests showed that stars displayed a bright Airy disk, a much fainter first diffraction ring, and just a hint of a second. This indicates that the lens is concentrating most of the light where it should go with little waste. The field showed pinpoint stars from edge to edge, which indicated it would be great for visual use, and color correction also was quite good. As with any high-quality ED doublet, I found some minor color fringing on highcontrast targets like the lunar limb, but it definitely wasnt objectionable. Likewise, glare was not an issue. Another thing that pleased me was that the telescope has that definite snap-to focus, a characteristic of high-quality optics. As for the focuser itself, I found its movement to be a little gritty, but it certainly got the job done. The fine focuser is a nice touch, and it has a great feel. That particular add-on also is necessary to get the last little bit out of this or any other fairly fast telescope. Through any high-quality refractor, the Moon and planets are superb targets, and the R110 proved no exception. Cruising the lunar surface was just plain fun. Lunar shadows were deep and dark, and the stark
The R110 comes equipped with a 2" dual-speed Crayford focuser made of aluminum to reduce weight. Marks on the tube allow you to return to a previous focus setting.
it basically means you have to supply your own mount and tripod. Apart from its optics, this 4.3-inch (110 millimeters) f/7 doublet sports a 2" dualspeed Crayford focuser. The tubes finish is a pearl-white paint with black trim, which provides a classic look. The dew shield slides out and locks into place with a thumbscrew, while a screw-on lens cap protects the optics. The cap is a nice touch. Ive found that these are far more secure than the press-fit type. I dont know about you, but I like keeping my optics protected. The telescope comes with mounting rings and a Vixen-style dovetail plate. Levenhuk includes a black aluminum travel case, but the lack of space for a diagonal or eyepieces means youll be bringing along a few other cases, too. Mechanically, the scope is sound with a fine fit and finish, but you dont look at a telescope for long.
gray coloration of the surface showed excellent contrast. Lunar features popped well even at high magnification. I even managed to pick out a couple of craterlets in Plato something Ive found to be a good resolution test for small optics. As I scanned the lunar surface, I had the magnification up to around 300x; while that much power is a bit empty for a 4-inch telescope, the view held together well and was still sharp. All in all, I spent a pleasant couple of hours hopping around Luna and revisiting old friends. Finally, I put the telescope to good use on Jupiter, where it showed me four belts the North and South Equatorial Belts and both the North and South Temperate Belts. The R110 also clearly resolved the Great Red Spot in the South Equatorial Belt along with some fine detail.
Great bang for the buck

As Ive said many times, one of the wonderful things about a refractor is its flexibility, and this scope is no exception. In addition to taking high power well, I found I could get approximately 3.5 of true field perfect for the star clusters and bright nebulae of the summer Milky Way. Apochromatic refractors have made great strides in the past few years. With their reputation for optical quality and portability, their now reduced cost is making them a more popular option for amateur astronomers. If youre looking for a budget APO, Id give some serious consideration to the Levenhuk Ra R110 ED Doublet OTA.
Levenhuk includes two accessories that will help you protect the Ra R110 ED Doublet OTA. The rst is a sturdy aluminum carry case. The second is a screw-on front lens cap, which the author contends works much better than a press-t version.
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SKYGAZING
NGC 6791 has a Trumpler classication of II3r. That means its a cluster that stands out against the background, shows a bit of central condensation, contains both bright and faint stars, and ranks as a rich cluster with more than 100 suns.
THE TRUMPLER
text by Michael E. Bakich; images by Bernhard Hubl
Explore
Since 1930, astronomers have divided the thousands of open clusters into 36 types. Find out what makes them different.
F
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classes of clusters
upon them. Who he was and what he accomplished makes a fascinating sidebar and a fun observing project for todays amateur astronomers.
rom earliest times, observers have gazed at loose collections of stars, grouping them into amorphous forms that they correctly assumed were moving through space together. But no organization of these objects existed until one meticulous astronomer imposed his classification scheme
The man behind the plan

