Classification of Underground Mining Methods

CLASSIFICATION OF MINING METHODS

Over the years three factors have contributed to the evolution of mining methods: - Ground support, timber, fill, bolts, cables, and a combination of these - Developments in drilling and blasting techniques - Mechanization or the advent of new equipment

Classification of Underground Mining Methods

Morrison Method
Slides 8-9 - Source: Morrison R.G.K. (1976) A Philosophy of Ground Control. Department of Mining and Metallurgy Engineering, McGill University.

Factors Considered in Classification System:

Ground Control
Group A Rigid Pillar Support Group B Controlled Subsidence & Sequential Subsidence Group C Caving

Orebody Width Orebody Dip Strain Energy

Ground Control
Group A Rigid Pillar Support Group B Controlled Subsidence & Sequential Longwall Group C - Caving

Ore Width
Narrow (< 3m) Narrow to Wide (1.5 30m) Wide (>30 m)

Strain Energy
Group A strain energy under control Group B increased strain energy and rockburst risk Group C ground failure is a requirement

Group A Rigid Pillar Methods Pillar supported stopes, usually low costs methods, have their widest applications with the stronger rocks at shallow depth where strength-stress ratios provide adequate factors of safety. Group B Longwall Methods The use of longwall accepts the incompetency of rocks under prevailing stress conditions, but takes advantage of the fact that all rocks at the point of incipient failure and permit safe operating conditions for a limited time at the working face.

Difference between subsidence and caving Subsidence implies that a failing hanging wall or roof is brought to rest, either on support or on the footwall, under sufficient control to ensure that there is little relative displacement within the subsiding mass. It may represent fracture zone development or it may be reflected in surface subsidence. Caving, on completion of the undercut, support is eliminated and the height of the undercut permits uncontrolled movement or ruptured blocks to a degree which destroy the structural identity of the original mass and permits passing it as caved material through draw points below the cave.

Group C Caving Methods Caving is deliberately induced. If an unsupported undercut of sufficient height to permit caving rather than subsidence is extended beyond certain limiting dimensions which depend on the stress pattern and the rock type, caving, predictable or otherwise, can be expected to follow. The progress of caving will depend on drawing off (shrinking) caved rock to eliminate support above the undercut and when necessary extending the undercut. Caving is predictable over a specified undercut and results in caved material which can be passed economically through drawpoints below the undercut.

Classification of Underground Mining Methods

Euler De Souza Method
Please review paper De Souza, E. and Archibald, J.F. (1987) Rock Mass Classification as an Influence in Mine Design Operations, Mining Science and Technology, 6, pp. 1-8.

Orebody Shape Stoping Method Block Caving Sublevel Caving Cut and Fill Shrinkage Room and Pillar Sublevel Open
massive tabula r non regular

Orebody Thickness (m) 10 30 100

Orebody Plunge

200 - 500

Orebody Geometry vs. Mining Method Selection Chart

Rock C lass Q Index Block Caving Sublevel Caving Cut and Fill Shrinkage Room and Pillar Sublevel Open P1 P2 P3 P4 -

P1 .001

P2 .01

P3 .1

P4 1

F 4

G1 10

G2 40

G3 100

G4 1000

Exceptionally Poor Extremely Poor Very Poor Poor

F - Fa ir

G1 G2 G3 G4 -

Good Very Good Extrem ely Good Exceptionally Good

Hanging Wall Orebody Footwall

Rock Mass Classification vs. Mining Method Requirements

Mining Method Block Caving Sublevel Open Sublevel Caving Room and Pillar Shrinka ge Cut and Fill

Unit Mining Costs Low Medium High

Unit Mining Cost Comparison for Selected Mining Methods

Case Example

Case Example
Step 1. Suitable Methods Based on Orebody Geometry sublevel open Cut and fill Shrinkage Sublevel caving Step 2. Suitable Methods Based on Rock Mass Classification 200-350 m - Q = 40-300 - sublevel stoping 350-400 m - Q = 10-100 - shrinkage stoping Below 400 m - Q <40 - shrinkage or cut and fill Step 3. Suitable Methods Based on Units Mining Costs upper levels - sublevel stoping lower levels shrinkage stoping

Underground Mining Methods

Selective Mining Methods
Shrinkage Stoping Cut and Fill Stoping Under-cut and Fill Room and Pillar Stoping Resuing Square Set Stoping Stull Stoping

Bulk Mining Methods

Longhole Stoping Sub-Level Open Stoping Vertical Crater Retreat Stoping Sub-Level Caving Block Caving Longwall Panel Solution Mining

1. Stull stoping
Stull stoping is a method that uses systematic or random timbering (stulls) placed between the foot and hanging wall of the vein. This method requires that the hanging wall and often the footwall be of competent rock as the stulls provide the only artificial support. This type of stope has been used up to a depth of 1,000 m (3,500 ft) and at intervals up to 3.5 m (12 feet) wide.

