Survey Practical

CORNELL
UNIVERSITY LIBRARY
ornell University Library
arV10368
Practical surveyini
3 1924 031 298 148

olin,anx
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tine
original of
tliis
book
is in
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the United States on the use of the
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PRACTICAL SURVEYING
FOR ADVANCED STUDENTS.

Di.my %vo, 532
jiages, cloth, price
\os. 61/. net.
SURVEYING AS PRACTISED BY CIVIL ENGINEERS AND SURVEYORS.

Including the Setting-Out of
Works for Construction
and Surveys Abroad, with many Examples taken from Actual Practice. A Handbook for use in the Field and the Office, intended also as a Text-Book for Students. By John Whitelaw, Jun., A.M.Inst.C.E. With
about 260 Illustrations.
is written with admirable lucidity, and will certainly be found of distinct value both to students and to those engaged in actual practice." The Builder.
'* Is well adapted to meet the requirements of the student of engineering and the modern surveyor." The Engineer.
"This work
London
CROSBY LOCKWOOD & SON.
PRACTICAL SURVEYING
A TEXT-BOOK FOR
STUDENTS PREPARING FOR EXAMINATIONS OR FOR SURVEY WORK IN THE COLONIES

BY
GEORGE WM.
USILL, Assoc. -M.Tnst.C.E.
(ElQhtk I)itm, thoroitghlg |RebiiSeii anii Sniargeb

I!Y
ALEXANDER BEAZELEY,
H.Inst.C.E.
ETC. ETC,
AUTHOR OF "THE RECLAMATION OF LAKD FKOM TIDAL WATEBS,"
WITH FOUR LITHOGRAPHIC PLA TES
AND THREE-HUNDRED-AND-SIXTY ILLUSTRATIONS
%^^
LONDON
CROSBY LOCKWOOD AND SON

7,
STATIONEES' HALL COURT, LUDGATE HILL

1904
PRINTED BY WILLIAM CLOWES AND SONS, LIMITED
LONDON AND BECCLES.
AUTHOR'S PREFACE,
In submitting
this
little
work to the
Public, I take the
opportunity of saying a few words in explanation of

object in compiling
it.
my
My
in
experience during several years past in delivering
courses of lectures on Surveying and kindred subjects, and
preparing gentlemen for the Colonies, has shown
me
that,
however excellent and comprehensive many existing
text-books
explicit
may
be, they are in
some
points not sufficiently
nor in others sufficiently concise to enable the

especially in
student,
cases of self-instruction,
treat.
to grasp
with readiness the subjects of which they
text-
book of somewhat
be called
for.
different character seems, therefore, to
In the present work

chapter complete in
progressive order.
I
have endeavoured to make each
itself,
and to
let
the chapters follow in
have also considered
it
better to explain the various
instruments required in Surveying and their adjustment,

before proceeding to describe their use and manipulation
in
the
field.
follow then with a chapter devoted to a

;
graphic treatment of Trigonometry as applied to Surveying and the several succeeding chapters are intended to briefly
explain the modus operandi of Theodolite Surveying, Traversing,
Town
Surveying, Levelling, Contouring, Settingb
v!
author's preface.
Land
out Curves, Office Work, and the Computation of

Quantities.
In preparing the matter here presented, I have not only drawn upon my own experience, but have consulted many of the chief works upon the subjects in question, and I desire to acknowledge my indebtedness to the authors of the works I have also to express my obligations to thus consulted.
the Astronomer-Royal, to Messrs. Troughton and Simms,
and to Mr.
assistance
;
J.
H. Steward,
for valuable information
and
whilst to
I
my former pupils,
am
I
Messrs. H. S. Fearon
and James Holden,

assistance
I
indebted for the surveys of
Wim-
bledon Park and Cardiff.
wish also to acknowledge the have received from Mr. John F. Curwen, in the
revision of the mathematical portions of the
work
as they
passed through the press.
GEO. WM. USILL.

London,
October,
iS
EDITOR'S PREFACE
TO THE EIGHTH EDITION.
The late Mr. Usill's "Practical Surveying" has long occupied a recognized position as a text-book for students and the exhaustion of the seventh edition appeared to the
;
Publishers a suitable occasion for supplying some deficiencies,
and
for
the correction of
errors,
overlooked in
some typographical and other former editions. The work has now
far as
been revised throughout, the original text being as

reasonably possible preserved.
re-cast
Some
portions have been

;
and amplified, and others entirely re-written and my aim to render the work as a whole more valuable to the student, and to maintain it not only abreast
it
has been
but even somewhat ahead of
its
already deserved reputation.
The volume having
hitherto borne
upon
its
title-page
a reference to students preparing for practice
in the Colonies,
a chapter has been added containing the latest regulations
under which licences

not to be found, so
for
such practice are issued

I
a feature
far as
am
aware,
in
any text-book
importance
to
on Surveying,
yet
one of considerable
persons contemplating Colonial pursuit of that profession,
by reason of the exclusiveness

certainly
stringent
of
is in
presumably
needful, but
the
restrictions
wherewith
the
granting of licences
most cases hedged about.
viii
EDITOR'S PREFACE TO EIGHTH EDITION.

In Chapter IX. are inserted Rules, and in the Appendix
by the hypsometer, by courteous permission extracted from the Royal Geographical

Tables, for ascertainment of heights
Society's " Hints to Travellers."
The Tables
Appendix
of Natural Sines, Tangents, and Secants,
with their complements, were added by the Author as an

to the Third Edition.
ALEXR- BEAZELEY.
Weymouth,
May,
Note.
the
1904.
To promote the applicability of the work for use in the field, Publishers are issuing an edition printed on thin paper and bound in
limp leather covers, So as to go conveniently into the pocket.
CONTENTS.
INDEX TO ILLUSTRATIONS
PAGE
xv-xx
CHAPTER
Subjects
I.
INTRODUCTION.
necessary to be known Standards of Measure Chains Advantages of lOO-feet Chain Gunter's, or 66-feet Chain Divisions of Gunter's Chain Decametre Chain Arrows Offset Staff 33-feet Tape Poles Ranging Rods Bundle of Laths Whites Equipment of a Surveyor Field Book i
......
II.
CHAPTER
ORDINARY SURVEYING.
Reconnoitre Sketch Map Stations Main Stations Subsidiary Stations Testing the Chain Test Gauge Chain and Arrows throwing out and doing up Chain-men Leader's Duties Duty of Follower How to use the Chain Crossing Hedges Hedge and Ditch How Foot-set Hedges Offsets Optical Square and to measure Fence
Position use As to Buildings Corners of Fields To how of an Intersection Limit of Offsets Pacing Objections to Tapes Level Ground Offsets Offset Staff Ranging-out LinesWhat Slope Observing Angle of Slope Adjusting the Allowance 7 28 Stepping Base-Lines Chain-Angles Inaccessible Distances
to
it
fix
for
is
for
CHAPTER
Staff Optical
III.
SUR VE YING INSTR UMENTS.

Cross
Square
Line
Ranger
ClinometerMerrett's
Quadrant Clinometer Rule Abney Level Reflecting Clinometer

CONTENTS.
Scale
Combined
Telescope Clinometer and Prismatic Compass

Circumferentor
Prismatic
Compass The
the Theodolite
ment of
Adjusting
or
The Theodolite AdjustVertical Axis^Centering
the
Adjustment of the Level Adjustment CoUimation Adjustment for Parallax Reflecting Mirror Levelling Staff Aneroid Barometer Stadiometer Omnimeter The DredgeSteward Omni-telemeter The Francis Surveying Compass and Clinometer Stanley's Model Theodolite Trotter's Curve-Ranger Dalrymple-Hay's Curve-Ranger Stanley's Ray-Shade Johnson's Tripod-Head Erskine's Altazimuth Theodolite Cary's Improved 29 loi Eye-piece
Collimation
for
Screws Ball-and-Socl<et Lower Plate The Upper or Vernier Plate Clamps Troughton's Clamp and Tangent Arrangement Levelling Plates Vertical Arc Compass Telescope The Diaphragm The Vernier Transit Theodolite Triangular Plate Everest Theodolite Box Sextant How to use Box Sextant Hughes's Improved Double Sextant Plane Table Telemeter Telemeter for the Laying out the Base The Use of the Telemeter as a Surveying Instrument To measure the Widih of a River The Level The "Y" Level The Dumpy Level Telescope Objectglass Eye-piece The Diaphragm The Cross-Wires Line of
Plate
Plates Parallel
Plates Parallel
Arrangement The Limb
CHAPTER
IV.
TRIGOXOMETRY REQUIRED IN SURVEYING.

Plane Surface Plane Angle Plane Rectilineal Angle Perpendicular Obtuse Angle Acute Angle Circle Centre of Circle Diameter
Semi-circle Segment of Circle Rectilineal Figures Trilateral Figures Quadrilateral Figures Multilateral Figures Equilateral Triangle Isosceles Triangle Scalene Triangle Rightangled Triangle Obtuse-angled Triangle Acule-angled Triangle Theorems Theory of Parallel Lines Of the Circle Trigonometrical Canon Complement and Supplement of Angles Trigonometrical Ratios Sine Tangent Secant Cosine Cotangent Cosecant Versed Sine Coversed Sine Chord Relation of Hypotenuse to the Other Sides of Right-angled Triangle Comparison of Functions Cotangent of Greater or Less Angles Sin A in Terms of Cos A Tan A in Terms of Sin A Tan A in Terms of Cos A Cos A in Terms of Tan A Sin A in Terms of Tan A Sin A in Terms of Sec A Cos A in Terms of Cosec A Cot A in Terms of Sec A Complemental Angles ^The Sine, &c., and Complement Supplemental Angles Use of and Signs Positive and Negative
of Circle
its
-J-
CONTENTS.
xi
Angles Sum and Difference of Sines and Cosines Sine and Cosine of Twice an Angle Terms of Sine and Cosine of the Angle Side and Cosine of Twice an Angle Terms of Sine and Cosine of Half the Angle Sine and Cosine of Twice an Angle Terms of Sine and Cosine of the Sum of Three Angles Sine and Cosine of Twice an Angle in Terms of Sine and Cosine of Three Times one Angle Oblique-angled Triangles Sines and Cosines in Terms of Sides Sines and Cosines of Semi-angles Logarithms The ChaThe MantissaMultiplication by Logarithms Division by Logarithms Proportion by Logarithms Arithmetical Complement Involution by Logarithms Evolution by Logarithms Natural and Logarithmic Sines, &c. Arithmetical Computation Solution of Triangles by Natural Sines Solution of Oblique
in in in
racteristic
Condition of each Quadrant Radius Unity Basis of FormulaeSines, &c., for 45 Degrees for 60 Degrees for 30 Degrees for 18 Degrees for 120 Degrees for 225 Degrees Ratio of Radius Solution of Right-angled Triangles Trigonometrical Ratios of Two
PAGE
Triangles by Logarithms
Heights and Distances
102
156
CHAPTER
V.
CHAIN-SUR VE YING.
Surveying with Chain only Field-book Ordnance Field-book NecesSurvey Lines to be numbered consecutively sity for Reconnoitre Conventional Signs for Ditch and Hedge for Post-and-rail Fence for Cartfor Footpaths for Gates for Walls for Close-paling
tracks
or
Bridle-paths for
Brushwoodfor
Trees for Orchards for Woodsfor Marshy Ground for Heath or Gorse for Railways
for Railway Embankments- for Railway Cuttings for Broken Ground for Parish Boundaries for County Boundariesfor Surveying Stationsfor Direction of
as possible Tape not to be used for Offsets Instructions to Chain-men Enter every Ten Chains in Field-book Boning-out Lines Best Form of Stations How to keep Field-book Separate Page for each Line As to marking Intersection of Lines Best Form of Base-lines Foot-paths and Cart-tracks Gates Hedge and Ditch Avoid as much as possible crossing Fences Avoid cutting Fences unnecessarily Avoid cutting 157170 . Trees Clear up the Ground after Survey Cautions
book Single Line preferable Wimbledon Park Few Lines
to
Line Field-book Best Size FieldDouble Column Chain Survey of

xn
CONTENTS.
CHAPTER
VI.
THEODOLITE-SUR VE YING.
Check-lines obviated
Accurately mark StationWhen to take Angles The Necessary Number of AnglesAngles necessary Surveyors' Institution Examination First a Chain Survey What to avoid Surveying a River Don't spare the Use of the Theodolite Corroboration of Observation Hints on the Use of the Theodolite 171 179
.
PAGE
CHAPTER
VII.
TRA VERSING.
Traversing
against Metallic Attractions vfhilst Traversing
Traversing by Included AnglesGuarding Plenty of Assistance required in Traversing Northings and Southings in Traversing As closing a Traverse Necessity checking Relative Care 180 185 Positions of Baarings Magnetic Variation or Declination
with
Chain
to
for
in
CHAPTER
VIII.
TO WN-S UR VE YING.
As
to
posts,
marking Stations in Streets Taking Angles Objections to Lamp&c. Taking Observations in Crooked Streets As to the
Chain When
Arrows
to take
for counting
As
to Streams
As
Angles Do not erase Figures As to Buildings Lamp-posts,
in
Book Use
186
Gullies, etc.
to Plotting
15
CHAPTER
IX.
LEVELLING.
Definition Curvature of the
Earth Allowance for the Earth's CurvatureRefractionNecessary Adjustments Simple Levelling Compound Levelling Datum Ordnance Datum Bench-marks Position of
Bench-marks Different Kinds of Levelling Level-book

CONTENTS.
Foot-plates
xiii
Making up the Level-book how to use As to Distances Measuring across StreamsProviding Instructions to Staff-holder Curvature, Plenty of InformationTaking Level of Water Levelling TheodoliteLevelling with Aneroid Levelling with Hypsometer 197 230 Cross-sections Ticketing Keeping
the Level-book
it
TAGB
Levelling-staflf,
for
etc.
vfith
CHAPTER
X.
CONTOURING.
Vertical Intervals
Table of Horizontal
ing the Field-book
and Horizontal Equivalents

Equivalents
Hypotenusal Allowance DatumBench-marksKeep231236
CHAPTER
XI.
SETTING OUT CURVES.

General Principles
Points
Limit of Radii Preliminary OperationsTangent ^Tangential Angle^Length of CurveImpeded Point in Curve Apex Inaccessible Setting out with two TheodolitesRadii Curves of Contraflexure Formula Curves of Curves Table of Tangential Angles Setting out by Offsets Curve Offset Rule Setting out from Same Tangent Setting out by means
DiflFerent
for
ofOrdinates
237-252
CHAPTER Xn.
OFFICE WORK.
Necessity for System
well
As plotting from Long Lines Plot Survey-lines possible Equipment of soon Plot each Day's Work Drawing-tables Scales Pricker Pencils Points of Pencils Protractors Beam Compasses How use Beam Compasses
to
all
first
Roughly plot the Survey-lines Let the Paper be seasonedDraw Scale on Paper before commencing Boxwood Scales best Plot Survey North and South Keep Paper Perfectly Flat Laying down Survey-lines on Paper Check Measurements Marking Stations Straight-edge Never plot from Pencil Lines
as
as
Office
to
Pricker or Needle-holder Parallel
Rules Set-squares-Offsets

CONTENTS.
Drawiog-pens Dividers Spring-bows Drawing Instru Proportional Compasses India Rubber Indian Ink Colours Conventional Signs and Colours Model Plan Inking-in ReferenceAs to Position of Plan on PaperBoundaries of Different Properties Paint Brushes and Pencils Precautions in Colouring North Points Borders Printing and Writing on Plans Scales Enlarging and reducing Plans Pantagraph Eidograph How to adjust the Eidograph Enlarging and Reducing by Squares Copying a Plan General Hints 253 280
Curves ments
CHAPTER
XIII.
LAND QUANTITIES.
Table
of
Superficial
Triangles
Scale
How
Measures Avefages of Fences Computing by To ascertain Areas upon the Ground The Computation
tation
to use Computation Scale Scales Areas by Different Scales
Various
to
Kinds of CompuPlan Planimeter 281 290
CHAPTER
XIV.
. .
.
COLONIAL LICENSING REGULATIONS
291-304
APPENDIX.
Hypsometer Tables
Introduction to Tables of Natural Sines, etc. Natural Sines and Cosines
.........
.....
. . .
TASLES.
^07 311
312 327 34c
^26
339
-1^2
Natural Tangents and Co-tangents Natural Secants and Co-secants
...
^^^"DEX
353_358
INDEX TO ILLUSTRATIONS.
Description of Illustration.
No. of Figure.
No. of Page.
Chain and Arrows ID Chain Angles 39 Chainingthrough Hedges 12 Check Lines 36,
.
10 25
12
37. 38
.
Circle
CiRCUMFERENTOR Clamping Arrangement Clinometer Rule

.
....
. .
5'4
Clips
Closing a Traverse Close-paled I<"ence collimation .

.
Sketch 72 91, 92 56 95 235 Sketch
103
40
.
48.49
33 50
185 158
74,
132, 133. 248

62, 63, 64, 65, 66, 67, 68, 151 to 155
.
200
36.
37.
Comdined Clinometer AND Prismatic Compass
35.
38,
89 to 91
107, 108, 117
complemental angle Compound Levelling Computing Scale Contouring

.
169, 170, 171, 180
249 358
... ...
201
288
232,
17
283, 284, 285, 286, 287, 288, 289, 290, 291
233, 235. 236
234,
Corners of Fields Corroboration of Obser

.
24
229
278, 279, 280, 281 47. 48, 49 99. 130. 131
VATION . Cross Sections Cross Staff Cross Wires .

.
178
229, 230
29, 30
51. 73
Curvature Curve Ranger

Curves, Office Curves, Setting ou
247
IS7. 158, 159
198
93. 94. 95
323 292 to 308
261 237 to 251
D.
Datum
Datum, Ordnance Mark Diameter of Circle Diaphragm Direction of Line Ditch
.
250
258 Sketch
98, 99, 130
203 205
103
51.
73
Dividers
Divisions of Chain
Double Sextant Drawing Instruments

Drawing-pens Drawing-table
.
Sketch Sketch 326, 327 Sketch 113a 328 324. 325 309. 310
160 158
263, 264
3
63
264
261, 262
255
Eidograph Enlarging or Reducing

Plans Equilateral Triangle
Eye-piece
....
.
348, 349. 350
274, 277
351. 352
Sketch 166
278 104 100
No. of Figure.
No. of Page.
F.
Field
Work
213, 214, 215, 2i6, 2:7,
218
161, 162
Fixed Station Footpaths Footplates
Sketch
8 158
261, 262
209
Gates
Sketch
158
H. Heath or Gorse
Sketch
Sketch Hedge, Boundary of How tq hold the Chain II How TO hold the Draw-
159 158
II
ing-pen
324
.
Hypsometer
277
261 227
Inaccessible Points
41,
Intermediate Sights
Isosceles Triangle
.
42, 43, 44, 45, 46, . 123, 211 263, 268, 269, 270, 271,
26,27,28,69,153
273. 274
Sketch
210,217,219,220 104
L.
Lettering Template Level

. .
.
346 96
271
.
SI
70, 71, 72 69, 71 200, 197,
Level, "Dumpy" Level, " Y "

.
I2S, 127, 128, 129 124, 126
Levelling
Levelling the Bubble Levelling the Plates Levelling with Theodo. .
246, 248, 249, 259, 263
201,
208, 210
133
74
93 276
136,
49
223
78, 79,
lite
Level Staff
Line Ranger
137. 138, 139. 140. 264, 265, 266, 267

216
55
32
M.
Marshy Ground
.
Sketch
159
217, 218
Measuring across Streams 271, 272 Model Plan 334
267
No. of Figure.
No. of Page.
Ratio of Radius Ray-shade

.
191
127
160
Reference 335 61 Reflecting Clinometer Relations of Lines to Functions of a Rightangled Triangle Relation of Hypotenuse of Right-angled Triangle 175. 176 Right-angles with Chain 40 Sketch Right-angled Triangle
.
.
.
96 268
35
III
26 104
159
Road
Sketch
Saucers Scalene Triangle Set-square Setting out Curves with

.
....
. .
331,332.333-
Theodolite Setting out Curves by Offsets and Ordinates Sextant, Double

Sines, Cosines, etc.
Skew-chaining Slope Staff Solution of Oblique Triangle Rightof Solution angled Triangle Stadiometer Standards of Theodolite Station Marks Station Peg Station Poles
. . .
.
.
Stations Stepping Slopes

. .
Stock-head
Subsidiary Stations
Supplemental Angles Surveying a River
Taking an Angle Tangent Screws Telemeter

Telescope
230
91, 92 117, 118, 119, 122, 123
. .
96, 97
PRACTICAL SURVEYING.
CHAPTER
I.
INTROD UCTION.
" Surveying is the art of ascertaining, by measurement, the shape and size of any portion of the earth's surface, and representing the same, on a reduced scale, in a conventional manner, so as to
bring the whole under the eye at once."
Subjects necessary to be known. Such being the concise description of the science of surveying by an ancient writer, I am induced to inaugurate these pages with it. more recent treatise on the subject says, " Considered as a branch of practical Mathematics, Surveying depends for its principle on Geometry and ; Trigonometry " and further, " It may be proper to mention the previous knowledge which a surveyor ought to possess, and to notice the instruments which he is to employ in his operations. As a surveyor has perpetual occasion for adculation, it is necessary that he be familiar with the first four rules of Arithmetic, and the rule of Proportion, both in Whole Numbers and in Fractions, especially Decimals, with the nature of Logarithms and the use of Logarithmic Tables, and with at least Algebraic Notation. As it is his business to investigate and measure lines and angles, and to describe them on paper, he should be well acquainted with the elements of Geometry and Trigonometry, and with the application of these principles to the mensuration of Heights, Distances, and In particular, he should be familiar with the best pracSurfaces. tical methods of solving the ordinary geometric problems, and should be expert in drawing lines and describing figures. He should be acquainted with the principles and practice of Levelling ; he should know something of the principles of Optics and Magnetism, and should possess at least a smattering of the arts of Drawing
and Painting."
The
foregoing
list
of requisite acquirements represents
more
INTRODUCTION.
any words of mine could the range of subjects which demands the attention of the student, and it will be my endeavour in the following pages to give them practical effect. It is necessary, however, that I should traverse to some extent familiar ground, which I shall avoid where practicable; but I wish to make this work as complete as possible, and would therefore claim the indulgence of the reader if I seem inclined to be
forcibly than
too elementary.
to
what
Standards of Measure. In this country we are accustomed is known as the duodecimal system of measuring, whereof
I do not propose to the foot of twelve inches is the basis. question the wisdom of continuing this standard in the face of the almost universal adoption of the metric system upon the Continent, and indeed nearly all over the globe ; but I am bound to confess that the latter method, apart from its universality, offers greater facilities both in practical and theoretical application to
surveying.
Chains. For surveying purposes in England we have two kinds of chains, viz. the loo-feet and Gunter's. These chains, made of stout iron or steel wire, are composed each of too links ; in the former case each link being equal to one foot in length, and in the latter 7*92 in., or i-iooth part of 65 feet, being the length of the link. It will be manifest that the loo-feet chain has many great advantages, the chief being that it is so easily understood ; and it is further argued that its increased length over Gunter is more conducive to accuracy in its use in the field.
Advantages
of loo-feet
Chains.
For
large
plans
of
estates, especially those destined
for building operations,
where
every inch is of consequence, or for works of construction, the loo-feet chain will prove to be invaluable. But in the operations of surveying proper, for many potent reasons, pending the complete revolution in our system of mensuration, I must admit my preference for Gunter's chain.
Qunter's, or 66-feet Chain. This instrument, if I may so it, was invented in the early part of the seventeenth century by the Rev. Edmund Gunter, an eminent professor of astronomy
call
at
is
College. It is also called a four-pole chain. It long (or four poles of 16^ ft.*), composed of 100 links of strong iron or steel wire, each link being 7 "9 2 in. or i-iooth part
Gresham
ft.
66
dom, were formerly (by custom)
* Poles, sometimes called perches or rods, in different parts of the kingof various lengths; as, of 15 ft. or 5 yds., All these are now obsolete, and the statute acre (35th 7 yds., 8 yds., &c. year of the reign of Edward I.), consisting of 160 square perches (of 272J square feet each), is general throughout England.
CHAIN AND ARROWS.
of 66 ft. , At every 10 links is fastened a brass tablet of different shapes to denote its value in tens, whilst at each end is a conveniently constructed brass handle.
Divisions of Qunter's Cliain.

10
The
first
10 links
is
dis-
tinguished by a tablet like this

30
40
;
the 20 thus,
*i
the 30 thus,
/\
(33
the 40 thus,
/\
and 50
links or the centre of the chain

50
ft.)
by a circular
tablet thus,
PK
so that from each end of the
chain are tablets of similar shape and position, and the number of links is counted therefrom. But it is necessary to explain that, having reached the centre of the chain, or 50 links from one end, in proceeding to the other extremity, what represents 40 links from that end is really 60 from the commencement, and similarly 30 is 70, 20 is 80, and 10 is go, whilst the handle represents 100 links* The following sketch may serve to illustrate this.
Q
B jJo
10 90
Chain of
y Poles
4
or 66 Feet or 100 Links of 7-92 inches each
^
60 40
y
70
-^
jf
Y
90
10
-O
100
20 80
30
70
40 60
50 50
30
80 20
So that the ist, 2nd, 3rd, 4th, and 5th labels represent 10, 20, very little 30, 40, and 50 links respectively from either end. practice enables one to acquire a perfect facility in reading the chain.
Decametre Chain.
struction
The de'cambtre chain

each
chain
are
is
similar in con-
Each the Gunter, being divided into 100 links. 10 links equal a metre, or 3-2809 ft., so that a decamfetre chain is 32-809 ft., or nearly the length of half of our Gunter.
to
Arrows.
Accompanying
10
arrows,
or
skewers, about 9 in. long, pointed at one end and having a These arrows ring * at the other for greater facility in carrying. are made of stout wire, and are used to mark upon the ground the end of each chain. The reason why ten is the number adopted is that ten chains (66 ft.) equal one furlong, and eight furlongs or eighty chains equal one mile. Again, an acre of land is ten square chains.
Offset Staff. Besides the chain, the surveyor should be provided with a small staff or rod (called an offset staff), 6 ft. 7-20 in. This staff should be made long, divided into 10 parts or links.
* It is usual to tie a piece of red cloth or tape round the handle of the arrows, so that they may be the more easily distinguishable when stuck in the midst of grass or plants, &c.
INTRODUCTION.
of well-seasoned wood, painted in link lengths black and white alternately ; it should have an iron spike at one end and at the other a stout open ring (as sketch, Figs, i and 2) for forcing or drawing the chain through a hedge.
33-feet Tape.
It is also advisable that the surveyor should carry in his pocket a small tape, say 33 ft. long, to be used only under circumstances when absoThese tapes are divided into lutely necessary. 50 links, similar to the chain.
Figs. 1 and 2.Offset Staff.
In order to mark out upon the ground Poles. any lines necessary for surveying purposes, poles from 10 to 20 ft. long, according to circumstances, must be provided. They should be 2^ or 3 in. thick at the bottom, and taper to about i in. at They should be shod with an iron shoe, the top.
pointed so as to easily penetrate the ground. These poles should be made of well-seasoned deal, free from Although it is an unquestionable knots, and perfectly straight. advantage to have them painted (white, or alternate white and red, or black and white, according to fancy), yet it is not a matter of very much consequence, unless they are intended to be used again upon another survey, in which case the paint is a protection. I prefer to surmount these poles with a flag White about 18 in. by 14 in. square, of red and white bunting, and it will be found extremely useful, especially for long distances, if a piece of white canvas is fastened by tapes half-way up the rod I ran shoe* Ironshi These poles are chiefly used for (see Fig. 3). Fig. 3. Station In some cases stations at the end of long lines. Pole. even these will not be long enough, when of course arrangements must be made according to circumstances, as will be hereafter explained.
Ranging Rods. No surveyor should be provided with less than about a dozen (or more if necessary) ranging rods, equally very straight and well seasoned to ensure against warping. They should be 6 ft. 7*20 in. long, with iron shoes at the bottom, and tapering from i j in. to fths of an in. in diameter,* and should be divided into ten equal parts (one link each), and painted alternately black and white, or black, white, and red, or red and white, and I have known them to be painted blue and white (this
" I have a strong preference for my rods to be octagonal in section in preference to circular, as I think the arris of the former is of great assistance in ranging out lines.
EQUIPMENT OF THE SURVEYOR.

of course
is entirely
a matter of fancy). Red and white flags should and white flags tied half-way down. The reason why I recommend them to be 6 ft. 7*20 in. long is that they are none the worse for being a little longer (some surveyors have their rods only 5 ft. long), and in the absence of an offset staff they may be used for all such purposes.
be fastened
at the top
I always instruct my men to provide a not only are they light in bulk, but are " cheap and plenty," and have the advantage (if judiciously selected) of being fairly straight, easily sharpened to a point, and your chainman will not object to carry a dozen or so about with him. For ranging out a long base or other line, especially over very uneven ground, they are simply invaluable. Being white, they can be seen at a great distance, and when done with, if left on the ground, it is not a very serious loss.
Bundle of Laths.
laths, as
bundle of
Whites. These are very necessary adjuncts to a survey. Varying from 15 in. to 3 ft. in length, they are simply thin sticks cut from a wood or hedge, as straight as possible, pointed at one end and having a cleft cut in the other for the purpose of inserting pieces of white paper. These are very useful in ranging out lines
or for establishing stations.
Equipment of a Surveyor. I do not know whether it is at necessary that I should offer any suggestions as to the personal habillement of a surveyor, for my own experience has been that I have found the oldest clothes (sound, of course) the most suitable, as it leaves one enjoyably indifferent to the accidents that frequently happen to one's garments. Climbing over fences and walls, crawling through hedges, ascending trees, or fording a stream, are not calculated to improve one's clothes, should they be required
all
for further use.

