Semiconductor

Semiconductor, any of a class of crystalline solids intermediate in electrical

conductivity between a conductor and an insulator. Semiconductors are employed in
the manufacture of various kinds of electronic devices, including diodes, transistors,
and integrated circuits. Such devices have found wide application because of their
compactness, reliability, power efficiency, and low cost.

Energy Bands of Solids

Energy

Fig. Boron atom (Nonmetal)

n=3
n=1
n=2

Fig. Boron Crystal (Source: google.com)

1. Energy Band In a crystal due to interatomic interaction valence electrons of one

atom are shared by more than one atom in the crystal. Now splitting of energy levels
takes place. The collection of these closely spaced energy levels is called an energy
band.

2. Valence Band :This energy band contains valence electrons. This band may be
PartIally or completely filled with electrons but never be empty. The electrons in this
band are not capable of gaining energy from external electric field to take part in
conduction of current.

3. Conduction Band: This band contains conduction electrons. This band is either
empty or Partially filled with electrons. Electrons present in this band take part in the
conduction of current.

4. Forbidden Band This band is completely empty. The minimum energy required to
shift an electron from valence band to conduction band is called band gap (Eg).

5. Note Energy gap for Ge is 0.72 eV and for Si it is 1.1 eV.

Electron volt: The kinetic energy gained by an electron when accelerated trough
potential difference of one volt is called as one electron volt. Energy gained by
charged particle = magnitude of charge * potential difference 1eV = charge on
electron * 1 volt =1.6*10-19 *1V = 1.6*10-19 J

Classification of solids on the basis of conductivity:

(i) Conductor Conductors are those substances through which electricity can
pass easily, e.g., all metals are conductors.
In conductor Valence band and conduction band are overlapped to each
other.
It has positive temperature coefficient of resistance.
(ii) Insulator Insulators are those substances through which electricity cannot
pass, e.g., wood. rubber, mica etc.
In Insulator forbidden energy gap is very wide or large.
It has negative temperature coefficient of resistance.
(iii) Semiconductor Semiconductors are those substances whose conductivity
lies between conductors and insulators. e.g., germanium, silicon, carbon etc.
In Semiconductor forbidden energy gap is very small.
It has negative temperature coefficient of resistance.
 Fig. Classification of Solid (Courtesy: https://www.miniphysics.com/)

Types of Semiconductor

(i) Intrinsic Semiconductor: A semiconductor in its pure state is called intrinsic

semiconductor.
(ii) (ii) Extrinsic Semiconductor A semiconductor doped with suitable impurity
to increase its impurity, is called extrinsic semiconductor.

On the basis of doped impurity extrinsic semiconductors are of two types

(i) n-type Semiconductor Extrinsic semiconductor doped with pentavalent

impurity like As, Sb, Bi, etc in which negatively charged electrons works as
charge carrier, is called n-type semiconductor.
Every pentavalent impurity atom donate one electron in the crystal,
therefore it is called a doner atom
(ii) p -type Semiconductor Extrinsic semiconductor doped with trivalent
impurity like Al, B, etc, in which positively charged holes works as charge
carriers, is called p-type semiconductor.
Every trivalent impurity atom have a tendency to accept one electron,
therefore it is called an acceptor atom.
Intrinsic Semiconductor:

A semiconductor in extremely pure form is known as intrinsic semiconductor.

In Intrinsic Semiconductor Silicon and Germanium are surrounded by four nearing
atoms. The Silicon & Germanium atoms have four electrons in outermost orbit. The
bond is formed by sharing of valance electron with other atom, such bonds are called
as covalent bond. The valance electrons are not free thus the pure semiconductor are
practically nonconductor of electricity at low temperatures.

