Matlab Tutorial

MATLABTUTORIAL

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ABOUT THE TUTORIAL

Matlab Tutorial
MATLAB is a programming language developed by MathWorks. It started out as a matrix programming language where linear algebra programming was simple. It can be run both under interactive sessions and as a batch job. This tutorial gives you aggressively a gentle introduction of MATLAB programming language. It is designed to give students fluency in MATLAB programming language. Problem-based MATLAB examples have been given in simple and easy way to make your learning fast and effective.

Audience
This tutorial has been prepared for the beginners to help them understand basic to advanced functionality of MATLAB. After completing this tutorial you will find yourself at a moderate level of expertise in using MATLAB from where you can take yourself to next levels.

Prerequisites
We assume you have a little knowledge of any computer programming and understand concepts like variables, constants, expression, statements, etc. If you have done programming in any other high-level programming language like C, C++ or Java, then it will be very much beneficial and learning MATLAB will be like a fun for you.

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Table of Content
Matlab Tutorial ......................................................................... 2 Audience .................................................................................. 2 Prerequisites ............................................................................ 2 Copyright & Disclaimer Notice.................................................. 2 Overview ................................................................................ 10
MATLAB's Power of Computational Mathematics .................................... 10 Features of MATLAB ................................................................................ 11 Uses of MATLAB ...................................................................................... 11

Environment ........................................................................... 12
Local Environment Setup ......................................................................... 12 Understanding the MATLAB Environment:............................................... 13 Set up GNU Octave ................................................................................. 16

Basic Syntax .......................................................................... 17

Hands on Practice .................................................................................... 17 Use of Semicolon (;) in MATLAB .............................................................. 18 Adding Comments .................................................................................... 18 Commonly used Operators and Special Characters ................................ 18 Special Variables and Constants ............................................................. 19 Naming Variables ..................................................................................... 19 Saving Your Work .................................................................................... 20

Variables ................................................................................ 21
Multiple Assignments ............................................................................... 22 I have forgotten the Variables! ................................................................. 22 Long Assignments .................................................................................... 23 The format Command .............................................................................. 23 Creating Vectors ...................................................................................... 24 Creating Matrices ..................................................................................... 25

Commands ............................................................................ 26
Commands for Managing a Session ........................................................ 26 Commands for Working with the System ................................................. 26 Input and Output Commands ................................................................... 27 Vector, Matrix and Array Commands ....................................................... 28 Plotting Commands .................................................................................. 29

M-Files ................................................................................... 31
The M Files .............................................................................................. 31 Creating and Running Script File ............................................................. 31 Example ................................................................................................... 32 TUTORIALS POINT Simply Easy Learning

Data - Types .......................................................................... 34

Data Types Available in MATLAB ............................................................ 34 Example ................................................................................................... 35 Data Type Conversion.............................................................................. 35 Determination of Data Types.................................................................... 36 Example ................................................................................................... 37

Operators ............................................................................... 39
Arithmetic Operators ................................................................................ 39 Example ................................................................................................... 40 Functions for Arithmetic Operations ......................................................... 41 Relational Operators ................................................................................ 44 Example ................................................................................................... 44 Example ................................................................................................... 45 Logical Operators ..................................................................................... 45 Functions for Logical Operations.............................................................. 46 Bitwise Operations ................................................................................... 48 Example ................................................................................................... 49 Set Operations ......................................................................................... 50

Decisions ............................................................................... 52
Example: .................................................................................................. 54 Syntax: ..................................................................................................... 54 Flow Diagram: .......................................................................................... 55 Example: .................................................................................................. 55 Syntax: ..................................................................................................... 56 Example ................................................................................................... 56 Syntax: ..................................................................................................... 56 Example: .................................................................................................. 57 Syntax ...................................................................................................... 57 Example ................................................................................................... 58 Syntax: ..................................................................................................... 58 Example: .................................................................................................. 59

Loops ..................................................................................... 60
While loop ................................................................................................ 61 Syntax: ..................................................................................................... 61 Example ................................................................................................... 61 for loop ..................................................................................................... 61 Syntax: ..................................................................................................... 62 Example 1 ................................................................................................ 62 Example 2 ................................................................................................ 62 TUTORIALS POINT Simply Easy Learning

Example 3 ................................................................................................ 63 Nested loops ............................................................................................ 63 Syntax: ..................................................................................................... 63 Example ................................................................................................... 64 Loop Control Statements.......................................................................... 64 Flow Diagram: .......................................................................................... 65 Example: .................................................................................................. 65 Flow Diagram: .......................................................................................... 66 Example: .................................................................................................. 66

Vectors................................................................................... 68
Row Vectors: ............................................................................................ 68 Column Vectors: ....................................................................................... 68 Referencing the Elements of a Vector ...................................................... 69 Vector Operations .................................................................................... 69

Matrics ................................................................................... 74
Referencing the Elements of a Matrix ...................................................... 74 Deleting a Row or a Column in a Matrix ................................................... 76 Example ................................................................................................... 76 Matrix Operations ..................................................................................... 76 Addition and Subtraction of Matrices ........................................................ 77 Example ................................................................................................... 77 Division of Matrices .................................................................................. 77 Example ................................................................................................... 77 Scalar Operations of Matrices .................................................................. 78 Example ................................................................................................... 78 Transpose of a Matrix............................................................................... 78 Example ................................................................................................... 78 Concatenating Matrices............................................................................ 79 Example ................................................................................................... 79 Matrix Multiplication .................................................................................. 80 Example ................................................................................................... 80 Determinant of a Matrix ............................................................................ 80 Example ................................................................................................... 80 Inverse of a Matrix .................................................................................... 81 Example ................................................................................................... 81

Arrays .................................................................................... 82
Special Arrays in MATLAB ....................................................................... 82 A Magic Square ........................................................................................ 83 Multidimensional Arrays ........................................................................... 83 TUTORIALS POINT Simply Easy Learning

Example ................................................................................................... 84 Array Functions ........................................................................................ 85 Examples ................................................................................................. 86 Sorting Arrays .......................................................................................... 87 Cell Array ................................................................................................. 87 Where,...................................................................................................... 88 Example ................................................................................................... 88 Accessing Data in Cell Arrays .................................................................. 88

Colon Notation ....................................................................... 90

Example ................................................................................................... 91

Numbers ................................................................................ 92
Conversion to Various Numeric Data Types ............................................ 92 Example ................................................................................................... 92 Example ................................................................................................... 93 Smallest and Largest Integers .................................................................. 93 Example ................................................................................................... 93 Smallest and Largest Floating Point Numbers ......................................... 94 Example ................................................................................................... 94

Strings.................................................................................... 96
Example ................................................................................................... 96 Rectangular Character Array .................................................................... 97 Example ................................................................................................... 97 Example ................................................................................................... 98 Combining Strings into a Cell Array ......................................................... 98 Example ................................................................................................... 98 String Functions in MATLAB .................................................................... 98
EXAMPLES ........................................................................................... 100 FORMATTING STRINGS...................................................................... 100 JOINING STRINGS ............................................................................... 100 FINDING AND REPLACING STRINGS ................................................ 100 COMPARING STRINGS ....................................................................... 101

Functions ............................................................................. 102

Example ................................................................................................. 102 Anonymous Functions ............................................................................ 103 Example ................................................................................................. 103 Primary and Sub-Functions .................................................................... 104 Example ................................................................................................. 104 Nested Functions ................................................................................... 104 Example ................................................................................................. 105 TUTORIALS POINT Simply Easy Learning

Private Functions ................................................................................... 105 Example ................................................................................................. 105 Global Variables ..................................................................................... 106 Example ................................................................................................. 106

Data Import .......................................................................... 107

Example 1 .............................................................................................. 107 Example 2 .............................................................................................. 108 Example 3 .............................................................................................. 109 Mathematics is simple ............................................................................ 109 Low-Level File I/O .................................................................................. 109 Import Text Data Files with Low-Level I/O.............................................. 110 Example ................................................................................................. 110

Data Export .......................................................................... 113

Example ................................................................................................. 113 Writing to Diary Files .............................................................................. 114 Exporting Data to Text Data Files with Low-Level I/O ............................ 115 Example ................................................................................................. 115

Plotting ................................................................................. 116

Adding Title, Labels, Grid Lines and Scaling on the Graph .................... 118 Example ................................................................................................. 118 Drawing Multiple Functions on the Same Graph .................................... 119 Example ................................................................................................. 119 Setting Colors on Graph ......................................................................... 120 Example ................................................................................................. 120 Setting Axis Scales ................................................................................ 121 Example ................................................................................................. 121 Generating Sub-Plots ............................................................................. 122 Example ................................................................................................. 122

Graphics .............................................................................. 124

Drawing Bar Charts ................................................................................ 124 Example ................................................................................................. 124 Drawing Contours .................................................................................. 125 Example ................................................................................................. 125 Three Dimensional Plots ........................................................................ 126 Example ................................................................................................. 127

Algebra ................................................................................ 128

Solving Basic Algebraic Equations in MATLAB ...................................... 128 Solving Basic Algebraic Equations in Octave ......................................... 129 Solving Quadratic Equations in MATLAB ............................................... 129 TUTORIALS POINT Simply Easy Learning

Solving Quadratic Equations in Octave .................................................. 130 Solving Higher Order Equations in MATLAB .......................................... 130 Solving Higher Order Equations in Octave ............................................. 131 Solving System of Equations in MATLAB............................................... 131 Solving System of Equations in Octave.................................................. 132 Expanding and Collecting Equations in MATLAB ................................... 133 Expanding and Collecting Equations in Octave ...................................... 133 Factorization and Simplification of Algebraic Expressions ..................... 134 Example ................................................................................................. 134

Calculus ............................................................................... 135

Calculating Limits ................................................................................... 135 Calculating Limits using Octave ............................................................. 136 Verification of Basic Properties of Limits ................................................ 136 Example ................................................................................................. 136 Verification of Basic Properties of Limits using Octave .......................... 137 Left and Right Sided Limits .................................................................... 138 Example ................................................................................................. 138

Differential............................................................................ 140
Example ................................................................................................. 140 Verification of Elementary Rules of Differentiation ................................. 140 RULE 1................................................................................................... 141 RULE 2................................................................................................... 141 RULE 3................................................................................................... 141 RULE 4................................................................................................... 141 RULE 5................................................................................................... 141 RULE 6................................................................................................... 141 Example ................................................................................................. 141 Derivatives of Exponential, Logarithmic and Trigonometric Functions ... 143 Example ................................................................................................. 143 Computing Higher Order Derivatives ..................................................... 145 Example ................................................................................................. 145 Finding the Maxima and Minima of a Curve ........................................... 146 Example ................................................................................................. 146 Solving Differential Equations ................................................................ 149

Integration ............................................................................ 151

Finding Indefinite Integral Using MATLAB.............................................. 151 Example 1 .............................................................................................. 152 Example 2 .............................................................................................. 152 Finding Definite Integral Using MATLAB ................................................ 154 TUTORIALS POINT Simply Easy Learning

Example 1 .............................................................................................. 155 Example 2 .............................................................................................. 155

Polynomials ......................................................................... 157

Evaluating Polynomials .......................................................................... 157 Finding the Roots of Polynomials ........................................................... 158 Polynomial Curve Fitting ........................................................................ 158 Example ................................................................................................. 158

Transforms ........................................................................... 160

The Laplace Transform .......................................................................... 160 Example ................................................................................................. 160 The Inverse Laplace Transform ............................................................. 161 Example ................................................................................................. 161 The Fourier Transforms.......................................................................... 162 Example ................................................................................................. 162 Inverse Fourier Transforms .................................................................... 163

GNU Octave ........................................................................ 164

MATLAB vs Octave ................................................................................ 164 COMPATIBLE EXAMPLES .................................................................... 164 NON-COMPATIBLE EXAMPLES ........................................................... 165

Simulink ............................................................................... 167

Using Simulink ....................................................................................... 168 Building Models ...................................................................................... 169 Examples ............................................................................................... 169

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CHAPTER

Overview

ATLAB(matrix laboratory) is a fourth-generation high-level programming language and interactive

environment for numerical computation, visualization and programming. MATLAB is developed by MathWorks. It allows matrix manipulations; plotting of functions and data; implementation of algorithms; creation of user interfaces; interfacing with programs written in other languages, including C, C++, Java, and Fortran; analyze data; develop algorithms; and create models and applications. It has numerous built-in commands and math functions that help you in mathematical calculations, generating plots and performing numerical methods.

MATLAB's Power of Computational Mathematics

MATLAB is used in every facet of computational mathematics. Following are some commonly used mathematical calculations where it is used most commonly:

Dealing with Matrices and Arrays 2-D and 3-D Plotting and graphics Linear Algebra Algebraic Equations Non-linear Functions Statistics Data Analysis Calculus and Differential Equations Numerical Calculations Integration

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Transforms Curve Fitting Various other special functions

Features of MATLAB
Following are the basic features of MATLAB:

It is a high-level language for numerical computation, visualization and application development. It also provides an interactive environment for iterative exploration, design and problem solving. It provides vast library of mathematical functions for linear algebra, statistics, Fourier analysis, filtering, optimization, numerical integration and solving ordinary differential equations. It provides built-in graphics for visualizing data and tools for creating custom plots. MATLAB's programming interface gives development tools for improving code quality and maintainability and maximizing performance. It provides tools for building applications with custom graphical interfaces. It provides functions for integrating MATLAB based algorithms with external applications and languages such as C, Java, .NET and Microsoft Excel.

Uses of MATLAB
MATLAB is widely used as a computational tool in science and engineering encompassing the fields of physics, chemistry, math and all engineering streams. It is used in a range of applications including:

Signal Processing and Communications Image and Video Processing Control Systems Test and Measurement Computational Finance Computational Biology

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2
CHAPTER

Environment
Try it Option Online

ou really do not need to set up your own environment to start learning MATLAB/Octave programming

language. Reason is very simple, we already have set up the Octave environment online, so that you can execute all the available examples online at the same time when you are doing your theory work. This gives you confidence in what you are reading and to check the result with different options. Feel free to modify any example and execute it online. Try following example using Try it option available at the top right corner of the below sample code box: x =[12345678910]; y1 =[.16.08.04.02.013.007.004.002.001.0008]; y2 =[.16.07.03.01.008.003.0008.0003.00007.00002]; semilogy(x,y1,'-bo;y1;',x,y2,'-kx;y2;'); title('Plot title'); xlabel('X Axis'); ylabel('Y Axis'); print-deps graph.eps For most of the examples given in this tutorial, you will find Try it option, so just make use of it and enjoy your learning.

Local Environment Setup

If you are still willing to set up your environment, let me tell you a secret, setting up MATLAB environment is a matter of few clicks. However, you need to download the installer from here: MathWorks provides the licensed product, a trial version and a student version as well. You need to log into the site and wait a little for their approval. Once you get the download link, as I said, it is a matter of few clicks:

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Understanding the MATLAB Environment:

You can launch MATLAB development IDE from the icon created on your desktop. The main working window in MATLAB is called the desktop. When you start MATLAB, the desktop appears in its default layout:

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The desktop has the following panels:

Current Folder - This panel allows you to access your project folders and files.

Command Window - This is the main area where you enter commands at the command line, indicated by the command prompt (>>).

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Workspace - The workspace shows all the variables you create and/or import from files.

Command History - This panels shows or rerun commands that you entered at the command line.

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Set up GNU Octave

If you are willing to use Octave on your machine ( Linux, BSD, OS X or Windows ), then kindly download latest version from Download GNU Octave. You can check given installation instruction for your machine.

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CHAPTER

Basic Syntax

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ATLABenvironment behaves like a super-complex calculator. You can enter commands at the >>

command prompt. MATLAB is an interpreted environment. In other words, you give a command and MATLAB executes it right away.

Hands on Practice
Type a valid expression, for example,

And press ENTER When you click the Execute button, or type Ctrl+E, MATLAB executes it immediately and the result returned is: ans = 10 Let us take up few more examples: 3^2 %3 raised to the power of 2

When you click the Execute button, or type Ctrl+E, MATLAB executes it immediately and the result returned is: ans = 9 Another example, sin(pi /2) % sine of angle 90o

When you click the Execute button, or type Ctrl+E, MATLAB executes it immediately and the result returned is: ans = 1 Another example, 7/0 %Divideby zero

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When you click the Execute button, or type Ctrl+E, MATLAB executes it immediately and the result returned is: ans = Inf warning: division by zero Another example, 732*20.3 When you click the Execute button, or type Ctrl+E, MATLAB executes it immediately and the result returned is: ans = 1.4860e+04

MATLAB provides some special expressions for some mathematical symbols, like pi for , Inf for , i (and j) for -1 etc. Nan stands for 'not a number'.

Use of Semicolon (;) in MATLAB

Semicolon (;) indicates end of statement. However, if you want to suppress and hide the MATLAB output for an expression, add a semicolon after the expression. For example, x =3; y = x +5 When you click the Execute button, or type Ctrl+E, MATLAB executes it immediately and the result returned is: y = 8

Adding Comments
The percent symbol (%) is used for indicating a comment line. For example, x =9 % assign the value 9 to x

You can also write a block of comments using the block comment operators % { and % }. The MATLAB editor includes tools and context menu items to help you add, remove, or change the format of comments.

Commonly used Operators and Special Characters

MATLAB supports the following commonly used operators and special characters: Operator + * .* Purpose Plus; addition operator. Minus; subtraction operator. Scalar and matrix multiplication operator. Array multiplication operator.

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^ .^ \ / .\ ./ : () [] . , ; % _ ._ =

Scalar and matrix exponentiation operator. Array exponentiation operator. Left-division operator. Right-division operator. Array left-division operator. Array right-division operator. Colon; generates regularly spaced elements and represents an entire row or column. Parentheses; encloses function arguments and array indices; overrides precedence. Brackets; enclosures array elements. Decimal point. Ellipsis; line-continuation operator Comma; separates statements and elements in a row Semicolon; separates columns and suppresses display. Percent sign; designates a comment and specifies formatting. Quote sign and transpose operator. Nonconjugated transpose operator. Assignment operator.

Special Variables and Constants

MATLAB supports the following special variables and constants: Name Ans Eps i,j Inf NaN Pi Meaning Most recent answer. Accuracy of floating-point precision. The imaginary unit -1. Infinity. Undefined numerical result (not a number). The number

Naming Variables
Variable names consist of a letter followed by any number of letters, digits or underscore. MATLAB is case-sensitive.

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Variable names can be of any length, however, MATLAB uses only first N characters, where N is given by the function namelengthmax.

Saving Your Work

The save command is used for saving all the variables in the workspace, as a file with .mat extension, in the current directory. For example, save myfile You can reload the file anytime later using the load command. load myfile

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CHAPTER

Variables

I
x =

n MATLAB environment, every variable is an array or matrix.

You can assign variables in a simple way. For example, x =3 % defining x and initializing it with a value

MATLAB will execute the above statement and return the following result: 3 It creates a 1-by-1 matrix named x and stores the value 3 in its element. Let us check another example, x = sqrt(16) % defining x and initializing it with an expression

MATLAB will execute the above statement and return the following result: x = 4 Please note that:

Once a variable is entered into the system, you can refer to it later. Variables must have values before they are used. When an expression returns a result that is not assigned to any variable, the system assigns it to a variable named ans, which can be used later.

For example, sqrt(78) MATLAB will execute the above statement and return the following result: ans = 8.8318

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You can use this variable ans: 9876/ans MATLAB will execute the above statement and return the following result: ans = 1.1182e+03 Let's look at another example: x =7*8; y = x *7.89 MATLAB will execute the above statement and return the following result: y = 441.8400

Multiple Assignments
You can have multiple assignments on the same line. For example, a =2; b =7; c = a * b MATLAB will execute the above statement and return the following result: c = 14

I have forgotten the Variables!

