Design of High Speed CMOS Logic Networks

(Chapter 8 of John.P.Uyemura and Chapter5 of EC74)

In VLSI technology, switching speed of logic circuits is an important parameter

and is closely related to the timing specifications. Modern CMOS technology is capable
of fabricating MOSFETS with channel lengths smaller than 65 nm. Here, the aspect ratio
(W/L) is the important critical parameter in high speed CMOS logic networks.
Gate delays:Gate delay is defined as the time taken by the Logic gate to respond to the
signal given at its input. As shown in fig.1, the NAND gate takes a fixed duration to give
the output after the input is given. This time is the gate delay. The parameters associated
with the gate delay are transistor resistance, Capacitance and the load capacitance, CL.
Fig.2 illustrates the variation of the gate delay for different values of CL.

3.3Vdc Vdd
U1A
1
A 3 0
2 Vout
B CL
7400

0 1n

Fig.1 Circuit to illustrate the definition of Fig.2 Graph of delay time v/s load
of gate delay capacitance

1
FET unit Resistance is given by Ru =
⎛W ⎞
k ' ⎜ ⎟(VDD − VT )
⎝L⎠
Where Ru is unit transistor Resistance, W and L are the width and Length of the

Ru
transistor, K’ is μ n C ox Rm = , CGm = mCGu , C Dm = mC D u , C Sm = mC S u
m

VLSI circuits - Prof.M.J.Shanthi Prasad, HOD of E & C, BIT, Bangalore

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Wmin = Wu

Fig.3 Minimum-Size FET Fig.4 3X Scaled- FET

Fig.3 shows the layout of FET and Fig.4 shows the scaled FET, 3 times the
original size. The parasitic capacitances for unit size FET are given by
C Gu =C OX (WL) u
C Du = (C GD + C DB ) u
C Su = (C GS + C SB ) u
where CGu, CDu and Csu are the Gate, Drain and Source Capacitances. The width of
unit size FET is the minimum size given by Wmin = Wu. Fig.4 shows the scaled FET
with m = 3. The aspect ratio becomes 3 times the unit FET and the aspect ratio also
become e times unit FET. In general, the size of scaled FETs are integer multiples of the
minimum
⎛W ⎞ ⎛W ⎞
(W )3 = 3Wu ⎜ ⎟ = 3⎜ ⎟
⎝ L ⎠3 ⎝ L ⎠u
The FET parasitic resistance and capacitance becomes
R u = mR u , C Gu = mC Gu , C Du = mC D u ,C Su = mC S u

VLSI circuits - Prof.M.J.Shanthi Prasad, HOD of E & C, BIT, Bangalore

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It can be seen from the above expressions that, the capacitances are increased 3
times and the resistance is decreased by 3 times. But, an important observation is that, the
RC product remains same RmCm=RuCu.
The Resistance and capacitance of 3X FET of fig.4 is given by

Rx = 3Ru , CGx = 3CGu , C Dx = 3C D u , C Sx = 3C S u

t r = t LH
t f = t HL
R
R3 = u
3
CG 3 = 3CGu
C D 3 = 3C D u
C S 3 = 3C S u

The rise time and fall time of 3X FET are given by

α pu
t r 3 = t ro + CL
3
α nu
t f 3 = t fo + CL
3

If we connect the minimum size FET for both PMOS and NMOS as shown in
Fig.5, results in an inverter. The layout of the inverter is shown in Fig.6.

V1
3.3Vdc

M1
0

in
out
M2

Fig.5 Schematic diagram of Inverter Fig.6 Layout of Inverter

VLSI circuits - Prof.M.J.Shanthi Prasad, HOD of E & C, BIT, Bangalore

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Steps that has to be followed in drawing the layout of an inverter:

To make NMOS FET, n+ layer has to be placed on p-type substrate. A poly layer
in between the n+ layer completes the NMOSFET. This is shown in the bottom of fig.6.
The drain, gate and source are indicated by Dn, Gn and Sn.
To make PMOS FET, p+ layer has to be placed on
p-type substrate. A poly layer in between the p+ layer completes the PMOSFET. This is
shown in the top of fig.6. The drain, gate and source are indicated by Dp, Gp and Sp.
The metal1 layer has to be placed to get contact with the active layer and the p+
layer. The n-well has to be placed surrounding the p+ layer. The Cell layers used during
the layout of VLSI circuits are shown in fig.7. The Text book by VLSI Design by
Plucknell gives the details of cell layers and layouts for various logic circuits. Students
can practice these by drawing the layouts in sketch pens. It is advisable to learn them by
drawing the layouts by using any of the EDA tool.

Fig.7 Cell layers in VLSI Circuits

Lambda Based Rules
While drawing the layouts of VLSI circuits, Design rules has to be followed.
Some of them has been narrated in fig.8 and it states that,
1) The width of n+/p+ diffusion should be of minimum width 2l and the gap between two
diffusions should also be 2λ.

Fig.8 Diagrams to illustrate

the Lambda Based Rules

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VLSI circuits - Prof.M.J.Shanthi Prasad, HOD of E & C, BIT, Bangalore

2) The gap between diffusion and the poly has to be of minimum width λ.
3) The width of metal1 should be of minimum width 3λ and the gap between two metal1’s
should be 4λ and similar other rules has to be followed while drawing the layouts in VLSI
circuits.
Cell Concepts: The basic building block s in physical design are called cells. A cell may
be as simple as an FET, or as complex as an arithmetic logic unit (ALU). The basic cells
of inverter, NAND2, and a cell consisting of inverter, NAND2 and one more inverter at
the output are shown in fig.9. Also the complex cell showing only the inputs and output
have been narrated. This is the usefulness of the cell concept. This becomes useful in
writing VHDL code in behavioral mode.
XNAND2
XNOT
Vdd
Vdd
in1 U2A
1
1 2 3
in out 2
out
7406
7400
in2
Gnd
Gnd

Fig.9 Diagrams to illustrate the

Concept of cells
Vdd Vdd
U3A U4A
1 U5A
U6A
1 2 3 2
A
A 2 1
7406 3
out out
7400
B
B 7428
C
C
Gnd Gnd

Primitive Cells New Complex Cell

NAND2 Gate Scaling

10.00V

V1
10V
M1 M2

IRF9140 IRF9140
0V
0

10.00V
V1 = 0v R1
VA
V2 = 10v M3 47K
TD = 0US 0V
TR = 0.1us 0V
TF = 0.1US IRF150 0
PW = 1Us 0
PER = 2Us
0V
5.000V

M4

IRF150
V1 = 0v
VB 0V
V2 = 10v
TD = 0US 0
TR = 0.1us
TF = 0.1US
PW = 0.5Us 0
PER = 1Us

Fig.10 Fig.11 Fig.12

Schematic Diagram Layout using unit size FET Layout using 3X Scaled FET
Switching Equations Compared to the switching equations of the inverter,
NAND2 gate switching equations gets modified.

VLSI circuits - Prof.M.J.Shanthi Prasad, HOD of E & C, BIT, Bangalore

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This is because, tr0 and tf0 are proportional to the product of Ru and CFET.
In the inverter, two FETs contribute to the capacitance. But, in NAND2 gate, there are 3
FETs that touch the output node, so a factor of 3/2 has to be introduced. The Resistances
scale in a different manner. The pFET resistance Rp is the same as that for an inverter,
while the nFET Resistance Rn between the output node and the ground is doubled
because of the series connection. The switching equations for unit NAND2 gate are

⎛3⎞
t r = ⎜ ⎟t ro + α pu C L
⎝2⎠
t f = 3t fo + 2α n u C L

If we scale the FETs with m = 3, then α factors are reduced by 1/m because of the
decrease in Resistance. The decrease in resistance counteracts the in crease in CFET, so
that the zero-load terms are unchanged. Thus, the switching equations for m-scaled
NAND2 gate and for an N-input NAND2 gate using m-scaled FETs becomes
⎛ 3 ⎞ ⎛α ⎞ ⎛ N +1⎞ ⎛αpu ⎞
tr = ⎜ ⎟tro + ⎜⎜ pu ⎟⎟CL tr = ⎜ ⎟tro + ⎜⎜ ⎟⎟CL
⎝ 2⎠ ⎝ 3 ⎠ ⎝ 2 ⎠ ⎝ m⎠
⎛ 2α ⎞ ⎛ Nα ⎞
t f = 3t fo + ⎜ nu ⎟CL t f = (N +1)t fo + ⎜ nu ⎟CL
⎝ 3 ⎠ ⎝ 3 ⎠

Analysis of NOR2 gate can be analyzed in a similar manner. The switching equations for
m-scaled NAND2 gate and for an N-input NAND2 gate using m-scaled FET’s becomes
⎛ Nα ⎞
tr = 3tro + 2αpuCL tr = (N +1)tro + ⎜⎜ pu ⎟⎟CL
⎝ m ⎠
⎛ 3⎞ ⎛ N +1⎞ ⎛ αnu ⎞
t f = ⎜ ⎟t fo +αnuCL tf = ⎜ ⎟t fo + ⎜ ⎟CL
⎝ 2⎠ ⎝ 2 ⎠ ⎝ m⎠

The above switching equations clearly demonstrate the dependence on the number
of inputs (N) and the FET Scaling factor (m).
Delay time: The above technique of gate design provides a structured approach for
estimating delays. Fig.13 shows a logic chain with M-stages, the total delay, td is given
M
by the summation of individual delays. Mathematically, t d = ∑ t i
i =1

0 2
1 1
1 3 3
1 2 2 Fig.13 Example for
in
Delay time
C3 C= 4 Cmin
C2
C1 0

VLSI Circuits - Prof.M.J.Shanthi Prasad, HOD of E & C, BIT, Bangalore

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Fig.13 shows a logic chain with Inverter, NAND and NOR gates in the 1st, 2nd and
3rd stages and load capacitor in the 4th stage.
The stages are scaled with increasing values of m. This is necessary to take the
additional load of previous stages. The output capacitance has to have scaling of 4, as it is
in the 4th stage in the chain. The total delay is given by,
t d = t NOT / m=1 + t NAND2 / m=2 + t NOR2 / m=3
For the given inputs to the logic chain, the switching equation for NOT gate is of
tfo, This is because the output of the NOT gate is falling from HIGH to LOW. Similarly,
it can be seen that, NAND gate switching equation is of tro and for NOR gate is that of tfo,
as the output of NAND gate is rising from LOW to HIGH and that of NOR gate is falling
from HIGH to LOW.
Applying the corresponding switching time equations, we get,
t NOT / m =1 = t f 0 + α nu 2 C min
α pu
t NAND 2 / m = 2 = t r 0 + 3C min
2
⎛3⎞ α
t NOR 2 / m = 3 = ⎜ ⎟ t f 0 + nu 3C min
⎝2⎠ 2
So the total delay in the chain is,
⎛5⎞ ⎛3⎞ ⎛ 10 ⎞ ⎛3⎞
t d = ⎜ ⎟t fo + ⎜ ⎟t ro + ⎜ ⎟α nu C min + ⎜ ⎟α pu C min
⎝2⎠ ⎝2⎠ ⎝3⎠ ⎝2⎠
It is important to note that, the expression for td will change if different inputs are
applied. Overall, the technique allows us to estimate delays through logic cascades in a
uniform manner.