I may say, however, that, presuming it to be absolutely necessary to provide an outfit for surveying, the following may be a useful guide. First and foremost, good, strong, and unquestionably watertight boots, with plenty of hob-nails, are imperative, for, apart from risk to health, wet feet for a greater part of the day, especially in winter, do not conduce to comfort or improve the temper. Hightop boots are a great mistake, for not only do they impede the free action of the feet and are clumsy, especially in heavy land, but if one has to work in water, the act of stooping to obtain a better sight of an object may defeat the original intention of keeping the legs and Leggings are also a mistake, as they feet protected from wet. may keep the external wet out, but they also keep the perspiration in. Woollen cord trousers with leather gaiters are the most suitable jacket of good pilot cloth with plenty of for any field work. pockets is better than anything, for it will stand many hours'
INTRODUCTION.
exposure to wet. On no account do I recommend the use of a mackintosh, as it is ahvays in the way if not wanted for wear, and is constantly being torn and I maintain that, except for driving, the mackintosh is anything but desirable. I will conclude my personal remarks by advising the use of a soft felt or cloth cap
;
with as little brim as possible, as hat-brims are found, especially in instrumental observations, to be not only a nuisance, but often dangerous.
Field Book.
The surveyor should be provided
with'
a good
field-book, for which stout blue paper is generally the best. Some surveyors prefer an oblong book about 8 in. by ^\ in., ruled with
the middle forming a central column, on either sketches of fences, buildings, or other objects right and left of the chain-line; but I prefer a quarto book about 7 J in. by 6 in., of which I shall have more to say presently. It is advisable to carry several spare pencils (F) in the pocket in case the one being used is lost ; but to guard against such a contingency it is useful to tie a piece of string at the end (taking care to cut a notch round the head), and fasten it to the button-hole of your coat, with a sufficient length of string to enable you to manipulate the pencil. The same advice applies to a small piece of india-rubber, which it is always necessary to have. good clasp pocket-knife is indispensable, not only for sharpening the pencil, but is very useful for cutting sticks, &c. I strongly recommend the young surveyor to carry a pair of good field-glasses, slung by a strap over his shoulder, as he will find them exceedingly useful, indeed on a large survey absolutely necessary. In the absence of a prismatic compass (to which, of course, preference is given) it is desirable to have a pocket-compass, to determine the bearings of points of the survey. It is quite as well to carry a scale, 6 in. long, of say two chains to an inch ; a pair of pocketcompasses, a plentiful supply of white paper, string, a few nails, a lump of chalk, and last, but not least, a fairly-sized plumb-bob. I may also say that I have found a pocket-whistle exceedingly useful to attract the attention of my men when beyond the range of one's voice.
lines
two
down
side of which
may be made
communicate vocally with one's within ordinary earshot. By directing one's voice towards the ground about half-way to them (especially if a hand slightly concaved be placed at each side of the mouth), a verbal message may be sent against a fresh wind, to a distance at which point-blank shouting would fail to reach them.
It is
difficult to
if
sometimes
men
to windward, even
CHAPTER
Before proceeding
the
field, I
II.
ORDINARY SURVEYING.
to describe the modus operandi of surveying in wish to offer a few remarks upon the important question
of reconnoitre.
Reconnoitre.
should, as a
It is absolutely essential
that the
surveyor
the
first step,
make himself thoroughly conversant with
surroundings of the ground he has to survey, by walking all over the estate, whereby he not only gains an intimate knowledge of the various boundaries, the position of buildings, streams, &c., but is enabled to form an accurate idea of the best routes for his principal lines. It has, indeed, been argued that such a proceeding is unnecessary, occupying as it does valuable time ; but the question is whether it is not an absolute saving of time to lay out the work so systematically, that, when chaining operations commence, there is likely to be no hitch or delay, by reason of encountering obstacles not previously observed which involve extra work or, possibly, the abandonment of an important line in consequence. One thing is surely important, and that is, to establish the principal stations, which can only be done after a careful examination of the ground.
Sketch Map.
In
making a reconnaissance of a proposed
survey, it is desirable to make a neat sketch of all the chief features, so that, having determined the routes of your base and other lines, you may delineate them upon this sketch and number them consecutively, which will be found to be of the greatest assistance, not only in subsequent field operations, but in plotting the survey.
Stations. To make a survey of even a simple field, equally with an extensive estate, it is necessary to establish stations, at those points to which it may be desirable Thus a b c and d (Fig. 4) to run lines. represent stations which comprehend a complete investiture of this figure, whereby lines from a to b, b to c, c to d, and D to A will be necessary to enable the ^'S- 4.-Stations. boundaries of the field to be taken.
.
Main
and
Stations.
Stations
are of a twofold character, main
subsidiary.
Main
stations represent those chief points which.
ORDINARY SURVEYING.
whether the figure to be surveyed be regular or irregular, embrace such lines as will command the boundaries of the These stations are shown in various ways, according survey. If the survey is of only a temporary to circumstances. character (such as can be executed in a single day) then poles or ranging-rods may be fixed for the purpose, but if required for an extensive survey, then stout pegs should be driven into
TESTING THE CHAIN.

case of an ordinary field (Fig. B c, we proceed to take up c d,
station,
9),
it
when
after chaining
a b and
have a
will
be necessary at
e to
and similarly on line D e to do the same at d, for the purpose of measuring the "tie" or "check"
e. Anticipating my remarks the field-book, each station should be marked round with a circle or oval.
line
upon
Testing the Chain. Before commencing chaining, the surveyor

should satisfy himself as to the accuracy of his chain, as, if it has been used before, either from constant puUing through fences, or other causes, it may become elongated, or, in going over rough ground, by treading upon some of the links they may become bent, and consequently shortened, ^-1 uiiK-t^-i-Li/iK->\c-i lihk-^, 0-60 chIso 3-60 0^0 as in the accompanying
sketch.
CHAIH STRAIGHT
test
Test Gauge. To form gauge upon an even
Hl UNX-A^-1 LmK-x<-l LIUK-
surface, preferably a pavement, it is desirable to
measure accurately with a rod (the longer the rod the better) 35 ft. and 66 ft. in the same line. These lengths should be tested by measurement from the other end, and having been determined, marks should be cut in the pavement with a hammer and chisel, at each end and in the centre. In the absence 1 CHAIN ores FEETK H of pavement, upon
level
ground drive
in
stout pegs, 66 ft. and 33 ft. apart, and hav-
-D
S-
ing accurately gauged the two lengths, drive nails into the pegs to mark the exact points. test gauge should |< be established in close 1 chain or m feet every proximity to surveyor's office for constant comparison ; but in a large survey that it is desirable to make one close to the scene of operations, so each day before commencing work the chain may be applied, and if longer may be adjusted by removing one or more of
fe
10
ORDINARY SURVEYING.
connecting links,
or,
if
the
short,
by straightening the
wire
links.
It may be stated that a Government standard of all kinds of English measures has been established in Trafalgar Square, by means of permanent bronze marks, let into the granite plinth of the There is also a stanterrace wall in front of the National Gallery. dard in the Guildhall, belonging to the Corporation of London ; and in nearly every city and town in the kingdom, the Borough Surveyor
has arranged certain marks wherewith to test his chains, and these, on a courteous request, will doubtless be put at the service of any surveyor whose avocations may call him into the neighbourhood. There is an art in doing up and throwing out the chain. In the former case, the chain should be taken at its centre (with the
circular
tablet)
and
gradually each pair of links towards the end
should be cylindrically folded diagonally over

the
last
until
the
handles are reached, SO that when tied up, 10. Chain and Arrows. the chain represents almost a wheatsheaf The accompanying sketch (Fig. lo) shows the chain folded up and the arrows. In throwing out, the handles should be held in the left hand with a few links loose, whilst the rest of the folded chain is held with the right, and by this means thrown smartly away, retaining hold of the two handles,
Chain-men. Now, in all chaining operations, there is one person to drag the chain, called the leader, and another to follow, Of these two (supposing two men are emcalled the follower. ployed to assist the surveyor) the follower should be the more
and trustworthy. would here say, that in always be ample assistance.
intelligent
I
all
organised surveys there should
mean, that two men at least are requisite, so that the surveyor may be free to make observations, sketch, and enter measurements in his field-book, and Indeed I go further, and express generally superintend operations. a firm conviction, that it is real economy to have a third man, or an intelligent lad, to fetch and carry rods, to take charge of plans, books, &c., and generally to act as aide-de-camp.
I
Leader's Duties. Reverting to the leader and follower, it necessary to instruct each in their respective duties. To the leader should be explained, that, at the commencement of work he is to receive (and count for his own satisfaction) the arrows, for
is
DUTIES OF CHAIN-MEN.
which he
II
will be held responsible. His duty is to precede the follower in a direction indicated and to draw the chain gently after, and upon reaching the limit of its length he is to turn half round to face the follower, holding the handle of the chain in his hand with one of the arrows between the inside of the handle and the inside of his fingers thus (Fig. ii), and to watch for a signal from the follower as
to
how he should move

care (on
his
laterally right or left,
taking
keep the chain straight, by

part) to
gentle shaking up.
Some
surveyors
II.How
to hold Chain.
hold that the leader should completely face
the follower at the end of each chain, but my experience has been that, by so doing, his body often obscures a forward point, and by very little practice, he can be made to do the work as well sideways. It is necessary that he should hold the arrow perfectly upright, and only move it gradually right or left, so as to mark the exact spot indicated by the follower.
Here I may say, that it is useful to range out several points in a by means of laths or whites, which will be useful in guiding The surthe leader to keep in the direction it is necessary to go. veyor must impress this upon him, as I have sometimes found that
line
the leader will elect to walk in a certain direction, apparently to his own satisfaction, which has the disadvantage of being considerably out of the line.
Duty of Follower. The duty of the follower, having previously had the destination of the line explained, is to retain the other end of the chain in hand, and to direct the leader as to the direction he should take ; to call out when the chain is at its full length j to hold the extremity of the handle against the centre of the station whence the line starts, or against the arrow which had been previously placed in the ground (taking care to hold the outside of the handle against the point); to see that the chain is stretched perfectly straight and lies evenly in a true line with the forward station ; to direct the leader to move his body altogether
right or
left,
slight lateral
and when approximately in line, to instruct him by movement of his hand, right or left, until the exact
If within hearing range he should call " To point is obtained. you " or " From you," or if beyond earshot, by moving the head and to convey to the leader that he is right, and it is right or left necessary to fix an arrow in the ground to mark the spot, either call out " Mark," or convey that meaning by a nod.
;
12
ORDINARY SURVEYING.
In the event of its being found impossible to make the leader hear your directions or those of the follower, if you want him to move to the right, wave your right arm backwards and forwards, and if to the left, similarly with your left arm ; and to indicate that he is in a right position, bring both arms smartly to attention.
to use the Chain. It should here be explained that as the chain measures 66 ft., or loo links, between the ends of the handles, it would not be right to hold one extremity against the arrows or pegs at each end, for by so doing, the length of the line is diminished by the number of half-thicknesses of the arrows or pegs, corresponding with as many chain-lengths as have been measured. But when pegs are used, if the end of each handle is held in the centre or with arrows, if the leader holds the inside of his handle against the arrow, whilst the follower holds his handle (outside) again&t the arrow at his end by these means the proper length may be adjusted. After placing an arrow in the ground at the end of the first chain, the leader proceeds in direction of the goal, until he has reached the limit of the chain. The follower, having walked to the first arrow, and held his end of the chain thereto, now directs the leader so as to mark the second chain, which having been duly accomplished, the men go forward (the follower having previously picked up the first arrow), and so they continue, until the leader has expended all his arrows, when, having placed his last in the ground, he calls out " Ten," which should be acknowledged by the surveyor and booked accordingly. The surveyor now proceeds to the tenth arrow, and putting his offset staff in the place of the tenth arrow, the follower, having reached this point, picks up the tenth arrow, and counts the ten arrows before handing them over to the leader, who on his part again counts them to see that he receives the right number.
How
The foregoing is
line
a description of the
method of chaining a simple
tain
between the points, supposing it to be necessary only to ascerthe length of a line, but it seldom happens even in a checkline that such ^ a an operation can
3rd
c/,am''-"7o""7o""?r"To/""5o"'?o""fo""8o""M"'"c''a'"
J
.
4th.
be
performed
^
.
Fig. 12.
^/
.
without crossing through hedges or fences of some

description.
^, Chaining through Hedges.
Crossing Hedg:es, &c. (Fig. 1 2). In these cases the leader and follower must wait before moving forward, to allow the surveyor to note the chainage of sach intersection. For instance, if after three chains have been measured a hedge intervene between the third and
BOUNDARIES.
13
fourth chain, then the follower, noting at what point the leader's end of the chain should pass through the hedge, gives the necessary
directions,
which having been done, the chain
is
now
pulled tight,
and a fourth arrow having been adjusted in place, the chain is allowed to rest until the number of links is ascertained where the fence crosses the chain. In the case supposed (Fig. 12) the number of links is 47, so that the crossing of the hedge on our chain-line should be booked 3*47 that is, 3 chains 47 links.
it may be well that I should speak of hedge and ditch, which appears to be a question somewhat enveloped in mystery. If I stand in a field with the ditch on my side of the hedge, then I know that the field in which I am standing reaches only up to the A-<-edge of that ditch, and that both the ditch and hedge belong to the field on the other side, as per sketch (Fig. 13). Thus the boundary of a is the edge of Boundary of Field. Fig. 13. the ditch on the left, whilst the In illustration of this, when a railditch and hedge belong to b. way is staked out through a district, it is usual for the contractor to fence-in the land required for the works by means of what is called a " post-and-rail fence" (see Figs. 14 and 15), which represents the extremity (on either side) of the property acquired by the company ; and one of the last things done before the completion of the railway, is for the contractor to cut a grip or ditch, on the inside of .^ the fencing, and with the excavated soil to
Hedgê and Ditch. Here
form a mound in which "quicks" are set The

of the larch post-andfence is supposed rail to be long enough to enable the quick to develop into a hedge. And
life
Fig. 14.
Boundaries.
in
future
shall
years,
when
Fig. 15.
Boundaries.
decay
have removed
the wooden fence, a surveyor will make the necessary allowance outside the hedge for the real boundary of the railway.
How to measure Fence. Here I would say, that it has been found to be more convenient to take all measurements to the centre, or root, of the hedge, and make the necessary allowance
14
for the
ORDINARY SURVEYING.
edge of the ditch therefrom.
usual allowance is this length varies according to custom, and it will be prudent of the surveyor to make inquiries in the locality as to that custom. This allowance of six links is, of course, upon the square as a b (Fig. i6) for, if the chain crosses in , an oblique direction (as C d), /D ''t^ distance will be then the ^/ D,(cft \ =,' Ditoh bJ|_. For instance, supgreater. Hedge Htdie Sect, pose the edge of the ditch Plan ^"z on the square is six links, as ' A E, but the chain crosses Fig. 1 6. Skew Chaining. instead at an angle of 60, then the length from the hedge to the edge of the ditch will be
six links, but in different counties in
The
England
nearly seven links instead of
six.
Foot-set Hedges. It may happen that a hedge has a ditch on either side, or none at all, and yet divides two properties, and in such a case the centre or root of the hedge should be taken.
Offsets.
The
process of surveying, after the necessary lines

lateral
have been
laid out, consists of determining the various boundaries,
buildings, &c.,
by means of
measurements, to such points

distinguish
right or left of the chain-line, as
may
any
alteration in
shape of the fence, or the angles of the buildings.
These
lateral
measurements are called
offsets,
and
strictly
speaking are always taken at right angles to the chain-line. As it is possible upon the ground, no matter how uneven, to lay out a straight line, which on paper is drawn with a pencil and straightedge, so it is possible also upon the ground to set out a right angle. Under the head of " Instruments " (Chap. III.) I have described the cross-staff (p. 29) and optical square. I have described these appliances for setting out a right angle ; and for taking offsets the latter will be found to be the most useful and accurate. But for general work, the surveyor soon gets accustomed, with the eye alone,
.
Chain
Line
-f**efc
Hedge
ffnlnillUjiwlimnili IB
Fig.
17. OfTset.
on the chain at right angles to any clearly defined point. greater help is to lay down the offset staff as nearly square with the chain as it is possible to judge, and then, looking along the rod, to mark with the eye any point in line therewith in the fence, as shown by the dotted line d e (Fig. 17)
to find the exact position
OFFSETS.
when A B
15
is the chain, g h the fence, and e a point to which it is necessary to take an ofiset ; c d is the staff, and c e the offset. In using a cross-staff, great care has to be observed that the rod on which it is fixed is in a vertical position,* and exactly upon the chain-line. The box is directed so that two of the slots so" are in line with the chain-line, as a b /cm^. (Fig. 18), when, by looking through c d ^ _Ji. t^sutyi in direction c d, we have a right angle with A B.
Using the Optical Square.
In
the case of the optical square, the operator holds the instrument in his left hand, and having placed a flag at d, or a piece of pap^r in the hedge, walks along the chain-line keeping his eye upon the advanced flag b until the flag or mark at d becomes coincident with
p^_
jg
ofeet with
Staff.
the flag B (as in Fig. 20), when c d Fig. 19 illustrates the modus operandi is at right angles with a b. of taking an offset at the intersection of two hedges d, with an
Fig.
19. Offset with Optical Square.
optical square, where a and b are the flags the point of observation.
on the
chain-line
and c
* Equally with the necessity to fix the cross-staff perfectly vertical, so by should all ranging rods be made perpendicular, which is best effected using a plumb-bob.
i6
ORDINARY SURVEYING.
Offsets should be taken at all points of divergence in the line of fences, or at angles formed by two fences. It is not necessary to take offsets at every chain if the hedge is fairly straight, but may be done every second or third, but when there is any appreciable bend or kink, as in Fig. 21, it will be desirable to take offsets at \a, 2b, 3c, /^d, and q/" on the right-hand side of the chain, and 6^ on the left. It will be seen, that the fence from d to e crosses the chain diagonally, as does that from <? to^ and in addition to the offsets ^ d, 6 e, and 9 f, the distances along the fence 5 ^ ^ 5, e 7, should also be measured, and to fix the corner a temporary station in the chain-line, as at 8, should be noted, and the distance 8 measured as a check. If the ditch is on the other side of the hedge to the chain-line, then it is customary to take the offset to Una pBêndicular to iB the centre, or root, of the
hedge and add six links for the edge of the ditch, and if the ditch is on the same side, either to take the offset to the edge, or to measure to the root of hedge, and deduct six links. I may here say that unless the ditch be very wide, or the hedge inaccessible, I always prefer to measure to the hedge and deduct for the ditch, as denudation, or other cause, renders the edge of the ditch of a very undefined character, and if strictly taken in offsetting would not fairly represent the
Fig. 20.
true bounda,ry.
As to Buildings. Buildings require to be very carefully taken at each angle, and the right angle must be very accurately
Fig- 23.
set out; in the case of Fig. 22,
chain-line,
building.
when a building is square with the only necessary to take offsets to the face of the It will be seen that after the third chain, at 309 and
it
is
TAKING CORNERS.
17
334 are points whence the two comers of the building run, and the diflFerence between 309 and 334 should be the same as measuring along the face of the building, viz. 25 links. All that is necessary is to measure the depth of the buildiDg together with any projections that may occur, as in Fig. 22. In the example shown by Fig. 23, keeping the same points on our chain-line, it îll be seen that the first offset at 309 is to i, which is the angle of the back of the building, whilst 314 to 2 is the front comer, 326 is the termination of that same plane, 329 the angle formed by the projection at 4, and 336 the other angle of the same plane. The lengths of the frontage, sides, back, and projection, should be measured carefully, and the various angles of the buildings should be fixed by diagonal tie-lines, as shown in Figs. 22 and 23.
As to taking Corners of Fields. In the case of commencing a chain-line in the comer of a field, as in Fig. 24, it is not sufficient to take one offset from a to a" on line i, and one Fig. 24. from A to on line 4, to obtain the angle b formed by the two fences, but the diagonals A b and a b are necessary to accurately fix the point of interEqually, when the chain-line crosses the fence at c section. it is not only necessary to take one offset at d to c, but the length c <! along the hedge should be the with that measured, so length c dan the chain we have a triangle to fix the exact posiB
i
i
1
tion of
</.
0347L.
section.
To fix Position of an Inter= It may happen that the
,-
intersection of a fence on the ^ other side of the hedge requires to be accurately determined, for
j~-j
,--'d
...
iwhich purpose a simple offset A so* would hardly be sufficient. Set *"| out a triangle, with one side on the chain, as in Fig. 25, as a at pj^ 26. ' Fig. 25. 320 and b at 337, and then measure the length a c and b c. And again, to fix the angles of a building when a right angle is deemed insufficient, as in Fig. 26, leave stations a b and c at 304, 315, 347, from which measure the lengths Ad,Bd,Bb, and c ^ to the comers of the building.
j
ORDINARY SURVEYING.
that I
Limit of Offsets. Now as to the limit of offsets, I may say do not agree with many writers who recommend offsets of loo or 200 Hnks, or even more, nor do I approve of the use of a tape
a purpose, except under exceptional circumstances. In a well-known work on surveying I was surprised to read that " Offsets may be measured by pacing, with a tape, or with one offset staff. We prefer the last, although for preliminary or parliamentary work we generally measure by pacing, and the student will find that after a little practice he can measure his offset by pacing quite as near as he can plot Vie work. Of course it is understood that we have to get ourselves into the habit of pacing a yard at every step." Now, I need hardly say, that I most emphatically condemn every word of the foregoing advice,, as being entirely contrary to what is
for such
required of the surveyor of to-day.
Pacing. It is true that military surveyors are in the habit of pacing and sketching to a very great extent, and even for " cadastral" purposes have been known so to train their horses that a cavalry man can form a very fair approximation of distance by counting the number of paces the animal makes. I elect to quote from an eminent military surveyor* upon the subject of pacing, who says " In such surveying as an officer is generally called upon to perform, sketches of small positions, reconnaissances, &c., he will of course be unprovided with a chain, and must determine the length of the base by pacing or counting the paces of his horse." But even this recommendation I is qualified by the remark that approximation is sufficient certainly have yet to learn with what degree of satisfaction, not to say accuracy, the offsets for a survey of any importance can be done by pacing, even upon perfectly level ground. I recommend the student in surveying of to-day to keep forcibly in mind the maxim that " a thing that is worth doing at all is worth doing well," and any trouble involved in taking his offsets in the proper way, will be amply repaid by the accuracy with which his work is accomplished.
:
My objection to a tape conducive to laziness and long offsets; 2nd, after much use or wet it either elongates, or in windy weather it is shortened by sagging ; and 3rd, it is an intolerable nuisance either to keep winding up, or to have to gather it in folds in your hand, added to which, the filthy state in which it makes your hands and book. Further, after continual usage, either by dirt
Objections to Tapes for Offsets.
:
is
threefold
ist, it is
or wear, the figures get indistinct, and this often leads to errors. I have said that I do not approve of long offsets, and I think 50 links should be the maximum, imless under very exceptional
* Major
W. H.
Richards.
RANGING-OUT LINES.
19
circumstances. Long offsets are generally the result of laziness for rather than set out a small triangle from a chain-line, when a considerable bend in a fence occurs, and from the sides c e and e d of this triangle take short offsets, as shown in Fig. 27, many surveyors who advocate long offsets would take to the bend direct from the chain-line a b. And here let me say that a triangle such as c d e cannot be considered correct unless a tie- line such as c* e is measinred.
Offset Staff. I need hardly say that I recomthe use of an offset staff for taking offsets, feeling persuaded it is the most accurate and convenient method. And the staff is useful for determining a right angle, as well as to pull the chain through hedges, &c To use the offset staff, lay it with one end against the chain, and looking along it, note any point in the fence where a line produced would cut, and then turn it over carefully, so that it does not slip back, to prevent which, place your toe against the end, and so on until you have reached the point. A little practice will soon render the task simple.
mend
Fig. 27.
main and
^Having determined the position of the chief subsidiary stations, it is now requisite to range-out such lines as may be necessary to proceed with the survey. Poles or rods having been placed at the extremities of lines, the lines
Ranging=out Lines.
themselves should be "boned-out," which is accomplished by sending a man forward with laths or whites, and the surveyor, placing himself at some little distance behind a rod, at the commencement of the line, is enabled to range as many intermediate
points as he may deem necessary. I strongly recommend standing, say two or three yards away from the rod, as a much better sight is obtained than by being so close to the rod. It is advisable
Fig. 2S.
range out a number of intermediate points, especially in undulating ground, as, not only may it not be possible to command the forward station if in a valley, but they are extremely useful in guiding both the leader and follower in the chaining operations. This is illustrated in Fig. 28. If a and B represent the stations of a line which has to pass across a valley, it is manifest that unless
to
ORDINARY SURVEYING.
such points zs, a b c dedXiA. have been previously established, it would be impossible to chain the line a b. It sometimes happens, owing to inequality of the ground, that, in running a line, the forward mark is lost to sight while at the same time enough cannot be seen of the poles already planted to allow of the line being continued by setting-out by ranging from them. In such a case, one person (a) carrying a rod advances as well as he can judge along the intended line until he sees the forward mark; and another (b) goes further ahead until, looking back, he can just see the last rod of the line already set out, and he ranges (a) in line between himself and it. (a) then ranges (b) in line between him(b) then ranges (a), and (a) ranges (b), self and the forward mark, the forward mark, the rods until no further correction is needed planted by (a) and (b), and the last rod of the line already set out, being then in true continuation of that line if the work has been properly performed.
:
Any ground of a fairly level is Level Ground. character may be treated as being quite level that is, any ground whose slope does not form a greater angle with the horizon than But beyond this, it is necessary to adopt some means five degrees. of regulating our measure-MO M Links Ai<ments. If we take a pair of Horuontal compasses, as in Fig. 29, and 16 i; ^5 with a as a centre and b (the foot of the slope) as a radius, and strike the arc b c until it cuts the horizontal line A c, it will be seen that the line a c is greater than a b, b being a point whence a perpendicular is let drop to cut the foot of the slope. Now, it is well understood that in surveying operations all measurements upon the ground are reduced to the horizontal, as, " when plotted the survey represents a perfect plane, and in chaining the lines they should be so conducted, that every length should be a point exactly equal to the base of a right-angled triangle." In the case of Fig. 29, if we plotted the line a b exactly as measured along the slope, which in this case is 715 links, we should make our line 24-31 links longer than it should appear, and consequently our plan would be inaccurate. I make no apology for reproducing the following well-worn simile to illustrate my meaning. If we take a staircase composed of 30 steps, each tread being 12 inches wide, and each rise 6 inches, strictly
What
speakbg we could only show them as the plan of a house by a length of 30 feet, whereas if we measure the string of the staircase it will prove to be 33-54 feet long. Thus I do not think any more need be said to emphasise the necessity of reducing all measurements to the horizontal.
MEASURING SLOPING GROUND.