The who command displays all the variable names you have used. who MATLAB will execute the above statement and return the following result: Your variables are: a ans b c x y

The whos command displays little more about the variables:

Variables currently in memory Type of each variables Memory allocated to each variable Whether they are complex variables or not

whos MATLAB will execute the above statement and return the following result:

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Name a ans b c x y

Size 1x1 1x1 1x1 1x1 1x1 1x1

Bytes 8 8 8 8 8 8

Class double double double double double double

Attributes

The clear command deletes all (or the specified) variable(s) from the memory. clear x clear % it will delete x, won't display anything % it will delete all variables in the workspace % peacefully and unobtrusively

Long Assignments
Long assignments can be extended to another line by using an ellipses (...). For example, initial_velocity =0; acceleration =9.8; time =20; final_velocity = initial_velocity ... + acceleration * time MATLAB will execute the above statement and return the following result: final_velocity = 196

The format Command

By default, MATLAB displays numbers with four decimal place values. This is known as short format. However, if you want more precision, you need to use the format command. The format long command displays 16 digits after decimal. For example: format long x =7+10/3+5^1.2 MATLAB will execute the above statement and return the following result: x = 17.231981640639408 Another example, format short x =7+10/3+5^1.2 MATLAB will execute the above statement and return the following result: x = 17.2320

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The format bank command rounds numbers to two decimal places. For example, format bank daily_wage =177.45; weekly_wage = daily_wage *6 MATLAB will execute the above statement and return the following result: weekly_wage = 1064.70 MATLAB displays large numbers using exponential notation. The format short e command allows displaying in exponential form with four decimal places plus the exponent. For example, format short e 4.678*4.9 MATLAB will execute the above statement and return the following result: ans = 2.2922e+01 The format long e command allows displaying in exponential form with four decimal places plus the exponent. For example, format long e x = pi MATLAB will execute the above statement and return the following result: x = 3.141592653589793e+00 The format rat command gives the closest rational expression resulting from a calculation. For example, format rat 4.678*4.9 MATLAB will execute the above statement and return the following result: ans = 2063/90

Creating Vectors
A vector is a one-dimensional array of numbers. MATLAB allows creating two types of vectors:

Row vectors Column vectors

Row vectors are created by enclosing the set of elements in square brackets, using space or comma to delimit the elements.

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For example, r =[7891011] MATLAB will execute the above statement and return the following result: r = Columns 1 through 4 7 8 Column 5 11 Another example, r =[7891011]; t =[2,3,4,5,6]; res = r + t MATLAB will execute the above statement and return the following result: res = Columns 1 through 4 9 11 Column 5 17

10

13

15

Column vectors are created by enclosing the set of elements in square brackets, using semicolon(;) to delimit the elements. c =[7;8;9;10;11] MATLAB will execute the above statement and return the following result: c = 7 8 9 10 11

Creating Matrices
A matrix is a two-dimensional array of numbers. In MATLAB, a matrix is created by entering each row as a sequence of space or comma separated elements, and end of a row is demarcated by a semicolon. For example, let us create a 3-by-3 matrix as: m =[123;456;789] MATLAB will execute the above statement and return the following result: m = 1 4 7 2 5 8 3 6 9

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CHAPTER

Commands

M
Command clc clear exist global help lookfor Quit Who Whos

ATLAB is an interactive program for numerical computation and data visualization. You can enter a

command by typing it at the MATLAB prompt '>>' on the Command Window. In this section, we will provide lists of commonly used general MATLAB commands.

Commands for Managing a Session

MATLAB provides various commands for managing a session. The following table provides all such commands: Purpose Clears command window. Removes variables from memory. Checks for existence of file or variable. Declares variables to be global. Searches for a help topic. Searches help entries for a keyword. Stops MATLAB. Lists current variables. Lists current variables (long display).

Commands for Working with the System

MATLAB provides various useful commands for working with the system, like saving the current work in the workspace as a file and loading the file later. It also provides various commands for other system-related activities like, displaying date, listing files in the directory, displaying current directory, etc. The following table displays some commonly used system-related commands:

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Command Cd Date Delete Diary Dir Load Path Pwd Save Type What wklread

Purpose Changes current directory. Displays current date. Deletes a file. Switches on/off diary file recording. Lists all files in current directory. Loads workspace variables from a file. Displays search path. Displays current directory. Saves workspace variables in a file. Displays contents of a file. Lists all MATLAB files in the current directory. Reads .wk1 spreadsheet file.

Input and Output Commands

MATLAB provides the following input and output related commands: Command Disp Fscanf Format Fprintf Input ; Purpose Displays contents of an array or string. Read formatted data from a file. Controls screen-display format. Performs formatted writes to screen or file. Displays prompts and waits for input. Suppresses screen printing.

The fscanf and fprintf commands behave like C scanf and printf functions. They support the following format codes: Format Code %s %d %f %e Purpose Format as a string. Format as an integer. Format as a floating point value. Format as a floating point value in scientific notation.

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%g \n \t

Format in the most compact form: %f or %e. Insert a new line in the output string. Insert a tab in the output string.

The format function has the following forms used for numeric display: Format Function format short format long format short e format long e format bank format + format rat format compact format loose Display up to Four decimal digits (default). 16 decimal digits. Five digits plus exponent. 16 digits plus exponents. Two decimal digits. Positive, negative, or zero. Rational approximation. Suppresses some line feeds. Resets to less compact display mode.

Vector, Matrix and Array Commands

The following table shows various commands used for working with arrays, matrices and vectors: Command Cat Find Length linspace logspace Max Min Prod reshape Size Sort Sum Purpose Concatenates arrays. Finds indices of nonzero elements. Computes number of elements. Creates regularly spaced vector. Creates logarithmically spaced vector. Returns largest element. Returns smallest element. Product of each column. Changes size. Computes array size. Sorts each column. Sums each column.

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Eye Ones Zeros Cross Dot Det Inv Pinv Rank Rref Cell celldisp cellplot num2cell Deal Iscell

Creates an identity matrix. Creates an array of ones. Creates an array of zeros. Computes matrix cross products. Computes matrix dot products. Computes determinant of an array. Computes inverse of a matrix. Computes pseudoinverse of a matrix. Computes rank of a matrix. Computes reduced row echelon form. Creates cell array. Displays cell array. Displays graphical representation of cell array. Converts numeric array to cell array. Matches input and output lists. Identifies cell array.

Plotting Commands
MATLAB provides numerous commands for plotting graphs. The following table shows some of the commonly used commands for plotting: Command axis fplot grid plot print title xlabel ylabel Purpose Sets axis limits. Intelligent plotting of functions. Displays gridlines. Generates xy plot. Prints plot or saves plot to a file. Puts text at top of plot. Adds text label to x-axis. Adds text label to y-axis.

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axes close close all figure gtext hold legend refresh set subplot text bar loglog polar Creates semilog plot. (logarithmic abscissa). semilogy stairs stem

Creates axes objects. Closes the current plot. Closes all plots. Opens a new figure window. Enables label placement by mouse. Freezes current plot. Legend placement by mouse. Redraws current figure window. Specifies properties of objects such as axes. Creates plots in subwindows. Places string in figure. Creates bar chart. Creates log-log plot. Creates polar plot.

Creates semilog plot. (logarithmic ordinate). Creates stairs plot. Creates stem plot.

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CHAPTER

M-Files

o far, we have used MATLAB environment as a calculator. However, MATLAB is also a powerful

programming language, as well as an interactive computational environment. In previous chapters, you have learned how to enter commands from the MATLAB command prompt. MATLAB also allows you to write series of commands into a file and execute the file as complete unit, like writing a function and calling it.

The M Files
MATLAB allows writing two kinds of program files: Scripts - script files are program files with .m extension. In these files, you write series of commands, which you want to execute together. Scripts do not accept inputs and do not return any outputs. They operate on data in the workspace. Functions - functions files are also program files with .m extension. Functions can accept inputs and return outputs. Internal variables are local to the function. You can use the MATLAB Editor or any other text editor to create your .m files. In this section, we will discuss the script files. A script file contains multiple sequential lines of MATLAB commands and function calls. You can run a script by typing its name at the command line.

Creating and Running Script File

To create scripts files, you need to use a text editor. You can open the MATLAB editor in two ways:

Using the command prompt Using the IDE

If you are using the command prompt, type edit in the command prompt. This will open the editor. You can directly type edit and then the filename (with .m extension) edit Or edit <filename>

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The above command will create the file in default MATLAB directory. If you want to store all program files in a specific folder, then you will have to provide the entire path. Let us create a folder named progs. Type the following commands at the command prompt(>>): mkdir progs chdir progs edit prog1.m % create directory progs under default directory % changing the current directory to progs % creating an m file named prog1.m

If you are creating the file for first time, MATLAB prompts you to confirm it. Click Yes.

Alternatively, if you are using the IDE, choose NEW -> Script. This also opens the editor and creates a file named Untitled. You can name and save the file after typing the code. Type the following code in the editor: NoOfStudents=6000; TeachingStaff=150; NonTeachingStaff=20; Total=NoOfStudents+TeachingStaff... +NonTeachingStaff; disp(Total); After creating and saving the file, you can run it in two ways:

Clicking the Run button on the editor window or Just typing the filename (without extension) in the command prompt: >> prog1

The command window prompt displays the result: 6170

Example
Create a script file, and type the following code:

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a c d e f

=5; b =7; = a + b = c + sin(b) =5* d = exp(-d)

When the above code is compiled and executed, it produces the following result: c = 12 d = 12.6570 e = 63.2849 f = 3.1852e-06

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CHAPTER

Data - Types

M
Total=42

ATLAB does not require any type declaration or dimension statements. Whenever MATLAB

encounters a new variable name, it creates the variable and allocates appropriate memory space. If the variable already exists, then MATLAB replaces the original content with new content and allocates new storage space, where necessary. For example,

The above statement creates a 1-by-1 matrix named 'Total' and stores the value 42 in it.

Data Types Available in MATLAB

MATLAB provides 15 fundamental data types. Every data type stores data that is in the form of a matrix or array. The size of this matrix or array is a minimum of 0-by-0 and this can grow up to a matrix or array of any size. The following table shows the most commonly used data types in MATLAB: Data Type int8 uint8 int16 uint16 int32 uint32 int64 uint64 Description 8-bit signed integer 8-bit unsigned integer 16-bit signed integer 16-bit unsigned integer 32-bit signed integer 32-bit unsigned integer 64-bit signed integer 64-bit unsigned integer

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single double logical char cell array

single precision numerical data double precision numerical data logical values of 1 or 0, represent true and false respectively character data (strings are stored as vector of characters) array of indexed cells, each capable of storing an array of a different dimension and data type C-like structures, each structure having named fields capable of storing an array of a different dimension and data type pointer to a function objects constructed from a user-defined class objects constructed from a Java class

structure function handle user classes java classes

Example
Create a script file with the following code: str ='Hello World!' n =2345 d =double(n) un = uint32(789.50) rn =5678.92347 c = int32(rn) When the above code is compiled and executed, it produces the following result: str = Hello World! n = 2345 d = 2345 un = 790 rn = 5.6789e+03 c = 5679

Data Type Conversion

MATLAB provides various functions for converting from one data type to another. The following table shows the data type conversion functions: Function char int2str Purpose Convert to character array (string) Convert integer data to string

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mat2str num2str str2double str2num native2unicode unicode2native base2dec bin2dec dec2base dec2bin dec2hex hex2dec hex2num num2hex cell2mat cell2struct cellstr mat2cell num2cell struct2cell

Convert matrix to string Convert number to string Convert string to double-precision value Convert string to number Convert numeric bytes to Unicode characters Convert Unicode characters to numeric bytes Convert base N number string to decimal number Convert binary number string to decimal number Convert decimal to base N number in string Convert decimal to binary number in string Convert decimal to hexadecimal number in string Convert hexadecimal number string to decimal number Convert hexadecimal number string to double-precision number Convert singles and doubles to IEEE hexadecimal strings Convert cell array to numeric array Convert cell array to structure array Create cell array of strings from character array Convert array to cell array with potentially different sized cells Convert array to cell array with consistently sized cells Convert structure to cell array

Determination of Data Types

MATLAB provides various functions for identifying data type of a variable. Following table provides the functions for determining the data type of a variable: Function is isa iscell iscellstr ischar Purpose Detect state Determine if input is object of specified class Determine whether input is cell array Determine whether input is cell array of strings Determine whether item is character array

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isfield isfloat ishghandle isinteger isjava islogical isnumeric isobject isreal isscalar isstr isstruct isvector class validateattributes whos

Determine whether input is structure array field Determine if input is floating-point array True for Handle Graphics object handles Determine if input is integer array Determine if input is Java object Determine if input is logical array Determine if input is numeric array Determine if input is MATLAB object Check if input is real array Determine whether input is scalar Determine whether input is character array Determine whether input is structure array Determine whether input is vector Determine class of object Check validity of array List variables in workspace, with sizes and types

Example
Create a script file with the following code: x =3 isinteger(x) isfloat(x) isvector(x) isscalar(x) isnumeric(x) x =23.54 isinteger(x) isfloat(x) isvector(x) isscalar(x) isnumeric(x) x =[123] isinteger(x) isfloat(x) isvector(x) isscalar(x) x ='Hello' isinteger(x) isfloat(x)

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isvector(x) isscalar(x) isnumeric(x) When you run the file, it produces the following result: x = 3 ans = 0 ans = 1 ans = 1 ans = 1 ans = 1 x = 23.5400 ans = 0 ans = 1 ans = 1 ans = 1 ans = 1 x = 1 2 ans = 0 ans = 1 ans = 1 ans = 0 x = Hello ans = 0 ans = 0 ans = 1 ans = 0 ans = 0

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CHAPTER

Operators

n operator is a symbol that tells the compiler to perform specific mathematical or logical manipulations.

MATLAB is designed to operate primarily on whole matrices and arrays. Therefore, operators in MATLAB work both on scalar and non-scalar data. MATLAB allows the following types of elementary operations: Arithmetic Operators Relational Operators Logical Operators Bitwise Operations Set Operations

Arithmetic Operators
MATLAB allows two different types of arithmetic operations:

Matrix arithmetic operations Array arithmetic operations

Matrix arithmetic operations are same as defined in linear algebra. Array operations are executed element by element, both on one-dimensional and multidimensional array. The matrix operators and array operators are differentiated by the period (.) symbol. However, as the addition and subtraction operation is same for matrices and arrays, the operator is same for both cases. The following table gives brief description of the operators: Operator + Description Addition or unary plus. A+B adds A and B. A and B must have the same size, unless one is a scalar. A scalar can be added to a matrix of any size. Subtraction or unary minus. A-B subtracts B from A. A and B must have the same size, unless one is a scalar. A scalar can be subtracted from a matrix of any size.

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Matrix multiplication. C = A*B is the linear algebraic product of the matrices A and B. More precisely,

* For nonscalar A and B, the number of columns of A must equal the number of rows of B. A scalar can multiply a matrix of any size.

.* / ./

Array multiplication. A.*B is the element-by-element product of the arrays A and B. A and B must have the same size, unless one of them is a scalar. Slash or matrix right division. B/A is roughly the same as B*inv(A). More precisely, B/A = (A'\B')'. Array right division. A./B is the matrix with elements A(i,j)/B(i,j). A and B must have the same size, unless one of them is a scalar. Backslash or matrix left division. If A is a square matrix, A\B is roughly the same as inv(A)*B, except it is computed in a different way. If A is an n-by-n matrix and B is a column vector with n components, or a matrix with several such columns, then X = A\B is the solution to the equation AX = B. A warning message is displayed if A is badly scaled or nearly singular. Array left division. A.\B is the matrix with elements B(i,j)/A(i,j). A and B must have the same size, unless one of them is a scalar. Matrix power. X^p is X to the power p, if p is a scalar. If p is an integer, the power is computed by repeated squaring. If the integer is negative, X is inverted first. For other values of p, the calculation involves eigenvalues and eigenvectors, such that if [V,D] = eig(X), then X^p = V*D.^p/V. Array power. A.^B is the matrix with elements A(i,j) to the B(i,j) power. A and B must have the same size, unless one of them is a scalar. Matrix transpose. A' is the linear algebraic transpose of A. For complex matrices, this is the complex conjugate transpose. Array transpose. A.' is the array transpose of A. For complex matrices, this does not involve conjugation.

.\

.^

'

.'

Example
The following examples show use of arithmetic operators on scalar data. Create a script file with the following code: a b c d e f g x y z =10; =20; = a + = a = a * = a / = a \ =7; =3; = x ^

b b b b b y

When you run the file, it produces the following result:

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c = 30 d = -10 e = 200 f = 0.5000 g = 2 z = 343

Functions for Arithmetic Operations

Apart from the above-mentioned arithmetic operators, MATLAB provides the following commands/functions used for similar purpose: Function uplus(a) plus (a,b) uminus(a) minus(a, b) times(a, b) mtimes(a, b) rdivide(a, b) ldivide(a, b) mrdivide(A, B) mldivide(A, B) power(a, b) mpower(a, b) Description Unary plus; increments by the amount a Plus; returns a + b Unary minus; decrements by the amount a Minus; returns a b Array multiply; returns a.*b Matrix multiplication; returns a* b Right array division; returns a ./ b Left array division; returns a.\ b Solve systems of linear equations xA = B for x Solve systems of linear equations Ax = B for x Array power; returns a.^b Matrix power; returns a ^ b Cumulative product; returns an array the same size as the array A containing the cumulative product.

cumprod(A)

If A is a vector, then cumprod(A) returns a vector containing the cumulative product of the elements of A. If A is a matrix, then cumprod(A) returns a matrix containing the cumulative products for each column of A. If A is a multidimensional array, then cumprod(A) acts along the first nonsingleton dimension. Returns the cumulative product along dimension dim. Cumulative sum; returns an array A containing the cumulative sum.

cumprod(A, dim) cumsum(A)

If A is a vector, then cumsum(A) returns a vector containing the cumulative

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sum of the elements of A.

If A is a matrix, then cumsum(A) returns a matrix containing the cumulative sums for each column of A. If A is a multidimensional array, then cumsum(A) acts along the first nonsingleton dimension. returns the cumulative sum of the elements along dimension dim. Differences and approximate derivatives; calculates differences between adjacent elements of X.

cumsum(A, dim)

diff(X)

If X is a vector, then diff(X) returns a vector, one element shorter than X, of differences between adjacent elements: [X(2)-X(1) X(3)-X(2) ... X(n)-X(n-1)] If X is a matrix, then diff(X) returns a matrix of row differences: [X(2:m,:)-X(1:m1,:)] Applies diff recursively n times, resulting in the nth difference. It is the nth difference function calculated along the dimension specified by scalar dim. If order n equals or exceeds the length of dimension dim, diff returns an empty array. Product of array elements; returns the product of the array elements of A.

diff(X,n) diff(X,n,dim)

If A is a vector, then prod(A) returns the product of the elements. If A is a nonempty matrix, then prod(A) treats the columns of A as vectors and returns a row vector of the products of each column. If A is an empty 0-by-0 matrix, prod(A) returns 1. If A is a multidimensional array, then prod(A) acts along the first nonsingleton dimension and returns an array of products. The size of this dimension reduces to 1 while the sizes of all other dimensions remain the same. The prod function computes and returns B as single if the input, A, is single. For all other numeric and logical data types, prod computes and returns B as double

prod(A)

prod(A,dim) prod(___,datatype)

Returns the products along dimension dim. For example, if A is a matrix, prod(A,2) is a column vector containing the products of each row. multiplies in and returns an array in the class specified by datatype.

sum(A)

Sum of array elements; returns sums along different dimensions of an array. If A is floating point, that is double or single, B is accumulated natively, that is in the same class as A, and B has the same class as A. If A is not floating point, B is accumulated in double and B has class double. If A is a vector, sum(A) returns the sum of the elements. If A is a matrix, sum(A) treats the columns of A as vectors, returning a row

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vector of the sums of each column.