VLSI Circuits - Prof.M.J.Shanthi Prasad, HOD of E & C, BIT, Bangalore

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Solutions to problems in Design of High speed CMOS Logic circuits

7th chapter of John P.Uyemura:
7.1 Given Data:
VDD = 3.3V
VTP = -0.8V
VTn = 0.6V
Kn’ = 100 μA/V2
Kp’ == 42 μA/V2
To find VM
From Eqn.6.109
⎛W ⎞
β n = k n ' ⎜ ⎟ = 100 x10 = 1000μA / V 2
⎝ L ⎠n
⎛W ⎞
β p = k p' ⎜⎟ = 42 x14 = 588μA / V
2

⎝ ⎠p
L
From Equation 7.14
⎛ β ⎞
⎜ VDD − / VTP / + VTn x n ⎟ ⎛⎜ 1000 ⎞
3.3 − 0.8 + 0.7 ⎟
⎜ β p ⎟ ⎜ 588 ⎟ = 1.358V
VM = ⎜ ⎟=⎜ ⎟
⎜ βn ⎟ ⎜ 1000
1+ 1+ ⎟
⎜ βp ⎟ ⎠
⎠ ⎝
588
⎝

VM = 1.358 V

7.2 Given Data:

VDD = 3 V
VTP = -0.82 V
VTn = 0.6 V
VM = 1.3 V
βn
To find
βp
From Equation 7.14

⎛ ⎞ ⎛ ⎞
⎜ VDD − / VTP / + VTn x β n ⎟ ⎜ 3 − 0.82 + 0.6 x β n ⎟
⎜ βp ⎟ ⎜ βp ⎟
VM = ⎜ ⎟=⎜ ⎟ = 1.3V
⎜ βn ⎟ ⎜ βn ⎟
⎜ 1+ ⎟ ⎜ 1+ ⎟
⎝ βp ⎠ ⎝ βp ⎠
βn
= 1.580
βp
VLSI Circuits - Prof.M.J.Shanthi Prasad, HOD of E & C, BIT, Bangalore

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7.3 VDD = 5 V
VTP = -0.7 V
VTn = 0.6 V
β n = 2.1μA / V 2
β p = 1.8μA / V 2
a) To find VM

From Equation 7.14

⎛ β ⎞
⎜ VDD − / VTP / + VTn x n ⎟ ⎛⎜ 2.1 ⎞
⎟
⎜ β p ⎟ ⎜ 5 − 0.7 + 0.6 1.8 ⎟
VM = ⎜ ⎟=⎜ = 2.378V
βn ⎟
⎜ 1+ ⎟ ⎜ 1+
2.1
⎟
⎜ β ⎟ ⎝ 1.8 ⎠
⎝ p ⎠

VM = 2.378 V

b) To find Rn and Rp
From Equation 7.28
⎛ 1 ⎞ ⎛ 1 ⎞
Rn = ⎜⎜ ⎟⎟ = ⎜⎜ ⎟⎟ = 108Ω
⎝ β n (VDD − VTn ) ⎠ ⎝ 2.1(5 − 0.6) ⎠
⎛ 1 ⎞ ⎛ 1 ⎞
Rp = ⎜ ⎟=⎜ ⎟ = 129Ω
⎜ β (V − / V / ) ⎟ ⎜⎝ 1.8(5 − / 0.7 / ) ⎟⎠
⎝ p DD Tp ⎠

c) To find tr and tf When CL = 0

From Equation 7.52 t f = 2.2τ p
From Equation 7.32 τ p = R p C out , C out = C L + C FET = 0 + 74 = 74 fF

t r = 2.2 x129 x74 x10 −15 = 21.03 ps

From Equation 7.48 t f = 2.2τ n
From Equation 7.32 τ n = Rn C out , C out = C L + C FET = 0 + 74 = 74 fF

t f = 2.2 x108x74 x10 −15 = 17.582 ps

d) To find tr and tf When CL = 115fF
From Equation 7.52 t r = 2.2τ p
From Equation 7.32 τ p = R p C out , C out = C L + C FET = 115 + 74 = 189 fF
t r = 2.2 x129 x189 x10 −15 = 53.638 ps

VLSI Circuits - Prof.M.J.Shanthi Prasad, HOD of E & C, BIT, Bangalore

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From Equation 7.48 t f = 2.2τ n

From Equation 7.32 τ n = Rn C out , C out = C L + C FET = 115 + 74 = 189 fF

t f = 2.2 x108x189 x10 −15 = 44.9 ps

e) To plot tr v/s CL and tf v/s CL
Sl.no. CL in fF tr in ps tf in ps
1 0 21.03 17.582
2 30 29.515 24.71
3 60 38.029 31.838
4 90 46.543 38.966
5 115 53.638 44.9

Rise time V/S <>Load Capacitance

60
Rise time

40
20
0
1 2 3 4 5
Load Capacitance

fall time V/S Load Capacitance

60
Fall time

40
20
0
1 2 3 4 5
Load Capacitance

7.4 Given Data:

VDD = 5 V
VTP = -0.7V
VTn = 0.6V
Kn’ = 150 μA/V2
Kp’ == 60 μA/V2
To find VM, From Eqn.6.109
⎛W ⎞ ⎛4⎞
β n = k n ' ⎜ ⎟ = 150 x⎜ ⎟ = 600μA / V 2
⎝ L ⎠n ⎝ 1 ⎠n
⎛W ⎞ ⎛8⎞
β p = k p' ⎜
⎟ = 42 x⎜ ⎟ = 480μA / V
2

⎝ L ⎠p ⎝1⎠p
VLSI Circuits - Prof.M.J.Shanthi Prasad, HOD of E & C, BIT, Bangalore

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From Equation 7.14

⎛ β ⎞
⎜ VDD − / VTP / + VTn x n ⎟ ⎛⎜ 600 ⎞
⎟
⎜ β p ⎟ ⎜ 5 − 0.7 + 0.6 480 ⎟ = 2.244V
VM = ⎜ ⎟=⎜
βn ⎟
⎜ 1 + ⎟ ⎜ 1+
600
⎟
⎜ βp ⎟ ⎝ 480 ⎠
⎝ ⎠

VM = 2.244 V

7.5 Given Data

VDD = 5V
VTP = -0.
VTn = 0.6V
Kn’ = 150 μA/V2
Kp’ == 60 μA/V2
From Eqn.6.109
⎛W ⎞ ⎛ 4 ⎞
β n = k n ' ⎜ ⎟ = 150 x⎜ ⎟ = 750μA / V 2
⎝ L ⎠n ⎝ 0.8 ⎠
⎛W ⎞ ⎛ 4 ⎞
β p = k p' ⎜ ⎟ = 60⎜ ⎟ = 600μA / V
2

⎝ L ⎠p ⎝ 0.8 ⎠

a) To find Cin
From Equation 6.115
C GP = C ox (WL ) p = 2.7(8 x 0.8) = 17.28 f F
C Gn = C ox (WL )n = 2.7(4 x0.8) = 8.64 f F
From Equation 7.30
Cin = CGn + CGP = 25.72 fF

b) To find Rn and Rp
From Equation 7.28
⎛ 1 ⎞ ⎛ 1 ⎞
Rn = ⎜⎜ ⎟⎟ = ⎜⎜ ⎟⎟ = 303Ω
⎝ β n (VDD − VTn ) ⎠ ⎝ 750 x10 x(5 − 0.6) ⎠
−6

⎛ 1 ⎞ ⎛ 1 ⎞
Rp = ⎜ ⎟=⎜ ⎟ = 387Ω
⎜ β (V − / V / ) ⎟ ⎜⎝ 600(5 − / 0.7 / ) ⎟⎠
⎝ p DD Tp ⎠
c) To find tr and tf
From Equation 7.52 t f = 2.2τ p
From Equation 7.32 τ p = R p C out , C out = C L + C FET
VLSI Circuits - Prof.M.J.Shanthi Prasad, HOD of E & C, BIT, Bangalore

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From Equation 7.33, CFET = CDp + CDn

From Equation 7.29, CDp = Cp + CGp/2
From Equation 6.92, Cp = Cjp Abot+ Cjspw Psw, Psw = 2(W+X)
Cp = Cjp Abot + Cjspw Psw = 1.05 x 8 x 2.1 + 0.32 x 2(8 + 2.1) = 24.1 fF
CDp = Cp + CGp/2 = 24.1 + 17.28/2 = 32.74 fF

Similarly, Cn = Cjn Abot + Cjsnw Psw = 0.86 x 8 x 2.1 + 0.24 x 2(4 + 2.1) = 10.15 fF
CDn = Cn + CGn/2 = 10.15 + 8.64/2 = 14.47 fF

∴CFET = CDp + CDn = 32.74 + 14.47 = 47.21 fF

tr = 2.2 x Rp (CL + CFET) = 2.2 x 387 (80 + 47.21) = 84.724 ps

tf = 2.2 x Rn (CL + CFET) = 2.2 x 303 (80 + 47.21) = 108.212 ps

7.7 Given Data:

VDD = 5 V
VTP = -0.7 V
VTn = 0.6 V
βn = 2βp

From Equation 7.95, Mid-point voltage of NAND2 gate is

⎛
⎜ V DD − / VTP / + VTn x 1 x
β n ⎞⎟ ⎛⎜ 1 2β p ⎞
⎟
5 − 0 .7 + 0 .6 x x
⎜ N βp ⎟ ⎜ 2 βp ⎟
VM = ⎜ ⎟=⎜ ⎟ = 2.523V
⎜ 1 βn ⎟ ⎜ 1 2β p ⎟
⎜ 1+ x ⎟ ⎜ 1+ x ⎟⎟
⎝ N βp ⎠ ⎝
⎜ 2 βp ⎠

VM = 2.523 V
7.8 Given Data:
VDD = 3.3 V
VTP = -0.8 V
VTn = 0.65 V
βp = 2.2βn
From Equation 7.98, Mid-point voltage of NOR2 gate is
⎛ β ⎞ ⎛ ⎞
⎜ VDD − / VTP / + VTn xNx n ⎟ ⎜ 3.3 − 0.8 + 0.65 x 2 x β n ⎟
⎜ βp ⎟ ⎜ 2.2β n ⎟
VM = ⎜ ⎟=⎜ ⎟ = 1.438V
⎜ βn ⎟ ⎜ βn ⎟
⎜ 1 + Nx ⎟ ⎜ 1 + 2 x ⎟
⎝ βp ⎠ ⎝ 2.2β n ⎠

VM = 1.438 V

VLSI Circuits - Prof.M.J.Shanthi Prasad, HOD of E & C, BIT, Bangalore

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 - 13 -

7.9 Given Data:

VDD = 5 V
(W/L)n = 4
Kn’ = 120 μA/V2
VTn = 0.55 V
VM = 2.4 V
VTp = -0.9 V

To find βp

⎛W ⎞ ⎛4⎞
β n = k n' ⎜ ⎟ = 120 x⎜ ⎟ = 480μA / V
2

⎝ ⎠n
L ⎝ ⎠n
1

From Equation 7.95, Mid-point voltage of NAND3 gate is

⎛ ⎞ ⎛ ⎞
⎜ VDD − / VTP / + VTn x 1 x β n ⎟ ⎜ 5 − 0.9 + 0.55 x 1 x 480 ⎟
⎜ N βp ⎟ ⎜ 3 βp ⎟
VM = ⎜ ⎟=⎜ ⎟ = 2.4V
⎜ 1 β ⎟ ⎜ 1 480 ⎟
1+ x n 1+ x
⎜ N βp ⎟ ⎜ 3 βp ⎟
⎝ ⎠ ⎝ ⎠

Solving, βp = 60 μA/V2
7.10 Given Data:
Cout = 130 fF
C1 = 36 fF
C2 = 36 fF
βn = 2 mA/V2
VDD = 3.3 V
VTn = 0.7 V
From Equation 7.28
⎛ 1 ⎞ ⎛ 1 ⎞
Rn = ⎜⎜ ⎟⎟ = ⎜⎜ ⎟⎟ = 192Ω
⎝ β n (VDD − VTn ) ⎠ ⎝ 2 x10 x(3.3 − 0.7 ) ⎠
−3

a) Applying the Elmore formula as illustrated in page 268 of Uyemura, we get the
discharge circuit and the discharge time constant for fig.P7.1,

Rn
τ n = C out (Rn + Rn + Rn ) + C 2 (Rn + Rn ) + C1 (Rn )
Cout
Vout
τ n = 130(3 x192 n ) + 36(2 x192 n ) + 36(192) = 95.216 ps
Rn
C2
0