Robert Julius Trumpler was born in Zurich on October 2, 1886, the third in a family of 10 children. At age 12, he took the competitive examination for entrance to the Gymnasium (high school) and was first in his class. His interest in astronomy began when
Michael E. Bakich is a senior editor of Astronomy. Bernhard Hubl is a highly accredited astroimager who lives in Schlierbach, Austria.
he heard a classmate speak about the origin of the solar system. Trumpler entered the University of Zurich to study astronomy in 1906. Two years later, he started advanced work at the University of Gttingen, where he received his Ph.D. in 1910. At the meeting of the Astronomische Gesellschaft in Hamburg in 1913, Trumpler met Frank Schlesinger, director of the Allegheny Observatory in Pittsburgh. They discussed a program for determining the
motions of stars in the Pleiades. A few months later, Schlesinger invited Trumpler to come to Allegheny as an assistant, with the opportunity to work on the Pleiades. Trumpler accepted the position, but when World War I began, the Swiss militia drafted him, made him an officer, and stationed him in the Alps. Schlesinger wrote that he would not be able to hold the position open indefinitely, and Trumpler presented his case to his superiors. They released him from duty with permission to travel to the United States. In May 1915, he arrived at the Allegheny Observatory. Once there, he began to investigate star clusters to learn more about their characteristics.
NGC 129 lies in the constellation Cassiopeia. At magnitude 6.5, its an object that sharp-eyed observers can detect from a dark site. In the Trumpler system, this open cluster has a classication of II2m.
Star cluster research

His work in this field expanded when, in 1918, he began work at Lick Observatory in California. After a dozen years of research, Trumpler produced his greatest contribution to astronomy: Preliminary Results on the Distances, Dimensions, and Space Distribution of Open Clusters (Lick Observatory Bulletin, vol. 14, 1930). By making a detailed investigation of the apparent sizes and distances of these objects, Trumpler demonstrated that the seemingly empty space in our galaxy contains a tenuous haze that dims the stars seen through it. This paper included data on 334 clusters. Trumpler showed that astronomers were overestimating distances to them because interstellar material, previously thought to be nonexistent, was dimming the starlight by an average of 0.67 magnitude for every kiloparsec (3,260 light-years) of distance. Indeed, this interstellar extinction influences our view of the entire universe.
NGC 7686 in Andromeda has a Trumpler classication of III2p. Through a 4-inch telescope, youll spot about two dozen stars ranging from magnitude 7.5 to 11.
The classication scheme

In his famous paper, Trumpler titled a section Classification of Clusters According to Appearance. In it, he first divided all clusters into four main groups: I. Detached clusters with strong central concentration. II. Detached clusters with little central concentration. III. Detached clusters with no noticeable concentration, in which the stars are more or less thinly but nearly uniformly scattered. IV. Clusters not well detached but passing gradually into the environs, appearing like a star field condensation (that is, ungrouped into a cluster).
Stock 12 in Cassiopeia carries the Trumpler designation IV2p. That means it doesnt stand out well from the background, falls in the medium range of star brightnesses, and contains fewer than 50 stars.
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NGC 1817 (Trumpler classication IV2r) lies to the left of open cluster NGC 1807 (Trumpler classication II2p). An 8-inch scope will let you count 100 stars in NGC 1817.
3. Clusters composed of bright and faint stars; generally a few very bright and some moderately bright stars standing out from a host of fainter ones. Finally, Trumpler divided clusters based on the number of stars they contained. He thought this was the most important distinction, and designated them by letters: p. Poor clusters with less than 50 stars. m. Moderately rich clusters with 50 to 100 stars. r. Rich clusters containing more than 100 stars. This system, then, contained 36 types of clusters ranging from I1r (sometimes youll see I-1-r) to IV3p (or, IV-3-p). He also allowed for the addition of three capital letters if the cluster had a pronounced peculiarity: E for elongated, U for unsymmetrical, and N for nebulosity involved in the cluster. The only one youre likely to encounter is N, and today youll sometimes see the lowercase n. So, for example, each of the two stellar aggregates in the Double Cluster in Perseus (NGC 869 and NGC 884) carries the Trumpler classification IV3r. And the Pleiades star cluster (M45), with its associated nebulosity, has the classification II3rN.
A great astronomer
On September 10, 1956, Trumpler died after several years of failing health. His contributions to astronomy brought him wide recognition. He belonged to many scientific societies, including the National Academy of Sciences, which elected him to membership in 1932. The Astronomical Society of the Pacific elected him president in 1932 and 1939 and has established an award in his memory, given annually to a promising postdoctoral astronomer. His legacy also lives on for amateur astronomers every time one of us points a telescope at an open cluster and asks not What cluster is that? but rather What type of cluster is that?
NGC 7790 (lower left of center) in Cassiopeia shines at magnitude 8.5 and has a Trumpler designation of II2m. Also shown is NGC 7788 (upper right of center), which has a Trumpler classication of I2p.
The first three groups form a series with decreasing central condensation. The fourth is less like the others and more like the background fields of view these objects float in front of. Trumpler added it on the basis of his results from compiling star cluster distances.
Next, he subdivided each of the four main groups into three types according to the range in the brightness or luminosity of the cluster stars: 1. Most cluster stars nearly of the same apparent brightness. 2. Medium range in star brightnesses.
TRUMPLER OPEN CLUSTER CLASSIFICATIONS

