Additional Resource B: Flow Measurement Instrumentation

Additional Resource B Flow Measurement Instrumentation*

Flow meter devices are the most widely used process monitoring instruments in wastewater treatment. Careful consideration must be exercised during selection of flow meters to avoid equipment misapplication that can result in operational problems and equipment failure. It is the responsibility of the designer to select the appropriate type of flow meter device and to integrate the instrumentation design into the treatment plant design. A flow measurement system consists of a primary element and a converter device to provide flow reading. The primary element is a sensor or detector that is exposed to and affected by the rate of flow. The converter device changes the sensor reading to a usable flow reading. Because of the broad scope of the subject, this document only presents information concerning the selection and proper application of the primary element of flow meter devices. Details on design and selection of flow meter devices are in the references for this document.

Flow Meter Devices

There are a wide variety of devices that use various methods to measure flow rate. The devices most frequently used and their application are indicated in Table 1. It should be noted that partially filled conduits are considered to be open channels and that closed conduits are usually pressurized systems. In open channels or partially filled conduits, the head generated by an obstruction, (for example, a flume or weir plate) or the cross-sectional wetted area and associated liquid velocity determine the flow rate. In a closed conduit, where the fluid occupies the entire pipe volume, three basic techniques are used to measure flow: an obstruction creates a predictable head loss; the moving fluid produces a measurable effect, such as momentum change, sonic wave transmittance, or magnetic field shift; or incremental units of fluid volume are counted. The first technique includes orifices, used to produce a flow obstruction and resultant head loss, and venturi tubes, flow tubes, pitot tubes, and rotametersall of which measure pressure differentials that can be directly correlated to flow. Magnetic, ultrasonic, target, and vortex meters are included in the second technique. Magnetic meters measure the induced voltage generated by the flow through a magnetic field. Ultrasonic meters measure either the time difference between sonic pulses traveling across a section of pipe (transmissive), or the frequency shift of sonic waves reflecting off suspended particulates or gas bubbles (doppler). Finally, the third technique includes turbine and propeller meters in pipelines. These measure the speed of rotation and correlate it with velocity and flow rate.

Selection Criteria
When selecting a flow meter device, both operating and maintenance considerations must be assessed. These considerations include device size, fluid composition, required level of accuracy, head loss, installation, and operating environment.

Sizing
The most common deficiency experience with in-line flow instrumentation is improper sizing. The primary element of in-line meters should be able to measure a wide range of conduit capacity from
*

Source: Journal WPCF, Vol. 58, Number 10. October 1986. Used with permission.

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initial minimum flow to design maximum flow. Additionally, the meter openings must be large enough to allow passage of the solids typically found in wastewater. It should be noted that if meters are installed in oversized piping, flow velocity will be reduced. This results in solids deposition and scaling that will adversely affect meter accuracy.

Fluid composition
The applicability of a flow meter device depends on the characteristics of the fluid to be measured. These include type of fluid; type, size, and concentration of solids; temperature; viscosity; abrasive and corrosive properties. Table B-1 summarizes the applicability of various flow meter devices to fluids found in wastewater treatment plants.

Solids
The type and size of solids carried in wastewater must be considered when flow meters are selected. Where the meter element penetrates a full flowing conduit or the meter cross-sectional area is less than the cross-sectional area of the pipe, rags may hang-up on the element or accumulate in the meter restriction and eventually cause a complete obstruction. When weirs and orifices are used, solids can lodge upstream of the element and cause false readings because the size of the weir or orifice opening is changed. The minimum restriction, that is, throat diameter of a differential producer type flow meter depends on the maximum solids size, flow rate, and fluid velocity. Meters should be sized to conform to recommended minimum pipe sizes in wastewater treatment plants. To avoid or minimize obstruction by solids, the rule-of-thumb minimum pipe sizes are 10.2 cm (4 in.) for wastewater and 15.2 cm (6 in.) for sludge. A final consideration when assessing the impact of solids on flow meter devices is the solids characteristics in the fluid. The accuracy of some devices is affected by solids content. For example, doppler-type ultrasonic meters need a sufficient solids content, but transmissive type ultrasonic meters can be adversely affected by solids that obstruct the sonic wave signal path. In general, each flow meter application should follow manufacturer's recommendations on solids characteristics for the fluid and flow meter device involved.

Abrasion and corrosion

The abrasive and corrosive characteristics of solids carried must be considered when a flow meter device is selected. The primary element must be either constructed of or coated with abrasionresistant or nonreactive materials suitable for service in the particular fluid.