Rn C1
0
0
0 VLSI Circuits - Prof.M.J.Shanthi Prasad,
HOD of E & C, BIT, B’lore

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 - 14 -

b) τ n = C out (Rn + Rn + Rn ) = 130 x3x192 = 74.88 ps

τ n (a ) − τ n (b )
% error = x100% = 27.16%
τ n (a )

Rn

Cout
Vout
Rn
0

Rn

7.11 The logical circuit for the Boolean expression, f = a.b + c.d .e is given by

M2 V1
M2 3.3Vdc
a b
0

M2 M2 M2
d e

f
M1 M1
a c
M1
0 0
d
M1 M1
b e 0

0
0

0
VLSI Circuits - Prof.M.J.Shanthi Prasad, HOD of E & C, BIT, Bangalore

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7.12 The logical circuit for the Boolean expression, f = X (Y + Z ) + XW is given by

M2 V1
3.3Vdc
Y
M2
X M2 0
Z

M2 M2
X W
MbreakP MbreakP

f
M1 M1
X X

0 0

M1 M1 M1
W
Y Z
0
0 0

VLSI Circuits - Prof.M.J.Shanthi Prasad, HOD of E & C, BIT, Bangalore

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 - 16 -

Designing High-Speed CMOS Logic Networks

8.1 Expression for switching equations of Symmetrical Designs
a) Inverter
t r = t ro + α p C L
t f = t fo + α n u C L

If β n = β p , then tr = tf = ts
t s = t o + αC L Wn = Wmin and Wp = r Wmin, Cin = Cu(1 + r) = Cinv

If the inverter is scaled by m, the rise/fall times becomes,

α
ts = to + CL
m
b) NAND/NOR gates
If nFETs and pFETS are scaled equally in multi-input NAND/NOR gates, the rise and
fall times will be unequal for gates with N > 1. Equalization of the switching times can
be achieved only if the two FET types are of different sizes. If the size of the parallel
connected FETs are increased by m, then the size of the series-connected transistors must
be increased by a factor mN to obtain a symmetrical design.

Fig.14 Delay times as a function of fan-in N

If N = 1, the multi-input becomes an inverter and delay time is given by

t d = (A + Bn)τ min
where
A & B - dimensionless constants
τ min = Rmin C min
C
n= L
C min

As the number of inputs are increased i.e. fan-in is increased by making N = 2, as

in NAND2/NOR2 gates, worst-case delay time has a large zero-load value and a steeper
slope. The same comment holds as we increase N.

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 - 17 -

An empirical fit may be obtained by including a factor x1 in the formula as

follows.
t d , N = ( x1 ) (A + Bn)τ min
N −1

For Example, if the increase from N = 1 to N = 2 is 17% per

input, this means that, x1 = 1.17 and
t d , N = (1.17 ) (A + Bn)τ min
N −1

If the FETs are scaled by a factor m = 1, 2, . . .. , then the delay time

expression modifies to
t m d , N = (x1 ) (A + n)τ min
N −1 B
m

For a complex N-input logic gate, the charging and discharging times will increase
further by 5 to 20% and we can account that by including one more empirical fitting
parameter x2 >1, to obtain
t m d , N = x 2 ( x1 ) (A + n)τ min
N −1 B
m

Applying these formulae to the logic chain of Fig.15, the 3 switching

equations becomes
0 2
1 1
1 3 3
1 2 2
in
C3 C= 4 Cmin
C2
C1 0

Fig.15 An example of a Logic chain

t d = t NOT !m =1 +t NAND 2 !m = 2 +t NOR 2 !m =3

t NOT !m =1 = ( A + B 2)t min

⎛ B ⎞
t NAND 2 / m = 2 = x1 ⎜ A + 3 ⎟t min
⎝ 2 ⎠
⎛ B ⎞
t NOR 2 / m =3 = x1 ⎜ A + 4 ⎟t min
⎝ 2 ⎠
Rearranging, we get
td ⎡⎛ 7 ⎞ ⎤
= (x1 + 1)A + ⎢⎜ ⎟ x1 + 2⎥ B
t min ⎣⎝ 2 ⎠ ⎦
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td
if x1=1.17, = 2.17 A + 6.1B
t min
is the delay compared to a single inverter. It may be noted from equation 8.32 that,
t
the delay of a single inverter is d = A + B
t min

In general, the design of high speed logic CMOS logic networks is done by using
different algorithms and different types of logic cascade. This provides a basis for
deciding on the design that will be the fastest.

Driving Large Capacitive loads

As the analysis of inverter circuits is the basis for high-speed design and as the
analysis can be extended to other logic gates, an inverter circuit has been considered here.
VCC

M1

MbreakP Load
Vin Vout
M2
CL

MbreakN

Fig.16 CMOS Inverter Circuit

Fig.16 shows the inverter circuit. βn = βp =β (Assumed symmetric circuit)
⎛W ⎞ ⎛W ⎞
∴ ⎜ ⎟ = r⎜ ⎟
⎝ L ⎠p ⎝ L ⎠n
where r is the ratios of mobility given by
⎛ μ ⎞ ⎛ k '⎞
r = ⎜ n ⎟ = ⎜ n ⎟ >1
⎜ μ ⎟ ⎜ k '⎟
⎝ p⎠ ⎝ p ⎠

1
Rn = R p = R =
β (V DD − VT )
This design yields a voltage transfer characteristic (VTC) with a
midpoint voltage of VM=VDD/2 and equal rise and fall times. For a 0-to-1 transition at the
output, the output voltage across CL is of the form,
[ ]
Vout (t ) = V DD 1 − e − t / τ
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while a 1-to-0 change is described by

Vout (t ) = V DD e − t / τ
where τ is the time constant given by

τ = RC out = R(C FET + C L )

The rise/fall time equation becomes

ts = tr = tf =to+αCL
where to is the delay time with zero-load. to is invariant to changes in the circuit and
α ∝ R. R is dependent on β, the transient response requirements can b e met by adjusting
β. β can be adjusted during the device design and before sending to fab.

Unit load: The load is said to be of unit value, if the gate’s load capacitance is the same
as the gate’s own input capacitance. This situation exists, if the inverter of fig.16 is
driving the symmetrical inverter as shown in fig.17.
Cin = CGn + CGp = Cox(AGn+AGp) = CoxL(Wn + Wp) = (1 +r)(CoxLWn) = (1 + r) CGn
Where AGn and AGp are the gate areas of the respective devices.
VCC VCC

Cin
M1 M1

MbreakP MbreakP

Vin Vout
M2 M2

MbreakN MbreakN

Fig.17 Circuit to illustrate the concept of Unit Load

As CL Cin ts . To keep ts small, α can be decreased. But as α W R .

But increasing the value of β compensates for the larger load and demonstrates the speed-
versus-area trade-off.

If the aspect ratio is increased by scaling, β increases. i.e.

β’ = S β, R’ = R/S and α’ = α/S, C’in = SCin and W’n = SWn

Then the switching time equation becomes,

ts = tr = tf =to+(α/S)CL
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If CL = SCin as in Fig.18, then the switching time is the same as for a unit load. Thus the
compensation factor (1/S) allows us to drive larger CL.

VCC VCC
CL,d=Cin

M1 M1

MbreakP MbreakP
Cin,d Beeta large
Vin
M2 M2
CL large
MbreakN MbreakN
Beeta large

Driving Stage

Fig.18 Inverter Driving a Large Input Capacitance gate

Delay minimization in inverter cascade:

1 2
1 2 1 2
1 2 1 2
Ci

β1 β2 β3 βN-1 βN
CL

0
Fig.19 A chain of inverters to illustrate the steps to minimize the delay

Fig.19 shows the large capacitance CL driven by a large inverter gate (N), which
is driven by a smaller gate (N-1) and so on. The first stage (β1) is a standard size inverter
of unit size. The stages are monotonically increasing such β1 is the smallest and βN is the
largest. The sizes of FETs are increased stage by stage by scaling with a factor of S, such
that

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 - 21 -

β1 < β2 < β3 <……< βN-1 < βN , β2 = S β1, β3 = S β2 and son.

The general expression is βj+1 = S βj, which relates the j-th and (j+1)-st stages and this
also can be written as follows:
β2 = S β1,
β3 = S β2 = S2β1, β4 = S β3 = S2β2 = S3β1
and in general,
βj = S(j-1)β1,
As Cin ∝ β, Cj = S(j-1)C1
Further, As R ∝ (1/βj), j-th stage Resistance, Rj = R1/ S(j-1)

As t d = ∑ t i , the total delay is given by

td = td1 + td2 + td3 + ….. + td(N-1) + tdN
td = 2.2 τ d , the time constants of each inverter is given by τ j = R j C j +1 for j = 1to N
td = 2.2 (R1C2 + R2C3 + R3C4 +……. + RN-1CN + RNCL )
Applying equations 8.65 and 8.66, we get,
⎛R ⎞ ⎛R ⎞
R1C2 = R1SC1, R 2 C 3 = ⎜ 1 ⎟S 2 C1 , R 3 C 4 = ⎜ 21 ⎟S3 C1 ,..........
⎝ S ⎠ ⎝S ⎠

⎛R1 ⎞ 2
⎟S C 1 + ⎛⎜ R21 ⎞⎟S3 C1 + ……….+ ⎛⎜ N1-2 ⎞⎟S N -1C1 + ⎛⎜ N1-1 ⎞⎟S N C1
R R
td = 2.2(R1SC1 + ⎜⎜ ⎟
⎝ S ⎠ ⎝S ⎠ ⎝S ⎠ ⎝S ⎠
td = 2.2(R1SC1 + R1SC1 + R1SC1 + …….+ R1SC1 + R1SC1) =2.2 N S R1C1 = 2.2 NS τ r
So to minimize the delay, the unit resistance and capacitance has to be kept minimum and
also by properly selecting the scaling factor, S.
To derive the condition for minimum delay
From Equation 8.72, CL = SNC1
⎛C ⎞
ln(S N ) = ln⎜⎜ L ⎟⎟
⎝ C1 ⎠

⎛ ⎛ CL ⎞ ⎞
⎜ ln⎜ ⎟⎟
⎜ ⎜⎝ C1 ⎟⎠ ⎟
N =⎜ ⎟
⎜ ln(S) ⎟
⎜ ⎟
⎝ ⎠
⎛ C ⎞⎡ S ⎤
t d = 2.2 ln⎜⎜ L ⎟⎟ ⎢ ⎥ . This is only a function of S.
⎝ C1 ⎠ ⎣ ln(S ) ⎦

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To minimize the delay time, we apply the derivative condition

∂t d ∂ ⎡ S ⎤
=
∂S ∂S ⎢⎣ ln(S ) ⎥⎦
=0

Differentiating,
1 S
−
ln (S ) S [ln (S )]2

or ln(S) = 1 or S = e
That is the euler e = 2.71… is the scaling factor for a minimum delay.
⎛C ⎞
ln⎜⎜ L ⎟⎟
⎛C ⎞
N = ⎝ 1 ⎠ = ln⎜⎜ L ⎟⎟
C
ln (S ) ⎝ C1 ⎠
⎛C ⎞
The total delay through the chain is τ d = e ln⎜⎜ L ⎟⎟τ r
⎝ C1 ⎠

22
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Designing High-Speed CMOS Logic Networks

8.2 Expression for Delay time constant of an inverter by considering parasitic

capacitances
j-th Stage (j+1)-st Stage

Rj
(Beeta)j+1
Cj
CF,j
Rj 1n
0 (Beeta)j+1
Cj+1
1n
0 0 0

Fig.20 Driver Chain with internal FET capacitance

As FETs have to drive both CF,j and Cj+1, the delay time constant now becomes
τ j = Rj (C F, j and Cj + 1)
As FET capacitance is proportional to the width of the FET, so that the scaling relation is
C F , j = S ( j −1)C F ,1
where CF,j is the capacitance of the first stage
The delay time constant for the entire chain is
τ d = R1 (C F,1 + C 2 ) + R2 (C F, j + C 3 ) + ....... + R N (C F, N + C L )
Using equations 8.65, 8.69 and 8.88, the above eqn. Becomes
τ d = NR1C F ,1 + N (SR1C1 )
Using eqn.8.75 for N
⎡ τ ⎤ ⎡ S ⎤ ⎛ CL ⎞
τ d = ⎢ x ⎥ +τ r ⎢ ⎥ ln⎜⎜ ⎟⎟ where τ x = R1C F ,1
⎣ ln(S ) ⎦ ⎣ ln(S ) ⎦ ⎝ C1 ⎠
To get the condition for minimum delay, the above eqn. is differentiated with respect to
τx
S, S [ln(S ) −1] = which is a transcendental equation and its solution is dependent on
τr
τx
the ratio
τr
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8.3 Logical Effort:

Logical Effort characterizes gates and it provides techniques for minimizing the delay
by interacting with logic cascades. Its symbol is g, defined by the ratio of the input
capacitance to that of the reference gate.
VDD

Cin = Cref Cout

0
Fig.21 Circuit of 1x inverter used to define logical effort
C
g = in
C ref
where Cref is the same as the input capacitance of the 1x inverter.