1r I II III IV NGC 6819 NGC 6939 NGC 6811 Rp 101 1m NGC 1798 NGC 1883 Ber 67 NGC 2482 1p NGC 1220 NGC 1624 NGC 225 NGC 6846 2r NGC 2506 NGC 7789 NGC 6940 NGC 1817 2m King 16 NGC 2192 NGC 1348 NGC 956 2p Ber 4 Cz 6 NGC 7686 NGC 6738 3r NGC 4755 NGC 6791 M35 M25 3m NGC 1502 NGC 2632 NGC 7423 NGC 6507 3p NGC 7160 M18 NGC 6357 DoDz 6
Key: Ber = Berkeley; Cz = Czernik; DoDz = Dolidze-Dzimselejsvili; NGC = New General Catalogue; Rp = Ruprecht
SEE A GALLERY OF CLASSIFIED CLUSTERS AT www.Astronomy.com/toc.
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ASTROSKETCHING
BY E R I K A R I X
Realistic eyepiece sketches

How do I make my eyepiece sketches look more realistic? Its a question observers often ask when trying to re-create the lifelike appearance of an eyepiece view. Thankfully, our images can benefit from several methods. They include techniques at the eyepiece, digital enhancements, and drawing tablets. In this months column, I want to chat about the first of the three eyepiece techniques and Ill take a couple examples from the constellation Auriga the Charioteer. The first is open cluster NGC 1778. At magnitude 7.7, its a fairly bright unconcentrated target with a low star count. Through an 8-inch telescope at 150x, youll see a patch of 20 stars stretching northwest to southeast. Through a 16-inch scope, 40 stars form two chains separated by a starless lane. The brighter northern chain has a 10th-magnitude double at its northern end. Attention to detail is essential for realistic sketches. So while you draw NGC 1778 and its surroundings, youll want to include as many stars as possible. Concentrate on accurate placements and correct magnitudes. The amount you twist your pencil along with the pressure you apply regulate star brightness. For added dynamic range, try a superfine black felt-tipped artists pen for the brightest stars, a #2 pencil for the mediumbright ones, and a 0.5mm mechanical pencil for the faintest. A blending stump lightly loaded with graphite will softly illuminate the brighter stars. Place the tip over the star. Then, with a light circular motion, create a diffuse glow around it. Now that youve finished a star cluster, you can tackle nebulosity. The object Ive chosen is NGC 1931, an emission nebula coupled with a young open cluster. Youll find it 0.8 east-southeast of magnitude 5.1 Phi () Aurigae. The nebulosity surrounds a tiny open cluster that contains only five bright stars. Amateur astronomers aptly refer to this pair as the Spider and the Fly. Through an 8-inch telescope, youll see a 1' glow surrounding an 11th-magnitude star. It lies 3' north of a star pattern resembling the body of the constellation Scorpius, which extends 10' east to west. Peering through a 16-inch scope, youll notice that the nebulosity elongates to
NGC 1931 will take your sketching to the next level. It combines a nebula and a small star cluster. The author created both of the sketches on this page using white printer paper, a superfine black felt-tipped artists pen, a #2 pencil, and a 0.5mm mechanical pencil. To capture the star illumination and the subtle nebulosity, she used a loaded blended stump. She then scanned and inverted the sketches and removed the jagged star edges using Photoshop.
Open cluster NGC 1778 will give you the opportunity to refine the placement and magnitudes of your sketched stars. For both of the sketches in this column, the author used a 16-inch f/4.5 reflector on a non-tracking Dobsonian mount and an 8mm eyepiece, which gave a magnification of 225x. BOTH SKETCHES BY ERIKA RIX
become brighter toward the northeast and fainter to the southwest. Four stars curve northwest of the central star. When sketching a diffuse object, its important to build up the nebulosity carefully. What you want to do is illustrate the subtle tonal variances and diffuse boundaries that emission (or reflection) nebulae are known for. Drawing with a graphite-loaded blending stump works best. Add extra layers of graphite as needed, then blend. Learning tricks of the trade like these will set you on course for producing realistic eyepiece sketches. In my next column, Ill focus on a pair of objects within our solar system. Do you have a sketching question? Contact me via email at erikarix1@gmail.com.
65
COSMICIMAGING
BY TO NY H A L L A S
FROM OUR INBOX

