Surface Tension and Capillarity in Soils

Victor N. Kaliakin November 11, 2010

University of Delaware Department of Civil and Environmental Engineering

1.1

Surface Tension

The moisture in soils and porous rocks can be present in two forms, namely, As adsorbed water lms surrounding clay particles, and As free water occupying part or all of the voids between the particles. If the voids are completely lled with water, the material is saturated and the moisture is said to be continuous [1]. If, on the other hand, the voids are only partially lled with water, the soil is partially saturated. The moisture is discontinuous and forms wedges of water between adjacent particles and moisture lms around them (Figure 1.1). The boundary or interface between air and water in the voids is of particular importance. The unbalanced molecular attraction of the water at this interface gives rise to surface tension, a force acting parallel to the surface of the water in all directions, similar to the tension in a tightly stretched membrane [1].

1.2

Surface Tension Phenomena

Surface tension manifests itself in several aspects of soil behavior, namely, In a hole dug in the ground, soil encountered will be found to be saturated long before the ground water table is reached. This results from the capillary rise of water in the voids.1 If a sample of saturated clay is dried, it decreases in volume in the process. Surface tension acting in the soil voids serves to compress the soil microfabric and decreases the volume of the sample. Dry sand cannot be molded into a ball. However, if the sand moistened, it can be packed and easily shaped. This moist strength is attributed to the tension in the interparticle moisture lms. If the moist sand is immersed in water, the moisture lms disappear and the sand will again lose its ability to be molded. Surface tension can be visualized as a tensile force per unit length (To ) along the interface between air and water, acting parallel to the water surface. The magnitude of this force is approximately To = 0.075 g/cm = 0.765 mN/m = 0.005 lb/f t at 70o F (recall that in soil mechanics tensile forces and stresses are denoted by a negative sign).

1 Capillary rise or capillarity is a phenomenon where liquid spontaneously rises in a narrow space such as a thin tube or in the voids of a porous material.

CIEG 320: Soil Mechanics

V. N. Kaliakin

University of Delaware Department of Civil and Environmental Engineering

pore fluid p a air bubble

pore fluid

solid

(a)

pore fluid p a air bubble

p a

solid

(b)

Figure 1.1: Schematic Illustration of a Partly Saturated Porous Medium with Two Pore Fluids: (a) Air Bubble Not Wetting Solid Surfaces, (b) Both Fluids in Contact with Solid Surfaces

CIEG 320: Soil Mechanics

V. N. Kaliakin

University of Delaware Department of Civil and Environmental Engineering

1.3

Capillary Tension

If the extension of the air-water boundary is prevented by some force such as gravity, the surface is stretched, forming a curved surface called a meniscus (Figure 1.2a). A tensile stress develops in the water.
To a a To

a rm a meniscus d/2 glass (a) glass d/2

water

(b)

Figure 1.2: (a) Schematic Illustration of a Meniscus and Capillary Tension. (b) Geometry Associated with the Meniscus This stress is known as the capillary tension. It is computed for a cylindrical tube of diameter d (Figure 1.2a) by considering the force developed by the stretched meniscus. If is the angle of contact between the meniscus and the solid material (such as glass),2 then the total unbalanced force (Fc ) developed along the perimeter of the meniscus is Fc = (d)To cos (1.1)

where a zero air pressure has been assumed. Since the cross-sectional area (A) of the tube is equal to d2 /4, the capillary stress is thus c = Fc (d)To cos 4To cos = = A d2 /4 d (1.2)

Since To is negative, it follows that c will likewise have a negative sign. The capillary tension can be related to the radius of the meniscus (rm ) by considering the geometry of the meniscus (Figure 1.2b). In particular, d/2 = rm cos . Substituting for d into equation (1.2) gives
For an interface consisting of water and air-dried glass, = 0o . For an interface consisting of water and oven-dried glass, = 45o .
2

CIEG 320: Soil Mechanics

V. N. Kaliakin

University of Delaware Department of Civil and Environmental Engineering

2To (1.3) rm Thus for water in contact with air, the capillary tension stress is dependent only on rm , and varies inversely with it. The maximum capillary tension will occur when the meniscus radius is smallest. This will occur when the surface of the meniscus is tangent to the soil particles, and = 0 [1]. In a cylindrical tube, the minimum rm equals to half of the tube diameter d. From equation (1.3) it follows that the maximum capillary tension will thus be c = c max = 4To d (1.4)

1.4

Capillary Tension in Soils

The interconnected voids in a soil form a collection of irregular but denite capillary tubes. The maximum capillary tension that can develop will vary from point to point, depending on the pore diameter and degree of saturation [1]. If a soil is saturated, the air-water interfaces disappear and the capillary tension becomes zero. When a saturated soil is exposed to open air, capillary tension develops as soon as evaporation creates meniscuses at the surface. Since the moisture in a saturated soil is continuous, the water tension stress developed at the air-water interfaces is felt throughout the mass. The water obeys the law of hydrostatics; thus, u = w z (1.5)

where z is measured positive downward. The capillary rise of water in a soil above the ground water table illustrates the combined eect of capillary tension and hydrostatic pressure. Referring to Figure 1.3a, at the ground water elevation (free surface) the water pressure is zero. Below the free surface the pressure increases according to equation (1.5). Above the free surface, the water pressure decreases linearly, again in accordance with equation (1.5). The greatest negative (tensile) stress in the water is the maximum capillary tension c max given by equation (1.4). Denote the height to which water can rise above the free surface by hc (Figure 1.3a). Noting that z = hc , and equating the expression for maximum negative hydrostatic pressure to that for the maximum capillary tension gives u = w hc = c max = Thus, hc = 4To w d (1.7) 4To d (1.6)

CIEG 320: Soil Mechanics

V. N. Kaliakin

University of Delaware Department of Civil and Environmental Engineering

To a a

To

(-) tension

hc (b) (+)

water

(a)

Figure 1.3: (a) Schematic Illustration of Capillary Tension. (b) Water Hanging on a Meniscus

Remark: For water in contact with air-dried glass, = 0 and To = 0.075 g/cm. It follows that hc = w hd 0.30 = 4To d (1.8)

Remark: If h < hc , adjusts according to cos = where equation (1.2) has been used. Remark: As previously noted, in a partially saturated soil the moisture can be either continuous or discontinuous, depending on whether the moisture wedges (Figure 1.1) are interconnected or discrete. If it is continuous, then the variation of water pressure with elevation is given by equation (1.5). If the moisture is discontinuous, the stress in the water at any point is independent of the elevation and is determined only by the meniscus radius. w hd 4To (1.9)

CIEG 320: Soil Mechanics

V. N. Kaliakin

Bibliography
[1] G. B. Sowers and G. F. Sowers. Introductory Soil Mechanics and Foundations. Macmillan Publishing Co., Inc., New York, NY, 1970.