Electrical Effort:
The symbol of Electrical effort is h and is defined by the ratio of the output capacitance
to that of the input gate. It indicates the electrical drive strength that is required to drive
its own input capacitance Cin.
C
h = out
C in
Delay time:
The absolute delay time is given by
d abs = kRref (C p ,ref + C out ) sec
With scaling, the resistance decreases by a factor of S and capacitance increases as
follows:
R
R = ref and C p = SC p ,ref
S

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 - 25 -

VDD

Rref

Cout
Cp,ref
1n
0
Rref
Parasitic internal
0
Fig.22 Circuit used to define the delay time of 1x inverter with parasitic capacitance

The delay for the scaled inverter is then,

d abs = k
Rref
(SC p,ref + Cout )
S
Rref ⎛ C out
⎞
Simplifying, d abs = kRref C p ,ref + k ⎜
⎟C ref
S ⎜⎝ C ref
⎟
⎠
Defining the reference time constant, τ = kRref C p , ref
d abs = τ (h + p )
τ par Rref C p ,ref
where h is the electrical effort and p = = is the delay term associated with
τ Rref C ref
d abs
the parasitic Capacitance. Normalized delay is given by d = =h+ p
τ
Path Delay. Fig.23 shows 2-stage inverter chain. As with the normal inverters, the total
path delay D is just the sum of the individual delays expressed by
D = d 1 + d 2 = (h1 + p1 ) + (h 2 + p 2 ) , where h1 = 2 and h2 = 3 are the
C C
C1 C2
individual electrical effort values.

1 2 1 2

C1 C2 C3
C2

1n
0

Fig.23 shows 2-stage inverter chain

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 - 26 -

C last
The path electrical effort is defined as the ratio of H = and this can be expressed as
C first
the product H = h1h2
Condition for minimum delay with parasitic capacitance
It is derived by differentiating D with respect to h1 and equating it to zero.
⎛H ⎞
D = (h1 + p1 ) + ⎜⎜ + p 2 ⎟⎟
⎝ h1 ⎠
∂D ∂ ⎡ ⎛H ⎞⎤
= ⎢(h1 + p1 ) + ⎜⎜ + p 2 ⎟⎟⎥
∂h1 ∂h1 ⎣ ⎝ h1 ⎠⎦
The parasitic terms p1 and p2 are constants to the differentiation,
∂D H
= 1− 2 = 0
∂h1 h1
using H = h1h2,
Thus the condition for minimum delay is h1 = h2
Logical effort for NAND2 and NOR2 gates
Fig.24 shows a 1x NAND2 gate. The pFET transistors sizes are still r, since the
worst case path from the output to the power supply is the same as an inverter. The
nFETs, however, must be twice as large as the inverter values since they are in series.
Their relative values are denoted as beiong 2. For either input,
VDD VDD

r r 2r

Cout 2rr
2
Cin 1 1 Cout
Cin
2
0 0 0

Fig.24 1x NAND2 gate Fig.25 1x NOR2 gate

Fig.22 shows a 1x NOR2 gate. The parallel-connected nFETs have a relative size
of 1 while the pFETs are cjhoosen to have sizes of 2r to make Rp the same as Rref. The
input capacitance is then
Cin = CGn (2 + r ) , so that the logical effort for the NAND2 gate is
C (2 + r ) 2 + r
g NAND2 = Gn =
C ref 1+ r
The input capacitance is then C in = CGn (1 + 2r ) , so that the logical effort for the
NOR2 gate is
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C Gn (!+2r ) !+2r
g NOR2 = =
C ref 1+ r
Logical effort for n-input NAND and NOR gate
The input capacitance is then
Cin = CGn (n + r ) , so that the logical effort for the NAND2 gate is
C (2 + r ) n + r
g NAND2 = Gn =
C ref 1+ r
The input capacitance is then

C in = CGn (1 + nr ) , so that the logical effort for the NOR2 gate is

C (!+ nr ) !+ nr
g NOR2 = Gn =
C ref 1+ r
Delay through a general gate
d i = g ihi + p i
for i = 1 to N, The total path delay is the sum
N N
D = ∑ d i = ∑ ( g i hi + pi )
i =1 i =1

The path logical effort is just the product of the individual factors
N
G = ∏ g i =g1 g 2 ..g N
i =1
The path electrical effort is just the product of the individual factors
N
H = ∏ hi =h1 h2 ..hN
i =1
Combining logical effort and electrical effort gives the path effort
F = GH = (g1 h1 )(g 2 h2 )( g 3 h3 )....( g N hN )
^
A minimum delay through the cascade is achieved if gh = f for every i
This is consistent with our conclusions for the simple 2-stage inverter chain. The
^
optimum path effort is thus F = f N
so that the fastest design is where each stage has
^ 1

gh = f = F N This is the main equation of logical effort. The comparison of an N-

stage logic chain allows us to find the value of F. Each staged can be sized to
accommodate the optimum electrical effort value
^
1 N
f
hi = , The optimized path delay is then D = NF N + P where P = ∑ Pi . It is
gi i =1

the sum of the parasitic delays.

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 - 28 -

In general, Pref for an inverter is the smallest, with multiple-input gates exhibiting
larger parasitic delay times. One simple estimate is to write P = nPref . It is the parasitic
delay for an n-input gate.

8.3.3 Optimizing the number of stages:

To decrease the total delay time in the logic chain, inverters are often
introduced in between the stages. This is because of the fact that, logical effort of an
inverter is ginv = 1 and as the product of g’s in the logical chain remains unaffected, as
G= g1g2…gN remains same. Numerical value of the path effort, F = GH also does not
change.
1

= (GH ) N
^ 1
Delay time minimization is f = F N

1
Total path Delay is D = NF N + P
As D decreases with increasing N, the inclusion of inverters is a useful technique.
8.3.4 Logical area:
Logical area of a CMOS logic gate is defined by LAi = Wi xL
Where L is the channel length and W is determined by sizing.
The logical area of 1x inverter (NOT) is LANOT = 1 + r
The logical area of scaled inverter (NOT) is LANOT = S (1 + r )
The logical area of NAND2 gate is LANAND 2 = S (2 + r )
The logical area of NOR2 gate is LANOR 2 = S (1 + 2r )
M
For a network with logical M gates , the logical area is LA = ∑ LAi
i =1
It is important to note that, the above areas does not include the areas occupied by drain,
source, well, interconnect wiring etc.

8.3.5 Branching:
When the logic gate drives two or more gates, the data path splits. The
capacitance contributed by the off path should also be considered in to account. Fig.21

2
1 (Node)2
In 1 3

1 22
3
Out
1
3 1 2
2
(Node)1
2
1
3

Fig.26 Illustration of the effect of branching on the total delay

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 - 29 -

The effect of branching is taken in to consideration by introducing the branching effort at

C
b at every branching point. It is given by, b = T where Cpath is the capacitance in the
C path
main logic path and CT = Cpath + Coff. Coff is the cpapcitance that are off the main path.
b > 1 and accounts for the additional loading. The path branching effort is, B = ∏ bi
i
where bi are the individual branching efforts.
The branching effort at node1 of Fig.26is
C + C NOR 2 (2 + r ) + (1 + 2r ) 3(1 + r )
b1 = NAND 2 = =
C NAND 2 (2 + r ) (2 + r )
The branching effort at node2 of Fig.26is
C + C NOR 2 1(1 + r ) + (1 + 2r ) (2 + 3r )
b2 = NOT = =
C NOT (1 + r ) 1(1 + r )
The path branching effort for the selected path indicated by arrows is then,
3(1 + r )(2 + 3r ) 3(2 + 3r )
B= =
(2 + r )(1 + r ) (2 + r )
Once the branching effort has been calculated, the path effort gets modified to F=GHB
and the remaining calculations proceeds in the same manner as without branching.

8.4 BiCMOS Drivers:

BiCMOS is a modified CMOS technology that includes bipolar junction
transistors as circuit elements. In digital design, BiCMOS stages are used to drive high-
capacitance lines more efficiently than MOSFET only circuits.
BiCMOS Circuits employ CMOS logic circuits that are connected a bipolar
output driver stage, as shown in fig.22. The CMOS network provides logic operations
and bipolar transistors are used to drive the output. Only one BJT is active at a time. BJT
Q1 provides the high output voltage while Q1 discharges the output capacitance and
gives the low output value.

VDD
CMOS Q1
inputs

logic
and Cout
driving Q2
0
circuits 0

0
Fig.27 General form of a BiCMOS circuit

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The inverting circuit shown in Fig.28 illustrates the operational details. The
inversion is done by FETs Mp and Mn. The other two FETs M1 and M2 are used to
provide paths to remove charge from the base terminals of Q1and Q2
respectively. This speeds up the switching of the circuit, enhancing its use as an output
driver.
VDD
Mp

Q1

M1 Vout
Mn
Vin 0 Cout
Q2
0
0

M2
0

Fig.28 operational details of the BiCMOS driver circuit

A BICMOS NAND2 circuit: The CMOS circuitry can be modified as shown in fig.23.
The logic is performed by the parallel pFETs driving Q1, and the series nFETs between
the collector and the base of Q2. The other FETs are used as pull-down devices to turn
off the output transistors. Other logic functions cazn be designed using this as a basis. In
general, the upper output transistor uses a standard-design CMOS circuit as a driver. The
nFET section is replicated and placed in between the collector and base of the lower
output transistor; adding a pull-down nFET to the base completes the design.

