UNIT – IX

SOLIDS AND SEMICONDUCTOR DEVICES

The band corresponding to the valance electron is called Valance Band. These are the lower
completely filled band. The unfilled band above this band is called Conduction Band. In between the
valance and conduction band there is another band called forbidden band. The relative position of this
band creates all the difference between a metal, an insulator and a semiconductor. The energy gap
between valance and conduction band is called forbidden energy gap. The highest energy level in the
conduction band occupied by the electrons in a crystal, at absolute zero of temperature is called Fermi
Energy Level.
METALS: - There are two possible energy band diagrams for metals. Fig shows that the conduction
band is partially filled with electrons. These electrons belong to the crystal as a whole. There is nearly
no energy gap between conduction and valance band, there is also the possibility of overlapping of
valance and conduction band. These tends to electron in one band to overflow, as it were in another
band and electron in the valance band are free to move about inside the crystal lattice and with the
applied electric field, contribute to electrical conduction.
SEMICONDUCTORS: - In these class of crystals, two energy levels are distinctly separate with no
overlapping. The forbidden gap is nearly 1 eV. figure shows the energy band structure of a
semiconductor. At absolute zero of temperature, no electron has the energy even to jump the
forbidden energy gap and reach the conduction band. Therefore, the substance is insulator, but at
room temperature, some valance electrons acquire thermal energy greater than energy gap and move
to conduction band. Higher the temperature, greater the chance of electron to jump to conduction
band and greatest is the conductivity. As electron leaves the valance band it leaves some energy level
as unfilled, such unfilled region are termed as a hole in the valance band and this is termed as positive
charge.
INSULATOR: - In this case there is large energy gap (approximately 5 eV) depending upon the nature of
crystal. Electrons find it practically impossible to jump this gap and thus never reach the conduction
band.

INTRINSIC SEMICONDUCTOR: - It is a pure semiconductor. In this semiconductor the valance band and
the conduction band are separated by nearly 1 eV. The energy gap in case of silicon is 1.1 eV. In case of
Germanium, it is 0.74 eV. In intrinsic semiconductor at absolute zero of temperature no electron exists
in conduction band and at the room temperature some electrons are in conduction band leaving an
equal no. of holes in valance band. Silicon and Germanium are the best example of semiconductors.
Both silicon and germanium contain 4 electrons in their outer most orbits (tetravalent element).
The atoms in silicon (or germanium) are bound together by covalent bonds. By means of mutual
shearing the outer most shell of each Si atom is completely octets, thus we get a stable silicon crystal.
At absolute zero temperature all the electrons are rigidly bounded to their nuclei. So, the electrical
conductivity of the semiconductor is zero.
At room temperature, the electron gains the sufficient amount of energy to overcome the energy gap
and reach the conduction band. The electron dislodged from the covalent bond is free to move about
the lattice. A hole is created in place of electron. When an electric field is applied all the free electrons
move in the direction opposite to electric field and an electric current begins to flow in the crystal.
When a hole exists, it is relatively easy for a valance electron in a neighbouring atom to leave its
covalent bond to fill this hole. An electron moving from a bond to fill a hole leaves a hole in its initial
position. Thus, the hole effectively moves in the direction opposite to that of electron. This hole in its
new position may now be filled by an electron from another covalent bond, and the hole
correspondingly move one more step in the direction opposite to the motion of electron. In intrinsic
semiconductor the no. of holes is equal to the no. of electron. The amount of current produce in
intrinsic

semiconductor is very small.

DOPING OF SEMICONDUCTOR: - The no of holes and electron in pure semiconductor is very small so
that the amount of current produce in intrinsic semiconductor is very small. The most convenient and
efficient method of generating free electron and holes is to deliberately add a very small amount of
selected impurity inside the crystal. The impurity to be added is to the extent of 100 ppm. The process
of addition of a very small amount of impurity into an intrinsic semiconductor is called Doping.
EXTRINSIC SEMICONDUCTOR: - An extrinsic semiconductor is
one in which an impurity with a valency higher or lower than
the valency of semiconductor atom is introduced, which
influence the electrical properties of the semiconductor. Depending on the type of impurity there are
two types of extrinsic semiconductor. (i) n – type and (ii) p – type.
n – type Semiconductor: - When a semiconductor of group IV such as Si or Ge is doped with a
pentavalent impurity (Phosphorus, Arsenic etc.) We get n – type semiconductor.