Accuracy and repeatability

Instrumentation accuracy is defined by the following terms: n Accuracy-the degree of conformity of an indicated value to a recognized standard value. n Measured accuracy-the maximum positive or negative deviation from a standard value observed in testing a device under specific conditions. n Repeatability-the maximum positive or negative variation observed in testing a device under specific and constant conditions. n Range-the region within which a quantity is measured. The range is usually expressed by stating the upper and lower limits. The range of an instrument is usually fixed. n Full scale-the upper limit of the range value. n Span-the algebraic difference between the upper and lower values at which an instrument is set. Span is adjustable and must lie between the upper and lower range limits.
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Table B-1 Flow meter devices

Open channel Raw wastewater (b) (b) Application (a) Return Primary activated sludge sludge (b) (b) (b) (b)

Additional Resource B: Flow Measurement Instrumentation

Class Head/ pressure 254-5400-1000 / September 14, 2001 / Page B-3

Type Orifice Venturi Flow tube Pitot tube Rotameter

Closed conduit X X X X X

Primary effluent (b) (b)

Secondary effluent X X

Thick. Sludge (b) (b)(c)

Mixed liquor X X

Process water X X X X

Head/ area Positive displace -ment Other

Weir Flume Propeller Turbine Magnetic (tube type) Magnetic (insert tube) Ultrasonic (Doppler) Ultrasonic (transmissive) Vortex shedding Volocity head

X X X X X X X X X X X X X X

X X

X X X X

X X X

(d) X X X

Target X a) The information in this table is based on industry practice and engineering judgment. b) Flushing or diaphragm seated connections recommended. c) Use with in-line reciprocating pumps not recommended. d) solids content less than 4.

Additional Resource B: Flow Measurement Instrumentation

Instrumentation accuracy is usually expressed as either some percent of maximum flow or some percent of actual flow. To illustrate, a meter with an accuracy of I% of maximum flow and a fullscale capacity of 1000 m3/d could read between 990 and 1010 m3/d when the actual flow is exactly 1000 m3/d. It could read between 490 and 5 1 0 m3/d when the flow is 500 m3/d, and between 190 and 210 m3/d when the flow is 200 m3/d. The deviation is I m3/d in every case. By contrast, percent of actual flow means that the value of the deviation becomes less and less as the flow rate is decreased. The ratio between deviation and actual flow rate that results is constant throughout the instrument's range. For example, a meter with an accuracy of 1% of actual flow rate and a maximum flow of 1000 m3/d has a 10 m3/d deviation at maximum flow (990 to 1010 m3/d). It has a 5 m3/d deviation at half flow (495 to 505 m3/d), and only 2 m3/d deviation flow (198 to 202 m3/d). The accuracy of a component in a system must also be considered within the context of the overall system accuracy. The systems can be no more accurate (and is usually less accurate) than the least accurate component. For example, consider a flow monitoring system that includes a flume with an ultrasonic transmitter and analog indicator. The accuracy of the flume is approximately 5 % of maximum flow, the transmitter 1% of maximum flow, and the indicator 3% of maximum flow. Overall system accuracy is estimated at: (52 + 12 + 32)0.5 = 5.9% of maximum flow rate The accuracy of some meters is also affected by such variables as ambient temperature, power source voltage, electronic interference, and humidity. These factors should be considered when flow meter devices are selected or evaluated. When applying flow meter devices to wastewater treatment plants, repeatability is sometimes more important than accuracy. For example, it is important to accurately measure plant influent and effluent flows, chemical, and sludge for discharge permit reporting, and for pacing chemical addition for wastewater treatment and sludge conditioning. When flow is split among process units, however, actual flow measurement is not important, but repeatability is. In this case, repeatability is essential to maintain constant flow in the process units. It is the responsibility of the designer to determine which device has the range required for accurate measurement and the required level of accuracy, or whether repeatability is the overriding factor for the particular flow to be measured. The range, accuracy, and repeatability of a number of flow Metering devices are shown in Table B-2.

Head loss
The allowable head loss (as determined by process hydraulics) should be considered when flow meter devices are selected. For many devices, a reduction in cross-sectional area or a change in flow direction is necessary. These velocity changes often result in unrecoverable head loss. The amount of head loss that will occur is highly variable and depends on the conditions of service. Manufacturers data or hydraulic handbooks, or both should be consulted to determine expected losses.