Now there are several ways of doing this ; chiefly by reducing the hypotenusal measure by calculation, having obtained the angle of slopes, and by " stepping." Of the former, much may be argued for and against, and I propose to say a few words on both sides. Of such a method there can be no doubt that for expedition a great deal may be said in its favour. With an Abney level or clinometer it is very simple indeed to observe the angle of slope and to make the necessary reduction in the chainage as the work proceeds. But the very greatest care and discrimination is requisite in determining these angles. It very seldom happens that the slope of a hiU-side is regular ; on the contrary, it is often made up of constantly varying inclinations, some flat, some steep ; and to accurately determme the hypotenusal correction separate angles will have to be observed at each point of variation. Fig. 30 will
better illustrate
ing, for
my meanbetween a and b it would not be sufficient to observe the angle formed
with the horizon by a b, because, to be correct, Fig- 30. the hypotenuse should be measured along the line a b, whereas (that being impossible) we follow the undulations of the ground between these points, such as Abcde3, and use the length so measured as the multiple of the angle Thus, whereas the line a b c d e^ measured along the of slope. surface of the ground is 720, the angle a b c (the angle of slope with the horizon) being 25, the hypotenusal deduction would be 72'38 links, whereas strictly speaking it should only be 70-50 links, by reason of having taken the angle from A to B. So that, to be accurate, it is necessary to observe the angles of slope aXAbca and and for each separate angle to take the length along the
<?,
slope between the points.
Observing Angle of Slope. It has been suggested that to obtain the angle of slope it is sufficiently near to send a chain-man
Fig.
31. Slope
Staff.
Fig.
32. Taking Angle
of Slope.

ORDINARY SURVEYING.
the point at which it is desired to take the angle, and to observe when the clinometer cuts his face; but if the surveyor happens to be a short man and the chain-man tall, it is difficult to see how he is to obtain accurate results. I recommend the use of a sliding vane similar to Fig. 31, which should be adjusted to the height of the eyes of the surveyor, and this, being held perpendicular at any point, will give a true line parallel with the slope of the Fig. 32 represents my meaning. ground. The following is a table of allowance to be made for the difference between hypotenusal and horizontal measurement
to
:
Degrees.
Links.
BASE-LINES.
23
of the chain, but in accurately marking the exact point above the plumb-bob, indicating the end of the length, after it has
been brought
I
to rest.
'v^.Horfjpniiij_
of opinion that chaining may be ac-
am
complished
along
sloping ground both accurately and expeditiously

if
by
this
means
the necessary care is observed, and it has the advantage of in-
dicating absolutely the true position whence an offset is

taken, rather than
calculation.
I
by
have
very extensive experience in meaFig. 34. Stepping Slopes. suring along the sides of hills, and have always found this system satisfactory. But it must not be supposed for a moment that I am an advocate for substituting for a plumb-bob staves or arrows dropped from the end of the chain, which is a very frequent custom.
had
Base=Iines. In all surveys, large or small, there should be base-lines intersecting the figure to be surveyed. The letter is the best form for the base-lines to take, care being observed that their direction is upon as level ground as possible, for upon the correctness
of the length of these hnes the accuracy of the whole of the details depends. I have said tolerably level, that is to say, with no greater undulation than say 4 deg. to 5 deg., for gentle slopes have comparatively slight effect upon linear measurements, and if the ends of the base-lines are otherwise well situated, so as to command an uninterrupted view of surrounding country, the existence of such undulations in the intervening ground need not be considered a drawback. Base-lines should be as near the centre of the survey ^s possible, since the liability, to inaccuracy in the triangulation increases with the distance from the original base. The base-lines (and there may be more than two, and only one under certain circumstances) should form the basis of a system of triangulation which comprehends the various boundaries of the estate. The equilateral is the best form of triangle, and it should be sought to lay out this figure as much as possible, but of course this is not always practicable. The sides of the triangles formed upon these base-lines are called chain- or survey-lines, which are so arranged as to take the boundaries of the property, and from
24
ORDINARY SURVEYING.
these again are subsidiary chain-lines, to pick up any of the fences or other objects that intersect the estate. very simple illustration of the base- and survey-lines will be seen in Fig. 35, in which a b is the main base-line and c d the other; the survey-lines are AC, C b, B D, DA. Now three sides of a triangle, however carefully measured, are no guarantee of its accuracy ; there must be a proof or tie line. It has been recommended to test the accuracy of a triangle by letting drop a perpendicular from the apex to the base; this is all very well on paper, but upon the ground it is not always either practicable or expedieni. In Fig. 35, quite by accident the line c d crosses the line a b from the apex of each triangle a c B and A D B at as near 90 deg. as possible, consequently the length C b will test the triangle a b c, and b d will prove a b d. I have borrowed an excellent example (Fig. 36) from a wellknown work (on surveying) which illustrates my argument exactly,
E D
triangle has
be proved to fall been plotted. Fig. 37 shows how the irregular

will
be seen that the property of two fields adjoining a road, which are together in the form of an irregular triangle. The three sides A B, B c, and c a embrace the exterior boundaries, whilst the direction of the internal fence is of a character that a line e d may serve the double purpose of taking up this hedge and acting as a check to the triangle. For if the lengths a e on line A B and a d on the line a c be carefully measured, then the length exactly within these points after the
it
where
will
consists
figure
A b c d e f may be divided
Fig- 37-
Fig. 38.
CHAIN-ANGLES.
into triangles,
I should
It
25
tied,
and by c F all four triangles may be recommend a further check, such as d d.
although
does not always foUow that a survey must consist only of it is always advisable to adopt this figure when possible, for, as in the case of Fig. 38, A b c d is in the form of a trapesium, and so long as the hne b c is checked by such ties as Race the work will be all right. The line c e produced to e, checks the triangle a d e, as does a part of b g the figure a a f G.
triangles, although
Chain=angles.We have
whose
outlines can
dealt so far with simple figures,
be ascertained by running lines in various directions to take up the boundaries and intersecting fences, which lines are checked by such means as I have briefly described ; but there are cases, such as woods or ponds, which it is impossible to get through or across, where it is necessary to chain round, taking the exterior boundary, and fix the relative directions of the lines circumscribing the figure by means of what are called chainangles.
have already explained that three sides of a triangle measured to ensure which a fourth or tie-line is This is all the more necessary in the case imder required. consideration, where we have, as in Fig. 39, to run ,j-, /' our lines all round outside, 'x ^ ' ' and have to prove our work. ^ Here we have to tie our lines in such a manner as
I
is
no proof of accuracy,
to
it
comprehend the
is
outline
of the wood, through which

quite imf)ossible to ^ Briefly, to prolong lines I and 4 and to tie their extreinities by the
^_
.
survey.
"nTI
'"^jd
@
^
^ 7^
^
^)^
Ime A a would not be
suf-
Chain-angles. Fig. 39.""
ficient to ensure the angle, therefore a second tie a d is necessary, and, similarly, lines 3 and 4 by means of the ties d ^ and d d. The acute angle formed by lines r and z, although tied by * ^ (which serves the double purpose of a survey-line), could hardly be trusted unless checked at the other extremity of 2 by the
ties c
(!,cc,c
c^.
numbers of instances of how such figures may be circumscribed by means of lines and chain-angles, but in these days, when instrumental observations have superseded such methods, I deem it to be unnecessary to dwell upon the subject.
I might give
Inaccessible Distances. It rarely happens that a survey of any extent can be carried out without some diflSculties being encountered, such as base- or important cham-lines being interrupted
26
ORDINARY SURVEYING.
by
obstacles, in the form of rivers, arms of lakes, ponds, buildings, &c., when it is necessary to resort to some means of working round in the one case, or by geometric constmction or angular observation to ascertain the g! -'i intervening distance. This strengthens my argument in favour of reconnoitre previous to comi\
"i""^
"il
Is
\
\
c
in undulating ground a building or other obstacle which had been unobserved might come directly in the line, which
mencing a survey, as
by careful arrangement beforehand might have been avoided. In the absence of any instrument, such as a box sextant or optical square, Fig. 40. a right angle may be approximately set out on Measure forty level ground by the following simple method. links on the chain-line, and put arrows, as at a and b (Fig 40), then with the end of the chain held carefully at a take eighty links and instruct another chain-man to hold the eightieth link at b; take the fiftieth link in your hand and pull from A and b until they are fairly tight, when an arrow at c will be perpendicular with the line A B, in other words A B will equal 40, b c 30, and c A 50 links. I I have said this may be done approximately on level ground, but I do not recommend any reliance being placed upon a right angle set out in the manner above described if intended to overcome a difficulty such as is represented in Fig. 41, where the line a b is interrupted by a house. In this case it is assumed that if at a, on the line a b, a right angle be set out (as explained) and a sufficient distance a c, say 60 links, measured, and c d (made perpendicular to a c) 80 links, and d 3 at right angles to c d measuring also 60 links, and i b made perpendicular to 6 D, then a b will be within the points A and b, in other words in the same line, supposing the building did not obstriict. Thus four right angles have to be set out and measured to carry the line A b past the building. I recomFig. 41. mend the student to practise this problem on perfectly level ground, and I venture to think he will agree with me that, unless the line b b has been ranged from a upon sufficiently high ground to see over the building, very little reliance must be placed in the prolongation of the line a a by such means as I have described, and yet there are numbers of works on
30 Links'
I
I
surveying which give
it
as a practical example.
can only say
INA CCESSIBLE DIS TANCES.

that
=7
I should observe the greatest care in checking with a theodoUte such work before I should trust to such a prolongation. I have selected one or two such examples of measuring over inaccessible distances, across rivers or ponds, by the chain only, as appear to me to be capable of satisfactory results, if great care and accuracy be observed, for, unlike the case of the building, you can command all points. Suppose, as in Fig. 42, the line A B is intercepted by a river, the width of which is too great to ascertain by measurement across. We must therefore proceed to set out such a figure on one side of the stream as will enable us to range across it a line which shall so intersect the line a b, that this point of intersection shall be equidistant from a given point to another point, to which we are able to measure on the ground. First, range the line a b across the stream, sending a man
with rods to establish on the other side where directed in the instance at b. From any convenient point b measure towards a such a distance as judgment tells to be gi'eater than that across the river, say 400 links, at a the extremity of 400, and b, set out right angles, and from b
first
measure 300 links to 3*, and from a 600 links to '. Place rods at a' and (Jf (having previously checked the lines A ^ and d V, which should respectively be 500 links) ; now range through d and V the point c on the
line
B,
then c
will equal
U, viz.
Fig. 42.
and b c will equal a b, viz. links. Measure from each edge of the stream to b and c, the sum of which deduct from 400, and you have the width of the river.
500 400
links,
200
'.
200
Fig- 43-
Fig. 44.
Again, in Fig. 43 at c on the line a b set out the perpendicular c d, and make it some equal number of hnks, say 400 ; bisect c d in ^,
28
ORDINARY SURVEYING.
and
at d set out the right angle c d <:, make ti c = 300 links, place rods at c and b and range the line through until it intersects a b in Similarly, if the line 300 links. B, then c B will equal d c passes obliquely (Fig. 44), set out any line parallel (approximately) with the bank of the river, as c d, measure 200 links either way, at each end set off the perpendiculars d a, c b, then will cq - c k = 540 links. Again, as in Fig. 45, measure off the perpendiculars B c, D E, ranging the point c in line with a e ; then
AB =
EC X BD
All the foregoing are inaccessible distances, in the absence of instniments for taking angles, but I need hardly say that the right angles should be set out with an optical square or other reliable appliance, and even
DE BC fairly good methods of determining
then the very greatest care must be observed.
The simplest,
quickest,
and most
reliable
method of determining
Fig- 45-
an inaccessible distance
is as follows (Fig. 46) at c, with a box sextant or theodolite set out the line c d at right angles with a b, measure any distance c d, and at d observe the angle e d c. Then
:
c E
links.
= nat.
tan.
ed c
c d.
For example, the angle e d c
Now
nat. tan. of 51
.. i'2349 X 450 = Should there be any doubt as to the accuracy of the observation or calculation, place the instrument at E and observe the angle C E D, which should equal 90 51 = 39. I now leave this branch of my subject, as in subsequent chapters I propose to treat the whole question of field work in greater
and the length c d = 450 = i"2349. 5557050 links, which is the length C e.
is 51'',
detail.
CHAPTER
III.
SURVEYING INSTRUMENTS.
In the early days of surveying only very primitive instruments were available, but nowadays the science of surveying has attained such a state of perfection that we have instruments of all kinds for
facilitating geodetical operations in the field.
Cross Staff. In the foregoing chapters I have referred to the process of taking ofisets with an ofifset staff, which for short lengths may generally be relied upon. Although I am bound in this division to refer to the cross-staff, I have no hesitation in condemning its use upon nearly every ground. I look upon such appliances as only an excuse for long oflFsets, against which I am very strongly opposed, and with such feeUngs I naturally discourage their use. Indeed, apart from this prejudice, I cannot see
of
any feature recommendation in the

except for approxiis
cross-staflF
mation.
The
in shape,
cross-staff
made
either cylindrical or octagonal
about three inches in diameter (see Figs. 47 and 48) and five inches deep. It has slots placed at right angles to Fig. 48. each other, in which are contained fine wires strained very true and vertical. In the octagonal staff there are also slots on the other four faces, which may be used for approximating an angle of 45 deg. The staff is fixed upon a rod (spiked at the end), and being placed perfectly perpendicular at a point on the Fig- 47line A B (Fig. 49), at which it is desired to set out a right angle, the slots a and b are adjusted so that, looking from to b and back from b to a, the wires are coincident with the points b and a. Many cross-staves have a compass fixed at the top, as in Fig. 47, which provided the staff
30
is
accurately adjusted in a truly vertical position on the line may There serve to take the bearing of the line with magnetic north. is a form of cross-staff, as in Fig. 47, which is so constructed that the upper part of the cylinder
may be moved round upon

the lower portion with a rack and pinion movement actuated ring on by the screw a. the lower member is divided into degrees and subdivisions, and, with a vernier attached
Fig. 49.
Cross-staff.
this
to the upper cylinder, it is with the greatest possible care to obtain the angle of
one or more points, but
can only be regarded as approximate.
is valuable " for setting out base-lines, more particularly for crossing any high ground with a sharp ridge." I can only say that I should place very little reliance on the accuracy of any survey which depended upon a crossstaff, either for the prolongation of lines across ridges or even for setting out right angles.
Some writers
.
affirm that this instrument

.
is at onpe a most accurate and useful purpose, but it also must be used with great caution. All appliances of this character are liable to be used to save trouble I mean they facilitate long offsets. The optical square (Fig. 50) consists of a metal box of from i^ to 2-J- in. diameter, formed by an outer and inner tube working one within the other, so that by a slight movement right or left the slots upon the outer tube are made identical with similar slots on the inner case, but which latter are so placed in fixing the two together that although capable
Optical Square.
instrument for
I
This
little
its
Fig- SI-
of a slight movement they are held in position by a screw. This enables the instrument to be protected from dust or dirt when not
OPTICAL SQUARE.
31
in use. Within this circular box are contained two mirrors (one of which is only half silvered, the lower portion being plain) placed at an angle of 45 deg. with each other. Referring to Figs. 5 1 and 5 2 it will be seen that the glass e is placed at an angle of 120 deg. with the line of sight or diameter of the box, and the mirror F is at 45 deg. with this. Now, by a well-known law, a ray of light in direction of a b falling on e wUl be reflected on to f at an angle of 60 deg. (f e c), which will be again reflected in the line f c, whereby F c is 90 deg. with a b. Thus, a person wishing to estabUsh a point on his chain-Une a b at right angles with some particular point, right or left, has simply to walk along the line in direction of b imtil the object at d becomes coincident with the forward station b. Thus, supposing a white flag is placed at b, Fig. 53, and A
^t
^
TTji
M..
D
Fig- S3-
A
Fig- 54-
G/asa
another flag at some distance further ahead, say b' (for this is most important, as will be explained hereafter), and at the point d a red, flag is fixed ; then, provided the observer is in absolute line with B and b' when d appears coincident on the upper half of the mirror e, the red and white flags will be as on Fig. 54. Again, if at any point on the chain-line, as c, Fig. 53, it be necessary to establish a point at right angles, as d, instruct an assistant to move backwards and forwards until his flag is coincident with the points b and b'.
The Line Ranger. This is a very useful little appliance for obtaining an intermediate station upon a line. It consists of two reflecting glass prisms placed one over the other, having two sides in the same plane so that the hypotenuse of the one is at right angles to that of the other. The observer holding the ranger in his hand and looking into the prisms in direction of gh (Fig. 55), if he is in a true line will see the image of a pole at b on his right hand reflected in the prism e, whilst a pole at A on his left will be reflected in the prism f, " so that when these images are in the same straight line the instrument is also exactly in the same straight line with the objects a and b."
Clinometer. The clinometer in its primitive state was simply an appliance for ascertaining the angle of a slope with the horizon.
32
the most simple being a card in the form of a semicircle, divided right and left of the line of quadrant into degrees and subdivisions
Fig- 55-
of a degree.
possible,
With a small plumb-bob attached to the centre it is by elevating or depressing the line of diameter, to read off
degrees, &c.
the
number of
Merrett's Quadrant. modification of the quadrant was invented by the late Mr. H. S. Merrett. It is made of boxwood, having two arcs (right and left) of 90 deg., divided into degrees and half-degrees, being sufficiently clear for the purposes for which it would be required. It has two tables engraved on it, one to ascertain the height of any object, the oth^r for shortening the hypotenusal line to the horizontal line, when required in surveying hilly districts, the same as a theodolite. There are also angles of slopes usually adopted in railway
and embankments. governed in its operations by a spirit-level on the top, having two sights. The arc is divided both ways so as to enable
cuttings
It is
the observer to read either for angles of acclivity or declivity. It is fixed upon a small tripod, whereby greater accuracy is obtained. I have thought it necessary to explain briefly this instrument, but neither has it come into very general use, nor can it in fact compare with the many excellent instruments of modern days.
Clinometer Rule.
This
is
and compact of the absolute instrument types. of a boxwood rule in two parts with a hinged
about 6
in.
possibly one of the most simple It consists (Fig. 56)
long when closed.
joint (like a sector), In the upper arm a small spirit-
CLINOMETERS.
level
33
c is inserted, whilst at either end are fixed sights a and b with cross wires. Attached to the hinge is a brass quadrant f, which is divided into 90 deg. and minutes. spirit-level d is also inserted in the upper portion of the lower arm G, whilst upon one
of the sides is engraved a scale and table of hypotenusal allowances, and the more complete clinometers are accompanied by a small compass f. In using this instrument for acclivity you sight from A to B, and for declivity from B to a.
The Abney
combined, and
Level.
is
This is a reflecting level and clinometer deservedly popular amongst engineers and
Fig. 57-
34
surveyors.
It
A new form of
it,
introduced by Mr. Steward,
is
shown
in the illustration (Fig. 57).
was invented by Captain Abney, and consists of a hollow telescope. Attached to this arm is a vertical arc, each quadrant of which is divided right and left into 60 degrees
arm containuig a
and
at
The arm is of sufficiently stout metal to enable subdivisions. centre a horizontal spindle to be fixed, carrying a spirit-level, the case of which has a slot underneath, so as to expose the bubble, so that in whichever position the arm is held the bubble will be vernier * fixed to the spindle and reflected on to the mirror.
its
the bubble indicates the relative The instruangles of acclivity or declivity on the vertical arc. ment shown in the illustration is much more compact than the usual form, having a couple of telescopic tubes, which close up into the body of the instrument, and are drawn out when the level Another new feature is the adjustment for moving the is to be used. vernier arm and the bubble tube attached to it by means of a wormwheel fitted on the vernier arbor. This arrangement also gives room for a larger divided arc than Fig. 58.
at
right angles to the
arm of
usual.
Referring to Fig. 58, it will be observed that the instrument in its entirety is in a truly horizontal position. Fig. 59 shows the instrument being used for the angle of acclivity (which in this case is 34 deg. IS min.), and Fig. 60 that of declivity, or 19 deg. 3omin. with the horizon. Thus the level tube is always horizontal, and the arm of the vernier vertical, whilst the telescope assumes whatever
of
Horizon
Fig- 59-
Fig. 60.
angle it may be desired to observe, and the vertical arc consequently has its zero varying in position accordingly. The Abney level may be made to fit on to a tripod with a balland-socket movement, whereby greater steadiness and consequently more accuracy may be attained.
*
vernier
is fully
described on p. 52.
CLINOMETERS.
35
Reflecting Clinometer Scale. This (Fig. 61) is somewhat on the principle of the Abney level, and has the advantage of being
half the cost. It consists of a telescope with a mirror half silvered, to reflect the bubble into the slot. The vertical arc to which
Fig. 61.
the level-tube is attached rests in a triangular frame, and its outer edge is cogged, so as to be actuated by the pinion ; and for some reasons this motion is preferable to that of the Abney level. The cost of this instrument is ,\ is.
Combined Telescope Clinometer and Prismatic Com^This is an extremely valuable instrument, and for ordinary surveys will serve the same purpose as a theodolite. It has one great advantage, and that is, it can be attached to a light tripod, so that it may be accurately adjusted over a station. The instrument consists of a bronze box c, about 5 in. in diameter, containing the clinometer disc f (Fig. 62) and compass card G, protected, as shown, by a pierced cover. AVhen used as a clinometer it is fixed upon the stand in position, and by means of a clamp-screw may be arranged for observation either as comIn the latter case pass or clinometer. the box must be fixed perfectly vertical, so as to allow the clinometer end, which
pass.
weighted, to swing freely. The teleis now directed towards the object required, and having cross wires, it may be clamped at the exact point of intersection. This being done, the microFig. 62. scope will mark the rise or fall in inches per yard on the disc, which is so compensated that its zero shows a perfectly horizontal plane. The observation may also be taken with the slot in the prism and the wire of the vane i. The price of this instrument, packed in a mahogany case, with solid leather cover
is
scope B
A
36
sling, also
and
leather-bound canvas
case
for
tripod stand,
is
^14
14s.
Combined Clinometer and Prismatic Compass.
Fig. 64.
PRISMATIC COMPASS.
37
modification of the foregoing instrament, invented by Captain Barker, will be found extremely valuable for ordinary work in the field. Being of a pocket size, it is of course only a hand instrument. It has a compass card e (Fig. 63) and a chnometer disc c, with the slotted prism b and the vane d. It is illustrated in position for observing the angle of slope, but if held horizontally it can be used as a prismatic compass. When being used as a clinometer, as in
Fig. 65.
Fig. 65, the disc a records the angle of slope by means of the prism c, whilst f is a scale of rise or fall in inches per yard corresponding with the observed angle. The disc is balanced so that When it is desired to use zero corresponds with the horizon. this instrument as in Fig. 64, by pressing the knob b the disc revolves, so that the compass card will be revealed beneath the prism. The cost of this appliance is ,i, 4s. There is another type of combination having the prismatic compass on one side and the chnometer disc on the other, in which case the sight-vane of the former folds over the compass.
shorter vane which folds back, being only the depth of the box, is used for vertical angles, and which, when not in use, also throws the clinometer disc
out of gear.
Fig. 66 illus-
trates this instrument
when
its
closed ready for being put into
case,
where a
is
the prism folded
38
back, B the sight-vane for the compass, and folding over it, in doing which it presses a knob which throws the card off its centre,
Fig. 67,
and c
back.
is
the
sight-vane
Fig. 67
for the clinometer, which also folds shows the instrument open for use as a compass.
Fig. 69.
Fig. 70.
and
it
in Fig. 68,
may be made
by turning the box over and reversing the prism, to serve for clinometer observations with the arm c.
Prismatic Compass. No surveyor should be without this instrument (Figs. 69 and 70), as apart from the fact that it is
PRISMATIC COMPASS.
is,
39
extremely useful for observing bearings, and even traversing, it in the absence of a theodolite, the only reliable means of determining the magnetic north in connection with a survey. It consists of a magnetic needle balanced on an agate centre or pivot, and carrying a card a, or metal ring, divided into 360 degrees and subdivisions of one-half or one-third of a degree, according to the size and manufacture of the compassThis is contained in a brass or bronze box, from i\ inches diameter and upwards, at one end of which is a sight-vane c, and at the other is a magnifying prism B, enclosed in a metal case, having a slot for observation, so arranged that whilst the eye sights through the slot towards the wire contained in the vane the prism, by means of being silvered on its slope, reflects the reading on the card at the same time. When in use the prism is turned by a hinge over the card, and similarly the vane is fixed a vertical position ; but for portability, when not in use, the vane folds on to the glass of the compass, and in doing so it presses a knob, which throws the needle Whilst the prism is turned ofi"the bearing to save undue wear. back on to the ring of the box, and is held in position by the movable strap b, the whole is covered with a lid (which may be attached to the bottom during use) to protect it from injury. The better kind of compasses have a permanent metal top, with a glazed It should be aperture over the prism for taking observations. stated that a knob is arranged in the ring under the vane to enable the operator to steady the needle, by pressing the card, to avoid undue swinging. The best kind of prismatic compasses are fitted with green and red glasses as at d d! for azimuth observations. The prismatic compass gives the bearing of a line, or in other words, the angles formed by that line and the magnetic meridian. I have explained that the card or ring is divided into 360 deg., but whereas in ordinary cases this 360 deg. on north would point in the direction of the vane, in the case of the prismatic compass, for facility of reading the angle during observation, the order is reversed, so that the north on the card is marked 180 deg., south 360 deg., By this means east 270 deg., and west 90 deg. the 360 deg. is brought under the prism as at a in Fig. 7r, so that in directing the vane towards the point from which the bearing is required, the operator is enabled to simultaneously read the angle and cut the point of observation with the vertical wire of the vane. It should be observed that the prismatic compass cannot be used in places or under any cir^. cumstances where there is the slightest metallic attraction, as the needle is so sensitive that the least thing will
40
Again, the compass must not be relied upon from local and other causes slight
cause a variation.
for extensive triangulation, as
errors are certain to occur.