If A is a multidimensional array, sum(A) treats the values along the first nonsingleton dimension as vectors, returning an array of row vectors. Sums along the dimension of A specified by scalar dim. Perform additions in double-precision and return an answer of type double, even if A has data type single or an integer data type. This is the default for integer data types.

sum(A,dim) sum(..., 'double') sum(..., dim,'double') sum(..., 'native') sum(..., dim,'native')

Perform additions in the native data type of A and return an answer of the same data type. This is the default for single and double. Round toward positive infinity; rounds the elements of A to the nearest integers greater than or equal to A. Round toward zero Round toward negative infinity; rounds the elements of A to the nearest integers less than or equal to A. Integer division with rounding option; is the same as a./b except that fractional quotients are rounded toward zero to the nearest integers. Fractional quotients are rounded to the nearest integers. Fractional quotients are rounded toward negative infinity to the nearest integers. Fractional quotients are rounded toward infinity to the nearest integers. Modulus after division; returns X - n.*Y where n = floor(X./Y). If Y is not an integer and the quotient X./Y is within roundoff error of an integer, then n is that integer. The inputs X and Y must be real arrays of the same size, or real scalars (provided Y ~=0). Please note:

ceil(A) fix(A) floor(A) idivide(a, b) idivide(a, b,'fix') idivide(a, b, 'round') idivide(A, B, 'floor') idivide(A, B, 'ceil')

mod (X,Y)

mod(X,0) is X mod(X,X) is 0 mod(X,Y) for X~=Y and Y~=0 has the same sign as Y Remainder after division; returns X - n.*Y where n = fix(X./Y). If Y is not an integer and the quotient X./Y is within roundoff error of an integer, then n is that integer. The inputs X and Y must be real arrays of the same size, or real scalars(provided Y ~=0). Please note that:

rem (X,Y)

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rem(X,0) is NaN rem(X,X) for X~=0 is 0 rem(X,Y) for X~=Y and Y~=0 has the same sign as X. Round to nearest integer; rounds the elements of X to the nearest integers. Positive elements with a fractional part of 0.5 round up to the nearest positive integer. Negative elements with a fractional part of -0.5 round down to the nearest negative integer.

round(X)

Relational Operators
Relational operators can also work on both scalar and non-scalar data. Relational operators for arrays perform element-by-element comparisons between two arrays and return a logical array of the same size, with elements set to logical 1 (true) where the relation is true and elements set to logical 0 (false) where it is not. The following table shows the relational operators available in MATLAB: Operator < <= > >= == ~= Description Less than Less than or equal to Greater than Greater than or equal to Equal to Not equal to

Example
Create a script file and type the following code: a =100; b =200; if(a >= b) max = a else max = b end When you run the file, it produces following result: max = 200 Apart from the above-mentioned relational operators, MATLAB provides the following commands/functions used for the same purpose:

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Function eq(a, b) ge(a, b) gt(a, b) le(a, b) lt(a, b) ne(a, b) isequal isequaln

Description Tests whether a is equal to b Tests whether a is greater than or equal to b Tests whether a is greater than b Tests whether a is less than or equal to b Tests whether a is less than b Tests whether a is not equal to b Tests arrays for equality Tests arrays for equality, treating NaN values as equal

Example
Create a script file and type the following code: % comparing two values a =100; b =200; if(ge(a,b)) max = a else max = b end % comparing two different values a =340; b =520; if(le(a, b)) disp(' a is either less than or equal to b') else disp(' a is greater than b') end When you run the file, it produces the following result: max = 200 a is either less than or equal to b

Logical Operators
MATLAB offers two types of logical operators and functions:

Element-wise - these operators operate on corresponding elements of logical arrays. Short-circuit - these operators operate on scalar, logical expressions.

Element-wise logical operators operate element-by-element on logical arrays. The symbols &, |, and ~ are the logical array operators AND, OR, and NOT.

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Short-circuit logical operators allow short-circuiting on logical operations. The symbols && and || are the logical short-circuit operators AND and OR.

Example
Create a script file and type the following code: a =5; b =20; if( a && b ) disp('Line 1 - Condition is true'); end if( a || b ) disp('Line 2 - Condition is true'); end % lets change the value of a and b a =0; b =10; if( a && b ) disp('Line 3 - Condition is true'); else disp('Line 3 - Condition is not true'); end if(~(a && b)) disp('Line 4 - Condition is true'); end When you run the file, it produces following result: Line Line Line Line 1 2 3 4 Condition Condition Condition Condition is is is is true true not true true

Functions for Logical Operations

Apart from the above-mentioned logical operators, MATLAB provides the following commands or functions used for the same purpose: Function Description Finds logical AND of array or scalar inputs; performs a logical AND of all input arrays A, B, etc. and returns an array containing elements set to either logical 1 (true) or logical 0 (false). An element of the output array is set to 1 if all input arrays contain a nonzero element at that same array location. Otherwise, that element is set to 0. Finds logical NOT of array or scalar input; performs a logical NOT of input array A and returns an array containing elements set to either logical 1 (true) or logical 0 (false). An element of the output array is set to 1 if the input array contains a zero value element at that same array location. Otherwise, that element is set to 0. Finds logical OR of array or scalar inputs; performs a logical OR of all input arrays A, B, etc. and returns an array containing elements set to either logical 1 (true) or logical 0 (false). An element of the output array is set to 1 if any input arrays contain a nonzero element at that same array location. Otherwise, that element is set to 0. Logical exclusive-OR; performs an exclusive OR operation on the corresponding elements of arrays A and B. The resulting element C(i,j,...) is logical true (1) if A(i,j,...)

and(A, B)

not(A)

or(A, B)

xor(A, B)

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or B(i,j,...), but not both, is nonzero. Determine if all array elements of array A are nonzero or true.

all(A)

If A is a vector, all(A) returns logical 1 (true) if all the elements are nonzero and returns logical 0 (false) if one or more elements are zero. If A is a nonempty matrix, all(A) treats the columns of A as vectors, returning a row vector of logical 1's and 0's. If A is an empty 0-by-0 matrix, all(A) returns logical 1 (true). If A is a multidimensional array, all(A) acts along the first nonsingleton dimension and returns an array of logical values. The size of this dimension reduces to 1 while the sizes of all other dimensions remain the same.

all(A, dim)

Tests along the dimension of A specified by scalar dim. Determine if any array elements are nonzero; tests whether any of the elements along various dimensions of an array is a nonzero number or is logical 1 (true). The any function ignores entries that are NaN (Not a Number).

If A is a vector, any(A) returns logical 1 (true) if any of the elements of A is a nonzero number or is logical 1 (true), and returns logical 0 (false) if all the elements are zero. If A is a nonempty matrix, any(A) treats the columns of A as vectors, returning a row vector of logical 1's and 0's. If A is an empty 0-by-0 matrix, any(A) returns logical 0 (false). If A is a multidimensional array, any(A) acts along the first nonsingleton dimension and returns an array of logical values. The size of this dimension reduces to 1 while the sizes of all other dimensions remain the same.

any(A)

any(A,dim) False false(n) false(m, n) false(m, n, p, ...) false(size(A)) false(...,'like',p)

Tests along the dimension of A specified by scalar dim. Logical 0 (false) is an n-by-n matrix of logical zeros is an m-by-n matrix of logical zeros. is an m-by-n-by-p-by-... array of logical zeros. is an array of logical zeros that is the same size as array A. is an array of logical zeros of the same data type and sparsity as the logical array p. Find indices and values of nonzero elements; locates all nonzero elements of array X, and returns the linear indices of those elements in a vector. If X is a row vector, then the returned vector is a row vector; otherwise, it returns a column vector. If X contains no nonzero elements or is an empty array, then an empty array is returned. Returns at most the first k indices corresponding to the nonzero entries of X. k must be a positive integer, but it can be of any numeric data type.

ind = find(X)

ind = find(X, k)

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ind = find(X, k, 'first')

ind = find(X, k, 'last')

returns at most the last k indices corresponding to the nonzero entries of X. Returns the row and column indices of the nonzero entries in the matrix X. This syntax is especially useful when working with sparse matrices. If X is an N-dimensional array with N > 2, col contains linear indices for the columns.

[row,col] = find(X, ...)

[row,col,v] = find(X, ...)

Returns a column or row vector v of the nonzero entries in X, as well as row and column indices. If X is a logical expression, then v is a logical array. Output v contains the non-zero elements of the logical array obtained by evaluating the expression X. Determine if input is logical array; returns true if A is a logical array and false otherwise. It also returns true if A is an instance of a class that is derived from the logical class. Convert numeric values to logical; returns an array that can be used for logical indexing or logical tests. Logical 1 (true) is an n-by-n matrix of logical ones. is an m-by-n matrix of logical ones. is an m-by-n-by-p-by-... array of logical ones. is an array of logical ones that is the same size as array A. is an array of logical ones of the same data type and sparsity as the logical array p.

islogical(A)

logical(A)

True true(n) true(m, n) true(m, n, p, ...) true(size(A)) true(...,'like', p)

Bitwise Operations
Bitwise operator works on bits and performs bit-by-bit operation. The truth tables for &, |, and ^ are as follows: P 0 0 1 1 Q 0 1 1 0 p&q 0 0 1 0 p|q 0 1 1 1 p^q 0 1 0 1

Assume if A = 60; and B = 13; Now in binary format they will be as follows: A = 0011 1100 B = 0000 1101

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----------------A&B = 0000 1100 A|B = 0011 1101 A^B = 0011 0001 ~A = 1100 0011 MATLAB provides various functions for bit-wise operations like 'bitwise and', 'bitwise or' and 'bitwise not' operations, shift operation, etc. The following table shows the commonly used bitwise operations: Function bitand(a, b) bitcmp(a) bitget(a,pos) bitor(a, b) bitset(a, pos) Purpose Bit-wise AND of integers a and b Bit-wise complement of a Get bit at specified position pos, in the integer array a Bit-wise OR of integers a and b Set bit at specific location pos of a Returns a shifted to the left by k bits, equivalent to multiplying by 2k. Negative values of k correspond to shifting bits right or dividing by 2 |k| and rounding to the nearest integer towards negative infinite. Any overflow bits are truncated. Bit-wise XOR of integers a and b Swap byte ordering

bitshift(a, k)

bitxor(a, b) Swapbytes

Example
Create a script file and type the following code: a = 60; % 60 = 0011 1100 b = 13; % 13 = 0000 1101 c = bitand(a, b) c = bitor(a, b) c = bitxor(a, b) c = bitshift(a, 2) c = bitshift(a,-2) % 12 = 0000 1100 % 61 = 0011 1101 % 49 = 0011 0001 % 240 = 1111 0000 */ % 15 = 0000 1111 */

When you run the file, it displays the following result: c = 12 c = 61

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c = 49 c = 240 c = 15

Set Operations
MATLAB provides various functions for set operations, like union, intersection and testing for set membership, etc. The following table shows some commonly used set operations: Function intersect(A,B) Description Set intersection of two arrays; returns the values common to both A and B. The values returned are in sorted order. Treats each row of A and each row of B as single entities and returns the rows common to both A and B. The rows of the returned matrix are in sorted order. Returns an array the same size as A, containing 1 (true) where the elements of A are found in B. Elsewhere, it returns 0 (false). Treats each row of A and each row of B as single entities and returns a vector containing 1 (true) where the rows of matrix A are also rows of B. Elsewhere, it returns 0 (false). Returns logical 1 (true) if the elements of A are in sorted order and logical 0 (false) otherwise. Input A can be a vector or an N-by-1 or 1-by-N cell array of strings. A is considered to be sorted if A and the output of sort(A) are equal. Returns logical 1 (true) if the rows of two-dimensional matrix A are in sorted order, and logical 0 (false) otherwise. Matrix A is considered to be sorted if A and the output of sortrows(A) are equal. Set difference of two arrays; returns the values in A that are not in B. The values in the returned array are in sorted order. Treats each row of A and each row of B as single entities and returns the rows from A that are not in B. The rows of the returned matrix are in sorted order. setdiff(A,B,'rows') The 'rows' option does not support cell arrays.

intersect(A,B,'rows')

ismember(A,B)

ismember(A,B,'rows')

issorted(A)

issorted(A, 'rows')

setdiff(A,B)

Setxor Union Unique

Set exclusive OR of two arrays Set union of two arrays Unique values in array

Example
Create a script file and type the following code: a =[723141591282435]

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b u i s

=[25781416253527] =union(a, b) = intersect(a, b) = setdiff(a, b)

When you run the file, it produces the following result: a = 7 b = 2 u = Columns 2 Columns 25 i = 7 s = 9 5 7 8 14 9 16 12 25 14 35 15 27 16 23 24 1 through 11 5 7 8 12 through 14 27 35 8 12 14 15 35 23 24 23 14 15 9 12 8 24 35

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CHAPTER

Decisions

ecision making structures require that the programmer specify one or more conditions to be evaluated

or tested by the program, along with a statement or statements to be executed if the condition is determined to be true, and optionally, other statements to be executed if the condition is determined to be false. Following is the general form of a typical decision making structure found in most of the programming languages:

MATLAB provides following types of decision making statements. Click the following links to check their detail: Statement if ... end statement if...else...end statement Description An if ... end statement consists of a boolean expression followed by one or more statements. An if statement can be followed by an optional else statement,

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which executes when the boolean expression is false. If... elseif...elseif...else...end statements An if statement can be followed by an (or more) optional elseif...and an else statement, which is very useful to test various condition. You can use one if or elseif statement inside another if or elseifstatement(s). A switch statement allows a variable to be tested for equality against a list of values. You can use one swicth statement inside another switchstatement(s).

nested if statements

switch statement

nested switch statements

if end statement
An if ... end statement consists of an if statement and a boolean expression followed by one or more statements. It is delimited by the end statement.

Syntax
The syntax of an if statement in MATLAB is: if <expression> % statement(s) will execute if the boolean expression is true <statements> end If the expression evaluates to true, then the block of code inside the if statement will be executed. If the expression evaluates to false, then the first set of code after the end statement will be executed.

Flow Diagram:

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Example:
Create a script file and type the following code: a = 10; % check the condition using if statement if a < 20 % if condition is true then print the following fprintf('a is less than 20\n' ); end fprintf('value of a is : %d\n', a); When you run the file, it displays the following result: a is less than 20 value of a is : 10

if else end statement

An if statement can be followed by an optional else statement, which executes when the expression is false.

Syntax:
The syntax of an if...else statement in MATLAB is: if <expression> % statement(s) will execute if the boolean expression is true <statement(s)> else <statement(s)> % statement(s) will execute if the boolean expression is false end If the boolean expression evaluates to true, then the if block of code will be executed, otherwise else block of code will be executed.

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Flow Diagram:

Example:
Create a script file and type the following code: a = 100; % check the boolean condition if a < 20 % if condition is true then print the following fprintf('a is less than 20\n' ); else % if condition is false then print the following fprintf('a is not less than 20\n' ); end fprintf('value of a is : %d\n', a); When the above code is compiled and executed, it produces the following result: a is not less than 20 value of a is : 100

ifelseifelseifelseend statements
An if statement can be followed by an (or more) optional elseif... and an else statement, which is very useful to test various condition. When using if... elseif...else statements, there are few points to keep in mind:

An if can have zero or one else's and it must come after any elseif's. An if can have zero to many elseif's and they must come before the else. Once an else if succeeds, none of the remaining elseif's or else's will be tested.

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Syntax:
if <expression 1> % Executes when the expression 1 is true <statement(s)> elseif <expression 2> % Executes when the boolean expression 2 is true <statement(s)> Elseif <expression 3> % Executes when the boolean expression 3 is true <statement(s)> else % executes when the none of the above condition is true <statement(s)> end

Example
Create a script file and type the following code in it: a = 100; %check the boolean condition if a == 10 % if condition is true then print the following fprintf('Value of a is 10\n' ); elseif( a == 20 ) % if else if condition is true fprintf('Value of a is 20\n' ); elseif a == 30 % if else if condition is true fprintf('Value of a is 30\n' ); else % if none of the conditions is true ' fprintf('None of the values are matching\n'); fprintf('Exact value of a is: %d\n', a ); end When the above code is compiled and executed, it produces the following result: None of the values are matching Exact value of a is: 100

Nested if statements
It is always legal in MATLAB to nest if-else statements which means you can use one if or elseif statement inside another if or elseif statement(s).

Syntax:
The syntax for a nested if statement is as follows: if <expression 1> % Executes when the boolean expression 1 is true if <expression 2> % Executes when the boolean expression 2 is true end end

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You can nest elseif...else in the similar way as you have nested if statement.

Example:
Create a script file and type the following code in it: a = 100; b = 200; % check the boolean condition if( a == 100 ) % if condition is true then check the following if( b == 200 ) % if condition is true then print the following fprintf('Value of a is 100 and b is 200\n' ); end end fprintf('Exact value of a is : %d\n', a ); fprintf('Exact value of b is : %d\n', b ); When you run the file, it displays: Value of a is 100 and b is 200 Exact value of a is : 100 Exact value of b is : 200

Switch statement
A switch block conditionally executes one set of statements from several choices. Each choice is covered by a case statement. An evaluated switch_expression is a scalar or string. An evaluated case_expression is a scalar, a string or a cell array of scalars or strings. The switch block tests each case until one of the cases is true. A case is true when:

For numbers, eq(case_expression,switch_expression). For strings, strcmp(case_expression,switch_expression). For objects that support the eq function, eq(case_expression,switch_expression). For a cell array case_expression, at least one of the elements of the cell array matches switch_expression, as defined above for numbers, strings and objects.

When a case is true, MATLAB executes the corresponding statements and then exits the switch block. The otherwise block is optional and executes only when no case is true.

Syntax
The syntax of switch statement in MATLAB is: switch <switch_expression> case <case_expression>

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<statements> case <case_expression> <statements> ... ... otherwise <statements> end

Example
Create a script file and type the following code in it: grade = 'B'; switch(grade) case 'A' fprintf('Excellent!\n' ); case 'B' fprintf('Well done\n' ); case 'C' fprintf('Well done\n' ); case 'D' fprintf('You passed\n' ); case 'F' fprintf('Better try again\n' ); otherwise fprintf('Invalid grade\n' ); end When you run the file, it displays: Well done Your grade is B

Nested switch statements

It is possible to have a switch as part of the statement sequence of an outer switch. Even if the case constants of the inner and outer switch contain common values, no conflicts will arise.

Syntax:
The syntax for a nested switch statement is as follows: switch(ch1) case 'A' fprintf('This A is part of outer switch'); switch(ch2) case 'A' fprintf('This A is part of inner switch' ); case 'B' fprintf('This B is part of inner switch' ); end case 'B' fprintf('This B is part of outer switch' ); end

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Example:
Create a script file and type the following code in it: a = 100; b = 200; switch(a) case 100 fprintf('This is part of outer switch(b) case 200 fprintf('This is part of end end fprintf('Exact value of a is : %d\n', a fprintf('Exact value of b is : %d\n', b When you run the file, it displays: This is part of outer This is part of inner Exact value of a is : Exact value of b is : switch 100 switch 100 100 200

switch %d\n', a ); inner switch %d\n', a ); ); );

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10
Loops

CHAPTER

here may be a situation when you need to execute a block of code several number of times. In general,

statements are executed sequentially. The first statement in a function is executed first, followed by the second, and so on. Programming languages provide various control structures that allow for more complicated execution paths. A loop statement allows us to execute a statement or group of statements multiple times and following is the general form of a loop statement in most of the programming languages:

MATLAB provides following types of loops to handle looping requirements. Click the following links to check their detail: Loop Type Description

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while loop

Repeats a statement or group of statements while a given condition is true. It tests the condition before executing the loop body. Executes a sequence of statements multiple times and abbreviates the code that manages the loop variable. You can use one or more loops inside any another loop.

for loop nested loops

While loop
The while loop repeatedly executes statements while condition is true.

Syntax:
The syntax of a while loop in MATLAB is: while <expression> <statements> end The while loop repeatedly executes program statement(s) as long as the expression remains true. An expression is true when the result is nonempty and contains all nonzero elements (logical or real numeric). Otherwise, the expression is false.

Example
Create a script file and type the following code: a = 10; % while loop execution while( a < 20 ) fprintf('value of a: %d\n', a); a = a + 1; end When you run the file, it displays the following result: value value value value value value value value value value of of of of of of of of of of a: a: a: a: a: a: a: a: a: a: 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19

for loop
A for loop is a repetition control structure that allows you to efficiently write a loop that needs to execute a specific number of times.

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Syntax:
The syntax of a for loop in MATLAB is: for index = values <program statements> ... end values has one of the following forms: Format initval:endval Description increments the index variable from initval to endval by 1, and repeats execution of program statements until index is greater than endval. increments index by the value step on each iteration, or decrements when step is negative. creates a column vector index from subsequent columns of array valArrayon each iteration. For example, on the first iteration, index = valArray(:,1). The loop executes for a maximum of n times, where n is the number of columns of valArray, given by numel(valArray, 1, :). The input valArray can be of any MATLAB data type, including a string, cell array, or struct.

initval:step:endval

valArray

Example 1
Create a script file and type the following code: for a = 10:20 fprintf('value of a: %d\n', a); end When you run the file, it displays the following result: value value value value value value value value value value value of of of of of of of of of of of a: a: a: a: a: a: a: a: a: a: a: 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20

Example 2
Create a script file and type the following code: for a = 1.0: -0.1: 0.0 disp(a) end When you run the file, it displays the following result:

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1 0.9000 0.8000 0.7000 0.6000 0.5000 0.4000 0.3000 0.2000 0.1000 0

Example 3
Create a script file and type the following code: for a = [24,18,17,23,28] disp(a) end When you run the file, it displays the following result: 24 18 17 23 28

Nested loops
MATLAB allows to use one loop inside another loop. Following section shows few examples to illustrate the concept.