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Table B-2 Flow meter device characteristics Upstream unobstructed straight run recommended
5 diameters (b) 4-10 diameters (c) 4-10 diameters (c) 10 diameters (b) 5 diameters (b) 20 diameters NA (f) NA 5 diameters 10 diameters (g) 5 diameters 7-10 diameters 7-10 diameters 10 diameters

Instrument
Orifice Venturi Flow tube Pitot tube Rotameter Target Weir Flume Propeller Turbine Magnetic Ultrasonic (Doppler) Ultrasonic (Transmissive) Vortex shedding

Range (a)
4:1 4:1 4:1 3:1 10:1 10:1 500:1 10:1-75:1 (e) 10:1 10:1 10:1 10:1 10:1 15:1

Accuracy (a)
1% of actual rate 1% of actual rate 3% of actual rate 3% of actual rate 0.5-10% of actual rate 5% of actual rate 2% of actual rate 0.25% of actual rate 1-2% of full scale 3% of actual rate 2% of actual rate 1% of actual rate

Repeatability (a)
1% 0.5% 0.5% 1% (b) 1% (b) 1% (b) 0.5% 0.5% 0.5% 0.5% of actual rate 0.5% of actual rate 1% of actual rate 1% of actual rate 0.5% of actual rate

Note: The information in this table is based on industry practice and engineering judgment. a) Considering both the primary element and primary converter device. b) Figures shown are estimates based on engineering judgment. Data could not be found to confirm thse figures. c) Depends on type of flow disturbing obstruction. d) Parshall flumes accurate to 5% of actual flow. Palmer-Bowlus flume accurate to 105 of full scale. e) Depends on type of flume. f) NA-Not applicable. g) Assuming flow straightening element is used (25 to 30 pipe diameters, otherswise).

Installation considerations
The choice of location for flow meter devices depends on several factors: installation (piping) configuration, placement, and access. Most flow meter devices require that the flow profile in the device be uniform and consistent throughout the flow range to achieve their greatest accuracy. To satisfy this requirement, sufficient length to allow a straight approach pipe or channel must be provided prior to the meter. The accuracies of some meters such as universal venturi tubes, positive displacement meters and, in most cases, magnetic flow meters are less affected than others by upstream piping configurations. Minimum recommends straight runs ahead of various devices are shown in Table B-2. Straight run distances shorter than the tabulated values may be used where accuracy is not a concern. With respect to placement of meters in relation to other equipment, flow meters in general should be installed upstream of flow control valves and downstream of pumps.

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Additional Resource B: Flow Measurement Instrumentation

Instrumentation servicing requirements must also be considered. Access to flow meters should be unobstructed and test connections should be provided and readily accessible. Ample room to allow inspection and cleaning of the inlets to flow instrumentation should also be provided. In instances when the meter and instrumentation cannot be serviced with continued flow through the element, bypass piping and valving should be provided to isolate the meter. It should be noted that venturi tubes and flow tubes are in-line devices that do not require bypass piping, but, magnetic flow meters require bypass piping for inspection and servicing. In addition to bypass facilities, inspection ports and quick-disconnect couplings should be used to reduce the time required for maintenance. In general, an installation that provides ease of service is usually the best maintained and the most reliable.

Operating environment
A primary consideration in the application of flow meter devices and associated transmitters is the environment in which the instrument will be located. The electrical classification and requirements of the location as described by the National Electrical Code is of particular concern. The general classification relates to protection against ignition of gas or dust by the heat or sparking associated with electrical equipment. Equipment in these areas must have a rating for service equal to or better than that required for the specific area classification. Corrosive environments also dictate that special precautions be taken. The presence of corrosive gas required special protective coatings for the flow meter device and associated instrumentation. Temperature extremes should be avoided or compensated for. All devices have a maximum operating temperature range. When operated within that range, the devices maintain their stated accuracy. The range relates primarily to the limits of the electronics within the device. Exceeding the upper temperature limit may cause component failure. A supplemental enclosure that incorporates heating to counteract low temperatures and fan cooling to reduce high temperatures can protect instruments from damage caused by extreme temperatures. Low wattage heaters or heat tracing may be used to keep hydraulic tubing from freezing. Moisture and electronics are virtually incompatible. The use of proper equipment enclosures is imperative in wastewater treatment plants. Supplemental low wattage heaters may be used inside instrumentation cabinets to reduce condensation. Moisture resistant coatings for electronic components are also available. Seals should be used in all conduits connected to flow instrumentation to prevent the infiltration of moist air through the conduits into instrument enclosures. Another way to protect panel instruments from moisture is to purge the control cabinets. An internal positive pressure is created in the control cabinet by injecting dry instrument air into the cabinet.

Maintenance Considerations
Maintenance considerations include cleaning, calibration, and record keeping.