It has been argued that more accurate observation would be taken if, instead of holding the compass in the hand, it were attached to a tripod-stand J but I doubt whether the steadiness that is thereby assured compensates for the advantage of keeping the card or ring alive by the motion of the hand.
The Circumferentor.
ment
This
is
an extremely valuable
instru-
(Fig. 72), being next to the theodolite in point of reliability, always excepting local or other attractions. Fixed upon a tripod-
stand with a ball-and-socket arrangement, it may be placed over a station and so adjusted that the observation may be accurate. It consists of a compass-box a, from 4 in. and upwards in diameter, which is divided into 360 deg., subdivided into minutes over this is fixed the pivot carrying the needle (which, when not in use, should always be thrown off its point to preserve it), and attached to the outer case are the two sights c and b, with which the angle is observed. These sights, made of brass, have in each two slots and a circle. Alternating in each, the larger slot in the upper sight (b) contains a vertical wire, whilst the corresponding slot in c is only just wide enough to look through, the lower slot in c has the wire, and that in B is similar to that in c to look through. It will also be observed that at the top of B and bottom of c are what appear in the figure to be dots, which are really small holes, while at the bottom of b and top of c are circles with horizontal and vertical wires. These are, again alternately, for observing the intersection of the cross wires with an object back or front. When out of use these sights or arms, by hinges, fold over the glass, protecting the dial. There is a spirit-level d attached to the lower part of the box for the purpose of fixing the dial perfectly horizontal, which is effected by a ball-and-socket arrangement. The dial has a socket, which fits on to the pivet of the tripod, and by means of a screw r the instrument can be clamped or fixed. The arms or sights and the rim of the circumferentor are turned round by the screw e, by which they may be brought into accurate line of sight. Thus, to take an observation, place the instrument directly over the station point by means of a plumb-bob attached to the apex of the
"
THE THEODOLITE.
41
tripod; fix the two plates by the pin underneath the compassbox, and bring the sights round, so that the needle and 360 deg. coincide. Having levelled the instrument, fix it by the screw f, then release the pin, and by the screw turn the sights until they cut the points set up ; the vernier on the rim will give the angle taken from the meridian.
Preliminary Adjustment of tlie Tlieodolite.The preliminary adjustment of the theodolite is to plant the instrument accurately over the station. Before going into the merits of each it is necessary to explain those portions which are similar in all instruments. The stand, or tripod, is usually in the form of three legs, each of which being in the section of a V on two sides, and in the form of an arc on the other (as in Fig. 73), when not in use, they may be closed for convenience of transit. These legs are shod with an iron spike to facilitate their being firmly held in the ground, whilst at the top is a segmental plate carrying the legs which fit into two corresponding legs in the stock, thus forming a hinged joint. This joint is generally formed by a large surface-bearing pin, which is tapped at the end to receive a slot-headed tightening screw. In '^' '^' spite of excellence of manufacture, this joint is found to be a constant source of trouble from the fact that in process of time its screw gets loose, and the steadiness of the instrument is impaired ; but by a very ingenious and valuable arrangement, Messrs. Troughton and Simms have substituted a double lug on the legs and one of extra thickness on the stock, and instead of the slot-headed tightening screw the joint is formed by means of a bolt and nut, to tighten which the cap-piece has its upper portion made in the form of a box-spanner. For ordinary purposes, equally as in levelling, this. form of tripod-stand is the best and most convenient ; while for special work there can be no doubt that the framed stand similar to those used for cameras, but mpre elaborate is the best, for reasons which will be explained presently.
.
Adjusting the Vertical Axis. This is done by means of a plumb-bob suspended from a small hook held in the centre of the stock-head. It requires the greatest care and patience to do this, as much depends upon the manner in which the tripod has been fixed. Approximately, bring the plumb-bob over the nail or crosscut of the station, and gently pressing each leg into the ground, one by one, the point of the bob may be made coincident with the The cord centre of the station, as is illustrated by Fig. 74. carrying the plumb-bob should be strong, and as the distance from
42
ground
is
the stock-head to the
constantly varying according to
stock ^Head
circumstances, runner.
it
should be elongated or shortened by means of a
Centering: Plates.
in the theodolite with a
There have been
several
improvements
view to greater accuracy in adjusting the
Fig- 75-
vertical axis of the instrument over a station,
stands,
by means of centeringwhereby the plumb-bob may be adjusted to a nicety. One
CENTERING-PLATES OF THE THEODOLITE.
43
of these arrangements, by Messrs. Troughton and Simms, is illustrated in Figs. 7 5 and 76, and is only applicable to the framed stand. It consists of three plates, a, b, and c, which work one upon
the other as follows the plate A, to which the theodolite is attached, works upon a pivot at a, fixed to the underneath plate B, by which means the pin c (having a clamping arrangement)
:
Fig. 76.
Fjg. 77-
may work
which A
the segmental slot b'. The middle plate b, to pivoted, also works on a pivot in c at b, and traverses the segmental slot c', and can therein be clamped by the thumbscrew rf underneath the plate, so that the upper plate a can be made to traverse in all directions a space of about 3 in., thus
in
is
admitting of the plumb-bob being adjusted to a hair's-breadth. Figs. 77 (a), 78 (b), 79 (c) are sketches of each plate separately
Fig. 78.
Fig- 79-
A modification of this arrangement has been devised by the same eminent firm, adapted to the ordinary tripod-stand, and is illustrated by the sketches in Figs. 80, 81, 82, whereby two plates, one upon the other, are made to take any lateral movement to the extent of about an inch by the ingenious method of making the
in relative positions, the plumb-bob being held (Figs. 75 and 77), and attached to the plate a.
by a hook
at
44
upper plate move in a double slot j j (Fig. 8i), at right angles to slots K K in the underneath plate, so that a loose pin l (Fig. 82) enables one plate to revolve upon the other nearly the length of the slot. The plate d (Fig. 80) is made to screw on to the box c,
Fig. 82.
is held firm by a screw d. The instrument may be thus moved any position to adjust its vertical axis over a station, and when accomplished, the centering-plates may be firmly secured by means of the clamp-screw r, which is connected with the wedge e, and by drawing it inwards jambs the two plates so that they cannot move.
and
in
PARALLEL PLATES.
The
45
possible movement of the centering-plate is illustrated by the dotted circles in Fig. 8i, and the range of movement of the plumbbob is shown by the dotted lines h^ and h^, Fig. 80. It should also be stated that the sketch shows an arrangement for utilising this contrivance as a wall-stand, the lower plate a (Fig. 80) having four spikes provided for that purpose, or having a female screw within, A and b. It can be screwed on to the tripod-head. Above the joints of the stock-head is the screw upon which the instrument is held ; and when not in use this screw is protected
Fig. 84.
Fig. 83.
Fig. 85.
by a hat-shaped cap, but which has recently been improved by having a box-spanner attached. Fig. 83 shows the stock-head complete, Fig. 84 is the ordinary cap, and Fig. 85 is the improved cap and spanner. We now come to the instrument proper, which consists of three parts the parallel plates, the horizontal and the vertical limbs.
:
Parallel Plates. The parallel plates are illustrated in Figs. 86 and 87, and consist of two circular plates, kept a certain distance
46
angles to each other, and called the parallel screws. The upper plate is pierced with four holes, which are tapped with a female screw, in which a screw having in its centre a milled head works, but whose lower extremity rests and works upon the lower plate and in order to prevent the upper plate revolving there is a U-shaped guard round one of the screws.
is
Parallel Plate Screws. The action of the parallel plates regulated by screwing and unscrewing each pair of opposite Thus, if the right end of the plate, as d^ Fig. 86, is screws. required to be raised, then the left end c' must be depressed, which is effected simultaneously by turning the screws b^ and b^. Fig. 87, inwards, whereby b^ is elongated and b' shortened. If, Fig. 88. on the other hand, it is desired to elevate at c' and depress at d', then these screws must be turned outwards, whereby e^ is elongated and b^ shortened.
Similarly, b^
and
B*
have to be dealt with.
Fig.
88
illustrates
how
the screws are manipulated.
Ball -and -Socket Arrangement. Referring to the balland-socket arrangement, it is necessary here to explain that it forms one of the most important parts of the theodolite. The lower parallel plate has a dome-shaped socket very accurately turned to The receive the semi-spherical lower portion of the body-piece. upper parallel plate has also a socket, upon which rests the shoulder of the body-piece ; thus the four parallel screws serve to keep the upper and lower plates apart ; and according to the elongation or shortening of each pair, so the ball-and-socket arrangement admits The the elevation or depression of the upper plate as required. object of this is to maintain the instrument in a truly horizontal position, as will be presently explained ; but having by means of the four screws adjusted it level, it is necessary that they should all firmly bite the lower plate, but not too much so, otherwise the threads of the screws will be injured, and indentations will appear on the plate. Now the body-piece before referred to is hollow, but its interior is in the form of an inverted cone, within which works a solid spindle of similar shape, both being so accurately ground to fit that the axes of the two cones may be parallel.
circular plate
Plate. The body-piece supports a (whose diameter distinguishes the particular size This plate is of the instrument), called the lower plate or limb. bevelled to an angle of about 60 deg., and has besides a graduated
The Limb or Lower
y" THEODOLITE.
47
scale (called the primary scale) divided into 360 deg. and subdivisions, marked upon silver. This scale reads continuously from
Fig. 89.
left. Fig. 89 is an elevation of an ordinary Y and shows the limb a and also on the plan (Fig. 90).
right to
theodolite,
The Upper or Vernier Plate. ^Working upon the limb, supported by the internal cone or vertical axis, is another circular plate of less diameter (by the width of the chamfered edge), called the vernier plate, b, which, unlike the limb, is only bevelled in two places, 180 deg. apart. At these two points, l l. Fig. 90, are what are called the verniers, for the purpose of minutely reading the subdivisions of the primary scale. Now the vernier plate is so constructed that it will freely move upon the limb, being held thereto by a washer and set-screw passing through the lower portion of the body-piece into the vertical axis of the vernier plate, so that, unless prevented, both plates can work
48
concentrically,
one upon the other, and the lower one upon the But for the purpose of taking socket of the upper parallel plate.
OBJECT CLASS
U G
Fig. 90.
an angle,
it
is
necessary to
fasten each plate according to
its
relative position.
Clamps.
limb, there
is
It will be noticed in Fig. 89 that, underneath the a loose collar marked v, terminating in two lugs, through which a screw v' passes, which being tightened (Fig. 91) clutches round the bodypiece and holds it tightly. This is called the clamping arrangement, as v' is the clamp-screw.
Tangent or Slow-motion Screw. Now we have seen that this body-piece only rests upon
and works in the socket of the upper parallel and the mere fact of clamping it, unless it were prevented from moving on this plate, would be of no avail. Thus a bracket, also attached to the collar, is connected with a sphere moving on a pivot from the bracket, and pierced to receive a screw w (Fig. 89), which also pierces a sphere and works tangentially to the vertical axis. This last sphere revolves on a spindle attached By this means a gradual motion is to the upper parallel plate. imparted to the limb, which admits of the most accurate adjustFig. 9i-
plate,
ment. This latter arrangement is called the tangent or slowmotion movement, and the screw w is the tangent-screw. For the purpose of fixing and regulating the vernier-plate there is a clamping arrangement p (Figs. 89 and 90) which clutches the upper
CLAMP AND TANGENT SCREWS.
49
plate to the limb, whilst a gradual motion of the upper upon the lower plate is eflFected by means of the slow-motion screw q, which works tangentially through pierced spheres attached equally to the
one and the
other.
foregoing is a brief description of the ordinary clamping and slow-motion process in nearly all theodolites.
The
Troughton's Clamp and Tangent Arrangement.
It is
necessary, however, to mention that a very considerable improvement in this system has been introduced by Messrs. Troughton and Simms, and by their courtesy I am able to give an illustration in Fig. 92. The vertical axis a works within a collar b, having two
arms.
This collar has a segmental
recess on the left side to secure the axis when pressed by the
tumbling-piece c, which is actuated by the clamp-screw d. The slow motion is imparted by means of the spring F on the one side and the tangent-screw g on the other, and pressing against a lug e fastened
Fig. 92.
to the plate below, so that as the screw is turned the spring recedes or follows it, and the most minute movement may thus be effected. It occurred to me that this spring might in time lose its power, but the makers assure me Such that with ordinary fair usage this is not likely to happen. being so, there can be no doubt that it is an improvement upon
the other method.
Levelling the Plates. I have spoken about the necessity of having the instrument perfectly horizontal, to ensure which, there are placed upon the vernier plate, at right angles to each other, two spirit-levels (j and k. Fig. 93), each of which is parallel to one pair of
: J with B^ and B^, and with b' and b*; and by the manipulation of these screws the bubbles of J and K should be brought exactly to the centre of their run; and this being so, if the instrument is in good order and adjustment, then the vernier plate and limb are parallel with the horizon. This is one of the most important matters to be attended to, as unless the instrument of the observation is impaired.
screws, thus
Fig- 93is
perfectly level the value
50
Vertical Arc. Proceeding with the consideration of the component parts of the theodolite, we now come to the vertical arc or circle, which in the former case consists of a semicircle of metal, divided on one side each way from o deg. to 90 deg., and subdivided to show the hypotenusal Connected with this semicircle are " trunnions, which work in journals in the head of the bearers or " a frames e e (Figs. 89, 90, and 94) ; and on the top is a strong bar, carrying the supports or Y's, r' r', in which rests the telescope. It is from these supports, from their resemblance to the letter Y, that this particular type of instrument is so called. The telescope g is held in the Y's (Fig. 95) by clips, working upon a hinge on one side, and fastened on the other by a pin passing through eyes in
divisions, whilst the other side
is
allowance in links per chain.
FRAME
Upper or
Vernier Plate
,;Amm.
Lower Plate or Limb
Fig. 94.
Fig- 95-
and the clip. This arrangement has been superthe jaw of the seded in the most modern theodolite by a spring, which prevents any possibility of the telescope falling out of the supports by neglecting to fasten the pin in the clips.
Compass. Beneath the telescope and between the " a " frames a compass-box d is fixed upon the vernier plate, containing a silver The needle is supported ring, graduated from o deg. to 360 deg. upon an agate centre, and has a lever connected with it, by which, when not in use, it may be thrown off its centre, and thus save undue wear. Attached to the compass-box is a vernier for reading the minute subdivisions on the vertical arc, which is clamped by the screw t on the top of the " a " frame, whilst slow motion is effected by the tangent screw u (Fig. 89).
Telescope. The telescope g consists of two tubes, one sliding The outer tube has at its further end j (Fig. 96) within the other. the " object-glass," which forms at its focus an inverted image of This is protected by a sliding cylinder j, the object looked at. which pulls out to shield the object-glass from the sun and weather, and at the end of it is a movable disc to close it up when not in use (see sketch. Fig. 97). The inner tube has at it& nearer end
THE DIAPHRAGM.
51
H a combination of glasses called the eye-piece, wnich magnifies the inverted image. By moving the inner tube inwards and out-
wards, with the rack and pinion contained within it, the milledhead o working a screw through a collar on the larger tube, the foci of the object-glass and eye-piece are adjusted till they coincide, which is known by the distinct and steady appearance of the image. Upon the outer tube are also collars a a, very accurately turned, to fit into the Y's of the " a " frame.
The Diaphragm.
partition at g' g'
g'.
At
of the object-glass and inverted image is seen,
the common focus eye-piece where the is the diaphragm or

consists
The diaphragm
of a ring of metal (Fig. 98) held within the telescope by means of four capstan screws The placed at right angles to each other. screws work easily through holes in the telescope, but the threads actuate the diaphragm ring, so that it may be brought vertically or Fig. 97horizontally nearer the sides of the telescope, by screwing or unscrewing. Across this diaphragm or partition are usually three spider's webs, or equally very fine platinum wires (see Fig. 99), one horizontal, a b, and the other two, CD, e f.
TELESCOPE
Fig. 98.
Fig. 99-
deviating slightly to opposite sides of a vertical plane. The point exactly in the axis or g, where these wires intersect, should be
S2
In some theodolites tHere are only two wires, one vertical and the other horizontal. Attached to the telescope underneath (in some cases above) is a spirit-level k (Fig. 96), which by screws maybe set exactly parallel to the line of collimation ; so that when the air bubble is in the centre of the level the telescope is horizontal.
line of collimation of the telescope.
The Vernier. The vernier, in its ordinary sense, is a contrivance wherewith the intervals between the divisions on the primary scale may be accurately measured. It is a scale whose length is generally one less than a certain number on the primary scale, so that, supposing the lower plate is divided into degrees and half-degrees, if we take 29 of the subdivisions (or 14 deg. 30 min.*) and divide this length into one more or less parts than those of the primary scale, whose length regulates that of the vernier, we shall
have a means of determining the actual number of minutes which intervene between the subdivisions. It is customary to divide the vernier into thirty equal parts, so
that
it
has thirty spaces to the twenty-nine subdivisions on the
limb.
For greater minuteness of observation some modern theodolites are divided into thirds and fourths as well as into half-degrees, in which cases the verniers are divided into twenty and fifteen parts
respectively, so as to accurately record the intervals
between the
subdivisions.
In consequence of the limb and vernier being circular in shape, found more easy to illustrate the relationship of the latter to the former by straight line, and Figs. 100, loi, 102 will serve
it is
to
do
so.
100 shows a portion of the primary scale drawn straight from 45 deg. to 72 deg., and from 50 deg. to 64 deg. 30 min. I have marked the 29 half-degrees as the length of the vernier. Now, taking this length and dividing it afresh into thirty equal parts, it will be seen by Fig. 101 that, whereas the vernier scale commences at 50 deg. and terminates exactly at 64 deg. 30 min.,
Fig.
so that the commencement and termination are coincident with the division 50 deg. and 64 deg. 30 min. on the lower scale, yet not one of the divisions of the vernier intermediate between its commencement and termination will cut any one of the points in the lower scale between 50 deg. and 64 deg. 30 min. If the student can once grasp this fact, then the difficulty of the vernier
is simplified.
Now, if the foregoing argument be proven, it is easy to understand that once the vernier moves from 50 deg. it is possible for
* The degree is shown by a circle thus " and seconds by two dashes thus " "."
," minutes
by one dash thus "
','
THE VERNIER.
any one of
S3
its divisions lo intersect any one of the divisions and subdivisions of the lower scale, but only one at a time. As an illustration, the first division of the vernier may be in line with 50 deg. 30 min., and such being the case, the other twenty-nine divisions would not be coincident. This then would show the angle to be 50 deg. i min. Again, the tenth division
54
of the divisions or subdivisions of the lower one, it must be at 65 deg., and thus, thirty of the divisions in the upper scale having traversed from left to right, the arrow a (Fig. loi) will be coincident with the subdivisions between 50 deg. and 51 deg., or at 50 deg. 30 min. So we see, that even if each of the thirty divisions of the upper scale be consecutively coincident with any division or subdivision of the lower one, at the end we have only moved one half-degree in a direction towards the right. Now, supposing it is discovered by aid of the microscope that the arrow a (Fig. 102) has passed 50 deg. 30 min., common sense will tell that the first half-degree in the lower plate has been passed, and it is desired to ascertain how many of the minutes in the second half-degree are recorded by the vernier. In this case (Fig. 102) it will be seen that the seventh division of the upper scale is coincident with 54 deg., and seeing that the arrow A has passed the first half-degree beyond 50 deg., then the reading will be 5 deg. 30 min. -f 7 min. = 50 deg. 37 min., and supposing the thirtieth division of the vernier was coincident with any in the lower scale, it must be that at 65 deg. 30 min. when the arrow a will have reached the full length of the first degree past 50 deg. or 51 deg. At the risk of being thought verbose upon this subject, I have endeavoured to make the vernier appear as clear as possible. The foregoing remarks apply to those theodolites whose limbs are only divided into degrees and half-degrees ; but in the larger instruments the degrees are divided into third parts of twenty minutes each. Suppose, for example, the limb is so divided, and that it is to be subdivided by a vernier to third parts of a degree or 20 min., each subdivision being one-sixtieth part of the primary division, the length of the vernier will be 60 i 59 divisions of the primary scale ; and it will be divided into sixty equal parts, each equal to 59-6oths of a division of the primary scale. To make this more simple, if we take twenty of the divisions and subdivisions of the lower scale and deduct one from that length, then by dividing this length of nineteen parts of the lower scale into twenty we shall have a vernier which will exceed each single minute of the first third of a degree, as each one becomes coincident with one of the divisions or subdivisions of the primary scale. The cost of " Y " theodolites is as follows four-inch, _;^2i to
;^23
los.; five-inch, ^'25 to
2(i;
six-inch,
^28
to ;^3o.
Transit Theodolite. This (Fig. 103) is unquestionably a more reliable instrument than the cradle (Fig 89), although objections against it have been raised, principally on account of the increased height of the standards. I can only say that I would never use any other where accuracy and facility of work are important. One of its greatest advantages is that by reason of the standards
TRANSIT THEODOLITE.
being
55
made higher, the telescope is free to revolve on its axis, and thus save the troublesome work of taking it out of the Y's, as is the case with the cradle, so that in prolonging a line from a to b (the instrument being at b) on to d it is only necessary to turn the telescope over, and, providing the instrument is in adjustment, you obtain a more accurate result in much less time. The transit, so far as the clamping and slow-motion screws of the lower and upper plates and the vertical circle (not an arc or semicircle), is similar to the cradle theodolite. The vertical circle, like the horizontal limb, is
we
Fig. 103.
divided into 360 degrees and subdivisions, and has two microscopes in length of its diameter, which revolve round the horizontal axis. For special purposes it is fitted with a supplementary level x (Fig. 104) fixed by standards with jaws on to the horizontal spindle, this being an additional safeguard against the upper portion of the instrument being out of the horizontal. The larger instruments, such as are chiefly used in constructive works, are fitted with a small spirit lantern, resting on a bracket attached to one of the a frames. This is to throw rays of light into the telescope, through a crystal let into the arc, when observations are required to be
56
SURVEYING INSTRUMENTS,
taken in the dark. My own experience has been that such appendages are more trouble than they are worth, and the extra money would be better spent upon strengthening the working parts of the If it is required to work in the dark you can have a instrument.
Fig. 104.
man
with a lamp against the instrument, which answers the same and a better purpose, for if you are taking angles you can also use this lamp to read the vernier.
Triangular Plate, Figs. 104 and 105 show

surmounted by a triangular
plate, in
the tripod to be which only three levelling
screws are used, the parallel plates being dispensed with. The lower part of the screw has a shoulder which fits into a pear-
TRANSIT THEODOLITE.
shaped hollow
slot.
57
The advantage claimed
for this
method
is
that the instrament can be levelled with one hand only, whereas with four screws both hands are required. But I must confess I
Fig. 105.
have a strong prejudice in favour of the old system, and most

transit theodolites are
made
The
cost of transit theodolites
with parallel plates and four screws. three inch, ;î8 to is as follows
:
58
;
^25
inch,
four-inch,
2%
to
21 to ^0 five-inch, 2(i los. to ô\ seven-inch, ;'45 to t(i los.

; ;
j^%
six
eight-inch
;^5o to ;^85.
Everest Theodolite.
signer, the late Sir
So called after the name of its deGeorge Everest, of the Indian Trigonometrical
Survey.
The
chief efficacy of this beautiful instrument (Figs. 106
and 107) is that the limb may be made of much greater diameter, and consequently there is scope for greater detail in the working parts and a more powerful telescope. There is only one horizontal plate divided into 360 deg., and instead of an upper plate three arms radiate from the vertical axis,
Fig. 106.
Y y' being the verniers and the arm which clamps this arrangement to the limb a, having also a slow-motion or tangent screw with which to manipulate it. The standard is much stronger than in other theodolites, and, whilst the telescope is mounted somewhat in the same manner as the transit, yet it cannot revolve upon its axis. Instead of having a vertical circle the Everest has two arcs, m m, with an arm fixed to the telescope, using the same axis and consequently travelling with it, at either end of which
thus
are the verniers. The Everest, so far as the arrangement for levelling
is
concerned,
EVEREST THEODOLITE.
is
59
similar to that
ball
and no
and
socket,
already described, having only three screws, and when not required to be used upon a
Fig. 107.
tripod
is
so constructed that
it
may
rest
upon a wall or any
flat
surface.
The cost of an Everest theodolite is as follows, including case and tripod-stand: 4-inch, _^22 ; 5-inch, jQ2\ to ;^3o; 6-inch, ,21 to l>i; 7-inch, i(i to i,2; 8-inch, <ô; and 10-inch, (iO.
Box Sextant. This is an instrument, without which no surveyor should go into the field. It may be made to serve the purpose of an optical square. I have had an opportxmity of testing its merits, as some years ago I had to make a survey of a large portion of the town of Sunderland for Parliamentary purposes ; and for a length of seven miles, when a theodolite would have been impossible in consequence of the heavy traffic in the principal streets, I found this little instrument invaluable, and the results
is about 3 in. in diameter and \\ in. deep, and has a lid which completely covers it when not in use, but which can be screwed on to the bottom, and serves as a handle when taking observations. Fig. 108 is a view showing the chief features of the instrument, and also gives a fair idea of its internal graduated scale f from o deg. to 140 deg. with arrangements. subdivisions, is engraved on a silver arc, and along this moves the
highly satisfactory. The box sextant
6o
S UR VE YING INS TR UMENTS.
vernier attached to the index arm e, to which is fixed a mirror C. This arm is moved by a milled-head screw acting upon a rack and In the line of sight, but fixed, is another pinion within the box. mirror called the horizon glass d, the upper part of which only is
Fig. io8.
lower and transparent portion being opposite the opening. This glass is fixed perpendicular to the plane of the instrument. These two mirrors, when the vernier is adjusted to zero, should be parallel. There are two levers connected with coloured glasses, which may be interposed when solar observations are taken, but when Many sextants not required can be depressed into the box. are provided with a telescope, which can either fit into a socket within the instrument, to be pulled out when wanted, or attached at the top by means of a screw as h in Fig. io8. But for general use the naked eye is quite sufficient, under which circumstances a segmental plate with a hole pierced in the direct line of vision is made to take the place of the telescope aperture by
silvered, the
slide.
The
in
as follows
principle upon which the sextant acts is " When a ray of light, proceeding
:
a plane at right angles to each of the two plane mirrors, which are inclined to each other at any angle whatever, is successively reflected at the plane surfaces of each of the mirrors, the Fig. 109. total deviation of the ray is double the angle of inclination of the mirrors." For, let I i and h k (Fig. 109) represent sections of the two mirrors made by the plane of incidence at right angles to each of them, and let s i represent the course of the
BOX SEXTANT.
making with
6i
incident ray, then the ray s i is reflected into the direction i h, I i the angle h i a equal to the angle s i /, and is again reflected at h into the direction h e, making the angle e h a equal to the angle \Yih. Now the angle a h v being equal to the exterior angle i h /^ is also equal to the two interior angles h i a and h a i and because the angles a v h and i v e are equal, and that the three angles of every triangle are equal to two right angles, therefore the two angles vie and s E h are together equal to the two angles a h v and h a i, and therefore to the angle h i a and
twice the angle
Ha
;
(since
i
a h v has
H I A and H A
is
i)
but v
e,
been- proved to be equal to being equal to the vertical angle s i i,
also equal to the angle h i a, therefore taking away these equals the remainder of the angle s E h is equal to the remainder, twice q.e.d. the angle h a i. To use the sextant, it should be held up to the eye by the right hand, so that (Fig. 1 1 o) the line of sight is in the direction of the the tower, the operator standing exactly over the station x, and the With vertical axis of the instrument is directly over its centre.
the left hand the milled-headed screw is manipulated so that the index mirror, being gradually turned in the direction of z, shall reflect the image of the cross at ^
this point, so that its centre is coincident
__ z
1
with that of the tower y, as in Figs. iii. Fig. III. Thus the vernier will record the number of degrees and subdivisions contained in the angle y x z. If the instrument, having been set at zero, does not show the
object to which it may be directed to be exactly in the same vertical plane with the horizon and index glasses, it must be adjusted by a key being applied to the key-hole at j and turned right or left until the reflected images coincide exactly.