If thermal energy is provided to semiconductor the covalent band breaks to set

the electron free. The election detached form the atom becomes free to move in this
the crystal. It is called free electron. The free electron leaves behind a vacancy with
effective charge (+q). This vacancy with positive charge is called hole. The hole
behaves as a free particle with effective positive charge. One free electron produces
one hole. Therefore, number of free electron is equal to number holes. The current is
due to electrons as well as holes. When potential different is applied across the
semiconductor free electrons are attracted to wards the positive terminals and holes
forward negative terminal. The number of free electron and hole is small. Therefore,
current is low or conductivity is low in intrinsic semiconductor.

Extrinsic semiconductor
Defination:The conductivity of semiconductor is increased by adding a small amount
of suitable impurity to pure semiconductor such materials are known as extrinsic
semiconductor.
The process of adding impurities to a semiconductor is known as doping and the
impurity atoms are called dopants. These materials are also called as doped
semiconductor.
There are two types of dopants used in doping the tetravalent silicon of germanium 1)
Pentavalent (valency5) like Arsenic, Antimony, Phosphorus etc.
2) Trivalent (Valence 3) like Indian, Boron, Aluminum. etc 2.4.8.3:
N type semiconductor A semiconductor in which number of free electron is much
greater than hole, is called N type semiconductor.

When a small amount of pentavalent impunity is added to a pure semiconductor four

bonds are formed with the silicon atom while the fifth electron remains weakly bound
to its parent atom. An atom like Arsenic or Antimony having five electron in outer
most shell when added to Germanium or Silicon atom, the four electrons of Arsenic
are shared by four electrons of Silicon to form covalent bond. The fifth electron of
Arsenic remains free. Many free electrons are produced by addition of pentavalent
impurity. These free electrons are available as electric current carriers. The
pentavalent dopants are donating one extra electron for conduction and hence is
known as donor impurity. The free electrons are majority carriers and holes are
minority. At room temperature thermal energy generates few electron hole. The
majority charge carrier are electrons which are negative charged hence
semiconductors called N type semiconductor
P type semiconductor: A semiconductor in which number of holes is much greater
than electron, it is called P type semiconductor.

When a trivalent material is added to a pure semiconductor three covalent bonds are
formed with the silicon atom. While a fourth bond is incomplete as it contains a hole.
An atom like Indium or Gallium having three valance electron is outer most shell
when added to Germanium or Silicon atom, the three electron of Indium are shared by
three electron of Silicon to form covalent bond fourth bond is incomplete and contains
hole. Many holes are produced by addition of trivalent impurity. The trivalent
impurity accepts electrons form surrounding atom hence it is known as acceptor
impurity. The majority charge carriers are holes which are positively charge and
electrons re minority. At room temperature thermal energy generates few electron
holes. The majority charge carriers are holes which are positively charged hence these
semiconductors are called P types semiconductors.

P-N junction
Two important process occur during formation of P-N junction diffusion current and
drift current.
In N type semiconductor the concentration of electron is more than concentration of
holes. Similarly, in P type concentration of holes is more than concentration of
electrons.
During formation of P-N Junction concentration difference across the P sides and N
sides, holes from P side diffuse into N side and electrons from N side diffuse into P
side. This motion of charge carries gives rise to diffusion current across the junction.
When an electron diffuses from N side to P side it leaves behind an ionized donor on
N side. The ionized donor which is positively charged and cannot move as it is
bounded with surrounding atom. As electron continue to diffuse from N to P, a layer
of positive change is formed on N side of junction Similarly, when hole diffuses form
P side to N side due to concentration difference it leaves behind an ionized acceptor
which is negativity charged it cannot move as it is bounded with surrounding atom. As
holes continue to diffuse a layer of negative charge is formed on P side of junction