2. Room & Pillar

Room and pillar mining is commonly done in flat or gently dipping bedded ores. Pillars are left in place in a regular pattern while the rooms are mined out. In many room and pillar mines, the pillars are taken out, starting at the farthest point from the mine haulage exit, retreating, and letting the roof come down upon the floor. Room and pillar methods are well adapted to mechanization, and are used in deposits such as coal, potash, phosphate, salt, oil, shale, and bedded uranium ores.

3. Shrinkage Stoping
Shrinkage stoping is a flexible mining method for narrow orebodies that need no backfill during stoping. Successive horizontal slices of ore, usually about 3 m (10 feet) high, are taken along the length of a stope, in a manner similar to cut-and-fill. The ore is removed from the stope through drawpoints at the bottom horizon spaced about every 7.5 meters (25 feet) along strike. Just enough ore is left in the place to provide a floor from which to work when taking the next cut.

4. Sub-Level Stoping
Sublevel stoping is a method in which ore is blasted from different levels of elevation but is removed from one level at the bottom of the mine. Before mining begins, an ore pass is driven from a lower to a higher elevation. Jumbos drill holes into the back of the sublevel. When the back is blasted, ore falls through the ore pass. As the ore is taken out, more drilling of the now higher back continues. The back is lasted till it is so high that it cannot be reached by a jumbo. Then a jumbo working in a higher elevation sublevel is used to intersect the stope. After blasting, the ore falls down to the lower sublevel where scoop trams can drive in to load the ore and dump it at an ore pass. Drilling and blasting continues until the stope is completely excavated. Once the stope is mined out, it is backfilled from the bottom, up.

Longhole Stoping
This stoping technique utilizes both vertical and angled drill holes drilled downward from the overcut drift to elevations slightly above the undercut drift. Arrays of holes are drilled across the full width of each stope such that they will create a vertical slice of ore when loaded and blasted. For production, a side slot running the full stope width, must first be drilled and blasted (often by slot raising) to create a void into which blasted ore can initially expand and drop. Slices of ore, extending the full height and width of the stope, are blasted and caused to drop into the drawpoints. With progressive blasting, successive vertical slices of ore will be broken and the ore will be mined proceeding from one end of the stope to the other.

Avoca
Avoca is a longhole retreat method which uses fill walls to provide support to the adjacent longhole stope. Extraction is from bottom up. The method allows for ground control using a combination of cable bolts and backfill, whilst allowing the extraction of high tonnages in comparison to conventional cutand fill systems. Drilling is done from the overcut. A remote controlled scoop is used to muck ore from the stope. Backfill is dumped into the stope from the overcut. When the level is completed, the next level up is commenced working off the fill from the previous level.

Alimak Raise Mining

Alimak raise mining is a longhole method primarily intended for steeply inclined narrow vein orebodies. The main access is gained by driving a raise up dio along the center of the stope hanging-wall. Horizontal production drilling is then achieved from the raise climber. The method results in very low dilution, has low development costs and enables quick and direct ore production as the development work is mainly carried out in ore.

Vertical Crater Retreat

This stoping technique utilizes vertical drill holes which are drilled from overcut drifts to elevations slightly above the undercut horizon at the bottom of each stope. Parallel arrays of vertical holes are drilled across the full width of the stope. When production blasting occurs, charges at the bottom of all holes, across the full width and length of the stope, are simultaneously detonated. Blasted horizontal slices of ore are dropped into drawpoint points. With progressive blasting, successive horizontal slices of ore will be broken as stope ore is mined upwards. VCR production thus proceeds from the bottom of the stope upwards.

Vertical Crater Retreat

5. Filling & Pillars 6. Unit Supports & Pillars 7. Pillar Recovery Fill 8. Pillar Recovery Unit Supports

Cut and Fill

This method consists of blasting the ore by successive horizontal lift and extracting from the stope all the ore as the breaking occurs. The mucking of the ore is done with a scraper or loader towards a chute, generally developed in the backfill. The void then created is filled with material that can differ from one mine to the next, such as sand, gravel, ore residues. The backfill put in place serves as a floor while supporting the walls.

Undercut and Fill

This method is a descending cut and fill working under a reinforced concrete slab cast on the floor of the previous lift. As in cut and fill, handheld drilling and electric LHD mucking are employed. Each cut is accessed by a ramp from the main access drift.