Figure shows the crystal structure obtained when silicon is doped with
pentavalent impurity. Four of the five valance electron makes the covalent bonds. The fifth electron is
loosely bound. It will be available as a carrier for current. The energy required to detach this electron
from its parent atom is very small nearly 0.05 eV, which is less than energy required to break the
covalent bond. This energy can easily provide by the thermal agitation. In the energy band picture, the
energy state corresponding to the fifth
valance electron is in forbidden gap and is slightly below the conduction band known as donor level

When the fifth electron is transferred to the conduction band the parent impurity atom becomes
positively charged immobile ion, so each impurity atom donates a free electron to the semiconductor.
Such impurity atom is called donor impurity. In this semiconductor the no. of electrons in the
conduction band is greater than the no. of holes in valance band, because more electrons are
transferred from donor level as compared to electrons from valance band. In this semiconductor the
electrons are majority charge carrier while holes are minority charge carrier.
P – type semiconductor: - When a semiconductor of group IV such as Si or Ge is doped with a trivalent
impurity (Indium, Boron, etc.) We get p – type semiconductor.
Figure shows the crystal structure obtained when silicon is doped with trivalent impurity. Three
valance electrons make the covalent bonds. The vacancy that exists in fourth bond constitutes the
hole. Since this hole would accept electron from the neighbourhood, therefore the impurity is called
acceptor impurity. This hole created may be filled by the electron from the neighbourhood, creating a
hole in that position from where the electron jumped. The acceptor impurity produces an energy level
just above the valance band. The energy difference between the acceptor level and valance band is
very small, so that the electron can easily move from valance band to acceptor level. Less no. of
electron move to the conduction band from valance band, so that the no. of electron in conduction
band is very small as compared to no. of holes in valance band. In this semiconductor holes are
majority charge carrier while electrons are minority charge carrier.
DIODE: - Any device which freely allows electric current in one direction but does not allow it in
reverse direction is called a diode.
p – n JUNCTION DIODE: - A p – n junction diode is a single semiconductor crystal that has been
selectively doped so that one region is n – type material and adjacent region is p – type material.

The p region has holes which are mobile and negatively charged impurity ion which are immobile. The
n region has free electrons which are mobile and positively charged impurity ion which are immobile.
Immobile ions are represented in circle, as shown in figure.
As the p – n diode is formed, due to difference in
concentration the holes begin to diffuse towards n region
and electrons begin to diffuse towards p region. Due to the
diffusion of electrons and holes, diffusion current is
produced which is directed from p to n region. Due to
diffusion of holes and electron towards the junction, they
recombine at the junction and as a result positive donor ion
in the n region and negative acceptor ion in p region are left
near the junction. A layer is formed at the junction called Depletion Layer. This depletion layer
contains only immobile positive and negative ion. An electric field is set up in the depletion layer and a
potential difference is develop, which is called potential barrier. These barriers potential now oppose
the motion of majority charges (holes and electrons) from p and n region towards the junction. The
value of barrier potential for Si junction diode is 0.7 V and for Ge junction diode is 0.3 V. The width of
depletion layer is nearly 10-6 m.
The barrier potential develop in depletion layer opposes the motion of majority charge carrier but it
support the motion of minority charge carrier in both the region, so a drift current is produced. The
barrier potential adjust itself in such a way that flow of minority charge carrier is just balance by the
flow of majority charge carrier, so the net current equals to
zero.
FORWARD-BIASED p-n JUNCTION DIODE: - When the
positive terminal of the battery is connected to p-side and
negative terminal is connected to n-side, and then the p-n junction diode is said to in forward biased.

The holes in the p-side are repelled by the positive terminal of the battery while the electron in the n-
side is repelled by the negative terminal of the battery. So, they move towards the junction but
because of barrier potential very few majorities charge carrier cross the junction and a very small
current flows because of both the holes and electron. As the applied potential difference increases
more majority charge carrier cross the junction and the width of depletion decreases and forward
current increases.
For each electron hole recombination an electron from the negative terminal of the battery enters the
n-region and move toward the junction. In p-region a covalent bond brake which produce an electron
and hole, hole move towards the junction and electron enter the positive terminal of the battery. So, in
the external circuit current produce due to the flow of electron and within the diode because of both
electrons and holes.
FORWARD BIASED CHARACTERSTICS: - Experimental arrangement for forward characteristics is shown
in figure.