VDD
Q1

Cout Vout

B 0
0

A
Q2

Fig.29 A BICMOS NAND2 circuit:

As additional devices are present, parasitic capacitance is larger in a BiCMOS circuit
than CMOS. BiCMOS is only effective for larger values of CL. A typical plot of time
delay V/S CL of fig.30 shows that, due to the higher parasitic device capacitance, the
CMOS and BiCMOS behaviors cross at a value CL=Cx. For CL < Cx, a standard CMOS
VLSI Circuits - Prof.M.J.Shanthi Prasad, HOD of E & C, BIT, Bangalore

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 - 31 -

Design provides faster switching than a BiCMOS circuit. The speed increase is only for
loads where CL is much larger than Cx. This restricts the application of BiCMOS circuits
to applications such as driving long data buses. Moreover, the cost and problem of VBE
drops are important factors in using the technology in digital VLSI.

td

CMOS

BiCMOS

Cx CL

Fig.30 The Gate delay V/S external load capacitance

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Solutions to problems in Design of High speed CMOS Logic circuits

8th chapter of John P.Uyemura:
8.1 Given Data:
CL = 100 fF tro =123.75 ps
CL = 115 fF tro =138.60 ps
βn = βp, VTn = VTp

a) For a symmetric inverter,

⎛ 1 ⎞ ⎛ 1 ⎞
Rn = ⎜⎜ ⎟⎟ = ⎜⎜ ⎟⎟ = 108Ω
⎝ β n (VDD − VTn ) ⎠ ⎝ 2.1(5 − 0.6) ⎠
⎛ 1 ⎞ ⎛ 1 ⎞
Rp = ⎜ ⎟=⎜ ⎟ = 129Ω
⎜ β (V − / V / ) ⎟ ⎝ 1.8(5 − / 0.7 / ) ⎟⎠
⎜
⎝ p DD Tp ⎠
The formula for rise time
tr = tro + αp CL
for Cl = 100 fF,
123.75 = tro + αp x 100 (1)
for Cl = 115 fF,
138.6 = tro + αp x 115 (2)

subtracting (2) from (1)

14.85 = 15αp ∴αp = 990

From Eqn. 7.71, As αp = 2.2 Rp

Rn = Rp = 990/2.2 = 450 Ω

Multiplying Eqn (1) by 100 and eqn (2) by 115 and by solving we get,

tro = 24.75 ps

From Eqn. 7.70, As tr0 = 2.2 Rp CFET , ∴CFET = 24.75/2.2 x 450 = 25 fF

b) The general Expression for rise/fall time is
ts = tr = tf = to + α CL
Substituting the calculated values,
ts = tr = 24.75 ps + 990 x CL
c) As the width of transistors are increased by scaling the size by 3.2 times, the
switching time equations for the new inverter becomes
ts = tr = tf = to + (α/S) CL
with α = 990, ts = tr = tf = to + 309.375 CL
with CL = 50 fF, ts = tr = tf = to + (α/S) CL = 24.75 + 309.375 x 50 = 40.218 ps
with CL = 140 fF, ts = tr = tf = to + (α/S) CL = 24.75 + 309.375 x 140 = 68.062 ps
[NOTE: to does not change, as the product Rp x CFET remains same].

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VLSI Circuits - Prof.M.J.Shanthi Prasad, HOD of E & C, BIT, Bangalore

8.2 a) The calculated values of tr and tf for different values of CL are

CL tr tf
0 430 300
50 614 428
100 798 556
150 982 684
200 1166 812

The graph of tr V/S CL and tf V/S CL are as shown.

Rise Time V/S Load Capacitance

1500
Rise Time

1000
500

0
1 2 3 4 5
Load Capacitance

Fall Time V/S Load Capacitance

1000
Fall Time

800
600
400
200
0
1 2 3 4 5
Load Capacitance

b)
1 1

1 1 21 21 2

CL CL CL
0
0 0 0
Fig.31 Circuit of problem 8.2

33
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VLSI Circuits - Prof.M.J.Shanthi Prasad, HOD of E & C, BIT, Bangalore

Three-inverter cascade is built using identical inverters. If the input to first stage of
inverter is assumed to rise from low to high, the output of first stage falls from high to
low. So, the switching equation of tf applies. As shown in fig.16, the switching equation
of tr and tf applies to the second and third stage outputs.
tNOT/m=1 = tfo + αnu 2CL
tNOT/m=2 = tro + αpu 3CL
tNOT/m=3 = tfo + αnu 4CL

The total time delay is the sum of all the above individual gate delays.
td = 2tf0 + tr0 + αnu 6CL + αpu 3CL
From the given equations, tf0 = 300, tr0 = 430, αnu = 2.56, αpu = 3.68, CL = 45 fF
td = 2 x 300 + 430 + 2.56 x 6 x 45 + 3.68 x 3 x 45 = 265.1 ps
8.3 As the input to first stage of inverter rises from high to low, the output of first stage
falls from low to high. So, the switching equation of tr applies. As shown in fig.32, the
switching equation of tf, tr and tf applies to the second, third and fourth stage outputs.

m=3
1

A 1 2 2
m = 2 31 2

3
m=1 12

m=1 10 Cmin
1 2
0

m=2
Fig.32 Circuit of problem 8.3
tNOT/m=1 = tr0 + αpu 2Cmin
⎛ α pu ⎞
tNOR2/m=1 = 3tro + ⎜⎜ ⎟⎟ 2Cmin
⎝ 2 ⎠
tNAND2/m=2 =3tfo +2 αnu 3Cmin

tNOT/m=3 = tr0 + αpu 4Cmin

The total time delay is the sum of all the above individual gate delays.
td = 3tf0 +5tr0 +8αnuCmin + 5αpuCmin

VLSI Circuits - Prof.M.J.Shanthi Prasad, HOD of E & C, BIT, Bangalore

34
 - 35 -

8.4 Given Data:

Cox = 8 fF/μm2
r = 2.6
L = 0.4 μm
VTn = /VTp/
Wn = 2.2 μm
CL = 35 fF

a) For Idealized Scaling, the expression for input Capacitance as given by

equation 8.51 is
Cin = (1 + r) CGn,
where CGn = Cox AGn = CoxLWn

∴Cin = (1 + r)CoxLWn = (1 + 2.6) x 8 x 0.4 x 2.2 = 25.344 fF

b) For Idealized scaling, S = e = 2.71
⎛C ⎞
ln⎜⎜ L ⎟⎟
⎛C ⎞
N = ⎝ 1 ⎠ = ln⎜⎜ L ⎟⎟ =
C
ln(S ) ⎝ C1 ⎠
knowing the value of C1, the number of stages needed in the chain can be found out.

⎛C ⎞
c) τ d = NSτ r = e ln⎜⎜ L ⎟⎟ R1C1
⎝ C1 ⎠
To calculate the delay time in the chain, information about C1 and R1 is needed.

⎛C ⎞ ⎛ 40 x10 −12 ⎞
8.5 As N = ln⎜⎜ L ⎟⎟ = ln⎜⎜ ⎟ = 6.68 ≈ 7
−15 ⎟
⎝ C1 ⎠ ⎝ 50 x10 ⎠
The number of stages = 7
1
⎛C ⎞N
S = ⎜⎜ L ⎟⎟ = (800) 7 = 2.6
1

⎝ C1 ⎠
The relative sizes are decided by the values of their β values
β2 = (2.6)β1
β3 = (2.6)2β1 = 7 β1
β4 = (2.6)3β1 = 17 β1
β5 = (2.6)4β1 = 45 β1
β6 = (2.6)5β1 = 1167 β1
β7 = (2.6)6β1 = 302 β1
where we have rounded to the nearest integer.

VLSI Circuits - Prof.M.J.Shanthi Prasad, HOD of E & C, BIT, Bangalore

35
 - 36 -

8.6 CL = 0.86 pF/cm,

Cin = 52 fF
βn = βp
r = 2.8
It is to design a driver chain such that, the output is a non-inverting one.

τx
8.7 Equation 8.93 is S [ln(S ) − 1] = and for τ x = 0.72τ r , the eqn. Become
τr
S [ln(S ) − 1] = 0.72 . This is a transcendental equation. This has a solution of S =
3.32. The following tabular column lists the values of the value of S for different
τ
ratios of x
τr

Sl.no. τx Solution S
τr
1 0.2 2.91
2 0.5 3.18
3 0.72 3.32
4 1 3.59

i.e. C2 = 8.8
C1 U5A C C3 C4
1 U2A
2 12
1 U3A
U4A
13 2 3

C = 0.1 CL 7410
2
3
11 2

7400 7405
7402 CL
r = 2.5
Fig.33 Circuit of problem 8.7

Path logical effort as per equn.8.135 is G = g NAND 3 g NAND 2 g NOR 2 g NOT

Substituting the values of g for all the gates from eqns 8.130, 8.131 & 8.103, we get
3 + r 2 + r 1 + 2r 5 .5 4 .5 6
G= x x x1 = x x x1 = 3.46
1+ r 1+ r 1+ r 3.5 3.5 3.5
CL CL
The path electrical effort is H = = = 10
C1 0.1CL
The path effort is F = GH = 3.46 x 10 =34.6

The optimum stage effort is f = F N = (34.6) 4 = 2.43

^ 1

VLSI Circuits - Prof.M.J.Shanthi Prasad, HOD of E & C, BIT, Bangalore

36
 - 37 -

The total path delay as per eqn. 8.142 is D = 4(2.43) + P

Where P is the parasitic delay. As per eqn. 8.143, P = PNAND 3 PNAND 2 PNOR 2 PNOT and P of
each gate is determined by the process specifications.

The details about sizing are obtained by optimized quantities.

Starting from NAND3 gate, the electrical effort as per eqn.8.141 is
^
f 2.43
hi = , h1 = = 1.54
gi 1.5714
C i +1
But as per eqn.8.116, the electrical effort is hi = , i = 1 to N
Ci
C2 C2
∴ h1 = = , so that, C2 = 0.154CL
C1 0.1C L
This NAND3 gate can be scaled by using eqn.8.125 as
C in = S1C Gn (3 + r ) i.e. C1 = S15.5CGn
The remaining gates are analyzed in the same manner.
^
f 2.43
As gNAND2 = 1.2857, hi = , h2 = = 1.8929
gi 1.2857
C C3
∴ h2 = 3 = , so that, C3 = 0.291CL
C 2 0.154C L
This NAND2 gate can be scaled by using eqn.8.125 as
C in = S 2 C Gn (2 + r ) i.e. C2 = S24.5CGn
^
f 2.43
As gNOR2 = 1.71, hi = , h3 = = 1.421
gi 1.71
C C4
∴ h3 = 4 = , so that, C4 = 0.413CL
C3 0.291C L
This NOR2 gate can be scaled by using eqn.8.127 as
C in = S 3 C Gn (1 + 2r ) i.e. C3 = S36CGn
^
f 2.43
As gNOT = 1, hi = , h4 = = 1.421
gi 1.71
C CL
∴ h4 = L = , so that, CL = CL as required
C 4 0.413C L
This NOT gate can be scaled by using eqn.8.127 as
C in = S 4 C ref i.e. C4 = S4Cref

37
 - 38 -

VLSI Circuits - Prof.M.J.Shanthi Prasad, HOD of E & C, BIT, Bangalore

We choose reference as the NOT gate with S4 = 1, C4 = CGn.
The scaling factor of NOR2 gate is
C 0.291C L ⎛C ⎞
S3 = 3 = = 0.485⎜⎜ L ⎟⎟
6CGn 6CGn ⎝ CGn ⎠
The scaling factor of NAND2 gate is
C2 0.154C L ⎛C ⎞
S2 = = = 0.342⎜⎜ L ⎟⎟
4.5CGn 4.5CGn ⎝ CGn ⎠
The scaling factor of NAND3 gate is
C1 0.1C L ⎛C ⎞
S1 = = = 0.018⎜⎜ L ⎟⎟
5.5C Gn 5.5C Gn ⎝ CGn ⎠

From Eqn.6.115, CGn = Cox(WnL),

For the desired value of CL, the scaling factors S1 , S2, S3 and S4 can be determined.
With these values, the channel width of the FETs can be determined.
[NOTE: The students have been advised to study the example 8.4]

8.10

1
3 2
2 1
3
7400
2
1
10C1
3

C1 1
2 12
13

Fig.34Circuit of problem 8.10

When the logic gate drives two or more gates, the data path splits. The
capacitance contributed by the off path should also be considered in to account. Once the
branching effort B has been calculated, the path effort gets modified to F=GHB and the
remaining calculations proceeds in the same manner as without branching.
Path logical effort as per equn.8.135 is G = g NOR 2 g NAND 2 g NOR 2

Substituting the values of g for all the gates from eqns 8.130, 8.131 & 8.103, we get
1 + 2r 2 + r 1 + 2r 6 4 .5 6
G= x x = x x = 1.71x1.29 x1.71 = 3.78
1+ r 1+ r 1+ r 3 .5 3 .5 3 .5

VLSI Circuits - Prof.M.J.Shanthi Prasad, HOD of E & C, BIT, Bangalore

38
 - 39 -

The branching effort as per eqn.8.180is

C C + C NAND 3 (2 + r ) + (3 + r ) (5 + 2r ) 10
B = T = NAND 2 = = = = 2.222
C path C NAND 2 (2 + r ) (2 + r ) 4.5
CL 10C1
The path electrical effort is H = = = 10
C1 C1
The path effort is F = GHB = 3.78 x 10x2.222 = 84

The optimum stage effort is f = F N = (84)3 = 4.38

^ 1

The total path delay as per eqn. 8.142 is D = 3( 4.38) + P

Where P is the parasitic delay. As per eqn. 8.143, P = PNOR 2 PNAND 2 PNOR 2 and P of each
gate is determined by the process specifications.