Electromagnetic entertainment
Bob Bermans Galaxy vs. home lighting in the September 2013 issue of Astronomy opened a window of discovery for me. After researching, I built a spectroscope with my daughter and then ordered a pocket spectroscope from a reliable vendor. I was so excited that I was running around the house showing my wife and daughter what all the light bulbs spectra looked like. Thanks, Bob, Ive learned so much in the past week and am anxious to pass it on. Tom Rusek, Aberdeen, Maryland
The final chapter

After three years of sharing imaging tips, Im moving on.
his will be my final column. It has been a pleasure sharing what I could about imaging and processing with you for the past three years. Now, however, it is time for me to retool and reinvent myself. And that will be the topic of this last article. The refuse heap of astroimagers is littered with luminaries who appeared like flashes of light, burned for a few years, and then left the avocation. Each had their own reason for leaving, but I suspect that the underlying cause is that it became too much of the same old thing. Shoot another nebula ho-hum shoot another galaxy more of the same. To keep things moving forward, it is vital that you discover
The author poses with his newest acquisition a 5.1-inch Takahashi TOA-130 apochromatic refractor. TONY HALLAS
some way to reinvent yourself. You can do this in two ways, and ideally, you will do it both ways at the same time. First, you can invest in new optics and imaging equipment that will further your capabilities. Second, you can study new software and new techniques to improve your processing skills. Except for this column and the lecture circuit, I basically have been in hibernation for a
Extra-credit observing
I thoroughly enjoyed 40 deep-sky targets in Sagittarius in the August 2013 issue. Skies arent too clear in Indiana; we have averaged one good night per month this year. But on those nights, we go to Goethe Link Observatory, set up in the backyard, and search for those deep-sky objects. Its great fun, and in August we had the article, which gave us 40 more great things to search out. I know Astronomy publishes regular articles suggesting objects to observe, but a monthly deep-sky object challenge list would be nice to see in the magazine. Steve McSpadden, Mooresville, Indiana
few years. My equipment was not keeping pace with my abilities as I learned more and more about imaging. To remedy this situation, I have invested in new equipment. I plan to use one of my telescope purchases a richfield refractor at my ultradark sky site in northeastern California. And so that I wont always have to travel several hours to use the latest and greatest, Ill put the other scope a large Cassegrain reflector in my home observatory. Do you need high-end equipment to make extremely good images? Not necessarily, but it sure helps. High-quality equipment makes the avocation more exciting as well. Which one of you would prefer a 3-inch achromat to a state-of-the-art 6-inch apochromatic triplet? Silly question. The other way to keep progressing is to continue learning all you can about imaging and image processing. My personal motto is, Youre only as good as your last shot. What this means is that if you didnt learn something new with your last image, if you didnt push your envelope just a little bit, then you are not moving forward. Thankfully,
most of you will find that each new image brings new challenges and progress is almost automatic. To a large extent, doing is learning. How can you stay on top of things? One of the best ways is to attend get-togethers like the Advanced Imaging Conference held in California each year. Not only do acknowledged leaders in the hobby make presentations, but astroimagers teach classes as well. Another thing you can do is join your local astronomy club youll be surprised how much brain power a collective resource like this can produce. Many tutorials are available in print and on the Internet now. Just when you think you finally might know everything surprise theres something new. Amateur astrophotography is currently in a golden age. We have telescopes and cameras unheard of just 10 years ago. Powerful processing software makes full use of the photons these instruments gather. Our hobbys future appears bright. My final wish for all of you is that you continue to grow in this field and continue to reinvent yourselves. The sky truly is the limit.
BROWSE THE COSMIC IMAGING ARCHIVE AT www.Astronomy.com/Hallas.
66
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Spectrograph calibration module