If the applied potential difference is smaller than the barrier potential (0.7 for Si and 0.3 for Ge) than a
very small current flows, because very small majority charge carrier crosses the junction. As applied
potential increases more no. of majority charge carrier crosses the junction and the value of current
begins to increase. When the applied potential difference is greater than barrier potential the current
begins to increase rapidly, as shown in graph. The current produce is of the order of mA. Forward
voltage which is equal to barrier potential is called Knee Voltage.
REVERSE-BIASED p-n JUNCTION DIODE: - When the negative terminal of the battery is connected to p-
side and the positive terminal of the battery is connected with n-side, then p-n junction diode is said to
in reverse biased.
The holes of p-side are attracted towards the negative terminal of the battery while the electrons of n-
side are attracted towards the positive terminal of the battery. As the majority charge carriers are
moving away from the junction, the width of depletion layer increases, so no current produces in the
reverse bias. The reverse bias behaves like a forward bias for minority charge carrier in both the region,
so they start moving towards the junction, as a result a very small current produce in the reverse bias
because of minority charge carrier known as reverse saturation current. The value of these current
remains constant, whether the applied voltage is low or high. The current produce is of the order of
μA.

REVERSE BIASED CHARACTERISTICS: - Experimental arrangement for reverse characteristics is shown

in figure.

In this the reverse bias voltage is increased gradually in steps and the corresponding current is noted
and the graph is plotted between them. When diode is connected in reverse bias the width of
depletion layer increases as the majority charge carriers are moving away from junction, but the
minority charge carriers are drifting towards the junction and produces a small current. This current is
called reverse saturation current. A large increase in reverse bias voltage shows a small increase in
reverse current. It shows that the p-n junction diode offers high resistance in reversed bias.

RECTIFIER: - The process of converting alternating current into direct current is called rectification. The
device used is known as Rectifier.
There are two types of rectifiers. (i) Half Wave Rectifier (ii) Full Wave Rectifier.
(i) HALF WAVE RECTIFIER: - The rectifier which only converts only half cycle of AC into DC is called half
wave rectifier.
Figure shows the experimental arrangement of half wave rectifier. This contains only a diode D1. Input
Ac is applied to the primary P1 and P2 of the transformer. Output signal is obtained across load
resistance RL.
During the positive half cycle of input AC, P1 and P2 are negative and positive and due to mutual
induction S1 and S2 are positive and negative. So, the diode D1 is in forward bias and the current flows
through the load resistance and the output voltage is obtained across R L.
During the negative half cycle of input AC, P1 and P2 are positive and negative and due to mutual
induction S1 and S2 are negative and positive. So, the diode D1 is in reverse bias and in this case no
current flows through the load resistance and no output voltage are obtained across RL.
So we get output only for the positive cycle and current flows only in one direction co we get DC
output. The efficiency of the half wave rectifier is nearly 40% beacuse 50% energy loss in negative half
cycle and nearly 10% energy is lost in the form of heat energy.

(ii) FULL WAVE RECTIFIER: - The rectifier which converts both the cycle of AC into DC is called full wave
rectifier.
Figure shows the experimental arrangement of half wave rectifier. This contains two diode D1 and D2.
Input Ac is applied to the primary P1 and P2 of the transformer. Output signal is obtained across load
resistance RL.

During the positive half cycle of input AC, P1 and P2 are negative and positive and due to mutual
induction S1 and S2 are positive and negative. So, the diode D1 is in forward bias and D2 is in reverse
bias the current flows through the load resistance from A to B and the output voltage is obtained
across RL.
During the negative half cycle of input AC, P1 and P2 are positive and negative and due to mutual
induction S1 and S2 are negative and positive. So, the diode D1 is in reverse bias and D2 is in forward
bias and the current flows through the load resistance RL from A to B. And the output voltage is
obtained across RL.
So, we get output for both the cycle and current flows only in one direction from A to B so we get DC
output. The efficiency of the full wave rectifier is nearly 80% beacuse nearly 20% energy is lost in the
form of heat energy.

OPTO – ELECTRONIC DEVICE: - A p – n junction diode which is designed such that the current passing
through it resulting in the emission of light photons is called opto – electronic device of Photonic
device.
The opto – electronic device can be classified as follows:
(1) Photo Detector used for detecting the light signal. e.g. photodiode
(2) Photovoltaic device which converts light energy into electrical energy. e.g. solar cell.
(3) A device which converts electrical energy into light energy. e.g. light emitting diode.

