UNIT I

SEMICONDUCTOR PHYSICS
LECTURE PPT
1. Formation of Energy Bands
• A solid contains large number of atoms packed together.
• A single isolated atom has discrete energy levels.
• Widely spaced isolated atoms condense to form solids due to the
energy reduction accompanying bond formation.
• If N atoms of type A in the gas phase (g) combine to form a solid (s),
the binding energy 𝐸𝑏 is released according to the equation.
• N𝐴𝑔 → N𝐴𝑠 + 𝐸𝑏
1. Formation of Energy Bands
• As the atoms approach one another, the wave functions start to
overlap and the individual levels split, as a consequence of an
extension of the Pauli’s exclusion principle.
• Level splitting and broadening occur first for the outer electrons, since
their electron clouds are the first to overlap.
• With further dimensional shrinkage, the overlap increases and the
inner charge clouds begin to interact. Ion-core overlap results in
strong repulsive forces between atoms, raising the system energy.
• At equilibrium, some of the levels have broadened into bands of
energy levels.
(a) Splitting of electron levels
(b) Energy interaction between atoms as a function of
inter-atomic spacing.
The most important bands are:
• Valence band – The last filled energy level at T = 0 K.

• Conduction band – The first unfilled energy level at T = 0 K.

Classification of solids into conductors,
semiconductors and insulators
• A common graphic means of distinguishing between different classes
of solids involves the use of energy-band diagrams.

• For metals, insulators, and semiconductors the energy-band

structures at the equilibrium spacing are schematically shown in Fig. 2
a, b, c.
Fig. 2. Schematic band structure for (a) metal, (b) insulator, (c)
semiconductors – (d) n-type semiconductor, (e) p-type
semiconductor, (f) p-n semiconductor junction.
Figure 2a : Metals (conductors)
• As indicated in Fig. 2a, the energy difference between the vacuum
level and 𝐸𝑓 is equal to q𝜑𝑀 , where 𝜑𝑀 is the work function and q is
the electronic charge.
• Even under very tiny electric fields, the electrons in states at 𝐸𝑓 , can
easily move into the unoccupied levels above it, resulting in a net
current flow.
Figure 2b (Insulators)
• Insulators are in which the conduction band normally has no
electrons.
• The valence electrons used in bonding completely fill the valence
band. A large energy gap Eg ranging from 5 to 10 eV separates the
filled valence band from the empty conduction band. This makes it
very difficult for electrons to gain enough energy to jump the gap,
resulting in high resistance to electrical current.
Figure 2c : Semiconductors
• Definition: Semiconductor is a material that has electrical properties
that fall between those of a conductor and an insulator.
• Pure (intrinsic) semiconductors at very low temperatures have a band
structure like that of insulators but E is smaller , Eg = 1.1 eV in Si and
0.68 eV in Ge.
• When a semiconductor is doped, new states are created within the
energy gap.
• With increasing temperature or light exposure, some electrons can
gain enough energy to jump the gap into the conduction band which
increases conductivity.
Figure 2d and Figure 2e
• The actual location of 𝐸𝑓 with respect to the band diagram depends
on the type and amount of doping atoms present.
• In an intrinsic semiconductor, 𝐸𝑓 lies in the middle of the energy gap.
• If the semiconductor is doped with donor atoms to make it N-type,
𝐸𝑓 lies above the midgap energy, as shown in (Fig. 2d).
• If acceptor atoms are the predominant dopants, 𝐸𝑓 lies below the
midgap energy and a P-type semiconductor results (Fig. 2e).
Intrinsic Semiconductor:
• A perfect semiconductor crystal with no impurities or lattice defects is
called an intrinsic semiconductor.
• In such material there are no charge carriers at 0 K, since the
valence band is filled with electrons and the conduction band is
empty.
• At higher temperature some of the valance electrons acquire
thermal energy to tear the covalent bond leaving behind an
unsaturated bond - a vacancy called hole. They now act as free
electrons and can move under the influence of small electric field.
The energy required to break the bond is the band gap energy Eg.
Intrinsic Semiconductor:
• Semiconductors like germanium and silicon have crystalline structure.
These are tetravalent materials.
• In order to acquire stability, four valance electrons form covalent
bonds with neighboring atom’s valance electrons.
2D view of Si crystal lattice covalent bonds.
Fig. 3. Electron-hole pairs in the covalent
bonding model of the Si crystal
.