The details about sizing are obtained by optimized quantities.

Starting from input NOR2 gate, the electrical effort as per eqn.8.141 is
^
f 4.38
hi = , h3 = = 2.56
gi 1.71
C i +1
But as per eqn.8.116, the electrical effort is hi = , i = 1 to N
Ci
C4
∴ h3 = 2.56 = , so that, C4 = 2.56C3, As C4 = 10C1, C3 = 3.9C1
C3
This NOR2 gate can be scaled by using eqn.8.125 as
C in = S 3 C Gn (1 + 2r ) i.e. C3 = S36CGn
The remaining gates are analyzed in the same manner.
^
f 4.38
As gNAND2 = 1.2857, hi = , h2 = = 3.41
gi 1.2857
C
∴ h2 = 3.431 = 3 , so that, C3 = 3.41C2 , As C3 = 3.9C1, C2 = 1.114C1
C2
This NAND2 gate can be scaled by using eqn.8.125 as
C in = S 2 C Gn (2 + r ) i.e. C2 = S24.5CGn
^
f 4.38
As gNOR2 = 1.71, hi = , h1 = = 2.56
gi 1.71
C
∴ h1 = 2.56 = 2 , so that, C2 = 2.56C1, As C2 = 1.114C1, as required
C1

VLSI Circuits - Prof.M.J.Shanthi Prasad, HOD of E & C, BIT, Bangalore

39
 - 40 -

This NOR2 gate can be scaled by using eqn.8.127 as

C in = S1C Gn (1 + 2r ) i.e. C1 = S16CGn
The scaling factor of input NOR2 gate is
C 0.1C L ⎛C ⎞
S1 = 1 = = 0.0167⎜⎜ L ⎟⎟
6CGn 6CGn ⎝ CGn ⎠
The scaling factor of NAND2 gate is
C2 1.114 x0.1C L ⎛C ⎞
S2 = = = 0.0248⎜⎜ L ⎟⎟
4.5CGn 4.5CGn ⎝ CGn ⎠
The scaling factor of output NOR2 gate is
C 3.9 x0.1C L ⎛C ⎞
S3 = 3 = = 0.0709⎜⎜ L ⎟⎟
6CGn 5.5CGn ⎝ CGn ⎠

From Eqn.6.115, CGn = Cox(WnL),

For the desired value of CL, the scaling factors S1 , S2 and S3 can be determined. With
these values, the channel width of the FETs can be determined.

VLSI Circuits - Prof.M.J.Shanthi Prasad, HOD of E & C, BIT, Bangalore

40
Chapter1.
An Overview of VLSI
1.1 Introduction
1.2 What is VLSI?
1.3 Complexity
1.4 Design
1.5 Basic concepts

An Overview of VLSI

This chapter deals with the basic concepts of VLSI and VLSI DESIGN. A few questions
such as what is VLSI/VLSI DESIGN? Why is VLSI? so on and so forth. The chapter
looks at the VLSI DESIGN flow and the various options of design that are available for a
designer.
1.1 Introduction
The expansion of VLSI is ‘Very-Large-Scale-Integration’. Here, the term ‘Integration’
refers to the complexity of the Integrated circuitry (IC). An IC is a well-packaged
electronic circuit on a small piece of single crystal silicon measuring few mms by few
mms, comprising active devices, passive devices and their interconnections. The
technology of making ICs is known as ‘MICROELECTRONICS’. This is because the
size of the devices will be in the range of micro, sub micrometers. The examples include
basic gates to microprocessors, op-amps to consumer electronic ICs. There is so much
evolution taken place in the field of Microelectronics, that the IC industry has the
expertise of fabricating an IC successfully with more than 100 million MOS transistors as
of today. ICs are classified keeping many parameters in mind. Based on the transistors
count on the IC, ICs are classified as SSI, MSI, LSI and VLSI. The minimum number of
transistors on a VLSI IC is in excess of 40,000.
The concept of IC was conceived and demonstrated by JACK KILBY of TEXAS
INSTRUMENTS at Dallas of USA in the year 1958.The silicon IC industry has not
looked back since then. A lot of evolution has taken place in the industry and VLSI is the
result of this. This technology has become the backbone of all the other industries. We
will see every other field of science and technology getting benefit out of this. In fact the
advancements that we see in other fields like IT, AUTOMOBILE or MEDICAL, are
because of VLSI. This being such important discipline of engineering, there is so much
interest to know more about this. This is the motivation for this course namely ‘VLSI
CIRCUITS’.
1.2 What is VLSI?
VLSI is ‘Very Large Scale Integration’. It is the process of designing, verifying,
fabricating and testing of a VLSI IC or CHIP.A VLSI chip is an IC, which has transistors
in excess of 40,000. MOS and MOS technology alone is used. The active devices used
are CMOSFETs. The small piece of single crystal silicon that is used to build this IC is
called a ‘DIE’. The size of this die could be 1.5cmsx1.5cms. This die is a part of a bigger
circular silicon disc of diameter 30cms.This is called a ‘WAFR’. Using batch process,
where in 40 wafers are processed simultaneously, one can fabricate as many as 12,000
ICs in one fabrication cycle. Even if a low yield rate of 40% is considered you are liable
to get as many as 5000 good ICs. These could be complex and versatile ICs. These could
be a PENTIUM Microprocessor IC of INTEL, or a DSP processor of TI costing around
Rs10,000. Thus you are likely to make Rs50 million (Rs5crore) out of one process flow.
So there is lot of money in VLSI industry. The initial investment to set up a silicon
fabrication unit (called ‘FAB’ in short and also called sometimes as silicon foundry) runs
into a few $Billion. In INDIA, we have only one silicon foundry-SCL at Punjab
(Semiconductor Complex Ltd., in Chandigarh). Very stringent and critical requirements
of power supply, cleanliness of the environment and purity of water are the reasons as to
why there are not many FABS in India.

1.3 Producing a VLSI chip is an extremely complex task. It has number of design and
verification steps. Then the fabrication step follows. The complexity could be best
explained by what is known as ‘VLSI design funnel’ as shown in the Figure1.1.

Figure1.1 The VLSI design tunnel

CHAPTER 3.0

PHYSICAL STRUCTURE OF CMOS ICs

3.1 IC Layers
3.2 MOSFETs
3.3 CMOS Layers
3.4 Designing FET array
3.5 Summary
References

PHYSICAL STRUCTURE OF CMOS ICs

3
VLSI chip design flow as discussed in the chapter 1, has two parts namely, the front-end
design and the back end design. The front-end design is all about logic and circuit design
of the chip. The back end design translates the circuit elements – active, passive
components and their interconnections to respective layouts. These are the layouts, which
ultimately sit on the silicon die at different layer levels to get the finished IC. The actual
dimensions of these innumerable polygons have to be designed. The optimal placing
(helps in saving silicon real estate) and routing (helps in achieving required speed of
operation) of these polygons is also part of the back end design. This is called the ‘
physical design’. This chapter discusses the various layers that one sees on an IC in
general and looks at the details of a CMOS process. A number of example circuits have
been dealt to show how the layouts are done optimally. This chapter will examine the
physical structure of a CMOS IC as seen at the microscopic silicon level in the design
hierarchy.
3.1 IC Layers
Any IC in general will have some conducting, semi conducting and the insulating
layers stacked vertically. These are starting semiconductor wafer, silicon dioxide
(insulator), diffusion (or implant), polycrystalline silicon (gate material in- short-
polysilicon) and the top metal layer. Using these layers, geometrical patterns are done
and appropriate connectivity is established among all the physical patterns. The layout
details of a basic IC is shown in Fig.3.1

Gate
S D SiO2 G
G SiO2
A
P-Substrate T
(a) (b) E
 Figure.3.1. IC layout (a) cross-sectional view (b) Top view

Once the layout details are known it is to evaluate the resistance and capacitance values
of the physical entities sitting on the silicon. This is required to evaluate the delay
encountered by the signal in flowing from one component to an other. The sheet
resistance (Rs) of each of the layers will be known in advance. Knowing the Rs value of a
layer, one can calculate the resistance of the pattern made out of a particular layer.
3.1.1 Sheet resistance
The resistance of layer with resistivity ρ and with the dimensions as shown in
Fig.3.2 is given by
Rs = ρ L = ρ L/ W. t
A 3.1
Where A = cross-sectional area of the layer, ρ = Resistivity of the layer material
in ohm-cm, L = the length of the layer, W = the width of the layer, t = thickness of the
layer.
In equation 3.1 if W = L, Rs = ρ / t = Sheet resistance (ohms per square). Thus
the sheet resistance of layer is defined as the resistance offered to the flow of current by
the layer of thickness ‘t’ and a perfect square. If the given layer is not a perfect square,
you can calculate equivalent number of squares ‘N’ (= L/W). Then the resistance R =
N.Rs = Z.Rs. ‘Z’ (L/W) is a number and it is the reciprocal of the aspect ratio.

ρ t

I W

Figure.3.1. The geometry of a layer

3.1.2 Layer capacitance

Knowing the area of the layer and the dielectric constant, area capacitance can be
calculated using the equation:

C=εA/t 3.2
Where ε = ε0 εins, and t = thickness of the layer
ε0 = 8.854 x10 –14 F/cm, εSio2 = 4.0, A = Area of the layer
3.1.3 Delay timer constant
The product of the resistance and the capacitance gives the delay time constant ‘τ’. The
output of a gate passes to an input of a gate through a connecting wire, which has a
resistance of Rline. There will be a capacitance (gate capacitance) at the input of the gate
as shown in the Fig 3.2. The signal will take ‘τ’ seconds to reach the input of the gate 2
from the output of the gate 1.

Gate1 Line Gate2 Rline

Cin Cline

τ = Rline. Cin
Figure.3.2 Delay through the interconnect wire between the 2 gates.
3.2 MOSFETs
Whenever a polysilicon cuts across the diffusion, at the intersection a MOSFET is
formed. In between these layers silicon dioxide is sand witched and you get the field
effect. While writing the layout diagrams oxide layer will not be shown. Other layers
like diffusion, polysilicon and the metal layer are shown. The NMOSFET symbol and
its layout are shown in the Fig.3.3.
Gate Gate

Drain Source
D S
(a) (b)

Figure.3.3 NMOSFET a) symbol, b) layout

3.2.1 Current Flow in a FET

The current in a NMOSFET is due to flow of electrons from source to drain under the
influence of applied drain voltage VDD. The device goes to on state with VGS ≥ VT.
Here, VGS is the gate voltage with respect to the source, and VT is the threshold voltage
of the enhancement NMOSFET under consideration. Threshold voltage is the gate
voltage with respect to source at which the substrate underneath the gate between the
source and the drain gets inverted and the N-channel is formed. Now with VDD on, the
electrons move from source towards the drain. And the conventional drain current flows
from drain to source. The magnitude of the current is proportional to the total charge
created in the channel and inversely proportional to the transit time of the electrons. The
schematic of the NMOSFET showing the current flow is depicted in the Fig.3.4.
S G D

VDD Key:
Metal
sNn
n+ n+ Poly silicon
Channel Diffusion
P-Substrate Field oxide
Gate oxide
Figure.3.4 Schematic of NMOSFET with different layers

The expression for IDS can be deduced as:

I DS = Charge in the channel / Transit time of electrons

= Q / τSD
Where τSD = Channel length / Electron drift velocity
= L / μn EDS

= L / μn VDS / L

= L 2 / μn VDS 3.3

The channel charge is given by:

Q = - C G (VGS – VT) 3.4

Where CG = Gate oxide Capacitance, as given by Equation 3.2

Combining Equations 3.3 and 3.4 we get,

IDS = ε0 εox μn W/ (L t ox) . (VGS –VT) .VDS 3.5

= βn. (VGS – VT).VDS

Where βn = gain factor (A/ V2)

3.3 CMOS Layers
CMOS FETS are fabricated using three processes, namely i) N-Well process ii) P- Well
process and iii) Twin –Tub Process. If the process is started with a P-substrate,
NMOSFETs can be fabricated. On the same wafer, to put PMOSFET, one should have a
N- semiconductor. This active N- area is obtained by ion implantation. This is called the
N-Well. You should have a P-Well to accommodate NMOSFETs, if the starting
material is a N-substrate. In the case of twin –tub process, an epitaxial layer of single
crystal silicon is grown by chemical vapor deposition process (CVD). On this layer,
both N-well and P-Well implants are done to accommodate PMOS and NMOS FETs.
The top view of the patterning of the FETs in a N-Well process is shown in the
Fig.3.5.For the implementation of a particular logic; the NMOSFETs and PMOSFETs
may have to be connected in series or parallel.
 P+ p+ P+ p+
n+ n+
n+ n+

N-Well

Figure.3.5 Top view of patterning of the FETs

3.4 Designing FET arrays
When a logic gate is implemented, NMOSFETs are arranged in the pull-down structure.
These transistors will depend upon the input pins of the gate. Depending on the Boolean
expression, these transistors are connected in series, parallel or series-parallel
combination. In any case these transistors could be arranged in an array. In order to
optimize the silicon space, layout design of these arrays is a must. Same thing hold good
for the PMOSFET arrays, which come as pull-up devices between VDD and the output
line. We shall discuss the design of the FETs connected in series and parallel.
3.4.1 NMOSFETs in series/ parallel
Silicon patterning for two NMOSFETs connected in series is
shown in Fig.3.5.