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67
READER GALLERY
1
1. THE CRESCENT NEBULA NGC 6888 in Cygnus is a bubble of gas carved out of the interstellar medium by an incredibly energetic type of sun known as a Wolf-Rayet star. The Crescents size, 18' by 13', means that it covers roughly 30 percent as much sky as the Full Moon. (14.5-inch RC Optical Systems Ritchey-Chrtien reector, Apogee U16M CCD camera, H /OIII/ RGB image with exposures of 360, 600, 255, 165, and 210 minutes, respectively) t.BSL)BOTPO 2. NICE SPIRAL NGC 7640 lies in Andromeda near some much better-known objects. This barred spiral glows at magnitude 11.3 and measures 11' by 2'. (10-inch Astro Systeme Austria astrograph at f/6.8, SBIG STL-11000M CCD camera, LRGB image with exposures of 310, 66, 51, and 51 minutes, respectively) t3PO#SFDIFS
68
3. MELLOW YELLOW Van den Bergh 135 is one of the rare reection nebulae with a yellowish color. Most of them are blue. Here, the gas reects the light of the spectral type K, magnitude 8.4 star BD+31 4152. This object lies in the constellation Cygnus the Swan. (12-inch Newtonian reector, SBIG ST-2000XM CCD camera, LRGB image with exposures of 12, 4, 4, and 4 hours, respectively) t#FSOIBSE)VCM 4. MORE THAN A COMET In October, Comet LINEAR (C/2012 V2) sported a nice green color and wide tail, which sweeps upward in this image to merge with the light from spiral galaxy PGC 30534. The brightest star is magnitude 6.8 SAO 201391. (12-inch Astro Systeme Austria ASA 12N astrograph at f/3.8, FLI ML-8300 CCD camera, LRGB image with exposures of 15, 15, 15, and 20 minutes, respectively, taken October 13, 2013, at 2h05m UT, from Farm Tivoli, Namibia) t(FSBME3IFNBOO 5. THE SEVENTH PLANET Uranus is tough to photograph because its so small, so few amateur shots of it capture details. The right image shows the true data. The left image is false color to simulate what the eye would see. (14-inch Celestron Schmidt-Cassegrain telescope, ZWO Optical ASI120MM CCD camera, 610-nanometer infrared lter, 7,000 frames, averaged, taken October 7, 2013, at 0h08m UT) t%BNJBO1FBDI 6. HH 215 LBN 468 is a nebula that features both bright and dark components. Observers, however, notice the tiny, variable, fanshaped nebula at the upper left. Known as Gyulbudaghians Nebula (HH 215), it results from shock waves from the contracting protostar PV Cephei. (4-inch Takahashi FSQ-106EDX refractor, SBIG ST-8300 CCD camera, LRGB image with exposures of 120, 30, 30, and 30 minutes, respectively) t1IJMJQQF#BSSBVE 7. TRIPLE SHADOW TRANSIT Its unusual for observers to see three of Jupiters large moons casting shadows on the planets cloud tops at the same time. Callistos shadow lies at the bottom with Europas above it and Ios to the left. The two moons o the planets left edge are Io (top) and Europa. (9.25-inch Celestron Schmidt-Cassegrain telescope, 2.5x Barlow lens, Imaging Source DMK 21AU618 CCD camera, taken October 12, 2013, between 4h31m UT and 5h08m UT) t-FP"FSUT
Send your images to:
Astronomy Reader Gallery, P. O. Box 1612, Waukesha, WI 53187. Please include the date and location of the image and complete photo data: telescope, camera, filters, and exposures. Submit images by email to readergallery@astronomy.com.
69
READER GALLERY
8
8. BY ANY OTHER NAME The Swan Nebula (M17) goes by many names. Some observers call it the Omega Nebula; others the Checkmark Nebula; still others the Horseshoe Nebula. It lies in the constellation Sagittarius the Archer and spans some 15 light-years. (16-inch Dream Telescopes astrograph at f/3.75, Apogee Alta U16M CCD camera, H /OIII/RGB image with exposures of 30, 30, 10, 10, and 10 minutes, respectively) t,mS4JNPO 9. SPRING CONSTELLATIONS The Northern Hemispheres spring sky is full of well-known patterns and colorful stars. The brightest, Arcturus (Alpha [] Botis) lies near bottom center. Above it, and to the left of center, stands the Big Dipper. To its right, Leo the Lion seems to climb toward the top. (Canon Rebel XSi DSLR, 8mm sheye lens at f/4, ISO 1600, four 2-minute exposures, stacked) t+PIO$IVNBDL
70
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A S T R O N O M Y t FEB R UARY 2014
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The Advertiser Index is provided as a service to Astronomy magazine readers. The magazine is not responsible for omissions or for typographical errors in names or page numbers.
73
FINALFRONTIER
To the ends of the cosmos
A shelled galaxy and its clusters