62
:
The necessary rules to be observed with the adjustment of the sextant are I St. That the two mirrors are parallel to each other when the zero of the vernier coincides with that of the graduated arc. 2nd. That the horizon glass is perpendicular to the plane of
the instrument. To correct this latter {i.e. the perpendicularity of the horizon glass to the plane of the instrument) it is necessary to observe whether the reflected and the direct images of the distant horizon appear as om. If two horizons appear we apply the key at l and
Fig. 112.
Fig. 113.
turn
in
it
until they agree.

this
Figs. 112
is
which
instrument
and 113 illustrate the manner held and manipulated when taking an and large mirror
observation. The cost of a box sextant, with telescope and sunshades, complete in a sling case, is from
los. to ;6.
ment which
Hughes's Improved Double Sextant. This is an instrufor some reasons may be said to almost supersede the
box-sextant, having the advantage of measuring angles nearly double the arc which can be measured by the ordinary sextant. It consists of a five-inch or six-inch circle, with two index glasses mounted in the centre on two index arms with verniers, one measuring the angle to the right and the other to the left. The horizon glass is silvered top and bottom, with a narrow slit in the The centre object is observed with a telescope through centre. this, and the other two objects, to the right and left respectively, reflected by the index glasses into the silvered portions of the horizon glass ; the three objects being in contact, the observed angles are read off with the verniers. The adjustments of the index and horizon glasses are made in the regular manner, the upper index glass being adjusted last. This instrument, as is shown by the accompanying sketch, has
PLANE TABLE.
63
a handle by which it is held in the right hand, whilst the index arms are manipulated with the left. It may also be made to fit on to a
tripod-stand, similar to that described for the clinometer.
Fig. 113A.
The price of the five-inch sextant, complete in mahogany box, with two telescopes, is ;^5 los., and the six-inch is ^d los.
Plane Table. This consists of a drawing-board a (Fig. 114), (usually framed, a', with a movable panel), having a sheet of drawing paper strained on it, mounted on a portable three-legged
stand
B,
and capable of turning about a
vertical axis,
and of being
.^.
D
Fig. 114.
Fig. 115.
adjusted by screws to a horizontal position, as indicated by a spiritlevel c being attached to the frame. The vertical axis has a clamp and tangent screw to adjust it to any required position. The index E is a flat, straight-edged ruler, having upright sights at its end. These sights have slots (f f G g) similar to those in a prismatic
compass or circumferentor.
The use
of the plane table resembles trigonometrical surveying
on a small scale, except that the angles, instead of being read off on a horizontal circle and then plotted, are at once laid down on
the paper in the field. Fig. 115 is a simple illustration of the use of the plane table in It is required to make a survey of the trapesium a c b d. the field. Having set up rods at c, b, and d, the surveyor plants his table at A
64
and brings the north point of his compass (360 deg.) directly under the needle when at rest, and makes a point (with a needle or pricker) on some convenient part of his plane table paper to
represent his station in the field. To this point he brings the fiducial * edge of his brass rule, and directs it forwards until, through the slots f f or G G (Fig. 114) he intersects with the vertical wire the rod at b. The rule lying in this direction, he draws a point pencil line.f He now proceeds to chain the line a b, and having determined its length, with a scale he proceeds to work off the exact length on the paper. The rule is now directed towards c and D, and in like manner the distances are measured on the ground and plotted on the paper, so that we have the relative positions and length of the lines, a b, a c, and a d. The table is now moved to B and adjusted as before, care being taken to check the line a b in reference to the position of the table at b by directing the indexrule back upon a. Now proceed to direct the rule towards c and d, and measure the lines b c, b d upon the ground, and having plotted them with the scale we have now completed the survey, and the accuracy of the work is proved if the lengths b c, b d are found by measurement to exactly coincide with the points c and d formed by measuring the lines
b,
c,
and a
d.
Whilst upon this subject, it may he well to mention that the plane table will be found to be very useful for ascertaining the area of the ground one is measuring. For example, suppose we have the irregular figure
abode (Fig.
=
116),
and
it is
required to find its superficial contents. Plant the plane table at A and direct the index-rule to b, c,D,and e, measure on the ground and plot on the paper the length a b 665, A c 885, a d 1030, and A E 580, and make a correct plan of the ground. Now, if you 595, and e ^ erect perpendiculars b 5 424, q 285, there will be by the well-known rule
c=
A c X
2
^ b
_ 885 X ~ 2
_
1030
424
_ ~
187,620
sq. links
and A D X
(c 2
.:
-f g e)
(595 -f 285)
2
453200 640820
'
sq. links
field.
6 acres,
*
rood, and 25*3 perches, the contents of the
The " fiducial
An
HHH
" is the reliable or accurate edge of the rule, pencil is best for this purpose.

TELEMETER.
6S
The price of a plane table, with compass, level-sighted straightedge, and stand complete, is about ^?> 8s. to \o.
Telemeter. This is an exceedingly clever little instrument, invented by Labbez, and is designed to give, without any calcuk' tion whatever, the distance of objects from 250 to 3000 yards. It is most simple in construction, easily understood, very accurate, and not likely to get out of order. The chief merits claimed for it are, that it does not require much training to use it, nor is it necessary that an absolute right angle be laid out, and it is not dependent on seeing a definite-sized object (such as a man standing erect). Fig. 117 is a full-sized illustration of this Httle instru-
Fig. 118.
is a sketch showing the method of using it. following are the directions for using the instrument 1. Open the slide at end of cylinder. 2. Set the small-toothed wheel so that the zero is opposite zeroline, also set the revolving part of the cylinder so that the zero on it is exactly on the zero-line of fixed portion of cylinder. 3. To find the distance of a (Fig. 119), stand at d, face to the left, E, and notice an object (say b) of a prominent nature (known hereafter as the mark) as near as possible at right angles to the object A of which the range is required. Hold the instrument with the thumb and finger of the left hand, as shown in Fig. 118 (in such a way that the oblong opening is quite free), and place it to the eye look through the hole at the small end of the instrument at mark b, and with the forefinger of the right hand turn the small-toothed wheel until coincidence between the range object a and the mark B is obtained in other words, a is reflected on b. 4. Fasten the end of the line into the ground at d by passing one of the arrows through the loop and walk to the other end (c) of the 30-yard line in the direction of B. Let some one standing
ment, and Fig. 118
The
66
exactly over d dress the observer exactly with b (by calling out quarter or half pace, &c., right or left, until the right side of head of observer covers the mark b). operation, 5. The observer, facing the same way as in previous now looks at b, revolving the end of cylinder until the object a is
reflected
on
b.
is done the line opposite the fixed zero will represent the distance of the object a in yards. Should it so happen (and the occurrence would be very rare) that no natural or other prominent object is to be found somewhere near at right angles to a to use as a mark, then a man can run out with a lance, rifle, &c., and place himself at any position near the right angle at any distance over 60 yards. The observation may be made the reverse of above if no suitable
Directly this
object
is
found to the
left (see Fig.
120).
The
only thing
is
to turn

TELEMETER.
33 paces in the direction of
or mark,
it,
;
67
see that nothing obscures the object
and place a sword or picket through loop of line now return, unwinding the 30 yards of line as you go, and when at the Then end move right or left until the picket is aligned on mark.
proceed as in previous directions, paragraphs i, 2, 3, at this point (d), and on going to c turn cylinder until object and mark coincide.
Read
off the distance in yards opposite zero.
time is of consequence very good results can be obtained by walking the equivalent number of paces to 30 yards in the direction of mark, placing the picket or sword, and pacing the same number back, taking mean of error in doing so, and aligning picket
as before.
for use by one person only (This illustration. Fig. 120, is shown the reverse way to that generally adopted ; that is, looking right instead of left.) 1. Use a line 15 yards long, and place an arrow or picket through the loop of it at e. Set the instrument to zero as before, and looking through it in direction of B, see what object will coincide nearest with the reflection of A. 2. AValk to end of line at d, and, moving right or left, stop when E is aligned with B, and place a mark or picket in that position, then look through the instrument and turn small-toothed
When
Another plan
exactly reflected on mark b. take the line, and walking past e stop at extremity of it (c), when E and d are aligned, right about turn very exactly so as not to shift the position. 4. Face B, and on looking through the telemeter rotate the end The range can now be read of cylinder until a is reflected on b.
wheel
3.
until
a is
Now
opposite the zero. In rotating the cylinder it is better to stop exactly at the point where the object aligns the mark ; and if it goes beyond, then it should be turned back and gradually brought up to the mark again. This precaution, although not absolutely necessary, ensures greater
off"
accuracy.
If time permits, a second observation can be taken, and the of the two readings taken as the distance of object a.
mean
The Use of the Labbez Telemeter as a Surveying Instrument. The instrument will determine the distance apart of two inaccessible objects by laying out a triangle as follows Let A and b (Fig. 121) be two points inaccessible from point c. Having measured with the telemeter the distance c A and c b, carry on in these two directions proportional lengths c b' and
:
ca'.
The
A b =
,
triangle a' b' c being similar to the triangle

,
a b
c,
one has
a' b'
CB
c B
-,.

68
a' b' is
can be measured
directly,
known, as
it
and
the,
product
c B
;
IS
an equality of
following
:
it.
The
is
a simple
method of carrying out
the above
instructions
tances of
Find by the telemeter, by method previously described, the disPlace a man or picket at one-tenth of A and B from c.
the distance of c
b,
i.e.
at
b',
''
Set the a line with b. telemeter to its zeros and walk in the direction of A from c, keeping in dressing with A until b' is reflected on The distance between A A. and b will be ten times that of a' and b'. Any other proportion can be taken, but if the point at one-tenth is accessible, that is the most convenient, being decimal.
in
Fig. 121.
In Fig. 122
latest
is
shown
the
development of the
telemeter, made to give finer readings calculated for a The telescopic power shorter base, viz. 20 instead of 30 units.
Labbez
is
more
line,
supplied to add to the accuracy of observation, correct alignment to be made.
and enable a
To measure the Width

c
L,
of
a River.
c,
Make an imaginary
a b (Fig. 123), then draw a line through o at the half of line c b till it touches line c l (at d) ; the distance from D to c is the same as the breadth of the river. The telemeter also enables the observer to
by
pickets, parallel to breadth of river at
at b
by forming two equal angles
and
'K"
1.
LEVEL
69
Raise a perpendicular from a point. line from a point perpendicular to a straight a straight line 3. parallel to a given straight line. 4. To prolong a straight line beyond an obstacle. measure a surface of 5. To
2.
To draw a To draw
line.
land.
In making of plans. In making military reconnaissance of a zone of land or of a road in time of peace or war. The price of the telemeter in pocket bag is from j[^2 15s. to
6.
7.
3S.
The Level. There are various types of levels, the peculiarities of which are identified with their '^' '^^' maker, but the chief with which " " " the surveyor has to do are the Y and the dumpy," the former being illustrated in Figs. 124 and 126, and the latter in Figs. 125 and In almost every case these instruments are supported upon 127. tripod-stands, similar to those described for the theodolite, varying in their size and strength with the nature of the level. Some makers have substituted for the parallel plates and four screws the tribrach
Fig. 124
(Y Level).
or three-screw arrangement (Fig. 126), whereby a three-arm-plate forming a part of the body-piece is substituted for the upper parallel plate ; and indeed there are levels with parallel plates but Such arrangements may give greater having only three screws. delicacy in levelling, but for good practical use there is nothing to
equal the parallel plates and four-screw system.
The vertical axis of the level, made conical in shape and solid, forms part of the upper parallel plate, upon which turns easily the body-piece supporting the instrument, which is connected with the vertical axis by means of a washer and fixed screw. This bodypiece is turned most accurately to the same shape as the vertical axis, which is connected with a half ball-and-socket fitted into the domed socket of the lower plate and securely screwed. The upper and lower parallel plates are kept apart by the four milled-headed screws, one of which is held in position by a stop-block attached to the lower plate. Thus it may be taken that up to this point all levels are similar " in construction, but beyond this the difference between the " Y and the " dumpy " should now be described. Screwed upon the outer jacket or body-piece forming the vertical axis is the stage or horizontal bar b (Fig. 124), so formed that a compass-box b' may be inserted, as shown in Fig. 127. At one end of the stage is a joint carrying one of the supports, y, whilst at the other end is an* adjusting screw d, carrying the other support, y', and fitted with a socket.
The "Y"
Level.
This
instrument, illustrated by Figs.
124
Fig. 125
(Dumpy
y'
Level),
and
26, has its supports
y and
made
exactly similar to those of
DUMPY
the
LEVEL.
71
Y theodolite described on page 47, so that the telescope c may be

1
if necessary by raising the clips. In some cases, as in 24, there is attached to the telescope, underneath, a spirit-level fixed at one end by a joint and at the other by a capstan-headed
removed
Fig.
Fig. 126 (Y Level).
screw, for the purpose of adjustment. This method of carrying the level is only adopted in cases where the compass-box b' is Fig. 126 shows how in the absence of the inserted in the stage. compass the level a is attached to the stage b. Some Y levels are provided with a clamp and slow-motion arrangement, similar to
that described in the theodolite, for the purpose of taking magnetic bearings.
The Level. This is the most approved instrument, the telescope being permanently fixed to the stage in the supports, the method of so fixing it varying with the peculiarity of make, In Fig. 125 it will as illustrated by Figs. 125, 127, and 128.
,
Dumpy
Fig. 127
(Dumpy
Level).
be noticed that the telescope c simply rests in the jaws of the supports Y Y, whilst in some dumpy levels the telescope is contained within two collars, to one end of which, by a hinged joint, the spiritlevel is attached, whilst
upon the other
is
fixed a capstan-screw.
72
for the purpose of adjusting the axis of the telescope horizontal This is an to the spirit-level when in the centre of its run.
unquestionable advantage, for the makers of the better class of instruments adjust this axis to that of the level so accurately that
Fig. 128
(Dumpy
Level).
except under extraordinary circumstances, such as substituting a bubble-tube, it should very seldom if ever require attention. Troughton's improved level (Fig. 129) is arranged so that one support is connected with the stage by a hinged joint, whilst
new
~e
^mr-
z:yr
Fig. 129.
the other has an adjusting screw working through a spring fixed on the stage and through the stage itself, and actuated by a capstan-head, which, when not required to be used, is protected by a screw-cap.
Telescope. The telescope, which is held within the supports, consists of two tubes, the outer containing the object-glass f and
DIAPHRAGM OF LEVEL.
its
73
shield,
and. the inner tube,
not quite so long, carrying the
diaphragm and eye-piece.
Object-glass.
as a
The
object-glass consists of
what
is
known
compound
glass,
convex
composed of a plano-concave and double forming together plano-convex lenses ; and the plane
lens,
sides are presented towards the object.
Eye=piece. The eye-piece, invented by Ramsden, consists of two lenses of equal focal lengths, one plano-convex and the other convexo-plano, so that the convex sides are turned towards one another, the interval between them being two-thirds of the focal
length of either.
brass ring
The diaphragm (Fig. 130) consists of a smaller dimensions than the inner tube, to which it is fitted by four capstan-headed screws, c, c^, c^, c^, for the purpose of Attached to this ring are what are termed the adjusting the ring. cross-wires, consisting of two vertical, a and b, and one horizontal hair, d, and which usually are the web of a common garden spider wound round a forked piece of stick (Fig. 131), so that the lines may be accurately attached to the ring with a little gum or wax. " In looking through a telescope a considerable field of view is embraced ; but the measurements, indicated by any instrument, of which the telescope may form a part, will only have reference to one
a of
The Diaphragm,
Fig. 131-
which particular point is considered as the centre of this field of view. We must therefore place some fixed point in the field of view, at the focus of the eye-piece, and the point to which the measurement will have reference will be that point of the object viewed which appears to be coincident with this fixed point, or which, as the technical phrase is, is bisected by the fixed The intersection of the two vertical and the horizontal point."
particular point,
wires of the diaphragm furnishes us with this fixed point. " When the instrument is in adjustment \i.e. the diaphragm has been truly adjusted so that the cross-wires are coincident with the centre of the field of view], the axis of the tube of the telescope is

74
by means of the level beneath it, and the line Let of observation ought consequently to be parallel to this axis. A (Fig. 132) represent the proper position of the intersection of the cross-wires, and o a the direction of _ A Q the axis of a pencil of light passing ^^,, R through the object-glass and coming j Then, the axis of to its focus at A. _,. '^' ^ the tube of the telescope being set truly horizontal, the line a o is also truly horizontal, and every point bisected by the intersection of the cross-wires will be situated on the prolongation of the horizontal line A o. " Suppose now the position of the diaphragm carrying the crosswires to have become deranged, so that the point of intersection is moved to b, then every point bisected by the intersection of the cross-wires will be on the prolongation of the line b o, and will, * consequently, be below the true level point on the line a o."
set truly horizontal
'
Line of ColUmation. " The error from misplacement of the spider-lines has a technical denomination. The line o a, or o b, from o to the point of intersection of the cross-wires, is called the line of colUmation, and the error arising from their derangement .*
is
called the error of colUmation!''
Adjustment
their levels
:
instructions issued
The following is a copy of the of the Level. by Messrs. Troughton and Simms with all
" Art. I. ^When the bubble a (Fig. 129) is in the centre of its run,the direction of the movement of the draw b should be horizontal. " Consequently there can be but one position for this level,
which, having been determined by the maker of the instrument, may be regarded as constant. " The insertion of a new level will alone disturb the relation which exists between the level and the telescope ; in ^^'^ ^ ^^^^ ^ re-determination of its position will be
'BrolQ* '-^
'''-'
necessary.
" The screws e, e (Fig. 133) are supplied for the purpose of bringing the bubble into the position indicated in Art. t. Unless the level be broken, they should not be touched, and after the new level has been inserted, if once adjusted, no correction will subsequently be needed.
Fig. 133.
Adjustment
for ColUmation.
"Art. The
2.
line joining
the optical centre of the object-glass horizontal wire should be horizontal is in the centre of its opening, t
and a point
in the line of the
when
the bubble a (Fig. 129)
* " Surveying and Astronomical Instruments," p. 13, by J. F. Heather, M.A. t Ibid., p. 15. Crosby Lockwood & Son, London. % This is technically known as " being in the centre of its run."
TO ADJUST FOR COLLIMATION.
75
" This adjustment is eflfected by the colHmation screws at the eye end of the instrament, which serve to raise or depress the wireframe or diaphragm. Whenever the object-glass has been removed, a re-determination of this adjustment, known as the adjustment of
the line of collimation, will be necessary. "Art. 3. The horizontality of the line of collimation should be maintained during a complete revolution of the instrument upon its axis. In order to effect this adjustment the bubble a is brought into the centre by means of the parallel plate screws. The telescope is then turned 180 deg. upon its axis; should the position of the bubble have changed, half the difference between this new place and its old position has to be effected by the parallel plate screws, and the remaining half by the screw d, which is placed inside a cap under the stage. This adjustment is known as the adjustment for reversion ; it is comparatively of little importance, and can, in our instrument, be accomplished at any time in a few seconds.
To adjust for Collimation (Fig. 134). "Place the instrument exactly halfway between the two staves held at any convenient distance from each other, bring the bubble a to the centre of its run, and read both staves ; the points thus obtained will be equidistant from the earth's centre, and consequently level. The instrument may now be set up nearly in line with the staves, but not between them; the bubble a must be brought to the middle of the opening, and, by means of the coUimating screws, the horizontal wire c may be made to bisect the two level points or others equidistant therefrom. " If the distance between the more distant staff" and the level be considerable, allowance is to be made for the curvature of the earth. An adjusted level (used as a collimator) will supply a ready means for the accurate adjustment of other instruments. In order to effect this purpose, the wires must be placed in the principal focus of the object-glass, the eye-piece should be removed from its socket, and, as a temporary protection for the webs, a piece of plain glass may be inserted. The level should now be erected, and the bubble brought accurately into the
centre.
" Let A be the adjusted level ; b the instrument, the adjustment of which is to be checked. A pencil of rays proceeding from
a point in the plane of the horizontal wire c will, after passing through the object-glass, be parallel, and, should the axis of the
pencil be horizontal, the parallel rays will after emergence be also It will be perfectly clear that if the level a be in horizontal. adjustment, and the bubble a in the centre of its opening, the horizontality of this parallel pencil is ensured.
76
"The
level
under adjustment,
b,
is
to
be placed with
its
object-glass in front of the object-glass of a.
As
the diagram indicates, a little' difference in the height of the instruments will not affect the result; but it is desirable that there should be no great difference. The parallel rays from a falling upon the object-glass of b will be converged to a point within the telescope, and an image d of the wires c will be formed. " If the bubble d of the level b be brought into the centre by the parallel plate screws, and the level b be in adjustment, the wires in B will lie upon the image of the wires in a. Should this not be the case, let them occupy a position as d' ; the operator will now have to release the lower collimation screw and to tighten the upper, thereby raising the wire frame (diaphragm) until he has brought d' upon d ; when this has been done (provided the bubbles in both instruments retain their central position) the adjustment for collimation has been accomplished."
;
Adjustment for Parallax. There is another adjustment of the level of great importance, and that is what is termed parallax, or when the image of the object viewed formed by the object-glass falls either short of or beyond the place of the cross-wire. The existence of parallax is determined by moving the eye about when looking through the telescope and observing whether the cross-wires change their position and are flittering and undefined.
To correct this error, first adjust the eyepiece by means of the movable eye-piece tube, till you can perceive the cross-wire clearly defined and sharply marked. Then by moving the milled-headed screw g, which by a rack and small pinion wheel within the telescope enables the internal tube to be thrust out or drawn in to focus the object, according to distance, and you are able to see, at the same time, the object clearly and the intersection of the wires clearly and sharply defined before it. The existence of parallax is very inconvenient, and when disregarded has frequently been productive of serious error. It will not always be
LEVELLING STAFF.
yj
found sufficient to set the eye-piece first and the object-glass afterwards. The setting of the object-glass by introducing more distant rays of light will affect the focus of the eye-piece and produce parallax or indistinctness of the wire where there was none before. The eye-piece must in this case be adjusted again. Generally, when once set for the day, there is no occasion for altering the eye-piece, but the object-glass will of course have to
be altered
the object
at every
is
change of distance of the object. The nearer to the instrument the greater length will the inner
is a limit even to this, as the figures on the staff are indiscernible within a few yards, and the greater the distance there is between the instrument and the object, so much shorter must the telescope be. The best 14-in.
tube have to be drawn out ; but there
levels will only