D1 S1 D2 S2 D1 S1 D2 S2
(a) (b)
Figure.3.5 Silicon patterning of 2 NMOS FETs in series

Silicon patterning of the 2 NMOSFETs connected in parallel is shown in Fig.3.6.

A B

y (a) (b)

Figure.3.6 Patterning of the 2 NMOSFETs connected in parallel (a) Schematic (b) Layout

3.4.2 Layout of a NOT gate

The circuit schematic and the corresponding layout is shown in the Fig.3.7.In the NOT
gate NMOSFET is connected in series with the PMOSFET. The drains of the 2
transistors are connected to the metal wire, which goes out as an output line. Similarly the
two gates of polysilicon have been connected together and the intersection points goes to
the output line.

VDD VDD

x x x y

VSS VSS
(a) (b)
Figure.3.7 Circuit to layout translation of NOT gate

The basic procedure to adopt while drawing layout diagrams for any logic circuit is to
make the circuit of the logic circuit. Then identify the drain and source of the NMOS and
the PMOS transistors. The source of PMOS will be connected to VDD and the source of
the NMOS will be connected to VSS. The drain(s) of bottom most transistor(s) is (are)
connected to the drain (s) of the top most transistor(s). This junction is the output line.
The polysilicon layer cuts across the P-diffusion and the N- diffusion to form the two
transistors and the junction is the input line.
Following the above given procedure layout of any logic gate can be easily drawn.
3.5 Summary
The various layers, which make an integrated circuit, are identified in this chapter. The
layers that are stacked together for simple CMOS process are explained. The logic
circuits can be easily translated to the layouts by following standard procedure. The
different layers are drawn in different colours. But a state of art of VLSI chip will have
many more layers. There could be 6-10 metal layers. When all these layers are stacked on
top of an other, you get a fat IC. The layout details of a transistor and the circuit will give
you a correct picture of the process flow. The order in which the layers are integrated on
the substrate will be clear.

REFERENCES(for all the 3 chapters)

1.Introduction to VLSI circuits and systems: John P. Uyemura,

Edition 2005, John Wiley & Sons, Inc.
2.Basic VLSI design: D.A. Pucknell, K.Eshraghian, III Edition,
Prentice-Hall OF India Pvt.Ltd.
3.CMOS Digital Integrated Circuits –Analysis and Design:
Sung- Mo Kang, Yusuf Leblebici, III Edition.,Tata
McGraw-Hill Publishing Company LTD.,
4. Application –specific Integrated Circuits: Smith, Addison
Wesley 1997.
5. CMOS Circuit design, Layout and Simulation: R.Jacob
Baker, IEEE Press.,2000
6. Principle of CMOS VLSI Design: Neil Weste and K.
Eshraghian Addison Wesley.,1998.
ELEMENTS OF PHYSICAL DESIGN

3.1 Introduction to Physical Design

Several equivalent viewpoints may be used to describe an integrated circuit. To a
circuit designer, a chip is the physical realization of an electronic network. A logic
designer, on the other hand, may choose to view the chip as a device that performs
functions specified by logic diagrams, function tables, or an HDL file. Figure 3.1
illustrates how different people might view the same thing. Regardless of the
abstraction used, in the final analysis, an integrated circuit is really an intricate
physical object that has been carefully designed and fabricated.
Physical design in VLSI deals with the procedure needed to realize a circuit on
the surface of a semiconductor wafer. Starting with the electrical network schematic,
computer tools are used to create the necessary patterns on each layer in the
3-dimensional structure. Once the drawings are completed, the information can be
used to fabricate the masks needed in the processing line.

CMOS technology allows one to choose from a wide variety of circuit design
techniques, any of which may be useful when implementing a given logic function.
This feature is particularly nice when designing high-performance circuits, as often
one design style yields faster switching than another. Physical design is critical in
this situation, since the layout and the resulting performance are directly linked to
each other. At this level, the circuit design and layout are indistinguishable.
Many people view physical design as a skill that is best learned by doing. The
most proficient designers tend to be the most experienced, but, of course, one must
begin somewhere. In this chapter, we will introduce the first ideas of physical
design by examining the concept of layout in more detail. This includes ideas such
as design rules and interconnect routing. The details of designing CMOS circuits
will be covered in the following chapters.
3.2 Masks and Layout Drawings
Every material layer in an integrated circuit is described by a set of geometrical
objects of specified shape and size. These objects are defined with respect to each
other on the same layer, and also with reference to geometrical objects that lie on
other layers, both above and below. Layout drawings relay this information graphically,
and can be used to generate the masks needed in the fabrication process.
Because of this relationship, we will take the viewpoint that a layout drawing represents
the top view of the chip itself.
When we visualize an integrated circuit, it appears as a set of overlapping geometrical
objects. In a layout editor, each layer is described by using a distinct color
or fill pattern that allows us to see the objects relative to each other. Once we get
oriented to seeing an integrated circuit in this manner, it is a simple matter to construct
transistors and route the interconnect lines as required. While classical schematic
representations provide the topology of the network, the layout gives us the

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ability to modify the performance of a circuit. Performing the layout is therefore an
intrinsic part of the design process.
When designing digital logic circuits in CMOS, the goals remain quite simple:
• Design a circuit that implements the logic function correctly, and,
• Adjust the parameters to meet the electrical specifications.
This is often more difficult than it sounds, particularly when we note that state-ofthe
art VLSI chips can have several million MOSFETs with the associated interconnect
lines. At the most basic level, we find that many problems arise when performing
the layout of an integrated circuit. Some deal with the practical aspects of
circuit operation, others originate from physical properties of the materials
involved, and yet others are due to limitations in the fabrication processes. These all
contribute to the techniques used in the physical design.
3.3 Design Rule Basics
Design rules are a set of guidelines that specify the minimum dimensions and spacings
allowed in a layout drawing. They are derived from constraints imposed by the
processing and other physical considerations. Violating a design rule may result in
a non-functional circuit , so that they are crucially important to enhancing the die
yield.
Limitations in the photolithography and pattern definition give rise to several
critical design rules. Since these are strongly dependent on equipment used in the
fabrication process, they tend to change with improving technology. The situation
is complicated by the fact that physical phenomena and device design considerations
also enter into the picture. In this section, we will examine some of the

design rules associated with a CMOS processing technology.

.
3.3.1 Minimum Linewidths and Spacings
Consider the two objects shown in Figure 3.2. These represent two patterns on the
same layer, e.g., both are polysilicon. When used as interconnects, the two rectangles
shown in the drawing are called "lines" (since every physical patterning must
have a non-zero width), and we will use this terminology in our discussion. The
minimum linewidth X is the smallest dimension permitted for any object in the
layout drawing; X is also known as the minimum feature size. The minimum
spacing S is the smallest distance permitted between the edges of two objects; in
the present example, the minimum spacing is between the two lines.
Minimum linewidth and spacing values for interconnect lines may originate
from the resolution of the optical printing system, the etching process, or from
other considerations such as surface roughness. Violating the minimum linewidth
rule may result in ill-defined or broken interconnects. Similarly, the minimum spacing
rule ensures that the lines are physically separated in the final structure. If this

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guideline is not followed, then the two may form an electrical short in the circuit.
The situation is more complicated when applied to patterning a doped region in
the silicon because of lateral doping effects and the presence of depletion regions.
Lateral doping is shown in Figure 3.3. In (a), the oxide has been patterned by the
lithography to have a linewidth X. However, when the wafer is heated to anneal the
implant, lateral diffusion2 increases the actual width of the n+ region to X'>X. This
Note that even a single defect results in a non-functioning circuit.

effect is important when determining the minimum spacing 5 between adjacent

doped lines.
Depletion effects also influence the value of 5. As shown in Figure 3.4, a depletion
region exists at every pn junction. Let us assume for simplicity that the junction
has a step-doping profile where the impurity concentration changes abruptly from
Nd on the n-side to Na on the p-side. With a reverse-bias voltage of VK, the total
depletion width xd can be computed from

is the zero-bias value of the total depletion width, and

(3-3)
is the built-in voltage. Table 3.1 provides a list of useful numerical values for basic
calculations. Note that the intrinsic concentration ni applies only to silicon at room
temperature (T=300° K). To calculate the p-side depletion width xp shown in the
drawing, we use

Since this increases with the reverse bias voltage, the minimum spacing distance 5
often accounts for the worst-case situation, i.e., when VR=VDD. From this discussion,
it is not surprising that the minimum width and spacing for n+ and p+ regions
are usually larger than those for a polysilicon line.
3.3.2 Contacts and Vias
Contacts and vias are used to provide electrical connections between different
material layers. In general, contacts are necessary connections to access the various
regions of silicon, while vias are used between two interconnect layers to simplify
the layout. When formulating design rules for these types of objects, two important
considerations arise: the physical size of the oxide cuts, and the spacing needed
around the connection on the layers.

Prof.Hansaraj Guhilot, KLE, Belagaum

Let us first examine the dimensions of a contact region. The geometry is shown
in Figure 3.5. It is apparent that the minimum size is limited by the lithographic
process. However, this does not imply that one uses the largest contacts possible, as
other considerations come into play. If the contact cut is too large, then it may be
difficult to attain complete coverage when depositing the upper layer. Large contact
cuts may result in cracks or voids, that may in turn lead to a circuit failure. To overcome
this problem, it is common to restrict the dimensions of contact cuts to prespecified
values that can be reliably made in the fabrication process.
Now, consider the problem of spacing x around an oxide cut as shown in Figure
3.6. We must specify the minimum distance between the edge of an oxide cut and
the edge of a patterned region to allow for misalignment tolerances in the masking
steps. These are generically classified as registration errors, and arise because it is
not possible to align the mask with arbitrary precision.