• Since the electrons and holes are created in pairs, the conduction
band electron concentration n is equal to the concentration of holes
in the valence band p.
• Each of these intrinsic carrier concentrations is commonly referred to
as 𝑛𝑖
• Hence in intrinsic semiconductors
• 𝑛 = 𝑝 = 𝒏𝒊
Extrinsic Semiconductors:

Fig. Donor and acceptor atoms in the covalent bond model of Si-crystal.
Extrinsic Semiconductors:
• Addition of controlled quantity of impurity to an intrinsic
semiconductor to increase the conductivity is called doping and the
resultant semiconductor is known as extrinsic semiconductor.
• The impurity atoms occupy lattice positions.
• Two types of extrinsic semiconductors are produced depending upon
the group of impurity atom. They are:
1) n- type semiconductor
2) p- type semiconductor
n-type semiconductor:
• If a pentavalent impurity (donor impurity) like arsenic (As) or
phosphorous (P) is added to pure semiconductor like Si or Ge, n-type
semiconductor is formed.
n-type semiconductor:
• The material doped with donor impurities can have a considerable
concentration of electrons in the conduction band, even when the
temperature is too low for the intrinsic EHP concentration to be
appreciable.
• Thus semiconductors doped with a significant number of donor
atoms will have 𝑛0 » {𝑛𝑖 , 𝑝0 } at room temperature.
• This is n-type material.
p-type semiconductor:
• If a trivalent impurity (acceptor impurity), like boron (B) is added to a
pure semiconductor like Si or Ge, p-type semiconductor is formed.
p-type semiconductor:
• Doping with acceptor impurities can create a semiconductor with a
hole concentration 𝑝0 much greater than the conduction band
electron concentration 𝑛0 , this type of materials are called p-type
semiconductor.
why an extrinsic semiconductor behaves like
an intrinsic one at high temperatures?
• With increase in temperature of extrinsic semiconductor, minority
charge carriers increase because of bond breakage and minority
charge carriers may become almost equal with majority charge
carriers. Thus, extrinsic semiconductor behaves almost as an intrinsic
semiconductor with increase in temperature.
 Direct and indirect band gap semiconductors

Example for Direct Example for Indirect

bandgap: Gallium bandgap: Silicon
arsenide (GaAs), (Si),Germanium(Ge)
Gallium Nitride(GaN)
Direct and indirect band gap semiconductors
Direct and indirect band gap semiconductors
 Fermi Level and Fermi Function:
• Electrons in solids obey Fermi-Dirac statistics.
• The Fermi function states that the distribution of electrons over a
range of allowed energy levels at thermal equilibrium is

• Where k is Boltzmann’s constant (1.38 x 10^-23 J/K), T is the absolute

temperature.
• The function f(E), the Fermi-Dirac distribution function
• The quantity EF is called the Fermi level.
• probability of occupancy at T > 0K for E = EF
.

• Thus an energy state at Fermi level has a probability of

occupancy by an electron equal to ½.
➢ Probability of occupancy at T = 0K for E >EF

• For E >EF , exponent in the denominator becomes a large positive

number. Therefore, f(E) approaches 0
➢ Probability of occupancy at T = 0K for E < EF

• For E < EF , exponent in the denominator becomes a large negative

number. Therefore, f(E) approaches 1
Fermi Level in Intrinsic Semiconductors:
• In pure or intrinsic semiconductor, the concentration of free electrons
in the conduction band and the concentration of holes in the valance
band are same.
• For an intrinsic semiconductor the Fermi level lies half way between
valence and conduction band.
Fermi Level in Intrinsic Semiconductors:
Fermi Level in Intrinsic Semiconductors:
• Definition: In an intrinsic semiconductor at absolute zero
temperature, fermi level lies exactly in the middle of bandgap.
• Proof: Consider an intrinsic semiconductor at T K.
• The concentration of electrons in the conduction band is

Nc is effective density of electrons at the conduction band edge

Fermi Level in Intrinsic Semiconductors:
• The concentration of holes in the valence band is given by
Fermi Level in Intrinsic Semiconductors:
• For an intrinsic semiconductor,
𝑛 = 𝑝 = 𝑛𝑖
Fermi Level in Intrinsic Semiconductors:

Putting the values of Nv and Nc we get

Fermi Level in Intrinsic Semiconductors:

• At T=0K

• The Fermi level lies in the middle of the conduction and the valence
band in intrinsic Semiconductors.
Fermi level in an extrinsic semiconductor
• Definition for n-type semiconductor: In an n-type semiconductor,
donor impurities donate extra electrons to the conduction band. This
increases the number of electrons, causing the Fermi level to shift
closer to the conduction band
• Definition for p-type Semiconductor: In p-type semiconductor,
acceptor impurities accept electrons from the valence band, creating
holes. This increases the number of holes, causing the Fermi level to
shift closer to the valence band.
Difference between p-type and n-type semiconductor
Fermi level in an extrinsic semiconductor
• Proof:
• Let 𝑁𝐷 and 𝑁𝐴 be the concentration of ionized donors and ionized
acceptor, respectively, in an extrinsic semiconductor.
• The sum of the concentration of electrons (n) and negatively charged
acceptor ions must be equal to the sum of the concentrations of
holes (p) and the positively charged donor ions for electrically neutral
semiconductor.
Fermi level in an extrinsic semiconductor
• For an n-type material,
we can put p = 0 and 𝑁𝐴 = 0.
𝑛 = 𝑁𝐷
Fermi level in an extrinsic semiconductor
• Proof:
• For a p-type semiconductor
we can put n = 0 and 𝑁𝐷 = 0.
𝑝 = 𝑁𝐴
Fermi level shift with temperature
Fermi level shift with temperature
Intrinsic Semiconductors:
• At absolute zero (0K), the Fermi level lies exactly in the middle of the
bandgap. This is because the number of electrons in the conduction
band is equal to the number of holes in the valence band.
• As temperature rises, the number of intrinsic carriers increases,
causing the Fermi level to shift slightly towards the middle of the
bandgap. This is because both electron and hole concentrations
increase, leading to a balance in the Fermi level position.
Fermi level shift with temperature
• Extrinsic Semiconductors: n-type Semiconductors:
• At low temperatures, the Fermi level is close to the donor level.
• As temperature increases, more electrons are thermally excited from
the donor level to the conduction band. However, the increase in
intrinsic carriers (electron-hole pairs) becomes significant at higher
temperatures. This leads to a slight downward shift of the Fermi level
towards the middle of the bandgap.
Fermi level shift with temperature
• Extrinsic Semiconductors: p-type Semiconductors:
• At low temperatures, the Fermi level is close to the acceptor level.
• As temperature increases, more holes are created by thermal
excitation of electrons from the valence band to the acceptor level.
Similar to n-type semiconductors, the increase in intrinsic carriers
causes a slight upward shift of the Fermi level towards the middle of
the bandgap.
Fermi level shift with charge carrier concentration in an
extrinsic semiconductors
Fermi level shift with charge carrier
concentration in an extrinsic semiconductors
• n-type:
• When a semiconductor is doped with donor impurities (like
phosphorus), extra electrons are introduced into the conduction
band.
• To accommodate these extra electrons, the Fermi level shifts closer to
the conduction band. This is because more energy states are available
for electrons to occupy near the conduction band
Fermi level shift with charge carrier
concentration in an extrinsic semiconductors
Fermi level shift with charge carrier
concentration in an extrinsic semiconductors
• p-type:
• When a semiconductor is doped with acceptor impurities (like boron),
extra holes are created in the valence band.
• To accommodate these extra holes, the Fermi level shifts closer to the
valence band. This is because more energy states are available for
holes to occupy near the valence band.
Fermi level in an extrinsic semiconductor

Fermi-Dirac distribution for (a) intrinsic, (b) n-type and (c) p-type
semiconductors.
Law of mass action for a semiconductor
• The product of electron and hole concentrations is a constant at a
given temperature and is equal to the square of the intrinsic carrier
concentration. This is known as the law of mass action and holds for
both intrinsic and extrinsic semiconductors.
• If impurity atoms are added to a semiconductor to increase n, there
will be corresponding decrease in p such that the product np remains
constant. Thus we always have
Drift velocity, mobility and conductivity of intrinsic
semiconductor

Fig:
Drift velocity, mobility, Diffusion Current

• Since the scattering is random, there is no net motion of electrons

over a period of time to a particular direction.
• Hence there will be no net current flow.
• If an electric field E is applied, each electron experiences a net force
(–qE) from the field.
• Therefore, when an electric field is applied the velocity of charge
carriers begin to increase.
.
• The extra velocity acquired by the carriers in the presence of applied
electric field is called drift velocity

It is proportional to the strength of the applied electric field,

constant of proportionality, µ, is called the mobility of the charge carrier.
It is defined as the drift velocity per unit electric field.
Diffusion Current
• Diffusion current is a type of electric current that arises due to the
movement of charge carriers (electrons and holes) in a semiconductor
material from a region of higher concentration to a region of lower
concentration. This movement occurs naturally as a result of the
random thermal motion of the charge carriers
p-n junction:
The Hall Effect and its applications

• When a current carrying conductor is placed in a magnetic field, a

potential proportional to the current and to the magnetic field is
developed across the material in a direction perpendicular to both
the current and to the magnetic field.
• The establishment of electric field is known as Hall effect.
• The resultant voltage is known as Hall voltage.
Figure: The Hall Effect
.

• A current I is flowing along x direction and the magnetic field is along

the z-direction.
• Then the total force on a single hole due to electric and magnetic
fields is given by Lorentz equation

In the y-direction the force is

To maintain a steady state flow of holes down the length of the bar, the electric
field 𝐸𝑦 must just balance the product
.

• The establishment of the electric field 𝐸𝑦 is known as the Hall effect,

and the resulting voltage 𝑉𝐴𝐵 = 𝐸𝑦 𝑤 is called the Hall voltage
• (where w is the width of the bar).
• If J is the current density and 𝑝0 is the concentration of holes, then
.

𝐻𝑎𝑙𝑙 𝑉𝑜𝑙𝑡𝑎𝑔𝑒 𝑖𝑠 𝑔𝑖𝑣𝑒𝑛 𝑎𝑠, 𝑉𝐴𝐵 = 𝐸𝑦 𝑤

𝑉𝐴𝐵 =
Application of Hall Effect:
1. Measurement of carrier concentration
Application of Hall Effect:
2. Measurement of mobility
.
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