74
Multiple shells of gaseous material form a cocoon around galaxy PGC 6240 in the southern constellation Hydra. Distant galaxies litter the background in this new Hubble Space Telescope image. The object
holds interest for astronomers not only because of its peculiar structure, but also due to a cloud of numerous globular star clusters orbiting it. Unlike most globular clusters, which contain old stars, PGC 6240
has clusters of varied ages. Astronomers believe the unusual shelled structure of PGC 6240 resulted from two galaxies that merged, igniting a recent burst of star formation in the clusters.
ESA/HUBBLE/NASA
Imager: Jerry Keith of Fort Worth, Texas (Three Rivers Foundation Volunteer) Scope: Sky-Watcher Esprit 100 EDT f/5.5 Mount: Takahashi EM200 Temma2M Guiding: Orion SSAG Magnificent Mini AutoGuider Camera: Canon Rebel XS (1000D) Full Spectrum Modified @ 800 ISO Exposure: 3.4 hours. 5 minute subs.
ESPRIT APO TRIPLETS THE ELITE ASTROGRAPH FOR THE REST OF US

Designed with the discerning astrophotographer in mind, Sky-Watcher USAs top-of-the-line Esprit refractors deliver the kind of imaging performance one would expect from telescopes costing thousands of dollars more. With their three-element air spaced objective lens design, false color is completely eliminated, yielding exceptional contrast and sharpness. The included 2-element field corrector guarantees a flat field across the entire imaging plane. The Sky-Watcher proprietary rack-and-pinion focusing system provides a smooth, rock-solid focuser with zero image shift. Starting at only $ 1,649, the Esprits come in 80, 100, 120 and 150mm apertures and come with a 9 x 50 right angle finderscope, 2-inch Star diagonal, 2-element field flattener, camera adapter, mounting rings, dovetail plate and foam-lined hard case.
2014 Sky-Watcher USA. Specifications subject to change without notice. 20-13027. Come on. Admit it. You know you want one. Also, a huge thanks to the folks at Three Rivers Foundation for all of their help with testing our scopes.
As this 100%-sized image from the extreme upper right corner shows, Esprit maintains crisp, pinpoint stars across the entire image plane.
For information on all of our products and services, or to find an authorized Sky-Watcher USA dealer near you, just visit www.skywatcherusa.com. Dont forget to follow us on Facebook and Twitter!
SOUTHERN SKY
MARTIN GEORGE describes the solar systems changing landscape as it appears in Earths southern sky.
April 2014: Mars at its best