It
made
level,
read figures clearly at a distance of about 150 yards. should be noted that the correction for parallax should be previous to that of collimation.
There are several appendages to the such as a reflecting mirror, which by means of a saddleshaped clip may be fixed upon the bubble-tube, and having a hinged joint may be placed at such an angle as to enable the operator to see if the bubble is in the centre of its run at the same time he is looking through the telescope. There is also provided a magnifying glass, which, fitting into a socket attached to the side of the compass-box, is used to facilitate reading the magnetic bearings. The needle, when not required, may be thrown off the agate centre by means of either a screw or a lever fixed in the side of the compass-box. The cost of a good level varies from ;î2 for a lo-in. to ;i% and 20 for a i6-in. instrument. Reflecting Level.
for taking preliminary
Reflecting Mirror.
most useful instrument and sketch levels, which it
determines with commendable correctness, is a little pocket level, the invention of Colonel Burel (Fig. The glass, silvered on its lower half, is fixed 135). in a frame suspended from a gimbal, and adjusted to hang in a vertical plane by filing the pin passing through the lower part of the frame. The observer's thumb is passed through the ring and held at arm's length ; and the hand, steadied by a staff, is slided ^'^V'^^Vr^l' up or down until the pupil of the eye is bisected at The object the junction of the plain and the silvered glass. in front that cuts this line is then level with the eye of the
.
observer.
Levelling Staff. There are various types of levelling staves the chief with which the surveyor has to do, however, being
78
is
what
called the telescope

ft.
box
long,
This consists of a mahoganystaff. broad, and 2\ in. deep, within which is another hollow box 4 ft. 6 in. long, rtiade so that it will slide easily within the other, and a third joint, of solid mahogany, works within the inner one, so that when pulled out to their full length, having springs or clips to secure them, it represents a staff 14 ft. long, which when not required can, by sliding the divisions one within
in.
the other, be made compact for transit, as represented by Figs. 136, 137, and 138, which illustrate the usual method of graduation.
The face of this staff is either covered with printed papers or, preferably, is painted so as to represent each foot from i ft. to 14 ft., which are again subdivided into hundredths of feet, the feet being represented by red figures and the subdivisions by black. It must be understood that the tops of the
red figures represent the value in feet upon the staff; but in the subdivisions, whilst the tops of the black figures, which are always odd numbers, represent their value in hundredths of feet, the bottoms of these same figures repreFigs. 136, 137, 138 Thus by sent the intermediate even numbers. reference to Figs. 136 and 139 it will be seen that there are in each foot five figures respectively, i, 3, 5, 7, and 9, representing Consequently the bottoms of 3, 5, io. T^, T^. r^. and T^. 7, and 9 of the black figures and the top of each red figure represent rh^ p^. Ta^ TWa, and f2|.. pig. 140 shows a tenth of a foot and -^ of another, and each is delineated by a black stroke across the left side, the lowest white stroke representing y^, the next black stroke yg-j, the next white stroke yf-g-, the next black yfg-, the next white yfo-; at five is a longer stroke, and consecutively each white and black stroke make up the sum of to the top of the i of the black subdivisions. By a similar process is made up the -j^ of the next subdivision to the bottom of the
^^
y^
3,
and so on
seriatim.
staff the observer must notice carefully where the horizontal wire of the diaphragm cuts the staff, counting the red figures from the bottom and the nearest subdivision in other
In using the
words, supposing the wire were to cut the staff between the red figures 5 and 6 and above the black figure 3 of the subdivision and coincide with the top of the second of the black strokes, it would represent that the line of coUimation cut the staff at 5-34 ft. The greatest care should be observed in holding the staff so
ANEROID BAROMETER.
that
it
79
is
perfectly vertical
It is
and some old-fashioned ones had a
plumb-bob suspended
holder.
now
in the lower joint, as a guide to the staffusually recommended that the staff be gently
waved backwards and forwards (see Figs. 266 and 267, p. 216), and the lowest reading taken. Unless, however, the staff-holder
well accustomed to his work, it frequently happens that he waves the staff sideways as well as backwards and forwards. The most reliable guide for him is a disk-shaped bubble-glass fixed on a brass bracket to slip into a socket on the, back of the staff; and a very little practice is found to enable anybody to keep the bubble in the centre of its glass.
is
Fig. 140.
Fig. 139.
The preceding description is that of a 14-ft. or the usual kind of levelling staff, but they can be obtained 16 or 17 ft. long and made proportionately, the figuring of course being the same kind. There is, no doubt, a considerable advantage in the use of such often staves, especially in hilly country, but in winter weather it is long difi&cult for a man to maintain a vertical position with so
a
staff.
The
cost of a 14-ft. levelling staff is
from;î
12s. to
^z
53.
The Aneroid Barometer.This invaluable instrument, the invention of which is attributed to M. Vidi of Paris, is greatly used
8o
by surveyors
for ascertaining great altitudes, where the ordinary operation of levelling is impossible, or for approximation. The action of this barometer, " for ascertaining the variations of the atmosphere, depends on the effect produced by the pressure of the atmosphere on a metallic box, hermetically sealed, from which the air has been previously exhausted." * This box (a in Fig. 141 and D D in Fig. 142) is corrugated upon its upper and lower surfaces, and by means of an elaborate system of levers and springs the index, or hand, is made to traverse the dial which surmounts the frame, being actuated by increase or diminution of the atmospheric pressure upon the metallic box. The aneroid thus " records the changes in the weight or pressure of the atmosphere on a given
Fig. 141.
suppose a square inch ; and it would, therefore, have greatly comprehension of the action of the instrument had the dial been graduated to show the difference of the atmospheric pressure in absolute weight or pounds ; " but seeing that " the density of the atmosphere would decrease in geometrical progressurface,
facilitated the
sion for altitudes in arithmetical progression, and since this density also varies directly as the pressure to which it is subjected, and
which
is
that, if at different altitudes these
measured by the height of the barometric column, it follows columns decrease in geometric
progression, the altitudes will increase in arithmetical progression, and will therefore be proportional to the logarithms of the barometric columns. Hence, if the temperature remained constant,
*
M.A.
"Surveying and Astronomical Instruments,'' Crosby Lockwood & Son, London.
p. 104,
by
J.
F. Heather,,
THE STADIOMETER.
8i
the difference of two altitudes would vary as the difference of the logarithms of the barometric columns at those altitudes ; so that if h be taken to represent the height of a higher station above a lower one, and if b be the height of the barometer at the lower station, and b the height at the higher station, we should have
= k\og.-^;
where -5 is a constant quantity, to be determined by experiment." I cannot do better than refer the student to the very exhaustive
Fig. 142.
consideration of the theory of the aneroid in the work by Mr. Heather, from which the foregoing is extracted. It should be stated that the variation of temperature greatly affects the results of observation with the aneroid. To guard against any error a thermometer is attached so that the difference of temperature may be noted at the various stations. Fig. 141 is a plan of the aneroid with the dial removed, and Fig. 142 is an isometrical view of the same. The instrument is from
4 to
"
s in. in
diameter (some even larger) and about if
in. thick.
pressure of the atmosphere is indicated by the hand h (Fig. 141) pointing to a scale, which is graduated to correspond with There is also a scale compensated to the common barometer." agree with the altitudes in feet, which is attached by a movable Referring to rim so that its zero may be regulated as necessary. Fig. 142, A is the screw adjusting the hand, b b the fulcrum, c c the principal lever, d d the vacuum vase, i vertical rod connecting lever c c with levers 2 and j,, e b adjusting screws for leverage, s spiral spring, M socket in vacuum vase, k pin attached to socket. The cost of an aneroid barometer varies from ;^3 3s. to jQi> 8s.
The
The Stadiometer. This is one of those instruments for It expeditiously measuring distances (illustrated in Fig. 143).
,
82
consists of a telescope m b, fitted to a vertical arc o, which works in the frame p g which is attached to the body-piece of the instrument, and above which a round disc or table a rotates. " There is a scale D d' fastened to the frame, the centre of which corresponds with the centre of the instrument, and which is graduated to the scale The telescope to which the surveyor wishes to plot his work. M B is fitted with a diaphragm, with two horizontal hairs, distant
Fig- 143-
from one another a hundredth part of a foot of the focal length of From this proportion it follows that, when any the object glass. ordinary levelling-staff is held on any distant point and the telescope brought to bear upon it, if the readings, in feet and decimals of a foot, of the intersections of the hairs on the staff be observed, their difference multiplied by a hundred gives the true distance in feet from the instrument."
The Omnimeter. "This instrument (Fig. 144), like the stadiometer, is intended to measure base-lines and distances without chaining, and also the differences of altitudes and angles." It consists of a graduated limb (i) reading by means of a vernier to ten seconds for the measurement of horizontal angles ; a good telescope (2) revolving in a plane perpendicular to the limb ; a powerful microscope (3) closely united to the telescope ; a highly sensitive
level (4) lying upon the rule (5), which has a fixed length (of twenty centimetres, for example); a scale (6) fixed vertically at the

THE TACHEOMETER.
83
extremity of the said rule, in the plane of the optical axis of the microscope, and divided into half-millimetres, the millimetres only being indicated by figures from i to 100; a micrometrical screw (7) attached to the base of the scale, and giving a correct reading of the scale to the of a millimetre, denoted on the graduated circle of the screw ; an extremely sensitive level (8) capable of being applied to the telescope, and for determining in case of necessity
its
horizontality.
Fig. 144-
Accompanying the instrument is a staff of a fixed length say three metres having a white mark upon a black ground at either This staff is held at the point of which the distance from end. the instrument is required, and the telescope having been directed to the staff, which must be held perfectly plumb, the inclination is This being read off by means of the microscope from the scale.
done, the distance
may be
calculated.
for military or approximate purposes appliances such as the foregoing may be very useful and expeditious, I do not hesitate to confess a predilection for ascertaining the lengths of my base and other lines by actual measurement. There is, however, another instrument the tacheometer
The Tacheometer.
Whilst
84
by measurement, which
for determining distances otherwise than
during recent years has come into more frequent use by English engineers, but it can only be mentioned here.*
Dredge -Steward Omni=teIemeter. This excellent instrument, originally intended to be only a range-finder, has upon the advice of Colonel Fraser, R.E., been improved to an extent which proves it to be " a very accurate instrument for telemetric surveying."
Fig. 145.
The general view of the instrument is shown in Figs. 145 and 146, whilst Fig. 147 shows a section through it. From these it will be seen that the instrument is a modification of the ordinary box sextant, but in place of the two mirrors of the instrument being parallel to each other, when the graduation
* In 1890, a paper on " The Tacheometer " was read before the Institution of Civil Engineers by Mr. Neil Kennedy, M.Inst.C.E. ; and a work by the same author entitled " Surveying with the Tacheometer "was issued in 1900 by the publishers of the present work (see page 13 of Catalogue at end of this volume). " Tacheometry " was also the subject of papers read before the same Institution by Mr. Bennett H. Brough, in 1887, and by Mr. R. E. Middleton, M.Inst.C.E., in 1894.
OMNI- TELE ME TER.
85
reads o, the mirrors of the omni-telemeter make an angle of 45 with each other in this position, so that on looking through the instrument under these conditions the eye of the observer occupies the apex of a right angle, the sides of which are formed by the direct line of sight, and that seen by reflection in the two
mirrors.
There is still another point in which the instrument differs from the box sextant. In that instrument, as is well known, one of the mirrors, viz., that known as the horizon glass, is fixed
Fig. 146.
can be adjusted. In the Dredge-Steward instrument, however, both these mirrors Referring to Fig. 147, d is the mirror which are adjustable. is fixed in the sextant, but which in the present instance can be adjusted through a limited range by means of the micrometer screw E. This mirror is mounted on an arm b, which, turning round the pivot f at one end, is kept in contact with the screw E already mentioned by the spring o, and it is by moving this arm that the mirror d is adjusted. At the free end of this arm
in position, whilst the fully-silvered mirror only
86
is
c, carrying a micrometer screw with a graduated head shown. The other end of this screw abuts against the arm on which the fully-silvered mirror p is mounted, and which
a nut
G, as
L,
Fig. 147-
can, therefore,
be rotated through a small angle by turning the
milled head h of the micrometer screw. In using the instrument to take a range, as a b (Fig. 148), the observer being at b, and facing so that the mark lies on his right hand, he views it by reflection in the in^ strument. The line of sight from the object reaching first the mirror p, is reflected on to the mirror D (Fig. 147), and from it to his The observer now, looking through eye. the unsilvered part of the mirror, tries to find some prominent object c (Fig. 148), which he can superimpose on the reflected image of a, without, be it understood, touchWhen this is ing the micrometer screw h. done the angle a b c is a right angle. Now Fig. 148. putting a mark at b, he paces in the direction of c B produced a distance b d = 50 yards, and looking again through the instrument as before, he turns the milled head H until the image of the mark a is again superimposed on c. Then reading the index on the micrometer screw, and referring to
OMNI- TELEMETER.
87
a short table attached to the instrument, he reads off instantly the range a b. Usually it is impossible to. get a mark c, such that the angle A B c is a right angle, without several trials, and it is here where the advantage of the omni-telemeter comes in, since it is not necessary with this instrument that the angle a b c shall be a right angle. Hence, if a point cannot be found fulfilling this condition, the observer chooses some point that nearly does so. Looking at this object and the mark through the instrument, when the latter is adjusted in its zero position, the image of the mark will be to one side or the other of it. In this case the screw E is turned round, moving the mirror until coincidence is secured, and the second observation is taken at d (Fig. 148) as before. Owing to this adjusting screw e, much less trouble
required to find a suitable mark on which to project the object is sought. In the case of instruments having a fixed base angle, the observer may have to shift his position considerably before the desired coincidence is obtained. The adjustment allows base angles varying 8 deg. on either side of 90 deg. to be used, and it therefore is only in very exceptionally monotonous countries that a suitable mark cannot be obtained, with comparative ease. The best plan of using this instrument is indicated by Fig. stick is placed at the point a, and distances of 25 yards 149. measured on each side of it. Then to get any range such as e, a suitable object such as L is taken, and the observations taken at the points B and c. To take the distance of the point G a man is sent out with a picket to o, and used as the auxiliary mark.
is
whose range

For the range of the steeple f the mark m would be used, and j when taking h. In this way a whole round of objects can have With moving objects their distances ascertained very rapidly. two instruments are used, held by observers 50 yards apart, the line between them making an angle of nearly 90 deg. with the Both of the instruments having been first set to zero, object. each observer reflects the other on the object by using the micrometer screw H (Fig. 147). The range is then got by adding or subtracting the readings of the two instruments, the sum being taken when the zero line of the two is on the same side of the zero line of the scale k, and the difference when they are on An optical square and one instrument can opposite sides. be used. For telemetric surveying the following method of using the instrument has been worked out by Colonel Fraser, and is illustrated in
Fig.
150.
The
^,îMj^.\t
r
instrument is mounted on its stand

in Fig.
in the position
146,
shown and a
bright objec t
Colonel Fraser uses a gilt prism is placed on the ground
vertically below it by means of a plumb
bob.
Fig.
I
The
is
instru-
JO.
ment
zero.
then set to
assistant
An
whose distance is required, with a staff having targets 5 ft. apart, the lower one being 2 ft. 6 in. from the ground. This target is aligned with the image of the ground mark by means of the compensating screw e, and afterwards the upper target is aligned by means of the index screw, the reading of which then gives, by reference to a table, the distance of the staff. This method can be employed in all cases when the slope does not exceed 8 deg., that being the limit of adjustment by the compensating screw. At the same time the instrument can also be used to ascertain the heights of objects, the distance of which is known. For this purpose the instrument is mounted on its stand as already described, and the base of the object reflected by the compensating screw on to the plumb bob, and then its summit by the other screw. The height of the object is then obtained from a table of rise in inches per yard. It is obvious that the instrument can also be conveniently used as an optical square, and hence (having regard to what has been
is
sent out to the object,
FRANCIS SURVEYING COMPASS.
89
already stated) it would appear that it can be used almost as a universal instrument for preliminary survey work.
The Francis Surveying Compass and Clinometer.

especially for
It
is
This is a new surveying instrument, invented by Mr. W. R. Francis, of Swansea, and designed
work
capable,
performing all that do not require an exceptional degree of accuracy.
in mines. however, of kinds of work
The main
ment
part of the instru-
(Fig. 151), apart from the stand, will go into the
side pocket of a coat, when the compass is set in plane
of the frame, and may be carried with safety. thus The total weight of the instrument, with case, fittings, stand, and plane table, is
about whole
The 17 lbs. only. being a apparatus, light one, could be easily transported by one person across a difficult ground, and is thus very suitable for explorers in new countries. The graduated circle of
the
compass
is 34^
in. in di-
ameter, and can be adjusted to correct the deviation of the needle. This latter is bluiit-ended centre it is silvered near its tip, and a fine line is drawn along its This adds considerably to the facility to read the deflections by. As is usual, of using it, and angles can be read within a \ deg. there is a device by which the needle can be lifted off the central pin to reduce wear in travelling, and also to aid in
Sights are bringing it to rest. taken by means of two vertical slots in the frame; these are formed with bevel-edged plates, and give a very clear and exact The frame itself can be rotated view. under the object vision of on a vertical pivot on the three-armed stand, while fine adjustsecond screw ments are made by a screw with a milled head.
go
serves to clamp the frame in position. The compass is levelled by a single bubble, the levelling screws having ball-and-socket heads, enabling them to take a firm bearing in all positions, when the instrument is fixed by a central screw (Fig. 152). This is a new
feature, at least in this country.
The measurement of vertical angles is effected by unshipping the rectangular frame, and mounting it horizontally by means of the right-angled fitting shown at Fig 153 in the lower view. This brings the compass into a vertical plane, and allows the
clinometer needle to hang freely. Any object can then be sighted either above or below the spectator, and its vertical angle read off. The two slots are exactly alike, so that sights can be taken both backwards and forwards without reversing the instrument. As shown in Fig. 151, the instrument is set upon an extension bracket fixed to the top of the tripod stand. This bracket
t'ig- 153-
Fig. 154.
of three layers of wood glued together with the grain It has a central hole through to prevent warping. which a plumb-line may be dropped when it is desired to work from a Certain point. By means of this line the centre of the compass can be set exactly in position. Ordinarily, however, this is not requisite, and then the instrument is fixed directly on the head of the tripod stand by means of the thumb-nut shown. It may also be held in the hand, without any stand at all, or suspended on a slack string passing through the V cuts at the This latter plan is often very useful tops of the sighting slits. in getting round awkward positions in underground surveying, where there is no place for a tripod to stand. The weight of the instrument keeps it steady and plumb, while the V cuts align it directly between the points of suspension of the string. Fig. 15s shows a straight edge for use with the plane table. It carries a stool on which the compass can be fixed by two
is
made
crossing
PATENT MODEL TRANSIT THEODOLITE.
91
screws, and when this is in position a survey can be laid down directly by the use of the same instrument by which it was made. The plane table, 16 in. by 16 in., can be mounted on the stand and fixed by clamp screw.
Fig- 155-
The legs of the tripod are telescopic, so as to pack into convenient length. At the foot each leg carries a step (Fig. 154), an ingenious device by which the leg can be pressed firmly into the soil,
Stanley's Patent Model Transit Theodolite.This is unquestionably a great improvement upon the general construction of transit theodolites, for it meets the objection I make on page 56, where, in speaking of the various adjuncts to the instrument, such as lanterns, &c., I say " My own experience has been that such appendages are more trouble than they are worth, and the extra money would be better spent upon strengthening the working parts of the instrument." This instrument (Fig. 156) is constructed (as will be seen by the illustration) upon the solid system as compared with the building up by separate parts, whereby greater rigidity must of And the central axis, being one-and-anecessity be obtained. half the diameter, is about double as strong as that of an ordinary
:
transit.
"The plate has not to support the superstructure as in an ordinary theodolite, but has only to hold the two axis bubbles, which are thereby brought distinctly in view, and the clamp and
92
is only placed conveniently for use upon a position where there is less risk of accident than placed upon the outer edge of the limb."
tangent motion, which

this plate, in
when
it is
fig. 156.
This little instrument, which is perspective in Fig. 157, is intended to perform all the operations of curve-ranging without, in most cases, requiring any calculation whatever to be made by the operator, as the chord, arc, versin, and many other quantities can be read direct from the scales with which the instrument is provided. The principle is that of Euclid III., prop. 21, where it is proved that the angle in the segment of a circle is constant. The mirror moves with the upper scale. The figure of the curved edge of the scale is a polar curve whose equation is
Trotter's Curve=Ranger.
in
shown
= a-{- b sin
26
where a
is
the distance from the zero graduation to the axis of
TROTTERS CURVE-RANGER.
93
the mirror, and b is the length of the scale from zero to 2, and IS the inclination of the mirror. On the left of the woodcut IS shown an eyepiece containing a half-silvered mirror, set at such an angle that when the instrument is closed, and reads 90 on the graduated limb, it may be used as an optical square. If three points, a b c, on the curve are given, and all are
accessible, set
up rods
at
a and
c,
place the instrument over
b.
Fig. 157.
and adjust the mirror by means of the tangent-screw, so that the rod at c is seen direct through the eyepiece, and the rod at A is seen by reflection in the mirror. Then if any intermediate position on the curve be taken up, both a and c can be seen simultaneously through the eyepiece of the instrument, one by reflection, the other by direct vision, superimposed. If the two rods are not seen superimposed, the operator must move to the right or to the left until this is the case. The instrument will then be over a point on the curve. In this way any number of points in the curve can be fixed as the observer moves from A to c, and on arriving at c, the tangent to the curve may be obtained, for when the rod at a is observed by reflection, the direction of the line of sight through the eyepiece is the tangent to the curve, and a ranging rod may be set up at any convenient Similarly the tangent at the other end of the distance to mark it. curve may be found. On the back of the movable plate, a scale showing the ratio of the length of the arc to the length of the radius is read at the point where the body of the instrument cuts the graduations. An engraved figure on the instrument shows also all the elements of a curve that can be obtained by direct reading from the scales of the instrument, or by simple arithmetical calculation.
Although the instrument is not intended to replace the theodolite in very accurate surveying, one advantage is claimed for it over the older instrument, in that errors made by it are
94
not cumulative, and no assistants, chain, or tables are required, as is the case when curves are set out by the method of tangential angles. The only adjustment required is the setting This is adjusted as an optical square when of the eyepiece. Price, with telescope in leather the graduated limb reads 90, sling case, ;io.
Dalrymple- Hay's Curve = Ranger.
This instrument
(Fig.
Fig. 158.
158), which has been invented by Mr. H. H. Dalrymple-Hay, an assistant engineer on the London and South-Western Railway,
designed to facilitate operations in the field when ranging curves by the method of tangential angles. It can be fitted to
is
DALRYMPLE-HAY'S CURVE-RANGER.
95
theodolites of any pattern, by simply clamping the horizontal plate to the divided limb and the arm carrying the dial to the vernier limb, by milled screws. This attachment can be readily removed from ttie theodolite when not required, and will fit into the case of the theodolite. By simple mechanical movements it at once gives the tangential angle for each chain point in all curves in general use on railways, and thus obviates the necessity of referring to a table of tangential angles, and then reading the vernier as with the theodolite. When ranging new tangents no calculations are required. The following are the directions given for use of the curveranger Having set up the instrument at the commencement of the curve a (Fig. 159), move the disc a (Fig. > A C D r "-" \158) along the grat^c::"
:
'
'
duated scale
b,
until
the setting - index c fixed to the disc coincides with the division on the scale corresponding to the
j^>^ \ ' ^*\ \
6^\
_^
>^
number
of chains
radius in the curve. Thus if the curve to be set out is of 60
Â sA ^ V\ %\
\ chains radius, move the disc a along the Fig. 159. scale b until the edge of the setting-index c is coincident with division marked 60. Now direct the telescope along the tangent to the curve a b, and bring the needle to the zero of the dial d, clamping both Perfect the bisection of the cross hairs the clamps e and f. in the diaphragm of the telescope with the pole at b by turning If the curve bends to the right as in the the tangent screw g. figure, turn the tangent screw h until the needle indicates 99 on the dial. In this position the telescope will point along the chord line a c, along which measure a chord of i chain, c will then be the first peg in a curve of 60 chains radius. To obtain the second tangential angle, again turn the tangent screw h in the same direction until the needle points to division The telescope will then have described the 98 on the dial. second tangential angle, and will point along the chord a d. To obtain d, measure the chord line c d intersecting the line of .sight, A D in D. This determines the second point, and so on a considerable
number of
points can be easily set out.

96
If the curve
bends
to the left, the needle, instead of pointing
to 99, 98, 97, &c., should
on the
dial,
be made to point to i, 2, 3, &c., divisions by turning the tangent screw h the reverse way.
The
operation of ranging a
new
tangent
is
equally simple.
Suppose it is required to set out a new tangent at peg 10, as in the above figure. The needle, when the telescope was pointing to peg 10, from the position A, indicated 90 on the dial, or 10 divisions from the zero, the dial face being divided into 100
equal parts.
the instrument from a to e, peg 10, and there set it pointing in the direction that the curve is being set out. Transit the telescope, directing it to a, and bring the needle to Turn division 10 on the dial, clamping the two clamps e and f. the tangent screw h until the needle, passing over 10 divisions, indicates zero on the dial. Now transit the telescope into its former position, when it will point along the tangent to the curve, and the curve may be continued in either direction, to the right or left, as described up,
still
Remove
above.
The limits of the graduation on scale b are from 50 to 100 chains radius, but curves of smaller or larger radius may be set out by the following simple method Say radius of curve 25 chains. Set index c to division 50 on scale ; and for tangential angles read 2, 4, 6, &c., on dial. For a curve of larger radius, say 200 chains, set index c to division 100 on scale b, and read the dot between zero and division i for the first tangential angle, and division r for the second tangential angle, and so on, the dots being odd numbers, and the divisions even. The price of the instrument, fitted to new or old theodolites, ranges from ,] 7s. to ;îo los.
:
The 160) is an ingenious combination. accepted necessity for a ray-shade in levels is made the opportunity for utilising it for other and useful purposes, especially for cross-section work in hilly country. The ordinary ray-shade has two narrow slits opposite each other at 180. zero line is carried from one slit to a line on the ray-shade, fitting when the slits are quite Fig. 160. horizontal. Sight through the slits at zero enables an approximate cross-level to be taken. The edge of the tube of the ray-shade is divided 20 on each side of the zero line to 2, so as to take approximate lateral inclines of the surface of the land in levelling.
Stanley's
Ray-Shade.This
(Fig.
STANLEY'S IMPROVED PLANE TABLE.
97
This plan of cross-sighting was originally proposed by Gravatt.
Stanley's Improved Plane Table.On page 63 (Figs. 114 and 115), I have described the modus operandi of the plane table, an instrument too little called into requisition, especially in contouring, and I here introduce a very complete instrument,
for all purposes. The drawing-surface of this table 161) consists of a loose panel which stretches the sheet of paper by pressing it into its frame, where it is afterwards held by a pair of ledges, which fit at their ends into long slots.
adapted
(Fig.
The board
is
mounted upon a firmly-braced
tripod-stand, as
illustrated in Fig. 162. The head of the tripod-stand is secured to the board with a central screw (not shown), which permits the
board
to-
be
set in
any
direction,
it
being the rule that the edge
Fig. lOl.
Fig. 162.
should always take a north to south direction. Three screws, sss (Fig. 162), at the corner of the triangular head, can be raised or lowered by milled heads from the under side. These screws permit about 15 deg. of adjustment to the table without any unsteadiness, as the centre-screw clamps the table finally hard down upon them when all adjustments are small trough form of magnetic compass a is placed made. upon the rule to strike the magnetic to south line, to which all angles are referred in transposing the work of the plane table. The diaphragm of the telescope is provided with a platinoiridium point fixed vertically at the mutual focus of the object
(Fig.
161)
glass
and the
eye-piece.
Johnson's
(Figs. 163
Improved
Tripod = Head.
The
illustrations
and 164) will sufficiently explain the principle of construction, which admits of an instrument being quickly adjusted in an approximately horizontal position, and then firmly clamped.
98
The instrument, attached to the screw on b, is set approximately level by moving the tripod in the usual manner ; release the clamping nut d, and the sockets b c will then be free to move in any direction, and can be fixed in any position by The upper socket b may be turned in again screwing up nut d. azimuth by releasing the nut e, which leaves the hemispherical surface b free to move around the concave ring a of the tripodhead.
construction,
This form of head, mounted on a framed stand of special may be used to great advantage with an ordinary
Fig. 163.
Fig. 164.
d\impy level, particularly on embankments, where it is difficult to find a level space for the legs of the tripod, as the movement of the sockets compensates the difference of level of the legs and so prevents undue straining of the parallel plate-screws and these remarks apply equally with regard to theodolites, For plane tables, also, especially those used for mountain work. this form of head is a valuable improvement. Price, complete with special framed tripod-stand, for plane
tables
and small
levels,
;^s
5s.
Erskine's Altazimuth Theodolite. Notwithstanding the high appreciation in which I hold the various instruments referred to in the foregoing pages, after a quarter of a century's experience with them under varied circumstances, I am bound to admit that Erskine's altazimuth, an instrument recently brought out, supplies It is at once a theodolite, a in my judgment a long-felt want. level, and a clinometer, and is comprised in so small a space as to render it available anywhere and under any circumstances.
Fig. 165 fairly illustrates the instrument, which consists of an ordinary vernier and limb, properly encased, upon which two substantial brackets carry the horizontal axis, also encased in On the left is the (what may be termed) an enclosed collar. vertical circle (îz inch wide), also encased, with the divisions marked upon the edge ; whilst on the right-hand side is the telescope,
ERSKINE'S ALTAZIMUTH THEODOLITE.
99
duly adjusted to the vertical circle. Over and above these is the compass, with its complement of right-angle levels for adjustment. The weight of this beautiful little instrument is only 4 lbs., or with the tripod-stand 8 lbs. The latter is made in the form known as the " open-lath " (similar to a camera stand), but by an ingenious arrangement the joints, instead of being folded are clipped with a screw adjustment, so that the lower leg may slide within the
Fig. 165.
upper frame and be clamped at pleasure, especially in side-lying ground. r a Another feature in this instrument is the provision of a reflector, for use at night to be attached to the object end of the telescope, silver so arranged (or especially in mining), consisting of a bulb of by an arm that it can be brought into the centre of the. field, and
'
.
thus reflect rays of light into the telescope. I have recommended Messrs. Gary, Porter
&
Co. to improve
loo
the instrument
its
by a
special extra clamping arrangement,
whereby
efficacy for levelling operations
may be
secured.
The
price of the instrument complete
is
about ^23.
arrangement
Gary's Rack Adjustment to Eye=piece. This ingenious shown in Fig. 166 entirely obviates the necessity
of pulling out the eye-piece. In focussing the instrument, by a rack and pinion motion, the webs may be clearly defined with greater facility and without any risk to the diaphragm. This arrangement is applicable to every kind of instru-
ment.
'^' '
Accident
To replace a LeveUtube
Spare Parts.
to the glass tubes of spirit-levels will occasionally
happen in travelling, or in the course of work in a rough country. These tubes as applied to instruments "are generally mounted Small level tubes under 2J inches are in brass covering tubes. conveniently mounted in such tubes with a fixing of slaked plaster of Paris inserted at each end of the brass tube. Larger leveltubes should be bound round with thin paper pasted round the ends, which is allowed to get quite dry, to be afterwards fitted to the brass tube with a file. ... It is convenient in mounting leveltubes to place white glazed paper under the bubble to reflect In the light that passes through it to ensure better observation. fixing undivided level-tubes, or replacing such tubes in instruments, it is important to observe that the test mark, which is a small ground facet, should be placed on the tipper side." * surveyor's equipment for colonial work should always include one or more spare tubes, together with some duplicates of screws and other small parts of his instruments, the lack of which may interfere with or wholly prevent the prosecution of his work. list of the most needful of these will be readily furnished by the instrument-maker.
Note. In the instruments above described, improvements, minor and otherwise, are from time to time introduced by various makers, the principles of construction, action, and use in the field remaining in most if not all cases unaffected. To describe and illustrate every new invention, would swell this volume to encyclopaedic dimensions and beget in the inquirer a belief that proved value justified their insertion. Such a belief would assuredly perplex him, and might possibly be in some cases misleading, since lengthened experience alone can decide the question of preference to be given to new forms over those long tried in
* Stanley, " Surveying and Levelling Instruments."
practice
loi
and at present in everyday use, and the necessary supersession of the latter in favour of the former. The student is therefore cautioned not to regard any form here given as being an ultimately perfected one ; but to make himself acquainted with new ones as they from time to time appear, by examination of circulars and price-lists (which makers will probably be glad to supply on application), and to ascertain from the professional man under whom he studies, or with whom he is acquainted, whether their intrinsic merits are in practice found to answer the expectations naturally entertained by their inventors and introducers.
CHAPTER
IV.
TRIGONOMETRY REQUIRED IN SURVEYING.