9. Longwall & Filling 10. Longwall & Unit Supports

Longwall is a form of coal mining where a long wall (about 250-400 m long typically) of coal is mined in a single slice (typically 1-2 m thick). The longwall panel is typically 3-4 km long and 250-400 m wide. The gate road along one side of the block is called the maingate, the road on the other side is called the tailgate. The end of the block that includes the longwall equipment is called the face. The other end of the block is usually one of the main travel roads of the mine.

11. Top Slicing

A method of stoping in which the ore is extracted by excavating a series of horizontal (sometimes inclined) timbered slices alongside each other, beginning at the top of the orebody and working progressively downward; the slices are caved by blasting out the timbers, bringing the capping or overburden down upon the bottom of the slices that have been previously covered with a floor or mat of timber to separate the caved material from the solid ore beneath. Succeedingly lower slices are mined in a similar manner up to the overlying mat, which consists of an accumulation of broken timbers and lagging from the upper slices and of caved capping.

12. Sublevel Caving

A stoping method in which relatively thin blocks of ore are caused to cave by successively undermining small panels. The ore deposit is developed by a series of sublevels spaced at vertical intervals of 18 to 25 ft or 30 ft (5.5 to 7.6 m or 9.1 m) and occasionally more. Usually only one or two sublevels are developed at a time, beginning at the top of the orebody. The sublevels are developed by connecting the raises with a longitudinal subdrift from which timbered slice drifts are driven right and left opposite the raises to the ore boundaries or to the limits of the block. Usually alternate drifts are driven first, and caving back from them is begun and continued while the intermediate slices are being driven. The caving is begun at the ends of the slices by blasting out cuts and retreating in the same manner toward the raises. The broken and caved ore is dragged to the raises by power scrapers. Successively lower sublevels are developed and caved back until the entire block has been mined.

14. Panel Mining

Panel mining uses a moveable roof support to hold up the overburden while coal is removed. Then the support is moved allowing the overburden to collapse. In longwall mining, two long tunnels are cut, up to 1.6 km (1 mile) long and 180 m (600 feet) apart. The seam of coal between is cut away and loaded onto conveyor belts. Shortwall mining is similar but uses shorter tunnels. Shortwall costs less, but is less productive.

16. Block Caving

Block Caving is a mining method in which ore is allowed to collapse due to its own weight in a controlled fashion into chutes. Block caving is usually used to mine large orebodies that have consistent grade throughout. A thick block of ore is undercut by removing a slice of ore. The unsupported block of ore breaks and caves under its own weight. The broken ore is drawn off from below as the caved mass falls due to gravity.

Solution Mining
Solution mining is the extraction of the valuable components from a mineral deposit using an aqueous leaching solution. Evaporites represent a broad class of water-soluble minerals (salts). Commercially important evaporites include halite; sylvite, silvinite and carnallite; magnesium chloride; sodium bicarbonate; trona; and magnesium oxide. Solution mining involves injecting a solvent into the pay zone of the deposit through a cased borehole. For evaporites, the solvent is hot water, which forms brine as the soluble minerals dissolve. The brine is brought to the surface via the casing system in the same or another borehole and sent to a processing facility for recovery by the controlled crystallization of the desired product, followed by dewatering and drying.

Mining Methods Rules of Thumb

Source: McIntosh Engineering

Method Selection - A flatly dipping ore body may be mined using Blasthole when the height of ore exceeds 100 feet (30m); otherwise, it is mined Room and Pillar. Inclination - Ore will not run on a footwall inclined at less than 50 degrees from the horizontal. Inclination - Even a steeply dipping ore body may not be drawn clean of ore by gravity alone. A significant portion of the broken ore will inevitably remain (hang) on the footwall. If the dip is less than 60 degrees, footwall draw points will reduce, but not eliminate, this loss of ore.

Stope Development - The number of stopes developed should normally be such that the planned daily tonnage can be met with 60% to 80% of the stopes. The spare stopes are required in the event of an unexpected occurrence and may be required to maintain uniform grades of ore to the mill. This allowance may not be practical when shrinkage is applied to a sulfide ore body, due to oxidation. Stope Development - In any mine employing backfill, there must be 35% more stoping units than is theoretically required to meet the daily call (planned daily tonnage). Ore Width - Blasthole (longhole) Stoping may be employed for ore widths as narrow as 3m (10 feet). However, this narrow a width is only practical when there is an exceptionally good contact separation and a very uniform dip. Ore Width - Sequence problems are not likely in the case of a massive deposit to be caved if the horizontal axes are more than twice the proposed draw height.

Footwall Drifts - Footwall drifts for blasthole mining should be offset from the ore by at least 15m (50 feet) in good ground. Deeper in the mine, the offset should be increased to 23m (75 feet) and for mining at great depth, it should be not less than 30m (100 feet). Dilution - A ton of ore left behind in a stope costs you twice as much as milling a ton of waste rock (from dilution).