Cleaning
An essential part of instrumentation maintenance is cleaning. Dirt prevents heat from dissipating around electrical components. It increases friction and tends to absorb moisture, which accelerates corrosion and increases the potential for electrical shortcircuits. Primary flow elements must also be kept clean and free of debris. Provisions should be made for cleaning the meter and tap lines by flushing or rodding. In sludge applications where intermittent operation is expected, the ability to flush the meter and associated piping, and to fill them with clean water should be provided. Self254-5400-1000 / September 14, 2001 / Page B-6

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cleaning electrodes that use either high frequency ultrasonic waves or heat are available for use with magnetic flow meters. Installations where the meter is subject to low flow velocities will require more frequent cleaning because of solids and grease accumulation.

Calibration
Flow meters are factory calibrated prior to delivery to the wastewater treatment plant. Upon installation, an in-place calibration should be performed to assure specifications are met and to establish a reference that may be used for future monitoring and periodic maintenance calibration. Calibration test equipment as well as fixtures required to field calibrate instruments should have an accuracy at least twice that of the instrument being tested or calibrated. Whether the device is factory or field calibrated, it is essential that calibration data be obtained as soon as the initial calibration is set. These data are the basis for instrument performance evaluation.

Records
Two records are essential for evaluating flow meter performance: records of the original calibration data, and current operating and maintenance data. The calibration data provide a reference against which the actual operating data can be checked. Current data include records of maintenance and calibration checks. Checks made without follow-up actions must also be recorded because these checks provide information that concerns equipment performance and effective scheduling of routine calibration.

Summary
The correct design, application, and maintenance of flow instrumentation are critical to the efficient operation of a wastewater treatment facility. These criteria are summarized in the form of a checklist in Table B-3.

Acknowledgments
This report was prepared under U. S. EPA Contract No. 63-03-3208 by Metcalf & Eddy, Inc., Wakefield, Mass. It is based in part on earlier work completed under U.S. EPA Contract No. 68-033019 by Roy F. Weston, Inc., West Chester, Pa. Correspondence should be addressed to Francis L. Evans HI, U.S. Environmental Protection Agency, Water Engineering Research Laboratory, 26 W. St. Clair St., Cincinnati, OH 45268.

References
1. Liptak, Bela and Venczel, K., "Instrument Engineers Handbook of Process Measurement." Chilton Book Company, Radnor, Pa. (1969). 2. Editors of Instrumentation Technology, "Instrumentation and Control Systems Engineering Handbook." Tab Book Inc., Blue Ridge Sunu-nit, Pa. (1978). 3. "Instrumentation in Wastewater Treatment Plants." Manual on Practice No. 2 1., Water Pollut. Control Fed., Washington, D.C.(1984). 4. "Fisher and Porter Guide to Flow Measurement." Chilton Company, Radnor, Pa. (I 98 1). 5. Manufacturers Specification Sheets and Application Bulletins. 6. National Fire Protection Association's National Fire Codes, Vols. 496, 497 and 70, 470. Boston, Mass.
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7. Considine, Douglas M., "Encyclopedia of Instrumentation and Control." McGraw-Hill Book Co., New York, N.Y. (1971). 8. Grant, Douglas, M., "ISCO Open Channel Flow Measurement Handbook." Instrumentation Specialties Company, Lincoln, Nebr. (1979). Table B-3 Flow instrumentation selection checklist Item Application Selection Criteria Sizing Fluid composition Issue Is the device suitable for open channel/closed conduit flow? Is the device compatible with the fluid being monitored? Is the device appropriately sized for the entire range of flow to be monitored? Are proper flow velocities maintained? Does the device have the recommended minimum clear opening for the fluid being monitored? Is the solids content of the fluid compatible with the measuring device? Are the wetted components constructed of materials nonreactive with the fluid? Is the accuracy and repeatability of the device consistent with the application? Is the stated accuracy of the component consistent with overall system accuracy? Has the effect of environmental factors on the stated accuracy been considered? Is the headloss caused by the device within constraints of the hydraulic profile? Is sufficient straight length of pipe or channel provided ahead of the meter? Is the device located properly with respect to valves and pumps? Are the flow meter devices accessible for service? Are quick disconnect couplings and bypass piping provided? Is the equipment associated with the flow meter device appropriately rated for its intended application to prevent explosion hazard? Where necessary, is the equipment resistant to moisture and corrosive gases? Have provisions been made to ensure operation of the device within an acceptable temperature range? Are provisions made for flushing or rodding the meter and tap lines?

Accuracy

Head loss Installation considerations

Operating environment

Cleaning

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