It is not intended in this chapter to do more than explain the general principles of trigonometry required in surveying.* Trigonometry is a science of great scope and interest, involving a vast amount of patient study if its higher branches are required ; but for " Practical Surveying " it is quite possible, in such a chapter as presupposing that the student has acquired from the present proper text books a moderate amount of elementary mathematics to give a sufficiently general outline of trigonometry to enable the student to apply it thereto himself. We do not pretend here to apply the science to every position required in surveying, but rather to enumerate the different definitions and theorems which the student should study and learn to apply where necessary. Trigonometry has for its object the solution of triangles, and its application to surveying is the "art of measuring and computing the sides of plane triangles,t or of such whose sides are straight lines." Triangles consist of six parts, viz. three sides and three angles ; and in every case in trigonometry three parts must be given in order to find the other three ; and of those three given parts one must be a side, because with the same angles the sides may be greater or less in proportion. We will commence with a few of the principal definitions of Euclid's geometry which bear upon trigonometry.
1.
Plane Surface.
if
A plane
surface, or plane,
straight line
is
a surface in
which
lies
any two points be taken, the
between them
wholly in that surface.

2.
Plane Angle.
lines to
A plane angle is the inclination of two each other in a plane, which meet together, but are not in
the
same
JS'ote.
This
direction. definition includes angles

is
formed by two curved
derived from two Greek words, rpiyayov (tjigo-non), a trimigUf and fierpsw (met-re-o), to measure, t "Plane Trigonometry" is the science which deals wiih slraiyht lines, as compared with " Spherical Trigonometry," which invo'vis the consideration of curved figures.
The word trigonometry
TRIGONOMETRY.
lines,
103
or
by a curve and a
straight line, as well as angles
formed
by two
straight lines.
plane rectilineal angle is 3. Plane Rectilineal Angle. the inclination of two straight lines to one another, which meet together, but are not in the same straight line. Note. When an angle is simply spoken of, a plane rectilineal angle is always meant.
When a straight line standing on another 4. Perpendicular. straight line makes the adjacent angles equal to one another,
/!
each of these angles

are said to
5. angle.
is
be perpendicular
called a right angle, to each other.
and the
is
straight lines
Obtuse Angle.
An obtuse
angle
greater than a right
6.
Acute Angle.
An acute angle
is
less
than a right angle.
circle is a plane figure contained by one line, 7. Circle. which is called the circumference, and is such that all lines drawn from a certain point within the figure to the circumference are equal to one another.
8.
Centre of Circle.
the circle.
9. Diameter of straight line drawn through the centre,
And point Circle. The diameter

this
is is
called the centre of
of a circle
is
and terminated both ways
by the circumference.
The radius of a circle TVbfe. centre to the circumference.
a straight line drawn from the
A semi-circle is a figure contained by a 10. Semi-circle. diameter and by the part of the circumference cut off by the
diameter.
A segment of a circle is a figure 11. Segment of Circle. contained by any straight line and a part of the circumference
which
it
cuts
off.
12. Rectilineal
Figures. Rectilineal
figures are those
which
are contained by straight lines.

13. Trilateral three straight lines.
Figures.Trilateral
figures or triangles
by
104

14.
Quadrilateral Figures.
Quadrilateral
figures
by four
straight lines.
ig. Multilateral
Figures. Multilateral figures,
or polygons,
by more than four

16.
lateral triangle
straight lines.
Equilateral Triangle.
Of three-sided
figures,
an equi-
has three equal sides.
17. Isosceles Triangle, which has two sides equal.
An
isosceles triangle is a triangle
SCALEHE TKIAUOLe
18
606060-180
666648'180
EtUIL/ITEHAL TKUIISIE
ISSStELES THIAHSLS
16
17
19
18.
sides.
Scalene Triangle.
A scalene
A
triangle has three unequal
19. triangle
Right-angled Triangle.
which has a
right-angled triangle
is,
is
Note.
The
is
right angle.
is
right angle,
side which subtends, that called the hypotenuse.
opposite to the
is
An obtuse-angled triangle 20. Obtuse-angled Triangle. a triangle which has an obtuse angle, which by Def. 5 is greater than a right angle.
A
An acute-angled 21. Acute-angled Triangle. a triangle which has three acute angles.
triangle
is
Theorems. i. If two triangles have two sides of the one equal to two sides of the other, each to each, and have likewise the angle contained by those sides equal to one another, they shall likewise have their bases or third sides equal, and the two triangles shall be equal, and their angles shall be equal each to each, namely those to which the equal sides are opposite. 2. The angles at the base of an isosceles triangle, a b c and
TRIANGLES.
A c
105
B, are equal to one another ; and if the equal sides be produced the angles on the other side of the base, and b c e, shall be equal to one another.
dec
3. If two triangles have two sides of the one equal to two sides of the other, each to each, and have likewise their bases equal
the angle which is contained by the two sides of the one shall be equal to the angle which is contained by the two sides equal to them of the other. 4. The angles which one straight line makes with another straight line on one side of it either are two right angles or are together equal to two right angles. 5. If at a point in a straight line, A b, two other straight lines, c B and B D, upon the opposite sides of it, make the adjacent angles
together equal to two right angles, these two straight lines, c b and B D, shall be in one and the same line. 6. If two straight lines cut one another, the vertically opposite angles shall be equal. 7. If one side of a triangle, b c, be produced to d, the exterior angle, a c d, is greater than either of the interior opposite angles,
cab
and a b
A
c.
8.
Any two
angles of a triangle are together less than two right
angles.
io6
9. If one side of a triangle, a c, be greater than a second, a b, the angle, a b c, opposite the first must be greater than that oppo-
the second, a c b. one angle of a triangle be greater than a second, the side opposite the first must be greater than that opposite the second. 11. Any two sides of a triangle are together greater than the
site
10. If
third side.
12.
If,
from the ends of the side of a
triangle, c
and
b,
there be
13
drawn two
sides, b
straight lines, b
triangle, then
d and c d
c,
a and a
e and CD, to a point d, within the will be together less than the other of the triangle, but will contain a greater angle,
b D
c.
13. Every straight line, a d, drawn from the vertex of a triangle to a point d within the base, is less than the greater of the two
A c, or than either, if they be equal. Theory of Parallel Lines. Hamblin Smith has very properly detached the propositions, in which Euclid treats of parallel lines, from those which precede and follow them in the first book, in order that the student may have a clearer notion of the difficulties It is necessary here to attending this division of the subject. explain some of the technical terms used. 14. If the straight line e f cut two other straight lines a b, c d, it makes with those lines eight angles, to which particular names
sides,
OF THE
angles,
i
CIRCLE.
8,
107 are called the corre-
and
5, 2
and
6,
4 and
and
sponding angles. The angles i, 4, 6, and 7 are equal lo four right angles. 15. If a straight line, e f, falling upon two other straight lines, A B and c D, make the alternate angles equal to one another, then
the two straight lines must be parallel.
16. If a straight line fall upon two parallel straight lines, it makes the two interior angles upon the same side together equal to two right angles, and also the alternate angles equal to one another, and also the exterior angle equal to the interior and opposite upon the same side. 17. Straight lines which are parallel to the same straight line are parallel to one another. 18. If a side of any triangle B c be produced to d, the exterior angle is equal to the two interior and opposite angles, and the
three interior angles of every triangle are together equal to two

right angles.
19.
The
by producing each of
exterior angles of any convex rectilinear figure, made its sides in succession, are together equal to
four right angles. Now one of the most essential things to be understood with regard to angular measurement is the circle and its various divicircle is divided into 360 equal parts or degrees, each sions. degree into 60 minutes, and each minute into 60 seconds. The
o.<:---iBo4^.-S.>--.
''ÂNGte
Fig. 167.
Fig. 168.
Pig. 169.
following symbols are used to denote these divisions and sub-dividegrees (), minutes ('), and seconds ("), so that 85 degrees, sions 8j 27' 13". 27 minutes, and 13 seconds would be shown thus
:
:
io8
The circle (Fig. 167) is divided into four quadrants of 90 degrees each, and by Definition 4 (p. 103) each of these is a right
angle.
In trigonometry it is usual to consider the radius of a quadrant ; and, as a line identical with the horizontal arm of the quadrant moves in an upward direction towards the vertical arm a c. Fig. 168, so the angle formed by this line produces certain functions which, for simplicity, are considered in the terms of the angle so formed, usually called the angle a. Thus Fig. 169 shows the angle a equal to 30 deg. Fig 170, the angle A equal to
as unity
;
Fig. 170.
Fig. 171.
45 deg.; Fig. 171, the angle a equal 60 deg.; and so a diagram may be constructed to represent an angle which is any fractional
part of 90 deg. It may tie well here to introduce and explain the trigonometrical canon or diagram (Fig. 172), which shows the different trigonometrical functions in terms of g^ *'''the angle a to the radius = i.
Now here, for simple illustration,

I
have
taken
the
a as 45 deg. The trigonometrical functions of the angle a are as follows The Sine, Co-sine, Tangent, Co-tangent, Secant, and Co-secant, with the Versine and Co-versine, but the two latter do not
angle
:
enter largely into the consideration of the solution of

triangles.
Now
shows
lines,
Fig. 173, illustrating the functions of an angle of 30 deg., by the strong lines certain positive functions of that angle,
such as the sine, secant, and tangent ; whilst the extended dotted and dotted lines, show the complementary functions of the
same
angle, as the co-sine, co-secant,
and co-tangent.
RATIOS OR FUNCTIONS.
Here
I
109
should explain that the complement * of an angle is difference from 90 deg., so that 60 deg. is the complement of 30 deg. The supplement of an angle is equal to its difference from 180 deg., so that the supplement of 30 deg. is 150 deg. By referring to Figs. 173 and 174 it will be seen that in the former case the sine, secant, and tangent are much less than the co-sine, co-secant, and co-tangent (which are shown by dotted lines) by reason of the angle being small; whilst in Fig. 174 it will be seen that the sine, secant, and tangent are greater than are the cosine, co-secant, and co-tangent; and going back to Fig. 172, we have the sine equal to the co-sine, the tangent equal to the cotangent, and the secant equal to the co-secant, of an angle of 45.
equal to
its
RADIUS
--f-^
F-1ADrUS>''
Fig. 174.
Fig- 173-
From
sine of
the foregoing
it
will
be seen that
Trigonometrical Ratios or Functions.

an arc
is
i.
Sine.
The
a perpendicular let fall from the extremity of one radius to the other, as e f (Figs. 172, 173, and 174). 2. Tangent. The tangent is a perpendicular line drawn from the extremity of the radius to meet the other produced, as- b d
it
(b d' in Fig. 1 74). The secant 3. Secant.
produced
until
is a line parallel and equal to that 4. Cosine. part of the radius which lies between the foot of the sine and the centre, as G E. The cotangent is a horizontal line, commencing 5. Cotangent. at the termination of the quadrant, and terminating on the
meets the The cosine
is that radius which forms the angle, tangent, as a d (a d' in Fig. 174).
The
complement
difference between an acute angle and a right angle is called its (z.f. the angle lacking to complete 01 fill up the right angle).

no
radius

a e produced,
in
(Fig.
172),
d'
(Fig.
radii
173),
and d
(Fig. 174). 6. Cosecant.

it
The cosecant
d
is
one of the
intersects the cotangent in
(Fig. 172),
and
d' (Figs.
produced until 173 and
174).
7.
Versed Sine.
The versed
sine
is
the portion of the radius
between the foot of the sine and the
arc, as f b.
The coversed sine is the portion of the 8. Coversed Sine. perpendicular between the cosine and the arc, as g c. The chord of an arc is a line joining the extremities 9. Chord. of the arc. I should like here to explain what may appear to be an anomaly, viz. why the lines G e (cos a), c d' (cot a), and a d' (cosec a) (Fig. 173), should be complementary to the functions of the angle A. But I hope the following will elucidate the matter. We have found (p. 109) that the complement of an angle is the angle lacking to complete or fill up the right angle; and by reference to Fig. 173 it will be seen that the line G e bears the same relation to the angle e A c as E F does to the angle A or e a b, consequently g e must be the Thus what is the sine of an angle (less sine of the angle e a c. than 90 deg.) is the cosine of the remaining angle or complement, and vice versA. The line c d' bears the same relation to the angle e A C as D B bears to the angle e a b, therefore what is the cotangent of the angle e a b is the tangent of the angle e a c; and the same equally applies to the secant and cosecant. These trigonometrical functions are abbreviated as follows
Sin A
OF THE COMPLEMENT AND SUPPLEMENT, in

Let A B A c B c
= Hypotenuse. = Base. = Perpendicular. = V Base^ + Perp.^, = V Hyp.^ - Perp.' = VHyp.^ - Base^.
Then
Hypotenuse Base
Perp.
>^
112
We will now consider the functions of the angle A (b a c) in terms of the sides of the triangle a c b. We have seen (Figs.
173, 174) that the functions are the ratios borne by certain lines to the radius; and as a ratio or proportion may always be ex-
pressed in the form of a fraction, the functions may be obtained lines by the radius. Now, so lor^g as the angles of a triangle remain unchanged, the ratios of the sides of that triangle remain unchanged; hence, comparing Fig. 178 with Fig. 173 or Fig. 174, we are able to express the functions of the angles a in terms of the sides a b, b c, c a.
by dividing these
Thus
Sin A
^^'^P
^.
HYP
A B
ON THE FUNCTIONS.
Sin A
113

11+
If we know the numerical value of any one of these ratios we can find a. In other words, if the ratio between any two sides of a right-angled triangle is given we can define all the angles. Now the relations of trigonometrical ratios to one another (since the square of the hypotenuse of a right-angled triangle is equal to the sum of the squares of the two sides) are as follows
:
Since a^
+
a?
b'^
=
V''
c^,
(? dlVldlngbyf^--^- = -=IJ
or sin^
-f cos^
(r)
Dividing the
first
equation by
U^,
we
a
get
-)
.-=(.)
or
reversing the order, sec^
=
a",
i -f-
tan^
(a)
Dividing the same by

the order as before, cosec^
we
get
i
i -|-
(-) =(-)
or reversing
(3)
-f cot^
Since-
-=
a
I,
tan
cot
(4)
Again tan A
= 7 = t' =-=
a
.'.
tan
= =
5HL^.
cos A
... ...
(6)
Again cot a
^
-, a'
.*.
cot
tan a
(7) ^"
b b
Again cot a
=-=
a
.'.
cot
a
c
= ?^.
sm A
...
(8) '
^
Again sec a
==
..
sec
^ ....
sm A
.
.
(0)
Again cosec a
=-=
a
-,
.'.
cosec
a
c
= -^.
(10)
^
'
Vers A
cos a, and covers
sin a.
(n)

TERMS OF
SINE, ETC.
115
The foregoing equations enable us to find the value of any function in terms of any other functions, "thus
:
sin
Sin A in Terms of Cos A. Let A in terms of cos A and vice versA.

Sin^
it
By equation
be required to express (i) we have
seen that
4- cos^
A = I. = VI CosA= ^/i Sin
Consequently
cos^
sin^
A A
.... ....
(12) (13)
Tan
tan
A in Terms
=
of Sin A.
Let
in
it
be required
to express
in terms of sin a.
(6),
Tan A
and
(13)
we have seen cos a
=VI
sin^ A,
r^
.-.
Tan A
of
sin
-7
I
r^ sm^ A
it
(14)
Tan A
tan
in
Terms
Cos
A.Let
be required to express
tan
in terms of cos a.
Smce by
(6),
a =
sin A sm
cos a'
and, by
(12), sin
v' I
cos'' A,
Tan A
= ^^L^^^^
cos
(15)
in Terms of Cos cos A in terms of tan A.
Tan A.Let
(9) cos
it
be required to express
= ^^^. But by equation (2) sec^ a = i + tan^ a, sec a = V I + tan^ A, I and therefore cos A = -t====== V I + tan"" A
By equation
a
.
(15*)
.-.
(16)
Sin
sin
A in Terms of Tan A.Let

Now
sin
it
be required
cos
in terms of tan A.
article
A X
to express tan a, therefore
by preceding
Sin A
tan A
'\
,
V; I +
.
(17;
tan^
A
it
sin
Sin A in Terms of Sec A in terms of sec a.
A.Let
be required
to express

Ii6

Sin, e sin'
.*.
cos^
a;
substituting (by (15*)) for cos a,
sin'
reducing to a
sin
common denominator and

.
taking root the square ^
we have
of
=
sec
A A
(18) '
in terms
Cos
in
Terms
A .=
-^
Cosec A. A
i
To
express cos
of cosec A.
By
and
/>
(8) cot
cos A ;
:.
cos
= cot A
_ _
sm
a,
.-.
cos A
= Êggec'
of
f^^^y
cosec A
g^^ ^^^^ ^^^
(^^^
Cot
sec A.
A in Terms
A=
tan
Sec A.
To
i
express cot
in terms of
Cot
= -p=i== A Vsec'AIn
(20)
To express cosec A
Cosec A
terms
of sec A.
sm A
'_
-r~^ (see
''
(10)) "
^
VI
A
^^ cos A
(see (12))
/sec'^
sec^
sec^
V
=
/
sec^
sec
A a
and therefore cosec a
sec^
A sec -=^
.-
(21)
To express
cos
sin
A in
I
,
terms
of
.'
tan A.
.
Since
VI+
:
sin
a a
tan a,
tan
+ tan^ A
smA= -v======.
tan^
tan A
(22}.
Following on, we arrive at these results
Tan A
Sec a
^/ledT^~i
I
Cot A
Cosec A
=v'i+tanÂ = Vcosec^ A -
.... ....
. . .
.
(23).
See
(2)
(24)
(25).
See
= V I + cot' A
....
(3)
(26)
It is very desirable to learn to express every function in terms of every other function, as by means of working these out in detail the mind is impressed, and the relations of one function to
another will become familiar.
Complemental Angles.
plement of an angle
(i.e.
It
of an acute angle)
has been shown that the comis the difference

between
'
FUNCTIONS OF COMPLEMENT.
Thus
if
"7
it and a right angle, or commonly called its " defect." the angle a be 30 deg. the complement will be 90 deg. 30 deg. = 60 deg. Again, if the angle a 56 deg. 16 min. then its complement will be 90 deg. 56 deg. 16 min. 33 deg. 44 min. Now, I have endeavoured to explain by the trigonometrical canon the various functions, which are as follows To the lines which are the trigonometrical functions of the arc correspond certain ratios which are the trigonometrical functions of the angles which the arc subtends. In Fig. 180 I have shown the angle a 30 deg., the sine of this angle is b c, whilst the cosine is b d, and the angle b a e is its complement. Now the sine is that line lying within the arc which is perpendicular to the base, which in the angle b a c is b c. But if b d is perpendicular to e a, and since a d is the cosine of the angle b a e, and y/ , COait.F B c, therefore the cosine of A D the angle b A e or the complement of A equals the sine of a. Thus we may deduce the following
facts
cosine of an angle the sine of its complement.
The
is
equal to
is
The cotangent
complement.
of an angle
equal to the tangent of
its
The cosecant of an angle is equal to the secant of its complement, &c. So far so good, referring to the diagram in Fig. 180; but I want to impress on the student that in trigonometry we have in practice to do without the canon and consider only the triangle.
Now, as a simple illustration, we will take the case of a rightangled triangle as Fig. 180, the angle b a c of which is 30 deg. We know B c A to be 90 deg., thereupon the angle a b c will be 90 deg. 30 deg. = 60 deg., which is the complement.
If,
as
we have
seen, sin
PERP
(Fig.
B c
,
176)
is
A B
not be
difficult to
and
cos
is
^^-- or A c HYP A B
from the foregoing
it
will
realise that in a triangle the functions of tjie angle and its complement are in the inverse ratio. To better illustrate this, some-
what anticipating the practical application of the foregoing,

say that the value of the
may
Nat sin 30 deg. Nat cos 30 deg.
= o'soooo. = o'866o3.
Nat sin 60 deg. = 0-86603. Nat cos 60 deg. = 0-50000.
[8

Supplemental Angles.
The supplement of an angle and two right angles.
is i/ie
difference between it
if
the angle
or,
Thus two right angles are equal to i8o deg., consequently a = 30 the supplement will be 180 30 = 150 if the angle a is 29 16', then the supplement will be 180
is
\
29 16'
150
44'.
is equal to the sine of its supplement. In Fig. 181, c' A b' is the supplement of the angle f a b', and equal to f a b, and also C b is equal to c' b', and therefore
The
sine
of an angle
= ababab
R
r'
f^
R
is
but
the sine of the angle a, and
ab
f
r'
,
is
the sine
of the supplement, therefore they are equal. The cosine of an angle is equal to the cosine of its supplement^ but of opposite sign.
Use
this out
it is
and Signs. Before proceeding to reason of the necessary to speak of the conventional signs, plus and
PLUS AND MINUS SIGNS.

119
to represent the position as well as the magnitude of the line in Referring to Fig. 182, the lines f' f and e e' represent question. the horizontal and vertical diameter working around the centre
or origin A.
lines,
Now
all
horizontal
provided they are to the right of E e', are positive or +,

to the left are negative
lie above f' a f is and negative if below
and those
or
Similarly, every vertical

it
line,
if
positive,
that
line.
it lies
-j-
Thus A c
it lies
is
+,
bee'
;
above a ; and upon the same principle a c' and c' d' are both ; b' c' is -1-, and c D is
because
cause B c is
to the right of e
Referring to Fig. 183, if we ^ trace the value of the sine in its progress round the circle from right to left, in direction of the arrow, we shall find that as the revolving line progresses through the four quadrants, in the first
and second the
sine
is
positive,
whilst in the third Now it is negative. established that

I St.
and fourth it has been

parallel
Any
line
drawn
e e' is be positive, and consequently any line drawn parallel to f a f' to the left of e e' is to be
to to
f'
A f
to the right of
Fig. 183.
negative.
2nd. Any line drawn parallel to e' a e above f' f is positive, and consequently any line drawn parallel to e e' below f' f is
negative.
3rd. The revolving line a b (Figs. 184, 185, 186, 187) is always positive. We have previously seen that the following are some of the
ratios.
sin
B A C
C B
AB
cos b
a c
>^;tanBAC = ^^.
A B
AC
Therefore, keeping in
mind
that in the
first
quadrant e B
18
120

being above g d ; a c is positive because F, and A b is always positive.
eiRSTQUADRANT
it
positive,
is
drawn
to
the right of E
SECOND QUADRANT
El
THIRD QUADRANT
EI
fOURTH QUADRANT
El
Fig. 186.
Fig. 187.
(i.)
Thus
if
the angle
a be anywhere within the

cos A
first
quadrant
(Fig. 184)
Sin
A
is
C = A B
B
is
positive
AC. = - is A
B
positive
and tan a
F,
positive.
When
E
the angle a
lies in
;
positive, because
above G d
the second quadrant (Fig. 185) c b is a c is negative, because to the left of
(2.)
and A B is positive. Thus for second quadrant
Sin A
= -
c B
IS
positive
cos a
AC.
is
negative
and tan a
C B
is
negative.
(3.)
negative,
In the third quadrant (Fig. 186) c b and A b is positive, consequently
is
negative, a c
is

RELATIONS OF FUNCTIONS.
Sin B C
121
=^ AB
B c
._
is
negative; cos
= 'îs
A B
negative; and tan
AC
IS positive.
(4.)
positive,
In the fourth quadrant (Fig. 187) B c A B is positive. Thus
is
negative,
a c
is
Sin
A
is
AB
is
negative
01
cos a
A B
is
positive
; '
and tan a
negative.
From the foregoing we can now tabulate
the results as follows
TABLE
I.