Syntax:
The syntax for a nested for loop statement in MATLAB is as follows: for m = 1:j for n = 1:k <statements>; end end

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The syntax for a nested while loop statement in MATLAB is as follows: while <expression1> while <expression2> <statements> end end

Example
Let us use a nested for loop to display all the prime numbers from 1 to 100. Create a script file and type the following code: for i=2:100 for j=2:100 if(~mod(i,j)) break; % if factor found, not prime end end if(j > (i/j)) fprintf('%d is prime\n', i); end end When you run the file, it displays the following result: 2 is prime 3 is prime 5 is prime 7 is prime 11 is prime 13 is prime 17 is prime 19 is prime 23 is prime 29 is prime 31 is prime 37 is prime 41 is prime 43 is prime 47 is prime 53 is prime 59 is prime 61 is prime 67 is prime 71 is prime 73 is prime 79 is prime 83 is prime 89 is prime 97 is prime

Loop Control Statements

Loop control statements change execution from its normal sequence. When execution leaves a scope, all automatic objects that were created in that scope are destroyed. MATLAB supports the following control statements. Click the following links to check their detail.

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Control Statement break statement

Description Terminates the loop statement and transfers execution to the statement immediately following the loop. Causes the loop to skip the remainder of its body and immediately retest its condition prior to reiterating.

continue statement

break statement
The break statement terminates execution of for or while loop. Statements in the loop that appear after the break statement are not executed. In nested loops, break exits only from the loop in which it occurs. Control passes to the statement following the end of that loop.

Flow Diagram:

Example:
Create a script file and type the following code: a = 10; % while loop execution while (a < 20 ) fprintf('value of a: %d\n', a); a = a+1; if( a > 15) % terminate the loop using break statement break; end

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end When you run the file, it displays the following result: value value value value value value of of of of of of a: a: a: a: a: a: 10 11 12 13 14 15

continue statement
The continue statement is used for passing control to next iteration of for or while loop. The continue statement in MATLAB works somewhat like the break statement. Instead of forcing termination, however, 'continue' forces the next iteration of the loop to take place, skipping any code in between.

Flow Diagram:

Example:
Create a script file and type the following code: a = 10; %while loop execution while a < 20 if a == 15

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% skip the iteration a = a + 1; continue; end fprintf('value of a: %d\n', a); a = a + 1; end When you run the file, it displays the following result: value value value value value value value value value of of of of of of of of of a: a: a: a: a: a: a: a: a: 10 11 12 13 14 16 17 18 19

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11
Vectors

CHAPTER

vector is a one-dimensional array of numbers. MATLAB allows creating two types of vectors:

Row vectors Column vectors

Row Vectors:
Row vectors are created by enclosing the set of elements in square brackets, using space or comma to delimit the elements. r =[7891011] MATLAB will execute the above statement and return the following result: r = Columns 1 through 4 7 8 Column 5 11

10

Column Vectors:
Column vectors are created by enclosing the set of elements in square brackets, using semicolon to delimit the elements. c =[7;8;9;10;11] MATLAB will execute the above statement and return the following result: c = 7 8 9 10 11

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Referencing the Elements of a Vector

You can reference one or more of the elements of a vector in several ways. The i th component of a vector v is referred as v(i). For example: v =[1;2;3;4;5;6]; v(3) % creating a column vector of 6 elements

MATLAB will execute the above statement and return the following result: ans = 3 When you reference a vector with a colon, such as v(:), all the components of the vector are listed. v =[1;2;3;4;5;6]; v(:) % creating a column vector of 6 elements

MATLAB will execute the above statement and return the following result: ans = 1 2 3 4 5 6 MATLAB allows you to select a range of elements from a vector. For example, let us create a row vector rv of 9 elements, then we will reference the elements 3 to 7 by writing rv(3:7) and create a new vector named sub_rv. rv =[123456789]; sub_rv = rv(3:7) MATLAB will execute the above statement and return the following result: sub_rv = 3 4 5 6 7

Vector Operations
In this section, let us discuss the following vector operations:

Addition and Subtraction of Vectors Scalar Multiplication of Vectors Transpose of a Vector Appending Vectors Magnitude of a Vector Vector Dot Product Vectors with Uniformly Spaced Elements

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Addition and Subtraction of Vectors

You can add or subtract two vectors. Both the operand vectors must be of same type and have same number of elements.

Example
Create a script file with the following code: A = [7, 11, 15, 23, 9]; B = [2, 5, 13, 16, 20]; C = A + B; D = A - B; disp(C); disp(D); When you run the file, it displays the following result: 9 5 16 6 28 2 39 7 29 -11

Scalar Multiplication of vectors

When you multiply a vector by a number, this is called the scalar multiplication. Scalar multiplication produces a new vector of same type with each element of the original vector multiplied by the number.

Example
Create a script file with the following code: v = [ 12 34 10 8]; m = 5 * v When you run the file, it displays the following result: m = 60 170 50 40

Please note that you can perform all scalar operations on vectors. For example, you can add, subtract and divide a vector with a scalar quantity.

Transpose of a Vector
The transpose operation changes a column vector into a row vector and vice versa. The transpose operation is represented by a single quote(').

Example
Create a script file with the following code: r = [ 1 2 3 4 ]; tr = r'; v = [1;2;3;4]; tv = v'; disp(tr); disp(tv); When you run the file, it displays the following result:

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1 2 3 4 1 2 3 4

Appending Vector
MATLAB allows you to append vectors together to create new vectors. If you have two row vectors r1 and r2 with n and m number of elements, to create a row vector r of n plus m elements, by appending these vectors, you write: r = [r1,r2] You can also create a matrix r by appending these two vectors, the vector r2, will be the second row of the matrix: r = [r1;r2] However, to do this, both the vectors should have same number of elements. Similarly, you can append two column vectors c1 and c2 with n and m number of elements. To create a column vector c of n plus m elements, by appending these vectors, you write: c = [c1; c2] You can also create a matrix c by appending these two vectors; the vector c2 will be the second column of the matrix: c = [c1, c2] However, to do this, both the vectors should have same number of elements.

Example
Create a script file with the following code: r1 = [ 1 2 3 4 ]; r2 = [5 6 7 8 ]; r = [r1,r2] rMat = [r1;r2] c1 = [ 1; 2; 3; 4 ]; c2 = [5; 6; 7; 8 ]; c = [c1; c2] cMat = [c1,c2] When you run the file, it displays the following result: r = 1 rMat = 1 5 c = 1 2 2 6 3 3 7 4 4 8 5 6 7 8

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2 3 4 5 6 7 8 cMat = 1 2 3 4

5 6 7 8

Magnitude of a Vector
Magnitude of a vector v with elements v1, v2, v3, , vn, is given by the equation: |v| = (v12 + v22 + v32 + + vn2) You need to take the following steps to calculate the magnitude of a vector: 1. Take the product of the vector with itself, using array multiplication (.*). This produces a vector sv, whose elements are squares of the elements of vector v. sv = v.*v; 2. Use the sum function to get the sum of squares of elements of vector v. This is also called the dot product of vector v. dp= sum(sv); 3. Use the sqrt function to get the square root of the sum which is also the magnitude of the vector v. mag = sqrt(s);

Example
Create a script file with the following code: v = [1: 2: 20]; sv = v.* v; %the vector with elements % as square of v's elements dp = sum(sv); % sum of squares -- the dot product mag = sqrt(dp); % magnitude disp('Magnitude:'); disp(mag); When you run the file, it displays the following result: Magnitude: 36.4692

Vector Dot Product

Dot product of two vectors a = (a1, a2, , an) and b = (b1, b2, , bn) is given by:

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a.b = (ai.bi) Dot product of two vectors a and b is calculated using the dot function. dot(a, b);

Example
Create a script file with the following code: v1 = [2 3 4]; v2 = [1 2 3]; dp = dot(v1, v2); disp('Dot Product:'); disp(dp); When you run the file, it displays the following result: Dot Product: 20

Vectors with Uniformly Spaced Elements

MATLAB allows you to create a vector with uniformly spaced elements. To create a vector v with the first element f, last element l, and the difference between elements is any real number n, we write: v = [f : n : l]

Example
Create a script file with the following code: v = [1: 2: 20]; sqv = v.^2; disp(v);disp(sqv); When you run the file, it displays the following result: 1 1 3 9 5 25 7 49 9 81 11 121 13 169 15 225 17 289 19 361

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12
Matrics

CHAPTER

A
a = 1 2 3 4

matrix is a two-dimensional array of numbers.

In MATLAB, you create a matrix by entering elements in each row as comma or space delimited numbers and using semicolons to mark the end of each row. For example, let us create a 4-by-5 matrix a: a =[12345;23456;34567;45678] MATLAB will execute the above statement and return the following result: 2 3 4 5 3 4 5 6 4 5 6 7 5 6 7 8

Referencing the Elements of a Matrix

To reference an element in the mth row and nth column, of a matrix mx, we write: mx(m, n); For example, to refer to the element in the 2nd row and 5th column, of the matrix a, as created in the last section, we type: a =[12345;23456;34567;45678]; a(2,5) MATLAB will execute the above statement and return the following result: ans = 6 To reference all the elements in the mth column we type A(:,m). Let us create a column vector v, from the elements of the 4th row of the matrix a: a =[12345;23456;34567;45678];

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v = a(:,4) MATLAB will execute the above statement and return the following result: v = 4 5 6 7 You can also select the elements in the m th through nth columns, for this we write: a(:,m:n) Let us create a smaller matrix taking the elements from the second and third columns: a =[12345;23456;34567;45678]; a(:,2:3) MATLAB will execute the above statement and return the following result: ans = 2 3 4 5 3 4 5 6

In the same way, you can create a sub-matrix taking a sub-part of a matrix. a =[12345;23456;34567;45678]; a(:,2:3) MATLAB will execute the above statement and return the following result: ans = 2 3 4 5 3 4 5 6

In the same way, you can create a sub-matrix taking a sub-part of a matrix. For example, let us create a sub-matrix sa taking the inner subpart of a: 345 456 To do this, write: a =[12345;23456;34567;45678]; sa = a(2:3,2:4) MATLAB will execute the above statement and return the following result: sa = 3 4 5

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Deleting a Row or a Column in a Matrix

You can delete an entire row or column of a matrix by assigning an empty set of square braces [] to that row or column. Basically, [] denotes an empty array. For example, let us delete the fourth row of a: a =[12345;23456;34567;45678]; a(4,:)=[] MATLAB will execute the above statement and return the following result: a = 1 2 3 2 3 4 3 4 5 4 5 6 5 6 7

Next, let us delete the fifth column of a: a =[12345;23456;34567;45678]; a(:,5)=[] MATLAB will execute the above statement and return the following result: a = 1 2 3 4 2 3 4 5 3 4 5 6 4 5 6 7

Example
In this example, let us create a 3-by-3 matrix m, then we will copy the second and third rows of this matrix twice to create a 4-by-3 matrix. Create a script file with the following code: a =[123;456;789]; new_mat = a([2,3,2,3],:) When you run the file, it displays the following result: new_mat = 4 7 4 7 5 8 5 8 6 9 6 9

Matrix Operations
In this section, let us discuss the following basic and commonly used matrix operations:

Addition and Subtraction of Matrices

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Division of Matrices Scalar Operations of Matrices Transpose of a Matrix Concatenating Matrices Matrix Multiplication Determinant of a Matrix Inverse of a Matrix

Addition and Subtraction of Matrices

You can add or subtract matrices. Both the operand matrices must have the same number of rows and columns.

Example
Create a script file with the following code: a b c d = = = = [ [ a a 1 7 + 2 3 ; 4 5 6; 7 8 9]; 5 6 ; 2 0 8; 5 7 1]; b b

When you run the file, it displays the following result: c = 8 6 12 d = -6 2 2 -3 5 1 -3 -2 8 7 5 15 9 14 10

Division of Matrices
You can divide two matrices using left (\) or right (/) division operators. Both the operand matrices must have the same number of rows and columns.

Example
Create a script file with the following code: a b c d = = = = [ [ a a 1 7 / \ 2 3 ; 4 5 6; 7 8 9]; 5 6 ; 2 0 8; 5 7 1]; b b

When you run the file, it displays the following result: c = -0.52542 -0.42373 -0.32203 d = 0.68644 0.94068 1.19492 0.66102 1.01695 1.37288

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-3.27778 -0.11111 3.05556

-1.05556 0.11111 1.27778

-4.86111 -0.27778 4.30556

Scalar Operations of Matrices

When you add, subtract, multiply or divide a matrix by a number, this is called the scalar operation. Scalar operations produce a new matrix with same number of rows and columns with each element of the original matrix added to, subtracted from, multiplied by or divided by the number.

Example
Create a script file with the following code: a b c d e f = = = = = = [ 10 12 23 ; 14 8 6; 27 8 9]; 2; a + b a - b a * b a / b

When you run the file, it displays the following result: c = 12 16 29 d = 8 12 25 e = 20 28 54 f = 5.0000 7.0000 13.5000 6.0000 4.0000 4.0000 11.5000 3.0000 4.5000 24 16 16 46 12 18 10 6 6 21 4 7 14 10 10 25 8 11

Transpose of a Matrix
The transpose operation switches the rows and columns in a matrix. It is represented by a single quote(').

Example
Create a script file with the following code: a = [ 10 12 23 ; 14 8 6; 27 8 9] b = a' When you run the file, it displays the following result: a = 10 14 27 12 8 8 23 6 9

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b = 10 12 23 14 8 6 27 8 9

Concatenating Matrices
You can concatenate two matrices to create a larger matrix. The pair of square brackets '[]' is the concatenation operator. MATLAB allows two types of concatenations:

Horizontal concatenation Vertical concatenation

When you concatenate two matrices by separating those using commas, they are just appended horizontally. It is called horizontal concatenation. Alternatively, if you concatenate two matrices by separating those using semicolons, they are appended vertically. It is called vertical concatenation.

Example
Create a script file with the following code: a b c d = = = = [ 10 12 23 ; 14 8 6; 27 8 9] [ 12 31 45 ; 8 0 -9; 45 2 11] [a, b] [a; b]

When you run the file, it displays the following result: a = 10 14 27 b = 12 8 45 c = 10 14 27 d = 10 14 27 12 8 45 12 8 8 31 0 2 23 6 9 45 -9 11 12 8 8 23 6 9 12 8 45 31 0 2 45 -9 11 31 0 2 45 -9 11 12 8 8 23 6 9

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Matrix Multiplication
Consider two matrices A and B. If A is an m x n matrix and B is a n x p matrix, they could be multiplied together to produce an m x n matrix C. Matrix multiplication is possible only if the number of columns n in A is equal to the number of rows n in B. In matrix multiplication, the elements of the rows in the first matrix are multiplied with corresponding columns in the second matrix. Each element in the (i, j)th position, in the resulting matrix C, is the summation of the products of elements in i th row of first matrix with the corresponding element in the j th column of the second matrix. In MATLAB, matrix multiplication is performed by using the * operator.

Example
Create a script file with the following code: a = [ 1 2 3; 2 3 4; 1 2 5] b = [ 2 1 3 ; 5 0 -2; 2 3 -1] prod = a * b When you run the file, it displays the following result: a = 1 2 1 b = 2 5 2 prod = 18 27 22 1 0 3 10 14 16 3 -2 -1 -4 -4 -6 2 3 2 3 4 5

Determinant of a Matrix
Determinant of a matrix is calculated using the det function of MATLAB. Determinant of a matrix A is given by det(A).

Example
Create a script file with the following code: a = [ 1 2 3; 2 3 4; 1 2 5] det(a) When you run the file, it displays the following result: a = 1 2 1 2 3 2 3 4 5

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ans = -2

Inverse of a Matrix
The inverse of a matrix A is denoted by A1 such that the following relationship holds: AA1 = A1A = 1 The inverse of a matrix does not always exist. If the determinant of the matrix is zero, then the inverse does not exist and the matrix is singular. In MATLAB, inverse of a matrix is calculated using the inv function. Inverse of a matrix A is given by inv(A).

Example
Create a script file and type the following code: a = [ 1 2 3; 2 3 4; 1 2 5] inv(a) When you run the file, it displays the following result: a = 1 2 3 2 3 4 1 2 5 ans = -3.5000 2.0000 3.0000 -1.0000 -0.5000 0

0.5000 -1.0000 0.5000

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13
Arrays

CHAPTER

n MATLAB all variables of all data types are multidimensional arrays. A vector is a one-dimensional array and

a matrix is a two-dimensional array. We have already discussed vectors and matrices. In this chapter, we will discuss multidimensional arrays. However, before that, let us discuss some special types of arrays.

Special Arrays in MATLAB

In this section, we will discuss some functions that create some special arrays. For all these functions, a single argument creates a square array, double arguments create rectangular array. The zeros() function creates an array of all zeros: For example:

zeros(5)
MATLAB will execute the above statement and return the following result: ans = 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0

The ones() function creates an array of all ones: For example: ones(4,3) MATLAB will execute the above statement and return the following result: ans = 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1

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The eye() function creates an identity matrix. For example: eye(4) MATLAB will execute the above statement and return the following result: ans = 1 0 0 0 0 1 0 0 0 0 1 0 0 0 0 1

The rand() function creates an array of uniformly distributed random numbers on (0,1): For example: rand(3,5) MATLAB will execute the above statement and return the following result: ans = 0.8147 0.9058 0.1270 0.9134 0.6324 0.0975 0.2785 0.5469 0.9575 0.9649 0.1576 0.9706 0.9572 0.4854 0.8003

A Magic Square
A magic square is a square that produces the same sum, when its elements are added row-wise, column-wise or diagonally. The magic() function creates a magic square array. It takes a singular argument that gives the size of the square. The argument must be a scalar greater than or equal to 3. magic(4) MATLAB will execute the above statement and return the following result: ans = 16 5 9 4 2 11 7 14 3 10 6 15 13 8 12 1

Multidimensional Arrays
An array having more than two dimensions is called a multidimensional array in MATLAB. Multidimensional arrays in MATLAB are an extension of the normal two-dimensional matrix. Generally to generate a multidimensional array, we first create a two-dimensional array and extend it. For example, let's create a two-dimensional array a. a =[795;619;432] MATLAB will execute the above statement and return the following result:

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a = 7 6 4 9 1 3 5 9 2

The array a is a 3-by-3 array; we can add a third dimension to a, by providing the values like: a(:,:,2)=[123;456;789] MATLAB will execute the above statement and return the following result: a(:,:,1) = 7 9 6 1 4 3 a(:,:,2) = 1 2 4 5 7 8 5 9 2 3 6 9

We can also create multidimensional arrays using the ones(), zeros() or the rand() functions. For example, b = rand(4,3,2) MATLAB will execute the above statement and return the following result: b(:,:,1) = 0.0344 0.4387 0.3816 0.7655 b(:,:,2) = 0.6797 0.6551 0.1626 0.1190 0.7952 0.1869 0.4898 0.4456 0.4984 0.9597 0.3404 0.5853 0.6463 0.7094 0.7547 0.2760 0.2238 0.7513 0.2551 0.5060

We can also use the cat() function to build multidimensional arrays. It concatenates a list of arrays along a specified dimension: Syntax for the cat() function is: B = cat(dim, A1, A2...) Where,

B is the new array created A1, A2, ... are the arrays to be concatenated dim is the dimension along which to concatenate the arrays

Example
Create a script file and type the following code into it: a =[987;654;321];

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b =[123;456;789]; c = cat(3, a, b,[231;478;390]) When you run the file, it displays: c(:,:,1) = 9 8 6 5 3 2 c(:,:,2) = 1 2 4 5 7 8 c(:,:,3) = 2 3 4 7 3 9 7 4 1 3 6 9 1 8 0

Array Functions
MATLAB provides the following functions to sort, rotate, permute, reshape, or shift array contents. Function Length Ndims Numel Size iscolumn isempty ismatrix isrow isscalar isvector blkdiag circshift ctranspose diag flipdim fliplr flipud Purpose Length of vector or largest array dimension Number of array dimensions Number of array elements Array dimensions Determine whether input is column vector Determine whether array is empty Determine whether input is matrix Determine whether input is row vector Determine whether input is scalar Determine whether input is vector Construct block diagonal matrix from input arguments Shift array circularly Complex conjugate transpose Diagonal matrices and diagonals of matrix Flip array along specified dimension Flip matrix left to right Flip matrix up to down