3.3.3 MOSFET Rules

MOSFETs are usually fabricated using the self-aligned technique described in the
last chapter. This approach uses the polysilicon gate as a mask for the ion implantation
step that forms the drain/source regions. Certain precautions must be taken in
the physical design to ensure that small registration errors can be tolerated, and
functional transistors will still be formed.
First, we recall that n+ regions in an nFET are described by the derived layer1
ndiff = (ACTIVE) AND (NSELECT).
With regard to the fabrication sequence, this means that an n+ region is formed
where (a) the NSELECT mask gives an opening in the photoresist, AND, (b) an
ACTIVE area exists to allow the implant to penetrate into the silicon substrate.
Since the formation of the physical ndiff layer relies on the overlap of two masks,
the size of the NSELECT region must be larger than the size of the corresponding
ACTIVE area.
The drawing in Figure 3.7(a) shows the proper sizing of the two layers, with the
NSELECT rectangle larger than the ACTIVE area rectangle. The final dimensions
of the n+ region are those of the ACTIVE area. A minimum spacing value x
between the edges of the two masks is used to allow for registration error between

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the two masks. Even though the ion implant specified by the NSELECT boundary
is larger than needed, the thick field oxide specified by the region NOT( ACTIVE)
prevents the underlying silicon from being doped. This is verified by the cross-sectional
view shown.
If we reverse the situation and make the ACTIVE area larger than the NSELECT
area, then only the region described by ndiff=(ACTIVE) AND (NSELECT) will
become n+; sections corresponding to
(ACTIVE) AND [NOT(NSELECT)]
remain p-type substrate. This is shown in Figure 3.7(b). The ndiff region does not
have the correct cross-sectional pattern needed to ensure proper isolation and operation.
Consider next the gate overhang distance d shown in Figure 3.8. This is
included to ensure that a misaligned gate will still yield a structure that has separate
drain and source regions. To understand the reasoning, suppose that a MOSFET is
designed using the layout shown in Figure 3.9(a) with d=0. Figure 3.9(b) shows a

small misalignment where the polysilicon does not traverse the entire active area.
Since the ion implant will dope all of the exposed substrate, the resulting structure
shown in (c) has the drain and source n+ regions merged into one. Electrically, the
drain and source are shorted, so the device cannot control the current flow, i.e., the
switching action has been lost.
The same consideration applies to a MOSFET where the n+ region changes
shape as shown in Figure 3.10. The channel width W is a critical design parameter,
so that the spacing s between the poly and n+-edges must be large enough to ensure
that the MOSFET still has the proper value if small registration errors occur.
3.3.4 Bloats and Shrinks
The drawings produced by a layout editor provide the basic view of an integrated

Prof.Hansaraj Guhilot, KLE, Belagaum

circuit that are used to extract the equivalent device parameters. It is therefore
important to understand the correlation between what is shown on the computer
monitor when compared with the actual die after fabrication.
In general, the final size of a physical layer will be different from the dimensions
specified by the mask that created the pattern. Two obvious examples are
• ACTIVE: Encroachment reduces the size of the usable active area.
• Doped n+ or p+: Lateral doping effects increase the size of these regions.
In addition, the physical process of etching a material layer is anisotropic, with both
vertical and lateral etching present. Although the lateral etch rate can be reduced

using various techniques, it cannot in general be reduced to zero. The effect of

anisotropic etching on a polysilicon layer is illustrated in Figure 3.11.
The question that naturally arises at this point is "What does the layout drawing
represent relative to the finished chip?" In other words, will the chip patterns be
identical to those shown by the layout editor, or are size adjustments necessary? In
the early days of chip design, one had to increase or decrease the size of the layout
drawing to view the actual chip dimensions. However, it is now common for the
chip fabricator to subject the masks to bloats (increases in object sizes) and shrinks
(decreases in the object size) as needed to compensate for the difference between
the mask dimensions and the resulting size on the chip. When this is done, then the
layout editor displays a reasonably accurate view of the finished circuit.
These considerations are particularly important to designing a MOSFET.
Although the two critical dimensions L (the channel length) and W (the channel
width) are related to the drawn mask values, the values are different as shown in
Figure 3.12. The channel length L that is required in the current flow equations is
reduced from the drawn value L' by
L = L - 2L (3.5)
where L0 is the overlap distance from lateral diffusion effects . In a similar manner,
the channel width W is smaller than the drawn ACTIVE width W because of active
area encroachment. This is where the usable size of the active area is reduced
because of oxide growth underneath the edges of the nitride pattern. If the
encroachment per side is (AW), then
W = W-2(ΔW) (3.6)
gives the proper electrical value. This can become confusing when entering the
device dimension into a circuit simulation program. For example, SPICE parameters
can be entered using either the drawn or physical values so long as the remaining
data values are consistent. This will be discussed in more detail in the next
chapter.
The gate overlap L0 is also known as the lateral diffusion length LD.

Prof.Hansaraj Guhilot, KLE, Belagaum

3.4 Types of Design Rules
Geometrical design rules are a set of minimum widths, spacings, and layout guidelines
needed to create the masks. There are two ways to specify these dimensions:
• Specific Values: All dimensions are stated in standard unit of length, such as
the micron;
• Scalable: Distances are specified as multiples of a metric λ, that has dimensions
of length. The actual value of λ, is adjusted to correspond to the limitations
of the process line.
Both approaches are common in CMOS VLSI. Scalable rules have the advantage
that they can be adjusted to several different processing lines by changing the value
of λ. However, this does not come without cost. Since every distance is specified as
a multiple of λ, the numerical value is dictated by the worst-case situation. This
generally decreases the compaction density of the circuit compared to what is
attainable if the parameters are specified in an absolute metric such as microns.
In general, there are three main classes of design rule specifications. These are
• Minimum Width,
• Minimum Spacing, and,
• Surround.
Surround rules apply to objects placed within larger objects (such as contacts).
Every layer has a minimum width and minimum spacing value, while surrounds are
specified as required.
3.5 CMOS Design Rules
In this section, we will examine a basic set of CMOS design rules to understand the
presentation and meaning of each type of rule. This set has been provided in the
setup technology file as ledit.tdb, and is also available with the name
morbn20.tdb. The DR set describes the MOSIS Orbit 2-micron double-poly, double-
metal, n-well CMOS process; the technology name for this process is SCNA
(for Scalable CMOS N-Well Analog). For the purposes of this discussion, we will
not list all layers. In particular, the POLY2 layer is not shown explicitly here to simplify
the discussion.
A complete design rule set contains all of the geometric limits for mask layout.
This includes the minimum feature sizes and minimum spacings on each mask, and
also provides layer-to-layer spacings when necessary. In order to list the rules in an
easy-to-find format, they are presented according to the order of the masks used in
the processing. The primary design rule layers for the morbn20 technology are
listed in Table 3.2.

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When you are using L-Edit, the design rules corresponding to the technology are
always loaded into your file, and are Saved when you save your work. A text listing
of the design rules can be obtained using the keyboard command Alt-W; there is no
Menu Bar equivalent. This action writes a text file named filename.rul to the working
disk drive that provides a listing of all layers and rules in ASCII format. The list
also provides information on derived layers.
Design rule sets are most easily understood by providing a text list in conjunction
with simple drawings to illustrate each value. These are broken into groups
corresponding to each basic layer. The layer number N. is used to identify the
group, and each dimensional specification is labelled accordingly, e.g., N.1, N.2,
and so on. In order to clarify some of the fine points involved with design rules,
they will be presented in two different forms. First, we will examine a simplified set
of rules that provide basic information on minimum widths and spacings, and then
look at MOSFET layout rules. This gives a general idea of what the rules mean.
This is followed by a more complete set of layout statements that correspond to
those used by L-Edit in performing the DRC algorithm.
3.5.1 Basic Rules
The most fundamental layout guidelines limit the smallness of each material layer,
and provide the basis for device design. The values in this design rule set are scalable
according to the metric λ Numerically, λ= 1 μm for the 2 μm technology.
However, these rules also apply to the mhp_n12.tdb (named SCN) 1.2-micron, single-
poly, double-metal process with a metric of value λ= 0.6 μm.
Minimum Widths and Spacings
This group of rules are those that specify the minimum linewidths and minimum
spacings permitted on the primary layers summarized in Table 3.3 and illustrated in
Figure 3.13.

Prof.Hansaraj Guhilot, KLE, Belagaum

MOSFET Layout
The basic layout rules for MOSFETs are illustrated in Figure 3.14, and the values
are summarized in Table 3.4. Dimensions that deal with POLY and N+/P+ apply
equally to both nFETs and pFETs. Contacts (cuts in the oxide that allow electrical
connections between two layers) to N+/P+ are called ACTIVE CONTACTS, while
POLY CONTACTS provide access to the POLY layer (which must be in field
regions).
In this technology, p-channel MOSFETs must be inside n-well regions, and sufficient
spacing must be provided between opposite-polarity regions (i.e., between n+
and p+ sections) as well as between P+ regions and the NWELL edge. Spacing
requirements also apply between different n-well regions; in general, a larger space
is needed if the n-wells are biased at different voltages, due to the voltage dependence
of depletion regions.

3.5.2 Mask-Based Design Rule Set

At the layout level, design rules apply to the masks involved in the chip patterning
process. L-Edit employs a complete set of rules that apply to both masking layers
and derived layers. Using derived layers allows us to make the connection between
the individual patterns and the material layers that are important to the operation of
transistors and other devices.
Figures 3.15, 3.16, and 3.17 provide most of the SCNA design rule set using

Prof.Hansaraj Guhilot, KLE, Belagaum

Prof.Hansaraj Guhilot, KLE, Belagaum
values in conjunction with drawings. Some have been omitted or merged for simplicity,
but can be accessed by having L-Edit print the complete set. In the drawings,
note that the derived layers
N+ = (NSELECT) AND (ACTIVE)
P+ = (PSELECT) AND (ACTIVE)
are equivalent to ndiff (n+) and pdiff (p+) doped regions.
3.8 Latch-Up
Latch-up is a condition that may occur in CMOS integrated circuits where
• The circuits cease to operate;
• There is excessive consumption of current from the power supply, which
may cause overheating and chip failure; and,
• The only way to take the chip out of latch-up is to disconnect the power supply.
Latch-up originates from the n and p layers used to create nMOS and pMOS transistors
in the CMOS fabrication process. As such, it can be prevented by following
certain rules in the layout and electrical connections.
Let us first examine why latch-up occurs. Figure 3.28 shows a basic cross-section
of an n-well CMOS chip. Note that the power supply and ground connections
have been included. Following the connections from VDD to ground shows the
existence of a 4-layer pnpn structure:
p+ connected to VDD;
n-well;
p-substrate;
n+ connected to ground.
If the chip goes into latch-up, current flows from the power supply to ground as
shown. The circuits do not function since they do not receive any current.
In power electronics, the pnpn layering scheme is used to create a device known
as a silicon-controlled rectifier (SCR), which is used as a switched rectifier.The I-
characteristics are shown in Figure 3.29. For small voltages, the structure acts like a
reverse-biased pn junction, and only leakage current flows. However, if the applied
voltage reaches the break-over voltage VBO, then the curve exhibits a negative
slope. This results in a very quick drop in the voltage accompanied by an increase

in the current. In CMOS, this corresponds to the chip going into latch-up.
Latch-up is often explained using bipolar transistor models. The drawing shows
that both pnp and npn transistors can be visualized from the layering. Since the two

Prof.Hansaraj Guhilot, KLE, Belagaum

transistors share the internal n and p layers, they are automatically connected in a
feedback loop. Using this viewpoint, latch-up occurs when the sum of the commonbase
current gains equals unity:

One approach to reducing the occurrence of latchup is to ensure that the gains of
the bipolar transistors are kept small by reducing the efficiency of the emitter and
base regions.
At the physical design level, latch-up prevention is achieved by adhering to a set
of rules that are designed to either distribute the voltages throughout the layered
regions, or reduce the current gain of the bipolar transistors. The following items
are common to most processes.
• Use guard rings around MOSFETs;
• Provide liberal substrate contacts to ground, and n-well contacts to VDD;
• Obey all design rules.
Guard rings are p+ regions connected to ground surrounding nMOSFETs, or n+
regions connected to VDD surrounding pMOSFETs, that are added to reduce the
gains of the parasitic bipolar transistors.
Latch-up prevention techniques are usually specified for a given fabrication process,
and should be followed to ensure a functional design.

Prof.Hansaraj Guhilot, KLE, Belagaum

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