Fig.Unbiased P-N Junction diode

(Courtesy: https://byjus.com/physics/p-n-junction)
The motions of both majority carriers electrons and holes contribute to the buildup of
space charge regions one positive and one negative these two regions form a depletion
region or depletions layer. The positive space charge region on N side & negative
space charge region on P side of junction. An electric field is directed form positive
charge towards negative charge. The electron on P side of junction moves to N side
and hole on N side of junction moves to P side due to the electric filed. This motion of
charges due to electric field is called drift current. Thus drift current is opposite to
diffusion current. Initially diffusion current is large and different current is small. As
the diffusion continues. The space charge regions on either side of function extends,
increasing the electric field strength, hence increases the drift current. This process
continues till diffusion current equals drift current. Thus a P- N junction is formed,
where no net current flows. The loss of electrons from N region and gain of electron
by P region causes a potential deference across the junction of two regions. This
potential tends to prevent the movement of electron from N region into P region acting
as a barrier, also called as barrier potential. The magnitude of barrier voltage at
junction depends upon doping densities, electronic charge and junction temperature.
The typical barrier voltages at room temperatures as 0.3 V for germanium and 0.7 V
for silicon junction.

Semiconductor diode:
The semiconductor diode I basically a P-N junction with metallic contact provided at
the ends for application of external voltage. The depletion region I 0.3 V and 0.7v for
germanium 4 silicon, above this voltage current increases very rapidly with slight
increase in forward voltage across the diode. In reverse bios connection conduction is
very small, reverse saturation current floods through the diode.

P-N junction Diode

Symbol

Actual appearance
of Diode
PN Junction Diode under forward bias

Fig.Forward biased P-N Junction diode

(Courtesy: https://byjus.com/physics/p-n-junction)

When an external voltage is applied across the semiconductor diode, such that positive
terminal of battery is connected to P region and negative terminal of battery is
connected to N region, the junction is said to be forward biased. The direction of
applied voltage (V) is opposite to the barrier potential (V0), as a result the depletion
layer width decreases (V- V0). The +ve of battery pushes (repels) holes of ‘P’ side and
holes cross the junction, similarly − ve of battery pushes (repels) electrons of ‘N’ side
and electron crosses the junction. Thus majority charge carries cross the junction and
reaches other end of battery, current flows through the junction.

PN junction diode under reverse bias

Fig.Reversed biased P-N Junction diode

(Courtesy: https://byjus.com/physics/p-n-junction)
 When an external voltage V is applied across the diode such that N side
is connected to positive terminal of battery while the P side is connected to
negative terminal of battery. It is said to be Reverse biased. The direction of
applied voltage (V) is same as the direction of potential barrier (V0) as a result
depletion region width increases. (V+V0) The negative of battery pulls
(attracts) holes of P side and holes move away from the junction. Similarly, the
positive of battery pulls (attracts) electrons of N side and electrons move away
from the junction. Thus majority change charge moves away for the junction.
Hence current does not flat in revere bias.

I – V characteristics :

Forward biased – ( I quadrant)

As Vext is increased , corresponding current If values are recorded. The graph
is plotted If on Y axis and Vext an X axis (Variation of current as a function of
voltage). It is observed that the current is negligible till the external voltage
Vext across the silicon diode crosses 0.7 V (barrier voltage). After 0.7 V as the
external voltage is increased the current If increases sharply. This 0.7V in
Silicon is called as threshold voltage or Cut in voltage The current is measured
is measured in mA for forward bias.

Reverse biased (III quadrant):

Vext is increased and corresponding Ir values are recorded. The graph is
plotted Ir on Y axis and Vext on X axis (variation of current as a function of
voltage). It is observed that the current is negligible and constant even tough
external voltage is increased. This is called reverse saturation current. However
at high voltage i.e., at break down voltage the current suddenly increases. . The
PN junction diode primary allows the flow of current only in one direction
(forward bias) in forward bias the resistance I law as compared to reverse bias
resistance

Applications of Semiconductors
1. NP junction diodes are commonly used for rectification (where AC is
converted into DC)
2. Used as clipper for clipping AC portion
3. Used as clamper i.e. to change reference voltage
4. Used as switches in most electronic circuits.
5. Used as switches in digital logic circuits
6. Used in demodulator circuit 7. Used in detector circuit 8. Used in voltage
multipliers