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ipermute permute repmat reshape rot90 shiftdim issorted sort sortrows squeeze transpose vectorize

Inverse permute dimensions of N-D array Rearrange dimensions of N-D array Replicate and tile array Reshape array Rotate matrix 90 degrees Shift dimensions Determine whether set elements are in sorted order Sort array elements in ascending or descending order Sort rows in ascending order Remove singleton dimensions Transpose Vectorize expression

Examples
The following examples illustrate some of the functions mentioned above. Length, Dimension and Number of elements: Create a script file and type the following code into it: x =[7.1,3.4,7.2,28/4,3.6,17,9.4,8.9]; length(x)% length of x vector y = rand(3,4,5,2); ndims(y)%no of dimensions in array y s =['Zara','Nuha','Shamim','Riz','Shadab']; numel(s)%no of elements in s When you run the file, it displays the following result: ans = 8 ans = 4 ans = 23 Circular Shifting the Array Elements: Create a script file and type the following code into it: a =[123;456;789]% the original array a

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b = circshift(a,1)% circular shift first dimension values down by1. c = circshift(a,[1-1])% circular shift first dimension values % down by1 %and second dimension values to the left %by1. When you run the file, it displays the following result: a = 1 4 7 b = 7 1 4 c = 8 2 5 9 3 6 7 1 4 8 2 5 9 3 6 2 5 8 3 6 9

Sorting Arrays
Create a script file and type the following code into it: v =[2345129501917]% horizonal vector sort(v)%sorting v m =[264;539;201]% two dimensional array sort(m,1)% sorting m along the row sort(m,2)% sorting m along the column When you run the file, it displays the following result: v = 23 ans = 0 m = 2 5 2 ans = 2 2 5 ans = 2 3 0 45 5 6 3 0 0 3 6 4 5 1 12 9 4 9 1 1 4 9 6 9 2 9 12 5 17 0 19 19 23 17 45

Cell Array
Cell arrays are arrays of indexed cells where each cell can store an array of a different dimension and data type. The cell function is used for creating a cell array. Syntax for the cell function is: C = cell(dim)

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C = cell(dim1,...,dimN) D = cell(obj)

Where,

C is the cell array; dim is a scalar integer or vector of integers that specifies the dimensions of cell array C; dim1, ... , dimN are scalar integers that specify the dimensions of C; obj is One of the following:

o o

Java array or object .NET array of type System.String or System.Object

Example
Create a script file and type the following code into it: c = cell(2,5); c ={'Red','Blue','Green','Yellow','White';12345} When you run the file, it displays the following result: c = 'Red' [ 1] 'Blue' [ 2] 'Green' [ 3] 'Yellow' [ 4] 'White' [ 5]

Accessing Data in Cell Arrays

There are two ways to refer to the elements of a cell array:

Enclosing the indices in first bracket (), to refer to sets of cells Enclosing the indices in braces {}, to refer to the data within individual cells

When you enclose the indices in first bracket, it refers to the set of cells. Cell array indices in smooth parentheses refer to sets of cells. For example: c ={'Red','Blue','Green','Yellow','White';12345}; c(1:2,1:2) MATLAB will execute the above statement and return the following result: ans = 'Red' [ 1] 'Blue' [ 2]

You can also access the contents of cells by indexing with curly braces. For example: c ={'Red','Blue','Green','Yellow','White';12345};

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c{1,2:4} MATLAB will execute the above statement and return the following result: ans = Blue ans = Green ans = Yellow

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14
Colon Notation

CHAPTER

T
1:10

hecolon(:) is one of the most useful operator in MATLAB. It is used to create vectors, subscript arrays,

and specify for iterations. If you want to create a row vector, containing integers from 1 to 10, you write:

MATLAB executes the statement and returns a row vector containing the integers from 1 to 10: ans = 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10

If you want to specify an increment value other than one, for example: 100:-5:50 MATLAB executes the statement and returns the following result: ans = 100 95 90 85 80 75 70 65 60 55 50

Let us take another example: 0:pi/8:pi MATLAB executes the statement and returns the following result: ans = Columns 1 through 7 0 0.3927 Columns 8 through 9 2.7489 3.1416

0.7854

1.1781

1.5708

1.9635

2.3562

You can use the colon operator to create a vector of indices to select rows, columns or elements of arrays. The following table describes its use for this purpose (let us have a matrix A):

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Format A(:,j) A(i,:) A(:,:) A(j:k) A(:,j:k) A(:,:,k) A(i,j,k,:)

Purpose is the jth column of A. is the ith row of A. is the equivalent two-dimensional array. For matrices this is the same as A. is A(j), A(j+1),...,A(k). is A(:,j), A(:,j+1),...,A(:,k). is the kth page of three-dimensional array A. is a vector in four-dimensional array A. The vector includes A(i,j,k,1), A(i,j,k,2), A(i,j,k,3), and so on. is all the elements of A, regarded as a single column. On the left side of an assignment statement, A(:) fills A, preserving its shape from before. In this case, the right side must contain the same number of elements as A.

A(:)

Example
Create a script file and type the following code in it: A =[1234;4567;78910] A(:,2)% second column of A A(:,2:3)% second and third column of A A(2:3,2:3)% second and third rows and second and third columns When you run the file, it displays the following result: A = 1 4 7 ans = 2 5 8 ans = 2 5 8 ans = 5 8 3 6 9 6 9 2 5 8 3 6 9 4 7 10

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15
Numbers

CHAPTER

M
Function Double Single int8 int16 int32 int64 uint8 uint16 uint32 uint64

ATLAB supports various numeric classes that include signed and unsigned integers and single-precision and

double-precision floating-point numbers. By default, MATLAB stores all numeric values as double-precision floating point numbers. You can choose to store any number or array of numbers as integers or as single-precision numbers. All numeric types support basic array operations and mathematical operations.

Conversion to Various Numeric Data Types

MATLAB provides the following functions to convert to various numeric data types: Purpose Converts to double precision number Converts to single precision number Converts to 8-bit signed integer Converts to 16-bit signed integer Converts to 32-bit signed integer Converts to 64-bit signed integer Converts to 8-bit unsigned integer Converts to 16-bit unsigned integer Converts to 32-bit unsigned integer Converts to 64-bit unsigned integer

Example
Create a script file and type the following code:

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x x x x x x

= single([5.323.476.28]).*7.5 =double([5.323.476.28]).*7.5 = int8([5.323.476.28]).*7.5 = int16([5.323.476.28]).*7.5 = int32([5.323.476.28]).*7.5 = int64([5.323.476.28]).*7.5

When you run the file, it shows the following result: x = 39.9000 x = 26.0250 47.1000

39.9000 26.0250 47.1000 x = 38 23 45 x = 38 23 45 x = 38 23 x = 38

45 23 45

Example
Let us extend the previous example a little more. Create a script file and type the following code: x = int32([5.323.476.28]).*7.5 x = int64([5.323.476.28]).*7.5 x = num2cell(x) When you run the file, it shows the following result: x = 38 x = 38 x = [38] [23] [45] 23 45 23 45

Smallest and Largest Integers

The functions intmax() and intmin() return the maximum and minimum values that can be represented with all types of integer numbers. Both the functions take the integer data type as the argument, for example, intmax(int8) or intmin(int64) and return the maximum and minimum values that you can represent with the integer data type.

Example
The following example illustrates how to obtain the smallest and largest values of integers. Create a script file and write the following code in it: % displaying the smallest and largest signed integer data str ='The range for int8 is:\n\t%d to %d '; sprintf(str, intmin('int8'), intmax('int8')) str ='The range for int16 is:\n\t%d to %d ';

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sprintf(str, intmin('int16'), intmax('int16')) str ='The range for int32 is:\n\t%d to %d '; sprintf(str, intmin('int32'), intmax('int32')) str ='The range for int64 is:\n\t%d to %d '; sprintf(str, intmin('int64'), intmax('int64')) % displaying the smallest and largest unsigned integer data str ='The range for uint8 is:\n\t%d to %d '; sprintf(str, intmin('uint8'), intmax('uint8')) str ='The range for uint16 is:\n\t%d to %d '; sprintf(str, intmin('uint16'), intmax('uint16')) str ='The range for uint32 is:\n\t%d to %d '; sprintf(str, intmin('uint32'), intmax('uint32')) str ='The range for uint64 is:\n\t%d to %d '; sprintf(str, intmin('uint64'), intmax('uint64')) When you run the file, it shows the following result: ans = The range for int8 is: -128 to 127 ans = The range for int16 is: -32768 to 32767 ans = The range for int32 is: -2147483648 to 2147483647 ans = The range for int64 is: -9223372036854775808 to 9223372036854775807 ans = The range for uint8 is: 0 to 255 ans = The range for uint16 is: 0 to 65535 ans = The range for uint32 is: 0 to 4294967295 ans = The range for uint64 is: 0 to 1.844674e+19

Smallest and Largest Floating Point Numbers

The functions realmax() and realmin() return the maximum and minimum values that can be represented with floating point numbers. Both the functions when called with the argument 'single', return the maximum and minimum values that you can represent with the single-precision data type and when called with the argument 'double', return the maximum and minimum values that you can represent with the double-precision data type.

Example
The following example illustrates how to obtain the smallest and largest floating point numbers. Create a script file and write the following code in it:

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% displaying the smallest and largest single-precision % floating point number str ='The range for single is:\n\t%g to %g and\n\t %g to sprintf(str,-realmax('single'),-realmin('single'),... realmin('single'), realmax('single')) % displaying the smallest and largest double-precision % floating point number str ='The range for double is:\n\t%g to %g and\n\t %g to sprintf(str,-realmax('double'),-realmin('double'),... realmin('double'), realmax('double')) When you run the file, it displays the following result: ans = The range for single is: -3.40282e+38 to -1.17549e-38 and 1.17549e-38 to 3.40282e+38 ans = The range for double is: -1.79769e+308 to -2.22507e-308 and 2.22507e-308 to 1.79769e+308

%g';

%g';

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16
Strings

CHAPTER

C
whos

reating a character string is quite simple in MATLAB. In fact, we have used it many times. For example,

you type the following in the command prompt: my_string ='Tutorial''s Point' MATLAB will execute the above statement and return the following result: my_string = Tutorial's Point MATLAB considers all variables as arrays, and strings are considered as character arrays. Let us use the whos command to check the variable created above:

MATLAB will execute the above statement and return the following result: Name my_string Size 1x16 Bytes 32 Class char Attributes

Interestingly, you can use numeric conversion functions like uint8 or uint16 to convert the characters in the string to their numeric codes. The char function converts the integer vector back to characters:

Example
Create a script file and type the following code into it: my_string ='Tutorial''s Point'; str_ascii = uint8(my_string)%8-bit ascii values str_back_to_char=char(str_ascii) str_16bit = uint16(my_string)%16-bit ascii values str_back_to_char =char(str_16bit) When you run the file, it displays the following result: str_ascii = Columns 1 through 14

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84 117 116 111 114 105 Columns 15 through 16 110 116 str_back_to_char = Tutorial's Point str_16bit = Columns 1 through 10 84 117 116 111 Columns 11 through 16 32 80 111 105 str_back_to_char = Tutorial's Point

97

108

39

115

32

80

111

105

114 110

105 116

97

108

39

115

Rectangular Character Array

The strings we have discussed so far are one-dimensional character arrays; however, we need to store more than that. We need to store more dimensional textual data in our program. This is achieved by creating rectangular character arrays. Simplest way of creating a rectangular character array is by concatenating two or more one-dimensional character arrays, either vertically or horizontally as required. You can combine strings vertically in either of the following ways:

Using the MATLAB concatenation operator [] and separating each row with a semicolon (;). Please note that in this method each row must contain the same number of characters. For strings with different lengths, you should pad with space characters as needed. Using the char function. If the strings are different length, char pads the shorter strings with trailing blanks so that each row has the same number of characters.

Example
Create a script file and type the following code into it: doc_profile =['Zara Ali 'Sr. Surgeon ';... 'R N Tagore Cardiology Research Center'] doc_profile =char('Zara Ali','Sr. Surgeon',... 'RN Tagore Cardiology Research Center') When you run the file, it displays the following result: doc_profile = Zara Ali Sr. Surgeon R N Tagore Cardiology Research Center doc_profile = Zara Ali Sr. Surgeon RN Tagore Cardiology Research Center You can combine strings horizontally in either of the following ways: ';...

Using the MATLAB concatenation operator, [] and separating the input strings with a comma or a space. This method preserves any trailing spaces in the input arrays. Using the string concatenation function, strcat. This method removes trailing spaces in the inputs

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Example
Create a script file and type the following code into it: name ='Zara Ali '; position ='Sr. Surgeon '; worksAt ='R N Tagore Cardiology Research Center'; profile =[name ', ' position ', ' worksAt] profile = strcat(name,', ', position,', ', worksAt) When you run the file, it displays the following result: profile = Zara Ali , Sr. Surgeon Tagore Cardiology Research Center profile = Zara Ali,Sr. Surgeon,R N Tagore Cardiology Research Center , R N

Combining Strings into a Cell Array

From our previous discussion, it is clear that combining strings with different lengths could be a pain as all strings in the array has to be of the same length. We have used blank spaces at the end of strings to equalize their length. However, a more efficient way to combine the strings is to convert the resulting array into a cell array. MATLAB cell array can hold different sizes and types of data in an array. Cell arrays provide a more flexible way to store strings of varying length. The cellstr function converts a character array into a cell array of strings.

Example
Create a script file and type the following code into it: name ='Zara Ali '; position ='Sr. Surgeon '; worksAt ='R N Tagore Cardiology Research Center'; profile =char(name, position, worksAt); profile = cellstr(profile); disp(profile) When you run the file, it displays the following result: 'Zara Ali' 'Sr. Surgeon' 'R N Tagore Cardiology Research Center'

String Functions in MATLAB

MATLAB provides numerous string functions creating, combining, parsing, comparing and manipulating strings. Following table provides brief description of the string functions in MATLAB: Function Purpose

Functions for storing text in character arrays, combine character arrays, etc.

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Blanks Cellstr Char Iscellstr Ischar Sprint Strcat Strjoin

Create string of blank characters Create cell array of strings from character array Convert to character array (string) Determine whether input is cell array of strings Determine whether item is character array Format data into string Concatenate strings horizontally Join strings in cell array into single string

Functions for identifying parts of strings, find and replace substrings Ischar Isletter Isspace Isstrprop Sscanf Strfind Strrep Strsplit Strtok Validatestring Symvar Regexp Regexpi Regexprep Regexptranslate Determine whether item is character array Array elements that are alphabetic letters Array elements that are space characters Determine whether string is of specified category Read formatted data from string Find one string within another Find and replace substring Split string at specified delimiter Selected parts of string Check validity of text string Determine symbolic variables in expression Match regular expression (case sensitive) Match regular expression (case insensitive) Replace string using regular expression Translate string into regular expression

Functions for string comparison Strcmp Strcmpi Strncmp Strncmpi Compare strings (case sensitive) Compare strings (case insensitive) Compare first n characters of strings (case sensitive) Compare first n characters of strings (case insensitive)

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Functions for changing string to upper- or lowercase, creating or removing white space Deblank Strtrim Lower Upper Strjust Strip trailing blanks from end of string Remove leading and trailing white space from string Convert string to lowercase Convert string to uppercase Justify character array

EXAMPLES
The following examples illustrate some of the above-mentioned string functions:

FORMATTING STRINGS
Create a script file and type the following code into it: A = pi*1000*ones(1,5); sprintf(' %f \n %.2f \n %+.2f \n %12.2f \n %012.2f \n', A) When you run the file, it displays the following result: ans = 3141.592654 3141.59 +3141.59 3141.59 000003141.59

JOINING STRINGS
Create a script file and type the following code into it: %cell array of strings str_array ={'red','blue','green','yellow','orange'}; %Join strings in cell array into single string str1 = strjoin("-", str_array) str2 = strjoin(",", str_array) When you run the file, it displays the following result: str1 = red blue green yellow orange str2 = red , blue , green , yellow , orange

FINDING AND REPLACING STRINGS

Create a script file and type the following code into it: students ={'Zara Ali','Neha Bhatnagar',... 'Monica Malik','Madhu Gautam',...

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'Madhu Sharma','Bhawna Sharma',... 'Nuha Ali','Reva Dutta',... 'Sunaina Ali','Sofia Kabir'}; %The strrep function searches and replaces sub-string. new_student = strrep(students(8),'Reva','Poulomi') %Display first names first_names = strtok(students) When you run the file, it displays the following result: new_student = 'Poulomi Dutta' first_names = Columns 1 through 6 'Zara' 'Neha' Columns 7 through 10 'Nuha' 'Reva'

'Monica' 'Sunaina'

'Madhu' 'Sofia'

'Madhu'

'Bhawna'

COMPARING STRINGS
Create a script file and type the following code into it: str1 ='This is test' str2 ='This is text' if(strcmp(str1, str2)) sprintf('%s and %s are equal', str1, str2) else sprintf('%s and %s are not equal', str1, str2) end When you run the file, it displays the following result: str1 = This is test str2 = This is text ans = This is test and This is text are not equal

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17
Functions

CHAPTER

function is a group of statements that together perform a task. In MATLAB, functions are defined in

separate files. The name of the file and of the function should be the same. Functions operate on variables within their own workspace, which is also called the local workspace, separate from the workspace you access at the MATLAB command prompt which is called the base workspace. Functions can accept more than one input arguments and may return more than one output arguments Syntax of a function statement is: function[out1,out2,..., outN]= myfun(in1,in2,in3,..., inN)

Example
The following function named mymax should be written in a file named mymax.m. It takes five numbers as argument and returns the maximum of the numbers. Create a function file, named mymax.m and type the following code in it: function max = mymax(n1, n2, n3, n4, n5) %Thisfunction calculates the maximum of the % five numbers given as input max = n1; if(n2 > max) max = n2; end if(n3 > max) max = n3; end if(n4 > max) max = n4; end if(n5 > max) max = n5; end The first line of a function starts with the keyword function. It gives the name of the function and order of arguments. In our example, the mymax function has five input arguments and one output argument. The comment lines that come right after the function statement provide the help text. These lines are printed when you type:

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help mymax MATLAB will execute the above statement and return the following result: This function calculates the maximum of the five numbers given as input You can call the function as: mymax(34,78,89,23,11) MATLAB will execute the above statement and return the following result: ans = 89

Anonymous Functions
An anonymous function is like an inline function in traditional programming languages, defined within a single MATLAB statement. It consists of a single MATLAB expression and any number of input and output arguments. You can define an anonymous function right at the MATLAB command line or within a function or script. This way you can create simple functions without having to create a file for them. The syntax for creating an anonymous function from an expression is f =@(arglist)expression

Example
In this example, we will write an anonymous function named power, which will take two numbers as input and return first number raised to the power of the second number. Create a script file and type the following code in it: power =@(x, n) x.^n; result1 = power(7,3) result2 = power(49,0.5) result3 = power(10,-10) result4 = power (4.5,1.5) When you run the file, it displays: result1 = 343 result2 = 7 result3 = 1.0000e-10 result4 = 9.5459

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Primary and Sub-Functions

Any function other than an anonymous function must be defined within a file. Each function file contains a required primary function that appears first and any number of optional sub-functions that comes after the primary function and used by it. Primary functions can be called from outside of the file that defines them, either from command line or from other functions, but sub-functions cannot be called from command line or other functions, outside the function file. Sub-functions are visible only to the primary function and other sub-functions within the function file that defines them.

Example
Let us write a function named quadratic that would calculate the roots of a quadratic equation. The function would take three inputs, the quadratic co-efficient, the linear co-efficient and the constant term. It would return the roots. The function file quadratic.m will contain the primary function quadratic and the sub-function disc, which calculates the discriminant. Create a function file quadratic.m and type the following code in it: function[x1,x2]= quadratic(a,b,c) %thisfunction returns the roots of % a quadratic equation. %It takes 3 input arguments % which are the co-efficients of x2, x and the %constant term %It returns the roots d = disc(a,b,c); x1 =(-b + d)/(2*a); x2 =(-b - d)/(2*a); end%end of quadratic function dis = disc(a,b,c) %function calculates the discriminant dis = sqrt(b^2-4*a*c); end%end of sub-function You can call the above function from command prompt as: quadratic(2,4,-4) MATLAB will execute the above statement and return the following result: ans = 0.7321

Nested Functions
You can define functions within the body of another function. These are called nested functions. A nested function contains any or all of the components of any other function. Nested functions are defined within the scope of another function and they share access to the containing function's workspace.