As evening twilight fades away, the largest planet draws attention to the northwestern sky. Jupiter shines at magnitude 2.1, noticeably brighter than any star. It lies among the background stars of Gemini the Twins, roughly 10 southwest of the constellations luminaries, Castor and Pollux. Although Jupiters distance from Earth continues to grow this month, the giant planet remains a fine sight through any telescope. The disk measures 37" across the equator and shows a wealth of atmospheric detail. Its also fun to watch the dance of the planets four bright moons. These satellites change position from night to night and sometimes within just a few hours. The best views come when Jupiter stands highest late in twilight, which reduces the blurring effects from our blanket of air. The evening sky boasts another planet that gives Jupiter a run for its money. Mars reaches opposition and peak visibility April 8, when it shines at magnitude 1.5 brighter than any star (though barely in Sirius case) and just shy of mighty Jupiter. The Red Planet then rises in the east at sunset and rides highest in the north around local midnight. Look for Virgos brightest star, 1st-magnitude Spica, just to Mars right as darkness falls. The planet shines 10 times brighter than the star. With its distinctive orangered color, Mars is a fine sight with naked eyes. But the time around opposition is also the best for observing through a telescope. Wait until late evening for the planet to climb higher and youll be rewarded with fine views of the north polar cap and dusky surface markings. The martian disk measures 15" across, the biggest its been in more than six years. Saturn appears to the lower right of Mars and tracks across the sky approximately two hours after it. The ringed world lies among the background stars of Libra the Balance, where it moves slowly westward in anticipation of its own opposition in May. At magnitude 0.2, the planet appears noticeably dimmer than Mars but far brighter than any of its stellar neighbors. A telescope shows the planets 18"-diameter disk surrounded by a beautiful ring system that spans 42" and tilts 22 to our line of sight. In moments of steady seeing, more common once the planet climbs high after midnight, the Cassini Division that separates the outer A ring from the brighter B ring shows up nicely through 10-centimeter and larger telescopes. For those who prefer their observing before dawn, Venus is an unmistakable sight in the east. The planet gleams at magnitude 4.3, far brighter than any other point of light in the sky. If youve been following Venus appearance through a telescope these past couple of months, youll notice a smaller and rounder planet. In mid-April, the inner world spans 19" and shows a 60-percent-lit disk. Mercury remains on view in the east before dawn in early April. Coming off its best morning appearance of the year in March, it stands nearly 10 high an hour before sunrise. At magnitude 0.2, it appears conspicuous well to the lower right of Venus. A telescope reveals the innermost planets 6"-diameter disk and gibbous phase. Mercury moves closer to our star as the days go by, however, and it disappears in the twilight around midmonth. A total lunar eclipse occurs April 15, with totality visible in its entirety from most of South America, much of the Pacific Ocean, and New Zealand. The partial phases begin at 5h58m UT and end at 9h33m UT, with totality running from 7h07m UT to 8h25mUT. For those in eastern Australia, the Moon rises during totality. Two weeks later, on April 29, a partial solar eclipse takes place. Most Australians get to see the Moon take a bite from the Sun. From Sydney, the eclipse begins at 6h14m UT and reaches a maximum at sunset, when the Moon covers 52 percent of the Suns diameter. The eclipse appears annular (when the Moon leaves a ring of sunlight visible) over a small part of Antarctica. A 96-percent-lit Moon occults Saturn on April 17. Residents of southern South America can witness the event in a dark sky. From Santiago, Chile, Saturn disappears at 7h11m UT and reappears at 8h25m UT. As a planetarium director, Im often asked which bright star lies closest to the South Celestial Pole. Of course, the answer depends on what the questioner means by a bright star. The stars of the Southern Cross and the Pointers (Alpha [] and Beta [] Centauri) offer several good examples that are circumpolar south of 33 south latitude. But one star stands out as the closest 2nd-magnitude or brighter star to the pole. It is Beta Carinae, a magnitude 1.7 star whose proper name is Miaplacidus. It lies midway between Canopus and Acrux and, at a declination of 70, a little south of the line that joins them. The name Miaplacidus is still something of a mystery, but historians think it is a combination of Arabic (miyah) and Latin (placidus) that translates to placid or calm waters. If so, its in keeping with Carina being the keel of the ship Argo. Despite the stars claim to fame, it doesnt stand out as special; its not a double or multiple system, and no significant deep-sky objects appear nearby. Like many naked-eye stars, however, Miaplacidus is bigger and brighter than the Sun and will enjoy a shorter lifetime. It currently has a core of helium and likely will start fusing this element into carbon within the next few million years. At that stage it will grow even more luminous as it becomes a red giant star.
The starry sky
STAR DOME
THE ALL-SKY MAP SHOWS HOW THE SKY LOOKS AT: 9 P.M. April 1 8 P.M. April 15 7 P.M. April 30 Planets are shown at midmonth
MAGNITUDES
Sirius 0.0 1.0 2.0 3.0 4.0 5.0 Open cluster Globular cluster Diffuse nebula Planetary nebula Galaxy
HOW TO USE THIS MAP: This map portrays the sky as seen near 30 south latitude. Located inside the border are the four directions: north, south, east, and west. To find stars, hold the map overhead and orient it so a direction label matches the direction youre facing. The stars above the maps horizon now match whats in the sky.
APRIL 2014
Calendar of events
2 Uranus is in conjunction with the Sun, 7h UT 6 The Moon passes 5 south of Jupiter, 23h UT 7 First Quarter Moon occurs at 8h31m UT 8 The Moon is at apogee (404,500 kilometers from Earth), 14h52m UT Mars is at opposition, 21h UT 11 Asteroid Juno is in conjunction with the Sun, 7h UT 12 Venus passes 0.7 north of Neptune, 8h UT 13 Asteroid Vesta is at opposition, 12h UT 14 The Moon passes 3 south of Mars, 18h UT 15 Pluto is stationary, 1h UT Asteroid Ceres is at opposition, 6h UT Full Moon occurs at 7h42m UT; total lunar eclipse 17 The Moon passes 0.4 south of Saturn, 7h UT 22 Last Quarter Moon occurs at 7h52m UT 23 The Moon is at perigee (369,765 kilometers from Earth), 0h24m UT 24 The Moon passes 5 north of Neptune, 22h UT 25 The Moon passes 4 north of Venus, 23h UT 26 Mercury is in superior conjunction, 3h UT 27 The Moon passes 2 north of Uranus, 11h UT 29 New Moon occurs at 6h14m UT; annular solar eclipse
STAR COLORS: Stars true colors depend on surface temperature. Hot stars glow blue; slightly cooler ones, white; intermediate stars (like the Sun), yellow; followed by orange and, ultimately, red. Fainter stars cant excite our eyes color receptors, and so appear white without optical aid.
Illustrations by Astronomy: Roen Kelly
FOR DEFINITIONS OF TERMS, LOG ONTO www.Astronomy.com/glossary.