LIGHT EMITTING DIODE: - Light emitting diode is a heavily doped p-n junction diode which emits light
in forward bias. It doesn’t work in reverse bias. Light energy produced in LED because of recombination
at the junction.

LED is generally made from the semiconducting materials gallium arsenide or indium phosphide; they
produce visible radiation. While Silicon or Germanium diode emit radiation in infrared region. The
emission of light from LED is because of spontaneous emission. As the semiconductor contains two
different energy bands, conduction and valance band and they also contain donor and acceptor level.
When electron falls from higher energy level to lower energy level containing hole, they radiate energy
in the form of light radiation. The energy of radiation is equal to or less than the energy gap.

Normal p-n junction diode doesn’t emit light because they contain less no. of holes and electron, so
there are small no. of recombination and very small amount of light energy is produced. The energy
produced mostly in the form of thermal energy. In LED the impurity level is very high as compared to
normal p-n junction diode, so there is large no. of recombination as a result the light energy produced
is significant.

The wavelength of the visible light ranges from 400 nm to 700 nm (i.e. energy gap from 3 eV to 1.8 eV)
means for the visible LED the minimum band gap should be 1.8 eV. So the compound of Gallium –
Arsenide – Phosphide is used for making Visible LED of different colours. Silicon and Gallium – Arsenide
are used for infrared LED.
A circuit diagram of LED is shown in figure.

Physical structure of LED is designed such that no light gets reabsorbed into the material. The light
emitting p – n junction diode is placed in a dome shaped transparent case so that the light is uniformly
distributed in all direction and minimum internal reflection.

Epoxy lens allows the maximum to pass through device and it focuses the light.
USES OF LED: -
(i) LED are used as indicator lamps, pilot lamps etc.
(ii) Infrared LEDs are used in Burglar alarm system.
(iii) LEDs are extensively used in video displays.
(iv) LEDs are used in microwave oven, alarm clock, remote- control device of TV etc.
(v) LEDs are used in image-sensing circuits of picture phone.
ADVANTAGES OF LEDs: -
(i) Low operational voltage. (ii) Less power. (iii) Fast action. No warm up time required. (iv) Long
life. (v) Ruggedness.

PHOTODIODE: - A photodiode is basically a p-n junction diode, with the difference that it is made up of
photosensitive semiconductors materials (germanium, silicon, lead sulphide etc.) and is always
operated in the reverse bias. A current flow through the photodiode is due to the minority carriers,
which depends on the magnitude of the reverse bias as well as on the intensity of the incident
radiation. Photo diode is represented by the symbol as shown.

When the light is incident on the junction (frequency greater than the threshold frequency) of the
diode the photons are absorbed by an electron in the covalent bond in the depletion layer, the
electron knocked out and an electron hole pair is generated. The electron hole pair generated is
proportional to the intensity of the incident radiation. These charge carriers start moving under the
influence of applied reverse voltage. Holes starts moving towards the p-region and electrons towards
the n-region of the diode, as a result photocurrent flows through the region.

The photocurrent produce is the sum of both dark current (current without light) and current due to
the incident light.

Uses of the photodiodes: -

1. Photodiodes are used in smoke detector.
2. Photodiodes are used in consumer electronics devices.
3. Photodiodes are used in light operating switches.
4. Photodiodes are used in light detecting circuits.
5. Photodiodes are used in reading film sound tracks.

SOLAR CELLS: - A solar cell is a semiconductor device that converts photons of solar light into
electricity. In general, solar cell is termed as a photovoltaic cell because it is based on the photovoltaic
effect.
A solar cell is basically a silicon p-n junction diode with a large light sensitive area. To increase the light
gathering power of the cell a coating of silicon nitrate (anti-reflection material) is applied. The p region
is made extremely thin so that the incident photon can easily reach to the p-n junction. Because of the
absorption of energy electron – hole pair is generated on both sides of junction. Due to these hole and
electron current is produced which is directly proportional to the intensity of radiation and the size of
the surface area illuminated.

The maximum energy of solar radiation is 1.5 eV so the material used for solar cell should have the
band gap less than 1.5 eV. Si and GaAs are used to design the solar cell.

The load resistance is connected across the metals contacts to store the electricity. The output of the
solar cell is direct current.

Applications of the solar cells: -

1. Solar cells are used to provide power to earth satellites.
2. Solar cells are used to power traffic signals.
3. Solar cells are used in remote radio telephones.
4. Solar cells are used for pumping water.
5. Solar cells are used in handheld calculators.