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A nested function follows the following syntax: function x = A(p1, p2) ... B(p2) function y = B(p3) ... end ... end

Example
Let us rewrite the function quadratic, from previous example, however, this time the disc function will be a nested function. Create a function file quadratic2.m and type the following code in it: function[x1,x2]= quadratic2(a,b,c) function disc % nested function d = sqrt(b^2-4*a*c); end%end of function disc disc; x1 =(-b + d)/(2*a); x2 =(-b - d)/(2*a); end%end of function quadratic2 You can call the above function from command prompt as: quadratic2(2,4,-4) MATLAB will execute the above statement and return the following result: ans = 0.7321

Private Functions
A private function is a primary function that is visible only to a limited group of other functions. If you do not want to expose the implementation of a function(s), you can create them as private functions. Private functions reside in subfolders with the special name private. They are visible only to functions in the parent folder.

Example
Let us rewrite the quadratic function. This time, however, the disc function calculating the discriminant, will be a private function. Create a subfolder named private in working directory. Store the following function file disc.m in it: function dis = disc(a,b,c) %function calculates the discriminant dis = sqrt(b^2-4*a*c); end%end of sub-function Create a function quadratic3.m in your working directory and type the following code in it:

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function[x1,x2]= quadratic3(a,b,c) %thisfunction returns the roots of % a quadratic equation. %It takes 3 input arguments % which are the co-efficients of x2, x and the %constant term %It returns the roots d = disc(a,b,c); x1 =(-b + d)/(2*a); x2 =(-b - d)/(2*a); end%end of quadratic3 You can call the above function from command prompt as: quadratic3(2,4,-4) MATLAB will execute the above statement and return the following result: ans = 0.7321

Global Variables
Global variables can be shared by more than one function. For this, you need to declare the variable as global in all the functions. If you want to access that variable from the base workspace, then declare the variable at the command line. The global declaration must occur before the variable is actually used in a function. It is a good practice to use capital letters for the names of global variables to distinguish them from other variables.

Example
Let us create a function file named average.m and type the following code in it: function avg = average(nums) global TOTAL avg = sum(nums)/TOTAL; end Create a script file and type the following code in it: global TOTAL; TOTAL =10; n =[34,45,25,45,33,19,40,34,38,42]; av = average(n) When you run the file, it will display the following result: av = 35.5000

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18
Data Import

CHAPTER

I
1 2 3

mporting data in MATLAB means loading data from an external file. The importdata function allows loading

various data files of different formats. It has the following five forms: S.N. Function and Description A = importdata(filename) Loads data into array A from the file denoted by filename. A = importdata('-pastespecial') Loads data from the system clipboard rather than from a file. A = importdata(___, delimiterIn) Interprets delimiterIn as the column separator in ASCII file, filename, or the clipboard data. You can use delimiterIn with any of the input arguments in the above syntaxes. A = importdata(___, delimiterIn, headerlinesIn) Loads data from ASCII file, filename, or the clipboard, reading numeric data starting from lineheaderlinesIn+1. [A, delimiterOut, headerlinesOut] = importdata(___) dditionally returns the detected delimiter character for the input ASCII file in delimiterOut and the detected number of header lines in headerlinesOut, using any of the input arguments in the previous syntaxes.

By default, Octave does not have support for importdata() function, so you will have to search and install this package to make following examples work with your Octave installation.

Example 1
Let us load and display an image file. Create a script file and type the following code in it: filename ='smile.jpg'; A = importdata(filename); image(A); When you run the file, MATLAB displays the image file. However, you must store it in the current directory.

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Example 2
In this example, we import a text file and specify Delimiter and Column Header. Let us create a space-delimited ASCII file with column headers, named weeklydata.txt. Our text file weeklydata.txt looks like this: SunDay 95.01 73.11 60.68 48.60 89.13 MonDay 76.21 45.65 41.85 82.14 44.47 TuesDay 61.54 79.19 92.18 73.82 57.63 WednesDay 40.57 93.55 91.69 41.03 89.36 ThursDay 55.79 75.29 81.32 0.99 13.89 FriDay 70.28 69.87 90.38 67.22 19.88 SatureDay 81.53 74.68 74.51 93.18 46.60

Create a script file and type the following code in it: filename ='weeklydata.txt'; delimiterIn =' '; headerlinesIn =1; A = importdata(filename,delimiterIn,headerlinesIn); %View data for k =[1:7] disp(A.colheaders{1, k}) disp(A.data(:, k)) disp(' ') end When you run the file, it displays the following result: SunDay 95.0100 73.1100 60.6800 48.6000 89.1300 MonDay 76.2100 45.6500 41.8500 82.1400 44.4700

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TuesDay 61.5400 79.1900 92.1800 73.8200 57.6300 WednesDay 40.5700 93.5500 91.6900 41.0300 89.3600 ThursDay 55.7900 75.2900 81.3200 0.9900 13.8900 FriDay 70.2800 69.8700 90.3800 67.2200 19.8800 SatureDay 81.5300 74.6800 74.5100 93.1800 46.6000

Example 3
In this example, let us import data from clipboard. Copy the following lines to the clipboard:

Mathematics is simple
Create a script file and type the following code: A = importdata('-pastespecial') When you run the file, it displays the following result: A = 'Mathematics is simple'

Low-Level File I/O

The importdata function is a high-level function. The low-level file I/O functions in MATLAB allow the most control over reading or writing data to a file. However, these functions need more detailed information about your file to work efficiently.

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MATLAB provides the following functions for read and write operations at the byte or character level: Function Fclose Feof Ferror Fgetl Fgets Fopen Fprintf Fread Frewind Fscanf Fseek Ftell Fwrite Description Close one or all open files Test for end-of-file Information about file I/O errors Read line from file, removing newline characters Read line from file, keeping newline characters Open file, or obtain information about open files Write data to text file Read data from binary file Move file position indicator to beginning of open file Read data from text file Move to specified position in file Position in open file Write data to binary file

Import Text Data Files with Low-Level I/O

MATLAB provides the following functions for low-level import of text data files:

The fscanf function reads formatted data in a text or ASCII file. The fgetl and fgets functions read one line of a file at a time, where a newline character separates each line. The fread function reads a stream of data at the byte or bit level.

Example
We have a text data file 'myfile.txt' saved in our working directory. The file stores rainfall data for three months; June, July and August for the year 2012. The data in myfile.txt contains repeated sets of time, month and rainfall measurements at five places. The header data stores the number of months M; so we have M sets of measurements. The file looks like this: Rainfall Data Months: June, July, August M=3 12:00:00 June-2012 17.21 28.52 19.15 0.35 17.92 28.49

39.78 17.57 17.40

16.55 23.67 NaN 12.01 17.06 11.09

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9.59 9.33 10.46 13.17 20.97 19.50 18.23 10.34 09:10:02 July-2012 12.76 16.94 20.46 23.17 30.97 49.50 18.23 30.34 30.46 33.17 30.97 49.50 28.67 30.34 15:03:40 August-2012 17.09 16.55 17.54 11.45 NaN 21.19 26.79 24.98 17.54 11.45 NaN 21.19 26.79 24.98

NaN NaN 17.65 17.95 14.38 NaN 47.65 27.95 NaN 47.65 27.95 19.59 13.48 25.85 12.23 13.48 25.85 12.23

0.31 14.89 14.45 16.46 11.86 24.89 24.45 16.46 34.89 24.45 36.46 17.25 22.55 25.05 16.99 22.55 25.05 16.99

0.23 19.33 14.00 19.34 16.89 19.33 34.00 19.34 29.33 34.00 29.34 19.22 24.01 27.21 18.67 24.01 27.21 18.67

We will import data from this file and display this data. Take the following steps: 1. 2. 3. Open the file with fopen function and get the file identifier. Describe the data in the file with format specifiers, such as '%s' for a string, '%d' for an integer, or '%f' for a floating-point number. To skip literal characters in the file, include them in the format description. To skip a data field, use an asterisk ('*') in the specifier.

For example, to read the headers and return the single value for M, we write: M = fscanf(fid,'%*s %*s\n%*s %*s %*s %*s\nM=%d\n\n',1); 4. By default, fscanf reads data according to our format description until it cannot match the description to the data, or it reaches the end of the file. Here we will use for loop for reading 3 sets of data and each time, it will read 7 rows and 5 columns. We will create a structure named mydata in the workspace to store data read from the file. This structure has three fields - time, month, and raindata array.

5.

Create a script file and type the following code in it: filename ='/data/myfile.txt'; rows =7; cols =5; % open the file fid = fopen(filename); % read the file headers, find M (number of months) M = fscanf(fid,'%*s %*s\n%*s %*s %*s %*s\nM=%d\n\n',1); % read each set of measurements for n =1:M mydata(n).time = fscanf(fid,'%s',1); mydata(n).month = fscanf(fid,'%s',1);

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% fscanf fills the array in column order, % so transpose the results mydata(n).raindata =... fscanf(fid,'%f',[rows, cols]); end for n =1:M disp(mydata(n).time), disp(mydata(n).month) disp(mydata(n).raindata) end % close the file fclose(fid); When you run the file, it displays the following result: 12:00:00 June-2012 17.2100 28.5200 39.7800 16.5500 23.6700 19.1500 0.3500 09:10:02 July-2012 12.7600 16.9400 14.3800 11.8600 16.8900 20.4600 23.1700 15:03:40 August-2012 17.0900 16.5500 19.5900 17.2500 19.2200 17.5400 11.4500

17.5700 NaN 12.0100 17.9200 28.4900 17.4000 17.0600

11.0900 9.5900 9.3300 NaN 0.3100 0.2300 10.4600

13.1700 NaN 14.8900 19.3300 20.9700 19.5000 17.6500

14.4500 14.0000 18.2300 10.3400 17.9500 16.4600 19.3400

NaN 24.8900 19.3300 30.9700 49.5000 47.6500 24.4500

34.0000 18.2300 30.3400 27.9500 16.4600 19.3400 30.4600

33.1700 NaN 34.8900 29.3300 30.9700 49.5000 47.6500

24.4500 34.0000 28.6700 30.3400 27.9500 36.4600 29.3400

13.4800 22.5500 24.0100 NaN 21.1900 25.8500 25.0500

27.2100 26.7900 24.9800 12.2300 16.9900 18.6700 17.5400

11.4500 13.4800 22.5500 24.0100 NaN 21.1900 25.8500

25.0500 27.2100 26.7900 24.9800 12.2300 16.9900 18.6700

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19
Data Export

CHAPTER

ata export in MATLAB means to write into files. MATLAB allows you to use your data in another

application that reads ASCII files. For this, MATLAB provides several data export options. You can create the following type of files: Rectangular, delimited ASCII data file from an array. Diary (or log) file of keystrokes and the resulting text output. Specialized ASCII file using low-level functions such as fprintf. MEX-file to access your C/C++ or Fortran routine that writes to a particular text file format.

Apart from this, you can also export data to spreadsheets. There are two ways to export a numeric array as a delimited ASCII data file:

Using the save function and specifying the -ASCII qualifier Using the dlmwrite function

Syntax for using the save function is: save my_data.out num_array -ASCII where, my_data.out is the delimited ASCII data file created, num_array is a numeric array and ASCIIis the specifier. Syntax for using the dlmwrite function is: dlmwrite('my_data.out', num_array, 'dlm_char') where, my_data.out is the delimited ASCII data file created, num_array is a numeric array anddlm_char is the delimiter character.

Example
The following example demonstrates the concept. Create a script file and type the following code:

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num_array = [ 1 2 3 4 ; 4 5 6 7; 7 8 9 0]; save array_data1.out num_array -ASCII; type array_data1.out dlmwrite('array_data2.out', num_array, ' '); type array_data2.out When you run the file, it displays the following result: 1.0000000e+00 4.0000000e+00 7.0000000e+00 1 2 3 4 4 5 6 7 7 8 9 0 Please note that the save -ascii command and the dlmwrite command does not work with cell arrays as input. To create a delimited ASCII file from the contents of a cell array, you can 2.0000000e+00 5.0000000e+00 8.0000000e+00 3.0000000e+00 6.0000000e+00 9.0000000e+00 4.0000000e+00 7.0000000e+00 0.0000000e+00

Either, convert the cell array to a matrix using the cell2mat function Or export the cell array using low-level file I/O functions.

If you use the save function to write a character array to an ASCII file, it writes the ASCII equivalent of the characters to the file. For example, let us write the word 'hello' to a file: h = 'hello'; save textdata.out h -ascii type textdata.out MATLAB executes the above statements and displays the following result: 1.0400000e+02 1.0100000e+02 1.0800000e+02 1.0800000e+02 1.1100000e+02

Which are the characters of the string 'hello' in 8-digit ASCII format.

Writing to Diary Files

Diary files are activity logs of your MATLAB session. The diary function creates an exact copy of your session in a disk file, excluding graphics. To turn on the diary function, type: diary Optionally, you can give the name of the log file, say: diary logdata.out To turn off the diary function:

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diary off You can open the diary file in a text editor.

Exporting Data to Text Data Files with Low-Level I/O

So far, we have exported numeric arrays. However, you may need to create other text files, including combinations of numeric and character data, nonrectangular output files, or files with non-ASCII encoding schemes. For these purposes, MATLAB provides the low-level fprintf function. As in low-level I/O file activities, before exporting, you need to open or create a file with the fopenfunction and get the file identifier. By default, fopen opens a file for read-only access. You should specify the permission to write or append, such as 'w' or 'a'. After processing the file, you need to close it with fclose(fid) function. The following example demonstrates the concept:

Example
Create a script file and type the following code in it: % create a matrix y, with two rows x = 0:10:100; y = [x; log(x)]; % open a file for writing fid = fopen('logtable.txt', 'w'); % Table Header fprintf(fid, 'Log Function\n\n');

% print values in column order % two values appear on each row of the file fprintf(fid, '%f %f\n', y); fclose(fid); % display the file created type logtable.txt When you run the file, it displays the following result: Log Function -Inf 2.302585 2.995732 3.401197 3.688879 3.912023 4.094345 4.248495 4.382027 4.499810 4.605170

0.000000 10.000000 20.000000 30.000000 40.000000 50.000000 60.000000 70.000000 80.000000 90.000000 100.000000

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20
Plotting

CHAPTER

T
1. 2. 3.

o plot the graph of a function, you need to take the following steps:

Define x, by specifying the range of values for the variable x, for which the function is to be plotted Define the function, y = f(x) Call the plot command, as plot(x, y)

Following example would demonstrate the concept. Let us plot the simple function y = x for the range of values for x from 0 to 100, with an increment of 5. Create a script file and type the following code: x =[0:5:100]; y = x; plot(x, y) When you run the file, MATLAB displays the following plot:

Let us take one more example to plot the function y = x2. In this example, we will draw two graphs with the same function, but in second time, we will reduce the value of increment. Please note that as we decrease the increment, the graph becomes smoother.

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Create a script file and type the following code: x =[12345678910]; x =[-100:20:100]; y = x.^2; plot(x, y) When you run the file, MATLAB displays the following plot:

Change the code file a little, reduce the increment to 5: x =[-100:5:100]; y = x.^2; plot(x, y) MATLAB draws a smoother graph:

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Adding Title, Labels, Grid Lines and Scaling on the Graph

MATLAB allows you to add title, labels along the x-axis and y-axis, grid lines and also to adjust the axes to spruce up the graph.

The xlabel and ylabel commands generate labels along x-axis and y-axis. The title command allows you to put a title on the graph. The grid on command allows you to put the grid lines on the graph. The axis equal command allows generating the plot with the same scale factors and the spaces on both axes. The axis square command generates a square plot.

Example
Create a script file and type the following code: x =[0:0.01:10]; y = sin(x); plot(x, y), xlabel('x'), ylabel('Sin(x)'), title('Sin(x) Graph'), grid on, axis equal MATLAB generates the following graph:

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Drawing Multiple Functions on the Same Graph

You can draw multiple graphs on the same plot. The following example demonstrates the concept:

Example
Create a script file and type the following code: x =[0:0.01:10]; y = sin(x); g = cos(x); plot(x, y, x, g,'.-'), legend('Sin(x)','Cos(x)') MATLAB generates the following graph:

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Setting Colors on Graph

MATLAB provides eight basic color options for drawing graphs. The following table shows the colors and their codes: Color White Black Blue Red Cyan Green Magenta Yellow Code w k b r c g m y

Example
Let us draw the graph of two polynomials 1. 2. f(x) = 3x4 + 2x3+ 7x2 + 2x + 9 and g(x) = 5x3 + 9x + 2

Create a script file and type the following code: x =[-10:0.01:10]; y =3*x.^4+2* x.^3+7* x.^2+2* x +9; g =5* x.^3+9* x +2;

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plot(x, y,'r', x, g,'g') When you run the file, MATLAB generates the following graph:

Setting Axis Scales

The axis command allows you to set the axis scales. You can provide minimum and maximum values for x and y axes using the axis command in the following way: axis ([xmin xmax ymin ymax]) The following example shows this:

Example
Create a script file and type the following code: x =[0:0.01:10]; y = exp(-x).* sin(2*x +3); plot(x, y), axis([010-11]) When you run the file, MATLAB generates the following graph:

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Generating Sub-Plots
When you create an array of plots in the same figure, each of these plots is called a subplot. Thesubplot command is for creating subplots. Syntax for the command is: subplot(m, n, p) where, m and n are the number of rows and columns of the plot array and p specifies where to put a particular plot. Each plot created with the subplot command can have its own characteristics. Following example demonstrates the concept:

Example
Let us generate two plots: y = e1.5xsin(10x) y = e2xsin(10x) Create a script file and type the following code: x =[0:0.01:5]; y = exp(-1.5*x).*sin(10*x); subplot(1,2,1) plot(x,y), xlabel('x'),ylabel('exp(1.5x)*sin(10x)'),axis([05-11]) y = exp(-2*x).*sin(10*x); subplot(1,2,2) plot(x,y),xlabel('x'),ylabel('exp(2x)*sin(10x)'),axis([05-11]) When you run the file, MATLAB generates the following graph:

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21
Graphics

CHAPTER

his chapter will continue exploring the plotting and graphics capabilities of MATLAB. We will discuss:

Drawing bar charts Drawing contours Three dimensional plots

Drawing Bar Charts

The bar command draws a two dimensional bar chart. Let us take up an example to demonstrate the idea.

Example
Let us have an imaginary classroom with 10 students. We know the percent of marks obtained by these students are 75, 58, 90, 87, 50, 85, 92, 75, 60 and 95. We will draw the bar chart for this data. Create a script file and type the following code: x =[1:10]; y =[75,58,90,87,50,85,92,75,60,95]; bar(x,y), xlabel('Student'),ylabel('Score'), title('First Sem:') print-deps graph.eps When you run the file, MATLAB displays the following bar chart:

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Drawing Contours
A contour line of a function of two variables is a curve along which the function has a constant value. Contour lines are used for creating contour maps by joining points of equal elevation above a given level, such as mean sea level. MATLAB provides a contour function for drawing contour maps.

Example
Let us generate a contour map that shows the contour lines for a given function g = f(x, y). This function has two variables. So, we will have to generate two independent variables, i.e., two data sets x and y. This is done by calling the meshgrid command. The meshgrid command is used for generating a matrix of elements that give the range over x and y along with the specification of increment in each case. Let us plot our function g = f(x, y), where 5 x 5, 3 y 3. Let us take an increment of 0.1 for both the values. The variables are set as: [x,y]= meshgrid(5:0.1:5,3:0.1:3); Lastly, we need to assign the function. Let our function be: x2 + y2 Create a script file and type the following code: [x,y]= meshgrid(-5:0.1:5,-3:0.1:3);%independent variables g = x.^2+ y.^2;%ourfunction contour(x,y,g)% call the contour function print-deps graph.eps When you run the file, MATLAB displays the following contour map:

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Let us modify the code a little to spruce up the map: [x,y]= meshgrid(-5:0.1:5,-3:0.1:3);%independent variables g = x.^2+ y.^2;%ourfunction [C, h]= contour(x,y,g);% call the contour function set(h,'ShowText','on','TextStep',get(h,'LevelStep')*2) print-deps graph.eps When you run the file, MATLAB displays the following contour map:

Three Dimensional Plots

Three-dimensional plots basically display a surface defined by a function in two variables, g = f (x,y).