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Searching for SMART LIFE around SMALL STARS

OUR SUNS FATE

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BONUS ONLINE CONTENT CODE p. 4

Moon, SKYRIS 274C

THE UNIVERSE IS YOUR STUDIO. CREATE YOUR MASTERPIECE.

and stacking software.

Planets, SKYRIS 618M

CELESTRON PREMIER SELECT DEALERS

COMPELLING for curious SCIENCE minds.

Grassroots efforts are beating cystic fibrosis p.42

Try THIS in your own backyard p.52

Hollywood goes transhuman p.64

Go to DiscoverMagazine.com or call 1-800-829-9132

VOL. 42, NO. 2

22 COVER STORY Does methane flow on Titan?

28 Searching for smart life around small stars

50 Comet ISONs opening act

60 Astronomy tests Levenhuks new refractor

52 Where other astrophotographers fear to tread

36 The Sky this Month 38 StarDome and Path of the Planets

62 Explore the Trumpler classes of clusters

Ask Astro Archive

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FROM THE EDITOR

The realization of comets

Editor David J. Eicher Art Director LuAnn Williams Belter

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David J. Eicher Editor

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EVERYTHING YOU NEED TO KNOW ABOUT THE UNIVERSE THIS MONTH . . .

Charles Messier and comets

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FROM OUR INBOX

Balls of crushed fire

Seek out some strangely dense objects this winter.

BROWSE THE STRANGE UNIVERSE ARCHIVE AT www.Astronomy.com/Berman.

WAVES WARM THE SUNS CORONA

SEARCH TERM ISON Dark matter

Scientists nd possible hint of dark matter

25 years ago in Astronomy

10 years ago in Astronomy

Curiosity smells no methane on Mars

NASA/JPL-CALTECH/MALIN SPACE SCIENCE SYSTEMS

Water found in exoplanet remnants

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