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As before, to define g, we first create a set of (x,y) points over the domain of the function using themeshgrid command. Next, we assign the function itself. Finally, we use the surf command to create a surface plot. The following example demonstrates the concept:

Example
Let us create a 3D surface map for the function g = xe-(x2 + y2) Create a script file and type the following code: [x,y]= meshgrid(-2:.2:2); g = x .* exp(-x.^2- y.^2); surf(x, y, g) print-deps graph.eps When you run the file, MATLAB displays the following 3-D map:

You can also use the mesh command to generate a three-dimensional surface. However, the surfcommand displays both the connecting lines and the faces of the surface in color, whereas, the meshcommand creates a wireframe surface with colored lines connecting the defining points.

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22
Algebra

CHAPTER

o far,we have seen that all the examples work in MATLAB as well as its GNU, alternatively called Octave.

But for solving basic algebraic equations, both MATLAB and Octave are little different, so we will try to cover MATLAB and Octave in separate sections. We will also discuss factorizing and simplification of algebraic expressions.

Solving Basic Algebraic Equations in MATLAB

The solve command is used for solving algebraic equations. In its simplest form, the solve function takes the equation enclosed in quotes as an argument. For example, let us solve for x in the equation x-5 = 0 solve('x-5=0') MATLAB will execute the above statement and return the following result: ans = 5 You can also call the solve function as: y = solve('x-5 = 0') MATLAB will execute the above statement and return the following result: y = 5 You may even not include the right hand side of the equation: solve('x-5') MATLAB will execute the above statement and return the following result: ans = 5

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If the equation involves multiple symbols, then MATLAB by default assumes that you are solving for x, however, the solve command has another form: solve(equation, variable) where, you can also mention the variable. For example, let us solve the equation v u 3t2 = 0, for v. In this case, we should write: solve('v-u-3*t^2=0','v') MATLAB will execute the above statement and return the following result: ans = 3*t^2 + u

Solving Basic Algebraic Equations in Octave

The roots command is used for solving algebraic equations in Octave and you can write above examples as follows: For example, let us solve for x in the equation x-5 = 0 roots([1,-5]) Octave will execute the above statement and return the following result: ans = 5 You can also call the solve function as: y = roots([1,-5]) Octave will execute the above statement and return the following result: y = 5

Solving Quadratic Equations in MATLAB

The solve command can also solve higher order equations. It is often used to solve quadratic equations. The function returns the roots of the equation in an array. The following example solves the quadratic equation x2 -7x +12 = 0. Create a script file and type the following code: eq ='x^2 -7*x + 12 = 0'; s = solve(eq); disp('The first root is: '), disp(s(1)); disp('The second root is: '), disp(s(2)); When you run the file, it displays the following result: The first root is: 3

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The second root is: 4

Solving Quadratic Equations in Octave

The following example solves the quadratic equation x2 -7x +12 = 0 in Octave. Create a script file and type the following code: s = roots([1,-7,12]); disp('The first root is: '), disp(s(1)); disp('The second root is: '), disp(s(2)); When you run the file, it displays the following result: The first root is: 4 The second root is: 3

Solving Higher Order Equations in MATLAB

The solve command can also solve higher order equations. For example, let us solve a cubic equation as (x-3)2(x7) = 0 solve('(x-3)^2*(x-7)=0') MATLAB will execute the above statement and return the following result: ans = 3 3 7 In case of higher order equations, roots are long containing many terms. You can get the numerical value of such roots by converting them to double. The following example solves the fourth order equation x 4 7x3 + 3x2 5x + 9 = 0. Create a script file and type the following code: eq ='x^4 - 7*x^3 + 3*x^2 - 5*x + 9 = 0'; s = solve(eq); disp('The first root is: '), disp(s(1)); disp('The second root is: '), disp(s(2)); disp('The third root is: '), disp(s(3)); disp('The fourth root is: '), disp(s(4)); % converting the roots to double type disp('Numeric value of first root'), disp(double(s(1))); disp('Numeric value of second root'), disp(double(s(2))); disp('Numeric value of third root'), disp(double(s(3))); disp('Numeric value of fourth root'), disp(double(s(4))); When you run the file, it returns the following result: The first root is: 6.630396332390718431485053218985 The second root is:

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1.0597804633025896291682772499885 The third root is: - 0.34508839784665403032666523448675 - 1.0778362954630176596831109269793*i The fourth root is: - 0.34508839784665403032666523448675 + 1.0778362954630176596831109269793*i Numeric value of first root 6.6304 Numeric value of second root 1.0598 Numeric value of third root -0.3451 - 1.0778i Numeric value of fourth root -0.3451 + 1.0778i Please note that the last two roots are complex numbers.

Solving Higher Order Equations in Octave

The following example solves the fourth order equation x4 7x3 + 3x2 5x + 9 = 0. Create a script file and type the following code: v =[1,-7,3,-5,9]; s = roots(v); % converting the roots disp('Numeric value of disp('Numeric value of disp('Numeric value of disp('Numeric value of to double type first root'), disp(double(s(1))); second root'), disp(double(s(2))); third root'), disp(double(s(3))); fourth root'), disp(double(s(4)));

When you run the file, it returns the following result: Numeric value of first root 6.6304 Numeric value of second root -0.34509 + 1.07784i Numeric value of third root -0.34509 - 1.07784i Numeric value of fourth root 1.0598

Solving System of Equations in MATLAB

The solve command can also be used to generate solutions of systems of equations involving more than one variables. Let us take up a simple example to demonstrate this use. Let us solve the equations: 5x + 9y = 5 3x 6y = 4 Create a script file and type the following code: s = solve('5*x + 9*y = 5','3*x - 6*y = 4'); s.x

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s.y When you run the file, it displays the following result: ans = 22/19 ans = -5/57 In same way, you can solve larger linear systems. Consider the following set of equations: x + 3y -2z = 5 3x + 5y + 6z = 7 2x + 4y + 3z = 8

Solving System of Equations in Octave

We have a little different approach to solve a system of 'n' linear equations in 'n' unknowns. Let us take up a simple example to demonstrate this use. Let us solve the equations: 5x + 9y = 5 3x 6y = 4 Such a system of linear equations can be written as the single matrix equation Ax = b, where A is the coefficient matrix, b is the column vector containing the right-hand side of the linear equations and x is the column vector representing the solution as shown in the below program: Create a script file and type the following code: A =[5,9;3,-6]; b =[5;4]; A \ b When you run the file, it displays the following result: ans = 1.157895 -0.087719 In same way, you can solve larger linear systems as given below: x + 3y -2z = 5 3x + 5y + 6z = 7 2x + 4y + 3z = 8

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Expanding and Collecting Equations in MATLAB

The expand and the collect command expands and collects an equation respectively. The following example demonstrates the concepts: When you work with many symbolic functions, you should declare that your variables are symbolic. Create a script file and type the following code: syms x %symbolic variable x syms y %symbolic variable x % expanding equations expand((x-5)*(x+9)) expand((x+2)*(x-3)*(x-5)*(x+7)) expand(sin(2*x)) expand(cos(x+y)) % collecting equations collect(x^3*(x-7)) collect(x^4*(x-3)*(x-5)) When you run the file, it displays the following result: ans = x^2 + 4*x - 45 ans = x^4 + x^3 - 43*x^2 + 23*x + 210 ans = 2*cos(x)*sin(x) ans = cos(x)*cos(y) - sin(x)*sin(y) ans = x^4 - 7*x^3 ans = x^6 - 8*x^5 + 15*x^4

Expanding and Collecting Equations in Octave

You need to have symbolic package, which provides expand and the collect command to expand and collect an equation, respectively. The following example demonstrates the concepts: When you work with many symbolic functions, you should declare that your variables are symbolic but Octave has different approach to define symbolic variables. Notice the use of Sin and Cos, they are also defined in symbolic package. Create a script file and type the following code: % first of all load the package, make sure its installed. pkg load symbolic % make symbols module available symbols % x y z define symbolic variables = sym ('x'); = sym ('y'); = sym ('z');

% expanding equations expand((x-5)*(x+9))

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expand((x+2)*(x-3)*(x-5)*(x+7)) expand(Sin(2*x)) expand(Cos(x+y)) % collecting equations collect(x^3*(x-7), z) collect(x^4*(x-3)*(x-5), z) When you run the file, it displays the following result: ans = -45.0+x^2+(4.0)*x ans = 210.0+x^4-(43.0)*x^2+x^3+(23.0)*x ans = sin((2.0)*x) ans = cos(y+x) ans = x^(3.0)*(-7.0+x) ans = (-3.0+x)*x^(4.0)*(-5.0+x)

Factorization and Simplification of Algebraic Expressions

The factor command factorizes an expression and the simplify command simplifies an expression. The following example demonstrates the concept:

Example
Create a script file and type the following code: syms x syms y factor(x^3- y^3) factor([x^2-y^2,x^3+y^3]) simplify((x^4-16)/(x^2-4)) When you run the file, it displays the following result: ans = (x - y)*(x^2 + x*y + y^2) ans = [ (x - y)*(x + y), (x + y)*(x^2 - x*y + y^2)] ans = x^2 + 4

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23
Calculus

CHAPTER

ATLAB provides various ways for solving problems of differential and integral calculus, solving

differential equations of any degree and calculation of limits. Best of all, you can easily plot the graphs of complex functions and check maxima, minima and other stationery points on a graph by solving the original function, as well as its derivative. In this chapter and in coming couple of chapters, we will deal with the problems of calculus. In this chapter, we will discuss pre-calculus concepts i.e., calculating limits of functions and verifying the properties of limits. In the next chapter Differential, we will compute derivative of an expression and find the local maxima and minima on a graph. We will also discuss solving differential equations. Finally, in the Integration chapter, we will discuss integral calculus.

Calculating Limits
MATLAB provides the limit command for calculating limits. In its most basic form, the limit command takes expression as an argument and finds the limit of the expression as the independent variable goes to zero. For example, let us calculate the limit of a function f(x) = (x3 + 5)/(x4 + 7), as x tends to zero. syms x limit((x^3+5)/(x^4+7)) MATLAB will execute the above statement and return the following result: ans = 5/7 The limit command falls in the realm of symbolic computing; you need to use the syms command to tell MATLAB which symbolic variables you are using. You can also compute limit of a function, as the variable tends to some number other than zero. To calculate lim x->a(f(x)), we use the limit command with arguments. The first being the expression and the second is the number, that x approaches, here it is a. For example, let us calculate limit of a function f(x) = (x-3)/(x-1), as x tends to 1. limit((x -3)/(x-1),1) MATLAB will execute the above statement and return the following result: ans =

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NaN Let's take another example, limit(x^2+5,3) MATLAB will execute the above statement and return the following result: ans = 14

Calculating Limits using Octave

Following is Octave version of the above example using symbolic package, try to execute and compare the result: pkg load symbolic symbols x=sym("x"); subs((x^3+5)/(x^4+7),x,0) Octave will execute the above statement and return the following result: ans = 0.7142857142857142857

Verification of Basic Properties of Limits

Algebraic Limit Theorem provides some basic properties of limits. These are as follows:

Let us consider two functions: 1. 2. f(x) = (3x + 5)/(x - 3) g(x) = x2 + 1.

Let us calculate the limits of the functions as x tends to 5, of both functions and verify the basic properties of limits using these two functions and MATLAB.

Example
Create a script file and type the following code into it: syms x f =(3*x +5)/(x-3); g = x^2+1;

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l1 = limit(f,4) l2 = limit (g,4) lAdd = limit(f + g,4) lSub = limit(f - g,4) lMult = limit(f*g,4) lDiv = limit (f/g,4) When you run the file, it displays: l1 = 17 l2 = 17 lAdd = 34 lSub = 0 lMult = 289 lDiv = 1

Verification of Basic Properties of Limits using Octave

Following is Octave version of the above example using symbolic package, try to execute and compare the result: pkg load symbolic symbols x = sym("x"); f =(3*x +5)/(x-3); g = x^2+1; l1=subs(f, x,4) l2 = subs (g, x,4) lAdd = subs (f+g, x,4) lSub = subs (f-g, x,4) lMult = subs (f*g, x,4) lDiv = subs (f/g, x,4) Octave will execute the above statement and return the following result: l1 = 17.0 l2 = 17.0 lAdd = 34.0 lSub = 0.0

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lMult = 289.0 lDiv = 1.0

Left and Right Sided Limits

When a function has a discontinuity for some particular value of the variable, the limit does not exist at that point. In other words, limits of a function f(x) has discontinuity at x = a, when the value of limit, as x approaches x from left side, does not equal the value of the limit as x approaches from right side. This leads to the concept of left-handed and right-handed limits. A left-handed limit is defined as the limit as x -> a, from the left, i.e., x approaches a, for values of x < a. A right-handed limit is defined as the limit as x -> a, from the right, i.e., x approaches a, for values of x > a. When the left-handed limit and right-handed limits are not equal, the limit does not exist. Let us consider a function: f(x) = (x - 3)/|x - 3| We will show that limx->3 f(x) does not exist. MATLAB helps us to establish this fact in two ways:

By plotting the graph of the function and showing the discontinuity By computing the limits and showing that both are different.
The left-handed and right-handed limits are computed by passing the character strings 'left' and 'right' to the limit command as the last argument.

Example
Create a script file and type the following code into it: f =(x -3)/abs(x-3); ezplot(f,[-1,5]) l = limit(f,x,3,'left') r = limit(f,x,3,'right') When you run the file, MATLAB draws the following plot,

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and displays the following output: l = -1 r = 1

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24
Differential

CHAPTER

ATLAB provides the diff command for computing symbolic derivatives. In its simplest form, you pass

the function you want to differentiate to diff command as an argument. For example, let us compute the derivative of the function f(t) = 3t 2 + 2t-2

Example
Create a script file and type the following code into it: syms t f =3*t^2+2*t^(-2); diff(f) When the above code is compiled and executed, it produces the following result: ans = 6*t - 4/t^3 Following is Octave equivalent of the above calculation: pkg load symbolic symbols t = sym("t"); f =3*t^2+2*t^(-2); differentiate(f,t) Octave executes the code and returns the following result: ans = -(4.0)*t^(-3.0)+(6.0)*t

Verification of Elementary Rules of Differentiation

Let us briefly state various equations or rules for differentiation of functions and verify these rules. For this purpose, we will write f'(x) for a first order derivative and f"(x) for a second order derivative. Following are the rules for differentiation:

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RULE 1
For any functions f and g and any real numbers a and b the derivative of the function: h(x) = af(x) + bg(x) with respect to x is given by: h'(x) = af'(x) + bg'(x)

RULE 2
The sum and subtraction rules state that if f and g are two functions, f' and g' are their derivatives respectively, then, (f + g)' = f' + g' (f - g)' = f' - g'

RULE 3
The product rule states that if f and g are two functions, f' and g' are their derivatives respectively, then, (f.g)' = f'.g + g'.f

RULE 4
The quotient rule states that if f and g are two functions, f' and g' are their derivatives respectively, then, (f/g)' = (f'.g - g'.f)/g2

RULE 5
The polynomial or elementary power rule states that, if y = f(x) = xn, then f' = n. x(n-1) A direct outcome of this rule is derivative of any constant is zero, i.e., if y = k, any constant, then f' = 0

RULE 6
The chain rule states that, The derivative of the function of a function h(x) = f(g(x)) with respect to x is, h'(x)= f'(g(x)).g'(x)

Example
Create a script file and type the following code into it: syms x syms t f =(x +2)*(x^2+3) der1 = diff(f) f =(t^2+3)*(sqrt(t)+ t^3) der2 = diff(f) f =(x^2-2*x +1)*(3*x^3-5*x^2+2) der3 = diff(f) f =(2*x^2+3*x)/(x^3+1) der4 = diff(f) f =(x^2+1)^17 der5 = diff(f) f =(t^3+3* t^2+5*t -9)^(-6) der6 = diff(f) When you run the file, MATLAB displays the following result:

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f = (x^2 + 3)*(x + 2) der1 = 2*x*(x + 2) + x^2 + 3 f = (t^(1/2) + t^3)*(t^2 + 3) der2 = (t^2 + 3)*(3*t^2 + 1/(2*t^(1/2))) + 2*t*(t^(1/2) + t^3) f = (x^2 - 2*x + 1)*(3*x^3 - 5*x^2 + 2) der3 = (2*x - 2)*(3*x^3 - 5*x^2 + 2) - (- 9*x^2 + 10*x)*(x^2 - 2*x + 1) f = (2*x^2 + 3*x)/(x^3 + 1) der4 = (4*x + 3)/(x^3 + 1) - (3*x^2*(2*x^2 + 3*x))/(x^3 + 1)^2 f = (x^2 + 1)^17 der5 = 34*x*(x^2 + 1)^16 f = 1/(t^3 + 3*t^2 + 5*t - 9)^6 der6 = -(6*(3*t^2 + 6*t + 5))/(t^3 + 3*t^2 + 5*t - 9)^7 Following is Octave equivalent of the above calculation: pkg load symbolic symbols x=sym("x"); t=sym("t"); f =(x +2)*(x^2+3) der1 = differentiate(f,x) f =(t^2+3)*(t^(1/2)+ t^3) der2 = differentiate(f,t) f =(x^2-2*x +1)*(3*x^3-5*x^2+2) der3 = differentiate(f,x) f =(2*x^2+3*x)/(x^3+1) der4 = differentiate(f,x) f =(x^2+1)^17 der5 = differentiate(f,x) f =(t^3+3* t^2+5*t -9)^(-6) der6 = differentiate(f,t)

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Derivatives of Exponential, Logarithmic and Trigonometric Functions

The following table provides the derivatives of commonly used exponential, logarithmic and trigonometric functions: Function ca.x ex ln x lncx xx sin(x) cos(x) tan(x) cot(x) sec(x) csc(x) Derivative ca.x.ln c.a (ln is natural logarithm) ex 1/x 1/x.ln c xx.(1 + ln x) cos(x) -sin(x) sec2(x), or 1/cos2(x), or 1 + tan2(x) -csc2(x), or -1/sin2(x), or -(1 + cot2(x)) sec(x).tan(x) -csc(x).cot(x)

Example
Create a script file and type the following code into it: syms x y = exp(x) diff(y) y = x^9 diff(y) y = sin(x) diff(y) y = tan(x) diff(y) y = cos(x) diff(y) y = log(x) diff(y) y = log10(x) diff(y) y = sin(x)^2 diff(y) y = cos(3*x^2+2*x +1) diff(y) y = exp(x)/sin(x) diff(y)

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When you run the file, MATLAB displays the following result: y = exp(x) ans = exp(x) y = x^9 ans = 9*x^8 y = sin(x) ans = cos(x) y = tan(x) ans = tan(x)^2 + 1 y = cos(x) ans = -sin(x) y = log(x) ans = 1/x y = log(x)/log(10) ans = 1/(x*log(10)) y = sin(x)^2 ans = 2*cos(x)*sin(x) y = cos(3*x^2 + 2*x + 1) ans = -sin(3*x^2 + 2*x + 1)*(6*x + 2) y = exp(x)/sin(x) ans = exp(x)/sin(x) - (exp(x)*cos(x))/sin(x)^2 Following is Octave equivalent of the above calculation: pkg load symbolic symbols x = sym("x"); y =Exp(x)

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differentiate(y,x) y = x^9 differentiate(y,x) y =Sin(x) differentiate(y,x) y =Tan(x) differentiate(y,x) y =Cos(x) differentiate(y,x) y =Log(x) differentiate(y,x) % symbolic packages does not have this support %y =Log10(x) %differentiate(y,x) y =Sin(x)^2 differentiate(y,x) y =Cos(3*x^2+2*x +1) differentiate(y,x) y =Exp(x)/Sin(x) differentiate(y,x)

Computing Higher Order Derivatives

To compute higher derivatives of a function f, we use the syntax diff(f,n). Let us compute the second derivative of the function y = f(x) = x .e -3x f = x*exp(-3*x); diff(f,2) MATLAB executes the code and returns the following result: ans = 9*x*exp(-3*x) - 6*exp(-3*x) Following is Octave equivalent of the above calculation: pkg load symbolic symbols x = sym("x"); f = x*Exp(-3*x); differentiate(f, x,2)

Example
In this example, let us solve a problem. Given that a function y = f(x) = 3 sin(x) + 7 cos(5x). We will have to find out whether the equation f" + f = -5cos(2x) holds true.

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Create a script file and type the following code into it: syms x y =3*sin(x)+7*cos(5*x);% defining the function lhs = diff(y,2)+y;%evaluting the lhs of the equation rhs =-5*cos(2*x);%rhs of the equation if(isequal(lhs,rhs)) disp('Yes, the equation holds true'); else disp('No, the equation does not hold true'); end disp('Value of LHS is: '), disp(lhs); When you run the file, it displays the following result: No, the equation does not hold true Value of LHS is: -168*cos(5*x) Following is Octave equivalent of the above calculation: pkg load symbolic symbols x = sym("x"); y =3*Sin(x)+7*Cos(5*x);% defining the function lhs = differentiate(y, x,2)+ y;%evaluting the lhs of the equation rhs =-5*Cos(2*x);%rhs of the equation if(lhs == rhs) disp('Yes, the equation holds true'); else disp('No, the equation does not hold true'); end disp('Value of LHS is: '), disp(lhs);

Finding the Maxima and Minima of a Curve

If we are searching for the local maxima and minima for a graph, we are basically looking for the highest or lowest points on the graph of the function at a particular locality, or for a particular range of values of the symbolic variable. For a function y = f(x) the points on the graph where the graph has zero slope are called stationary points. In other words stationary points are where f'(x) = 0. To find the stationary points of a function we differentiate, we need to set the derivative equal to zero and solve the equation.

Example
Let us find the stationary points of the function f(x) = 2x3 + 3x2 12x + 17 Take the following steps: 1. First let us enter the function and plot its graph:

syms x y =2*x^3+3*x^2-12*x +17;% defining the function ezplot(y)

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MATLAB executes the code and returns the following plot:

Here is Octave equivalent code for the above example: pkg load symbolic symbols x = sym('x'); y =inline("2*x^3 + 3*x^2 - 12*x + 17"); ezplot(y) print-deps graph.eps 2. Our aim is to find some local maxima and minima on the graph, so let us find the local maxima and minima for the interval [-2, 2] on the graph.

syms x y =2*x^3+3*x^2-12*x +17;% defining the function ezplot(y,[-2,2]) MATLAB executes the code and returns the following plot:

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Here is Octave equivalent code for the above example: pkg load symbolic symbols x = sym('x'); y =inline("2*x^3 + 3*x^2 - 12*x + 17"); ezplot(y,[-2,2]) print-deps graph.eps 3. Next, let us compute the derivative

g = diff(y) MATLAB executes the code and returns the following result: g = 6*x^2 + 6*x - 12 Here is Octave equivalent of the above calculation: pkg load symbolic symbols x = sym("x"); y =2*x^3+3*x^2-12*x +17; g = differentiate(y,x) 4. Let us solve the derivative function, g, to get the values where it becomes zero.

s = solve(g) MATLAB executes the code and returns the following result:

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s = 1 -2 Following is Octave equivalent of the above calculation: pkg load symbolic symbols x = sym("x"); y =2*x^3+3*x^2-12*x +17; g = differentiate(y,x) roots([6,6,-12]) 5. This agrees with our plot. So let us evaluate the function f at the critical points x = 1, -2. We can substitute a value in a symbolic function by using the subs command.

subs(y,1), subs(y,-2) MATLAB executes the code and returns the following result: ans = 10 ans = 37 Following is Octave equivalent of the above calculation: pkg load symbolic symbols x = sym("x"); y =2*x^3+3*x^2-12*x +17; g = differentiate(y,x) roots([6,6,-12]) subs(y, x,1), subs(y, x,-2) Therefore, The minimum and maximum values on the function f(x) = 2x3 + 3x2 12x + 17, in the interval [-2,2] are 10 and 37.

Solving Differential Equations

MATLAB provides the dsolve command for solving differential equations symbolically. The most basic form of the dsolve command for finding the solution to a single equation is: dsolve('eqn') where eqn is a text string used to enter the equation. It returns a symbolic solution with a set of arbitrary constants that MATLAB labels C1, C2, and so on. You can also specify initial and boundary conditions for the problem, as comma-delimited list following the equation as:

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dsolve('eqn','cond1','cond2',) For the purpose of using dsolve command, derivatives are indicated with a D. For example, an equation like f'(t) = -2*f + cost(t) is entered as: 'Df = -2*f + cos(t)' Higher derivatives are indicated by following D by the order of the derivative. For example the equation f"(x) + 2f'(x) = 5sin3x should be entered as: 'D2y + 2Dy = 5*sin(3*x)' Let us take up a simple example of a first order differential equation: y' = 5y. s = dsolve('Dy = 5*y') MATLAB executes the code and returns the following result: s = C2*exp(5*t) Let us take up another example of a second order differential equation as: y" - y = 0, y(0) = -1, y'(0) = 2. dsolve('D2y - y = 0','y(0) = -1','Dy(0) = 2') MATLAB executes the code and returns the following result: ans = exp(t)/2 - (3*exp(-t))/2

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25
Integration

CHAPTER

ntegration deals with two essentially different types of problems.

In the first type, derivative of a function is given and we want to find the function. Therefore, we basically reverse the process of differentiation. This reverse process is known as anti-differentiation, or finding the primitive function, or finding an indefinite integral. The second type of problems involve adding up a very large number of very small quantities and then taking a limit as the size of the quantities approaches zero, while the number of terms tend to infinity. This process leads to the definition of the definite integral.

Definite integrals are used for finding area, volume, center of gravity, moment of inertia, work done by a force, and in numerous other applications.

Finding Indefinite Integral Using MATLAB

By definition, if the derivative of a function f(x) is f'(x), then we say that an indefinite integral of f'(x) with respect to x is f(x). For example, since the derivative (with respect to x) of x2 is 2x, we can say that an indefinite integral of 2x is x2. In symbols: f'(x2) = 2x, therefore, 2xdx = x2. Indefinite integral is not unique, because derivative of x2 + c, for any value of a constant c, will also be 2x. This is expressed in symbols as: 2xdx = x2 + c. Where, c is called an 'arbitrary constant'. MATLAB provides an int command for calculating integral of an expression. To derive an expression for the indefinite integral of a function, we write: int(f); For example, from our previous example: syms x

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int(2*x) MATLAB executes the above statement and returns the following result: ans = x^2

Example 1
In this example, let us find the integral of some commonly used expressions. Create a script file and type the following code in it: syms x n int(sym(x^n)) f ='sin(n*t)' int(sym(f)) syms a t int(a*cos(pi*t)) int(a^x) When you run the file, it displays the following result: ans = piecewise([n == -1, log(x)], [n ~= -1, x^(n + 1)/(n + 1)]) f = sin(n*t) ans = -cos(n*t)/n ans = (a*sin(pi*t))/pi ans = a^x/log(a)

Example 2
Create a script file and type the following code in it: syms x n int(cos(x)) int(exp(x)) int(log(x)) int(x^-1) int(x^5*cos(5*x)) pretty(int(x^5*cos(5*x))) int(x^-5) int(sec(x)^2) pretty(int(1-10*x +9* x^2)) int((3+5*x -6*x^2-7*x^3)/2*x^2) pretty(int((3+5*x -6*x^2-7*x^3)/2*x^2)) Note that the pretty command returns an expression in a more readable format. When you run the file, it displays the following result: ans = sin(x)

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ans = exp(x) ans = x*(log(x) - 1) ans = log(x) ans = (24*cos(5*x))/3125 + (24*x*sin(5*x))/625 - (12*x^2*cos(5*x))/125 + (x^4*cos(5*x))/5 - (4*x^3*sin(5*x))/25 + (x^5*sin(5*x))/5 2 4 24 cos(5 x) 24 x sin(5 x) 12 x cos(5 x) x cos(5 x) ----------- + ------------- - -------------- + ----------- 3125 625 125 5 3 5

4 x sin(5 x) x sin(5 x) ------------- + ----------25 5 ans = -1/(4*x^4) ans = tan(x) 2 x (3 x - 5 x + 1) ans = - (7*x^6)/12 - (3*x^5)/5 + (5*x^4)/8 + x^3/2 6 5 4 3 7 x 3 x 5 x x - ---- - ---- + ---- + -12 5 8 2

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Finding Definite Integral Using MATLAB

By definition, definite integral is basically the limit of a sum. We use definite integrals to find areas such as the area between a curve and the x-axis and the area between two curves. Definite integrals can also be used in other situations, where the quantity required can be expressed as the limit of a sum. The int command can be used for definite integration by passing the limits over which you want to calculate the integral. To calculate

we write, int(x, a, b)

For example, to calculate the value of int(x,4,9)

we write:

MATLAB executes the above statement and returns the following result: ans = 65/2 Following is Octave equivalent of the above calculation: pkg load symbolic symbols x = sym("x"); f = x; c =[1,0]; integral = polyint(c); a = polyval(integral,9)- polyval(integral,4); display('Area: '), disp(double(a)); An alternative solution can be given using quad() function provided by Octave as follows: pkg load symbolic symbols f =inline("x"); [a, ierror, nfneval]= quad(f,4,9); display('Area: '), disp(double(a));

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Example 1
Let us calculate the area enclosed between the x-axis, and the curve y = x32x+5 and the ordinates x = 1 and x = 2. The required area is given by:

Create a script file and type the following code: f = x^3-2*x +5; a =int(f,1,2) display('Area: '), disp(double(a)); When you run the file, it displays the following result: a = 23/4 Area: 5.7500 Following is Octave equivalent of the above calculation: pkg load symbolic symbols x = sym("x"); f = x^3-2*x +5; c =[1,0,-2,5]; integral = polyint(c); a = polyval(integral,2)- polyval(integral,1); display('Area: '), disp(double(a)); An alternative solution can be given using quad() function provided by Octave as follows: pkg load symbolic symbols x = sym("x"); f =inline("x^3 - 2*x +5"); [a, ierror, nfneval]= quad(f,1,2); display('Area: '), disp(double(a));

Example 2
Find the area under the curve: f(x) = x2 cos(x) for 4 x 9. Create a script file and write the following code: f = x^2*cos(x);

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ezplot(f,[-4,9]) a =int(f,-4,9) disp('Area: '), disp(double(a)); When you run the file, MATLAB plots the graph:

and displays the following result: a = 8*cos(4) + 18*cos(9) + 14*sin(4) + 79*sin(9) Area: 0.3326 Following is Octave equivalent of the above calculation: pkg load symbolic symbols x = sym("x"); f =inline("x^2*cos(x)"); ezplot(f,[-4,9]) print-deps graph.eps [a, ierror, nfneval]= quad(f,-4,9); display('Area: '), disp(double(a));

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26
Polynomials

CHAPTER

ATLAB represents polynomials as row vectors containing coefficients ordered by descending powers.

For example, the equation P(x) = x4 + 7x3 - 5x + 9 could be represented as: p = [1 7 0 -5 9];

Evaluating Polynomials
The polyval function is used for evaluating a polynomial at a specified value. For example, to evaluate our previous polynomial p, at x = 4, type: p =[170-59]; polyval(p,4) MATLAB executes the above statements and returns the following result: ans = 693 MATLAB also provides the polyvalm function for evaluating a matrix polynomial. A matrix polynomial is apolynomial with matrices as variables. For example, let us create a square matrix X and evaluate the polynomial p, at X: p =[170-59]; X =[12-34;2-563;3102;5-738]; polyvalm(p, X) MATLAB executes the above statements and returns the following result: ans = 2307 2314 2256 4570 -1769 -2376 -1892 -4532 -939 -249 -549 -1062 4499 4695 4310 9269

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Finding the Roots of Polynomials

The roots function calculates the roots of a polynomial. For example, to calculate the roots of our polynomial p, type: p =[170-59]; r = roots(p) MATLAB executes the above statements and returns the following result: r = -6.8661 -1.4247 0.6454 0.6454 + + + 0.0000i 0.0000i 0.7095i 0.7095i

The function poly is an inverse of the roots function and returns to the polynomial coefficients. For example: p2 = poly(r) MATLAB executes the above statements and returns the following result: p2 = 1.0000 7.0000 0.0000 -5.0000 9.0000

Polynomial Curve Fitting

The polyfit function finds the coefficients of a polynomial that fits a set of data in a least-squares sense. If x and y are two vectors containing the x and y data to be fitted to a n-degree polynomial, then we get the polynomial fitting the data by writing: p = polyfit(x,y,n)

Example
Create a script file and type the following code: x =[123456]; y =[5.543.1128290.7498.4978.67];%data p = polyfit(x,y,4)%get the polynomial %Compute the values of the polyfit estimate over a finer range, %and plot the estimate over the real data values for comparison: x2 =1:.1:6; y2 = polyval(p,x2); plot(x,y,'o',x2,y2) grid on When you run the file, MATLAB displays the following result: p = 4.1056 -47.9607 222.2598 -362.7453 191.1250

And plots the following graph:

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27
Transforms

CHAPTER

ATLAB provides command for working with transforms, such as the Laplace and Fourier transforms.

Transforms are used in science and engineering as a tool for simplifying analysis and look at data from another angle. For example, the Fourier transform allows us to convert a signal represented as a function of time to a function of frequency. Laplace transform allows us to convert a differential equation to an algebraic equation. MATLAB provides the laplace, fourier and fft commands to work with Laplace, Fourier and Fast Fourier transforms.

The Laplace Transform

The Laplace transform of a function of time f(t) is given by the following integral:

Laplace transform is also denoted as transform of f(t) to F(s). You can see this transform or integration process converts f(t), a function of the symbolic variable t, into another function F(s), with another variable s. Laplace transform turns differential equations into algebraic ones. To compute a Laplace transform of a function f(t), write: laplace(f(t))

Example
In this example, we will compute the Laplace transform of some commonly used functions. Create a script file and type the following code: syms s t a b w laplace(a) laplace(t^2) laplace(t^9) laplace(exp(-b*t)) laplace(sin(w*t)) laplace(cos(w*t))

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When you run the file, it displays the following result: ans = 1/s^2 ans = 2/s^3 ans = 362880/s^10 ans = 1/(b + s) ans = w/(s^2 + w^2) ans = s/(s^2 + w^2)

The Inverse Laplace Transform

MATLAB allows us to compute the inverse Laplace transform using the command ilaplace. For example, ilaplace(1/s^3) MATLAB will execute the above statement and display the result: ans = t^2/2

Example
Create a script file and type the following code: syms s t a b w ilaplace(1/s^7) ilaplace(2/(w+s)) ilaplace(s/(s^2+4)) ilaplace(exp(-b*t)) ilaplace(w/(s^2+ w^2)) ilaplace(s/(s^2+ w^2)) When you run the file, it displays the following result: ans = t^6/720 ans = 2*exp(-t*w) ans = cos(2*t) ans = ilaplace(exp(-b*t), t, x)

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ans = sin(t*w) ans = cos(t*w)

The Fourier Transforms

Fourier transforms commonly transforms a mathematical function of time, f(t), into a new function, sometimes denoted by or F, whose argument is frequency with units of cycles/s (hertz) or radians per second. The new function is then known as the Fourier transform and/or the frequency spectrum of the function f.

Example
Create a script file and type the following code in it: syms x f = exp(-2*x^2);%ourfunction ezplot(f,[-2,2])% plot of ourfunction FT = fourier(f) %Fourier transform When you run the file, MATLAB plots the following graph:

And displays the following result: FT = (2^(1/2)*pi^(1/2)*exp(-w^2/8))/2 Plotting the Fourier transform as: ezplot(FT) Gives the following graph:

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Inverse Fourier Transforms

MATLAB provides the ifourier command for computing the inverse Fourier transform of a function. For example, f = ifourier(-2*exp(-abs(w))) MATLAB will execute the above statement and display the result: f = -2/(pi*(x^2 + 1))

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28
GNU Octave

CHAPTER

NU Octave is a high-level programming language like MATLAB and it is mostly compatible with

MATLAB. It is also used for numerical computations. Octave has the following common features with MATLAB: matrices are fundamental data type it has built-in support for complex numbers it has built-in math functions and libraries it supports user-defined functions

GNU Octave is also freely redistributable software. You may redistribute it and/or modify it under the terms of the GNU General Public License (GPL) as published by the Free Software Foundation.

MATLAB vs Octave
Most MATLAB programs run in Octave, but some of the Octave programs may not run in MATLAB because, Octave allows some syntax that MATLAB does not. For example, MATLAB supports single quotes only, but Octave supports both single and double quotes for defining strings. If you are looking for a tutorial on Octave, then kindly go through this tutorial from beginning which covers both MATLAB as well as Octave.

COMPATIBLE EXAMPLES
Almost all the examples covered in this tutorial are compatible with MATLAB as well as Octave. Let's try following example in MATLAB and Octave which produces same result without any syntax changes: This example creates a 3D surface map for the function g = xe -(x2 + y2). Create a script file and type the following code: [x,y]= meshgrid(-2:.2:2); g = x .* exp(-x.^2- y.^2); surf(x, y, g)

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print-deps graph.eps When you run the file, MATLAB displays the following 3-D map:

NON-COMPATIBLE EXAMPLES
Though all the core functionality of MATLAB is available in Octave, there are some functionality for example, Differential & Integration Calculus, which does not match exactly in both the languages. This tutorial has tried to give both type of examples where they differed in their syntax. Consider following example where MATLAB and Octave make use of different functions to get the area of a curve: f(x) = x2 cos(x) for 4 x 9. Following is MATLAB version of the code: f = x^2*cos(x); ezplot(f,[-4,9]) a =int(f,-4,9) disp('Area: '), disp(double(a)); When you run the file, MATLAB plots the graph:

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and displays the following result: a = 8*cos(4) + 18*cos(9) + 14*sin(4) + 79*sin(9) Area: 0.3326 But to give area of the same curve in Octave, you will have to make use of symbolic package as follows: pkg load symbolic symbols x = sym("x"); f =inline("x^2*cos(x)"); ezplot(f,[-4,9]) print-deps graph.eps [a, ierror, nfneval]= quad(f,-4,9); display('Area: '), disp(double(a));

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29
Simulink

CHAPTER

imulink is a simulation and model-based design environment for dynamic and embedded systems,

integrated with MATLAB. Simulink, also developed by MathWorks, is a data flow graphical programming language tool for modeling, simulating and analyzing multi-domain dynamic systems. It is basically a graphical block diagramming tool with customizable set of block libraries. It allows you to incorporate MATLAB algorithms into models as well as export the simulation results into MATLAB for further analysis. Simulink supports: system-level design simulation automatic code generation testing and verification of embedded systems

There are several other add-on products provided by MathWorks and third-party hardware and software products that are available for use with Simulink. The following list gives brief description of some of them:

Stateflow allows developing state machines and flow charts. Simulink Coder allows to automatically generate C source code for real-time implementation of systems. xPC Target together with x86-based real-time systems provides an environment to simulate and test Simulink and Stateflow models in real-time on the physical system. Embedded Coder supports specific embedded targets. HDL Coder allows to automatically generate synthesizable VHDL and Verilog SimEvents provides a library of graphical building blocks for modeling queuing systems

Simulink is capable of systematic verification and validation of models through modeling style checking, requirements traceability and model coverage analysis. Simulink Design Verifier allows you identify design errors and generates test case scenarios for model checking.

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Using Simulink
To open Simulink, type in the MATLAB work space: simulink Simulink opens with the Library Browser. The Library Browser is used for building simulation models.

On the left side window pane, you will find several libraries categorized on the basis of various systems, clicking on each one will display the design blocks on the right window pane.

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Building Models
To create a new model, click the New button on the Library Browser's toolbar. This opens a new untitled model window

A Simulink model is a block diagram. Model elements are added by selecting the appropriate elements from the Library Browser and dragging them into the Model window. Alternately, you can copy the model elements and paste them into the model window.

Examples
Drag and drop items from the Simulink library to make your project. For the purpose of this example, 2 blocks will be used for the simulation - A Source (a signal) and aSink (a scope). A signal generator (the source) generates an analog signal, which will then be graphically visualized by the scope(the sink).

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Begin by dragging the required blocks from the library to the project window. Then, connect the blocks together which can be done by dragging connectors from connection points on one block to those of another. Let us drag a 'Sine Wave' block into the model.

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Select 'Sinks' from the library and drag a 'Scope' block into the model.

Drag a signal line from the output of the Sine Wave block to the input of the Scope block.

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Run the simulation by pressing the 'Run' button, keeping all parameters default (you can change them from the Simulation menu) You should get the below graph from the scope.

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