122
of the foregoing formulae, I will speak of the relation the lines (or functions of the arc) bear to certain ratios, which are the trigonometrical functions of the angles -" which the arc subtends. They are
as follows The sine, cosine, tanDefinition gent, &c., of an angle at the centre of a circle is equal to the ratio of the sine, cosine, tangent, &c., of the corresponding arc to the radius of
:
a'
the circle. The radius
f (Fig. i88)
is
def is
Fig. iS
noted by
r,
and the angle h a
denoted by
a.
Then
Sm
cot
=
;
BC
cos a
= AC
r
tan A
DF
1
sec
AD
r
GH
cosec
'
= AH
r
vers
'
CF, and
r
tables
covers A
EG
r
is
Radius Unity. In trigonometrical commonly taken as representing unity, and

if
the
radius
for practical purposes,
the radius is divided into the length of any one of the lines representing functions, it will give the value of that function.
It is necessary foregoing equations may be worked This has been done by many out, so as to be of practical value. eminent mathematicians in the form of tables of natural sines, With such available, it would be a waste of time to cosines, &c. undertake calculations for ourselves, and a set of such tables sufficient for the purpose of this work will be found in the Appendix. To illustrate the basis upon which such tables are prepared, I will select a few examples, as follows, for angles of i8 deg., 30 deg., 45 deg., and 60 deg. I will take that of 45 deg.
Basis of Formulae for Tables of Sines, &c.

to briefly consider
now
how the
first.
By
the equation
(i).
A -f cos^ A Sin' 45 cos' 45

Sin'*
=1.
=
45
i.
But since the complement of 45

.'. ..
is
90
=
=
i.
45
cos^ 45,
sin
2 sin'
45 45
= =
cos 45, and sin' 45 I ; and 2 cos' 45

RATIOS OF
sin^
45
123
45"
1 and
sin
45
= _I- = =
0-70711
Similarly, cos 45
o'7o7ii.
Again, by
(6),
tan
a
o
sin
:
cos a'
.
.
.-.
tan 45"
= =
sin
cos 45
^=
415
o'7o7ii ' '
0707 1
I,
Then by
(7),
cot
tan
A
I
.-.
cot 45"
=
by
:=
I.
tan 45
Similarly,
(9),
sec
=
cos
.*.
sec 45
cos 45
070711 a
= =
i'4i42i.
And
finally,
by
(10), cosec
..
cosec 45
=
sin
45
0707 1
following
i"4i42i.
Sines, &c., for 45 Degrees.

the preceding investigations
:
The
is
the result of
45 45 Tan 45 Cot 45 45 Sec Cosec 45

Sin
Cos
= 070711. = 070711. = I'ooooo. = I'ooooo. = i*4T42i. = i'4i42i.
In the case of the angle of 60 deg., the ^ V revolving line forms a portion of an equilateral triangle, whereof a b, a f, and f b (Fig. 179), are equal sides, consequently the line b c, or Fig. 189. sine, bisects the triangle ; now the angle b a c 60 deg. and the angle a b c 30 deg., therefore as the length of the base a f is equal to that of the two other sides, then a c is half A F,

124

Let b c be represented by
-e=
zc"-
x,
A c by
(T,
A B by
i^
2 f.
Then
(2
cf
-^=
a c
i,^
And
since sin 60
=
=
sin b
A B
= ^^
2 c
^=
2
o"866o3
Again, cos 60
=
^-^
c
=
=
o'soooo
Andtan6o = tanBAC =
Cot
AC
= :^-^ =
I
v's
17321
60=
cotBAC =
sec s
^^. = -i^
70 cos 60
=0-57735
2
Sec 60
= =
ac =
=-=
J
2*0000
Cosec 60
cosec B a c
-^-V-o sm 60
= ,-
V3
i*ri;47o
Again, take the angle of 30 deg., when, because a c is half a f and the angle a b f, which is 60 deg., is bisected by b c, = FBC = i the angle a b f = 30 deg. then
(Fig. 189),
ABC
Thus
Sm
.
30
sin
A B c
A = =1 A
C
C
,
2 C
O'SOOOO
'
^^3
Cos 30
rr.
= cos =
,
A B c
=A =
B
Xc ^ Vj =
2
I = -^ =
0-86603
2 ^ C
;
Tan 30
tan
A B c A B c
A = = C
c B
cv3 X
C
V3
J
o''i11%'i
Cot 30
= cot =
sec
=
=
?-?
C A
= ^^^3 X c ^
-v
^ = =
10
Sec 30
A B c
2_^
Bc
c^sxc
c
~ =
_?v/3
2
i-ri;47o ^^'
Cosec 30
= cosec abc
=^ =^S = AC
2-0000

RATIOS OF
Sines, &c., for 60
results
60
30
AND
18
125
we may tabulate
of of Tan of Cotan of Sec of Cosec of
and 30 Degrees. From the foregoing the natural sines, &c., of the angles 60 and
viz.
:
30 degrees respectively,
Sine
60 60 60 60 60 60
Cos
= o'866o3 = 0*50000 = i'732io, = o'57735 = 2 '00000 = i'i547o
Sine
30" o'soooo. 30 o"866o3. Tan 30 0-57735. i'732io. Cotan 30 30 =1-15470. Sec Cosec 30 = 2-00000.
Cos
= = = =
= =
is
Thus it will be seen that the value of the sine of 60 deg. cos 30 deg. ; tan 60 deg. cot 30 deg. ; and sec 60 deg. cosec 30 deg., and vice versA. Now, take the angle 18 deg. as another example, of which it required to find the sine, cosine, and tangent, &c.
Sines, &c., for 18 Degrees. Let the angle b a c (Fig. 190) 18 deg., drop the perpendicular b c, which produce to meet the circumference in b', then it is evident that the angle b a b' is twice the b b' is therefore one angle b a C, or 36 deg. side of a decagon, inscribed in the circle ; and therefore b b' is equal to the greater segment of the radius cut in extreme and mean ratio (Euclid IV. II, and II. 11), and therefore
b'^
=A
F (a F
b')
Fig. 190.
Solving this as an ordinary quadratic equation
we
But b c
get b b
A F
-^^-^
Vs
=^
1!
b',
therefore
Sin 18
Ve = -^ =^5^
2
0-30902
Cos 18
= Vi
sin^ 18
= Vi
-30902^
0-95106
By
(6),
page 114
18
Tan
and by
(7)
= sin
18
30902
cos 18
95106
= 0-32492
=
of
3"7768
126
TRIGONOMETRY REQUIRED IN SURVEYING,

RATIO OF RADIUS.
Consequently
Sin
127
225
= - 4^
(page 123)
Cos
22s- --L
I
Tan 225=
From the foregoing remarks we have seen the various functions of right-angled triangles, and have been able to deduce certain formulae which enable us to arrive at the numerical value of each. These values are what are termed natural sines, cosines, &c., and they are based upon the understanding that the radius is always unity, in other words they are relatively circumstanced to unity. Thus sin 45 deg. 0-70711, but the tan 45 deg. and the cotani I radius. To illustrate my meaning 45 deg.
= =
Ratio of Radius. Suppose the radius of a circle to be 40 ft, and a right-angled triangle formed by the base, perpendicular and hypotenuse of an angle of 45 deg. as in Fig. 191. A F = A B = 40 ft., and it is required to know the length of B c ; referring to the trigonometrical canon (Fig. 172), we find E F (which is the same as B c in Fig. 191) is the sine. Therefore as we have seen that sin 45 deg. = 0707 1 1, then if we multiply 0-70711 by 40 we shall get the length B c 28-28440 ft., so that 28-28440 Fig. igi. represents the ratio of b c to the radius 40 ft. just exactly as 0-70711 is its ratio to the radius of unity. Again, if we want the length a c' we know by our canon that A c' is the secant (and also the cosecant of 45 deg.). Now our tables tell us that sec 45 deg. = 1-41421, therefore this multiplied by the radius of 40 ft. gives us
-4142 1
40
ft.
56-56840
ft.
B A c 45, .". A c B ft. the risk of being considered irregular, if not too elementary, I have elected to illustrate the foregoing examples in a somewhat
Now
= the length c = 28-28440
c'.
At
rule-of-thumb style, for this work does not profess to do more than seek, by as graphic a manner as possible, to bridge over many of the diflSculties which the student has to encounter.
Solution of Right= angled Triangles.
All
triangles consist

128
of six parts, viz., three sides and three angles ; and it is possible with three of these, one part at least being a side, to find the others. Referring back to Fig. 179, if we take the sides as represented by a, b, and c, and the angles by a, b, and c, with the following approximate lengths of each, a = 21 '838 feet, b = 60 feet, and c = 63*85 1 feet, we have the following results.
We
have seen that y

,
,
tan a, then tan a

'
=t =
b
2I-8-58 -7 ^^
6o"oo
o"36397, which by reference to a table of natural tangents 20. And since c is 90, then b indicates that the angle a 20 70. 90
= Take ^ = =
60 and c
63"85
r.
Then
as
is
cos a,
.-.
cos a
60 g^Tgjj
0-93969.
Take
-838
and B
7.^=
^g = ^f^ = 63-85
=
1 ft.
Take <= X 0-34202 =

60
ft.
63-851 and a = 20. Then a f sin a = 63-851 21-838 feet, and b = c cos a = 63-851 X 0-93969
Angles. It has been between the sine, cosine, tangent, &c., of the sum or difference of two or more angles, and the sines, cosines, &c., of the angles themselves, are based on the following fundamental propositions
clearly established that the relations
:
Trigonometrical Ratios of
Two
Sin (a Cos (a Sin (a
Cos
+ b) = sin a cos b + cos a sin + b) = cos A cos B sin a sin b) = sin a cos b cos a sin (a b) = cos A cos B + sin a sin
e. b. b.
(28)
(29) (30)
(31)
b.
In this case (Fig. 192) a and b are the angles. Sin (a b) is a fraction, but sin a sin b is the sum of two fractions, and care should be taken to avoid any misunderstanding. Then let us take h o g = angle a and g o f = the angle b. Then h o f = angle (a b). In the line o f which bounds the angle (a b) take any point P, and let drop the perpendicular p Q on o G, and p s on o h. Draw the perpendiculars q r and Q t
to the lines p s
and o
h.
Then
QPR = 90-RQP = RQ0 = H0G=sA
RATIOS OF Now
Sin (A
TWO ANGLES.
^^
I2C
b)
sin
= li = ^-^^^ = 9J + O P
O P
O P
O P
OQ
Again
OP
PQ
OP
R pQ
sin
= sin H o G COS G o F 4- COS = sin A COS B + COS A sin b.

Cos (A
+ B) = COS
= ^^ = ^JL^llJ = J _
OP OP OP
1_Q
_OTÔQ_RQ^QP
OQ OP QP OP = COS HOG COS G o p sin R p Q sin = COS A COS B sin A sin b.
p
OP
G O P

no
Similarly

-,.
,
Cos (A *
B) '
cos
H O G
+ = = OTOS
OQ
V
4'
O Q
-
STOSPJ = +
OQ
OQ
OSXOP 4- PJXPQ OS ^ = OPXOQ PQXOQ OP

'
OP PJ V PQ OQ OQ PQ
Q p
sin
= COS H o F COS G o F + sin J = cos A COS B + sin A sin b.

To
sin 75.
illustrate the foregoing formulae
G O F
we
will find the value of
By the preceding Sin 75 sin (45
+ 30) = sin
45 cos 30
+ cos 45 sin
cos 30
30.
And we
'" "^S
have seen (pp. 123, 124) that
^;
cos 45
= -^; sm
30
= -;
Therefore
Sin 75
= sin
45 cos 30
+ cos
45 sin 30
x^+ X2^2
4
l
)
1-41421 (1-73204+
3-8636924305
4
Again
Cos 75
= cos
45
cos 30
t__
sin
45
x
I
sin 30
a/j
2
~ ^2
_i_
^2
'25882. ^
^ = ^^ 7 = 2 V2
From the foregoing remarks v/e have seen that I St. The sine of the sum of two angles is equal
:
the the
first
to the sine of into the cosine of the second, together with the cosine of
first into the sine of the second. 2nd. The cosine of the sum of two angles is equal to the product of the cosines of the angles less the product of their sines.

RATIOS OF TWO ANGLES.
131
3rd. The sine of the difference of two angles is equal to the sine of the first angle into the cosine of the second less the cosine of the first into the sine of the second. 4th. The cosine of the difference of the two angles is equal to the product of the cosines of the angles, together with the product of their sines.
Again
their tangents, divided
sum of two angles is equal to the sum of by unity less the product of their tangents. Take the angles a and b as before. Then
tangent of the
The
Tan
(A
B)
= ^"^ + ^^"'^
I
tan
tan b
And
in proof of this, if
:
we use
the foregoing formulse,
we have
b
as follows
Tan
Â 4- b)
^'" (^
cos (a
+ ^) + b)
== sin
a cos b
+ cos a
sin
sin
cos A cos b
sin b
b,
And
we have
dividing the numerator and denominator

sin
by cos a cos
.
sm
Tan
(a
b)
s'" (a
cos
+ ^ _ (a + b)
b)
J
A sin A cos A
cos
sin b
cos B
Therefore
TTan
/ . (a ^
tan A + tan b b) = + \ - tan A tan b

I
'
(52) ^^ '
And
similarly
T,
Tan
(A
- b) =
.
A A +
tan
I
tan B
.
tan
tan B
(p.
(33)
.^
We have
seen by the fundamental formulae

Sin (a Sin (a Cos (a
128) that
Cos
= sin a cos b cos a sin b + b) = cos A cos b sin A sin b (a b) = cos A cos b + sin A sin b
b)
+ b) =
sin
A cos b
+ cos a sin b
And from
these,
by addition and
subtraction,
we
get
Sum and
Difference of Sines and Cosines.
b) Sin (a b) Sin (a Cos (a 4- b) Cos (a b)
+ +
+ sin
sin (a
+ cos
b) = 2 b) = 2 (a b) = 2
(a
sin
A cos B cos a sin b cos A cos b a

sin
cos (a
+ b) =
2 sin

t32

The sum
of the sines of any two angles is to the difference of same ratio as the tangent of half their sum is to the tangent of half their difference,
their sines in the
Or,
Sin A
+ sin
sin
sin b
tan ^ (a
+ b)
cos
-^
tan ^ (a
b).
For, from the preceding formulae.

Sin A Sin A
+ sin B _
sin
2 sin a sin
-^
(a (a
+ b)
(a
b)
b) cos
(a
+ b)
= Tan i
:
(a
+ b)
:
cot
^ (a
b).
Or in the form of proportion, sin A sin B Sin A 4- sin B
tan
-^
(a
+ b)
tan
^ (a
b).
The Sine and Cosine of Twice an Angle, in Terms of the Sine and Cosine of the Angle. By putting a = b in eq. In eq. (29) we get cos 2 a (28) we get sin 2 a = 2 sin a cos a. = cos^ A sin^ A ; and it was shown by eq. (i) that i = cos^ a + whence by addition and subtraction we obtain sin" A
+ cos
and
cos 2
A
:
= =
2 cos" 2 sin"
A a
{a)
\b)
By transposition the following expressions for the cosine of twice the angle are obtained
Cos Cos
2 2
a A
2 sin"
a
I
(c)
2 cos"
(i)
The Sine and Cosine of an Angle in Terms of Half the Angle. Putting a for 2 a on the left, and ^ a for a on the righthand side of the above equations
Sin
I I
A = 2 sin \ A cos ^ a + cos A = 2 cos^ ^ A cos A = 2 sin^ \ K
(e)
(/)
(^)
Cos A Cos A
Sine, Cosine,
Sin (a
= =
2
I
COS^
i A
\h)
(/)
2 sin"
\ K
and Tangent of the

(a
Sum of Three Angles.

sin
+ B + c) = sin
sin
=
cos (a
= cos a cos b cos c cos a sin b sin c cos b sin a sin c cos c sin a sin
+ + B + c) = cos
A cos B cos c sin c cos A cos b

(a
+ b) cos c + cos (a + b) + sin b cos c cos a
sin
c
.
sin
b sin
c."
(k)
+ b)
cos c
sin (a
b) sin
c
.
b.
(/)

SINE, ETC.,
133
OF TWICE AND THREE TIMES.

cos (a
Tan(A+B+c) = gHLl^
sin Acos B CQS
+ " + ^) = + B + C)
sin c
c+sin b cos c cos A+sin c cos acqs b sin A sin b
cos A cos b cos c COS A sin b sin c cos b sin Asin c cos C sin a sin b'
Dividing both numerator and denominator of the last expression by cos A cos B cos c, we obtain the tangent of the sum of three angles in terms of the tangents of the angles themselves
/
*
_i_
_i_
\ '
tanA+tanB
I
+ tanc tan A tanB tan c tan A tan b tan b tan c tan c tan a
and Tangent
{k) (/)
'
'
The
Angle.
then
In the above equations

Sin 3 A
Sine, Cosine,
of
Three Times an
(m), put
and
=b=
(//)
c,
Cos
3 A
= 3 sin A 4 sin^ a = 4 cos' A - 3 cos A

3
3 tan
,
(0)
Tan3A^
As another proof
tan*
..
(^)
tan',
the latter
Tan
3 A
= _
tan (^ ^
2 tan
I
+ ^} =YA ^
tan 2 A
+ tan
2 tan
A a
ta.a 2
Aim
a
tan'^
+ tan A
A
'
2 tan
+ tan a a
tan'
tan^
A
A
tan A
tan^
2 tan^
3 tan
1
tan'
3 tan^
Oblique-angled Triangles. I now pass on to the consideration of oblique-angled triangles, which, in the limited space I will comat my command, I can discuss only in brief terms. mence by submitting the following propositions A. Any two sides of a plane triangle are in the same ratio as
:
the sines of the opposite angles. B. In a plane triangle, the sum of their sides is to their difference, as the tangent of half the sum of the angles at the base is to the tangent of half their diiference. C. In a plane triangle, the sum of the sides is to the base as the cosine of half the difference of the base angles is to the cosine of half their sum ; and the difference of the sides is to the base as the sine of half the difference of the base angles is to the sine of
half their sum.
D. The square on a side of a plane triangle, which is opposite an acute or obtuse angle, is equal to the sum of the squares on
'
134
the sides which contain the angle, less twice the rectangle contained by them, into the cosine of the angle. The foregoing propositions form the basis of the consideration of the formulae for the solution of oblique angles, and we will briefly consider them seriatim : Proposition A. Take the triangle A b c (Figs. 194 and 195),
and from c drop the perpendicular c d on A B produced in Fig. 195. Then

a
to
a b
in Fig.
194 of
7
^
= sm
-.
sm A
B
for
sm a =
CD,. CD =- and sm b =
-
Therefore c D
sin
A _
sin B
CD
a A
Similarly
rt!
sin
sm B
sin c'
sin c
It should be noted that if the angle a or b be a right angle, there is no necessity to drop the perpendicular c d. From this proposition we may state the ratio between the sides and the sines Thus of opposite angles.
(?)

OBLIQUE-ANGLED TRIANGLES.
Whence
(see p. 130)
135
a-Vb _
a
tan
\ (a +-b)
tan J (a
b)
which may be treated thus

Since
i
tan i (a
.
(a
+ b) = ^
(180
c)
c);
Therefore
+ b) =
I
tan (90
a^-b
a
"Ti tan ^ (a
= cot ^ c
b) cot
'
cotic
B)
^,, cot i (a * ^
N,, * c
'
Whence
a a
Proposition C.
+b
tan
(a
b) tan
J c
+B=
,
180
c,
..
sin (A
J
+ b) = sin c
sin
a
c
sin sin (a
b^_
c
+ b)
we
sin (a
+ b)
And by
a
iJ
equations (k)
sin
et seqq.
get
+ _
c
sin B
_
_
2 sin 2 sin
J (a
sin (a
Consequently
+ b) a + b
c
(a
+ b) cos ^ (a b) + b) cos J (a + b)
b)
cos ^ (a cos ^ (a
+ b)'
b)
And
similarly
by subtracting the second from the first equation

fl
instead of adding,
i5
sin sin
^ i
(a
(a
+ b)"
(Euclid,
ii.
Proposition D.
In the case of an acute angle, Fig. 194,
bc^=ac^ +
But
cos
/.
ab^-2abxad
=
A D
,
13).
.*.
A C
A D
= A C cos A
2
and
B c^
=A
c^
+A
B^
A b X A c
cos A.
In the case of an obtuse angle. Fig. 195,
BC^
But
A D
..
and
Therefore
Similarly
and
= AC^ + AB^ + 2ABXAD = A C COS (180 a) = A C cos A c^ = A c^ + A B^ 2 A B X A c X cos A a^ = P + c^ 2 b c cos = ^ { c? 2 c a cos b c^ = c? \- 1? 2 ab cos c.
a.
b"^

136

Sines and Cosines of Ang'les in we get by transposition
:
Terms
of Sides.
From
(r)
the foregoing
Cos. =
Cos B
Cos C
'l^^ C
2
2 c
a
;
=
A
^2
+ ^2 _ ^
^?;^
a o
cos''
Now
Sin^
(i
=
_ ~
,,
(i
_
,
(^2
+ fZ _
^b'
.
g2)2
+ cos a) ^ 2 c^ +
b'^
cos a)
b'^
2Câ:^+2a^
^b-'c'
c^
b*
-(^
c'-
therefore
sin
^/ 2 -
b''
"
-\-
2 c" a"
2 a'
;
b-^
-d -b^ ->
.
2 b c
If,
however, we substitute
5 for
^ (or, as
it is
sometimes
designated, the semiperimeter of the triangle) so that (a-\-h-^c)
s,
and
2 (s 2 (s 2 (s
a)
b)
c)
= b + c a, = a + c b, = a + b~ c;
get
then by extracting the root

Gin
A
we
LOGARITHMS.
and
similarly
137
Sin i B
= = =
^(^ -c){s- a)^

.
and
Again, by (/) and
Sin
i c
/(^
a)
(ijz3.
(r)
Cos J a
^
V
^
L(L=A,
Cos i c
Consequently, since tan a
/ ZEZS
~
cos A
.-.
sin J A = Tan i A = ?H4^ cosiA
^/ V
{s-i>)(s-c)
s(s-a)
'
and
and
Tan 1
= =
/EESZ3'
(^
Tan ^
V/
) (^
^^
s{s-)
Logarithms. It is necessary at this stage to say a few words regarding logarithms, or the ratio of numbers, without which it is impossible to consider the question of the solution of triangles. The principle is, that a fixed number called the base, raised to the proper power, may be made to represent any required number. I must refer the student, who has yet to master the theory of logarithms, to the many suitable works upon the subject. In this present work space will only admit of an explanation of the use of tables of logarithms. We propose to use the common system of logarithms, in which In calculations, they are usually designated by the the base is 10. abbreviated term " log."
parts, viz. the index or index or characteristic is a numeral expressing the number of digits in the integral part of the number which the logarithm represents. It is one less than the number of those digits, and is placed immediately before the decimal part of the logarithm ; thus, if there are seven integral figures, the characteristic is 6, if six figures 5, if five 4, and so on. If there are no integral figures, the characteristic is negative (the
Logarithms of numbers consist of two
charctcferistk
and the mantissa.
The

138
negative sign being placed over it), and is one more than the number of ciphers (if any) immediately following the decimal point. If there is no such cipher, the characteristic is I ; if there is a single cipher, the characteristic is 2; if two such ciphers, 3 ; and so on. The mantissa is the decimal part of the logarithm, and is found, in the columns of mathematical tables, on a line with the number which the logarithm represents. It is the same whether that number is integral or not. Thus, -6614151 is the mantissa of the log. of 45858, 4585-8, 458-58, and so on, the only difference being in the characteristic, as will be seen in the following example
:
Number.
PROPORTION BY LOGARITHMS.
Thus
139

140
deducting it from lo. Thus, if the logarithm of 685 = 2'9469433, its ar. comp. = lo'ooooooo 2'9469433 = 7'o530567.
The following example will serve to illustrate the two methods of performing proportion If the wages of a servant be 2^ per annum, what amount should he receive for 87 days' service?
:
Then
As 365
By
Logarithms.
:
St
2$
By
Arithmetical Complement.
As
log.
log.
87
= =
^25 =
365
log.
1-9395193 1-3979400 2-5622929
ar.
i"9395i93 1-3979400 * ;/. 7V437707I
0-7751664
Answer, ;^s
of the given
19s. 2yd.
0-7751664
Involution by Logarithms. J?2(k. Multiply the logarithm number by the exponent of the power, and the product will be the logarithm of the required power.
Find the square of
log.
75.
75
=
=
i'87So6i3
2
..
log.
product
.-.
3-7501226
log.
5625
75^^
5625.
Similarly find the cube of 62.

log.
6%
=
=
1-7923917
3
.-.
log.
product
.-.
5-3771751 = log- 238328 62' = 238328.

18.
Again, find the
fifth
power of
log. 18
=
=
1-2552725
5
..
log.
product
.-.
6-2763625
log.
1889568
18=
1889568.
Evolution by Logarithms. Rttle. Divide the logarithm of the given number by the exponent of the root, and the quotient will be the logarithm of the required root.
Sxafnpks.
Find the square root of 256.

log.
1^256
log.
And
*
.-.
= i X 2-4082400 = 1-2041200 = log. 16. = 16. ^256

256
loooooooo
2'5622929
7'437707i.
NATURAL AND LOGARITHMIC

Again, find cube root of 256
log,
SINES, ETC.
141
v'zse
=i
=
2-4082400
= o'8o27466 = log. 6-3496

'
4^256
6-3496.
And so evolution to any extent may be performed, simply by dividmg the logarithm of the given number by the exponent of the
root.
Natural and Logarithmic Sines, Cosines, &c.We have seen that the ratio of the perpendicular to the hypotenuse, of that of the base to the hypotenuse, &c., give the natural sine, cosine, &c. As in the case of the angle of 45 deg., we found that
Sin
Cos
Tan
Cotan Sec Cosec
= = 45 = 45 " = 45 = 45 =
45
0-707 1
45
0-70711
I
-ooooo
i-
ooooo
1-41421 1-41421
And
similarly
Sin
Cos
Tan
Cot
Sec
Cosec
= 0-86603 = 0-50000 60 = 1-73210 60 = 0-57735 60 = 2-00000 60 = 1-15470 and

60
60
so on.
We
the sines
have further seen that these values express the lengths of and cosines of arcs of a circle whose radius = i.
0-60182, whilst the logarithmic Thus the natural sine of 37 In tables of logarithmic sines, cosines, sine of 37 9*77946. &c., the logarithms are those representing the natural sines, cosines, &c., 10 being added to their characteristics in order to avoid the occurrence of negative ones in the tables : these logarithms are then termed tabular logarithms, and in calculations are denoted by instead of the term " log." the letter
=L
natural sines, cosines, tangents, &c., may be found from the logarithmic sines, cosines, tangents, &c., by subtracting 10 from the indices of the latter, and then the number corresponding to this logarithm is the natural sine, cosine, tangent, &c., required.
The
Example.The.
which
it is
logarithmic sine of 37 deg. required to find the natural sine.
9-77946, from

142

Zsin. 37 Subtract
log. nat. sin.
=
= =
977946
10^^
T77946
60182.
Hence
It
natural sin.
may be
The
the Unes in
1.
and about a
well here to state some of the peculiar properties of circle as follows square of the diameter is equal to the sum of the
:
squares of the chord of an arc, and of the chord of its supplement to a semicircle. 2. The square of the radius is equal to the sum of the squares of the sine and cosine. 3. The sum of the cosine and versed sine is equal to the radius. 4. Radius is to the sine as twice the cosine is to the sine of twice the arc, or as the secant is to the tangent. 5. As the cosine is to the sine, so is the radius to the tangent. 6. Radius is the mean proportional between the tangent and the co-tangent, and also between secant and cosine.
Solution of Triangles by Arithmetical Computation. of proportion must be stated according to rule, these terms consisting partly of the numbers which express the given lengths of sides, and partly of the sines &c., of the given angles. Add together the logarithms of the second and third terms, and from their sum subtract the logarithm of the first term.
The terms
add the arithmetical complement of
of the logarithms of the second and third terms, that of the first term, and from the characteristic of the sum subtract 10. The logarithm resulting from either of the above operations represents the natural number which is the fourth term of the
Or, To the sum
proportion. When the three angles of any triangle are given, but no side, the actual length of the sides cannot be determined, but only their ratio to one another.
I.
Right-angled Triangles. The solution of right-angled triangles has

1.
When When When
four cases, viz. the hypotenuse and a
side
are given.
the two sides are given. the hypotenuse and an acute angle are given.
2.
3.
4.
When
a side and an acute angle are
given.
F!g- 196.
triangle,
Let A B c (Fig. 196) be a right-angled b being the right angle and b the hypotenuse.
,
RIGHT-ANGLED TRIANGLES.
Case
i.
143
Given hypotenuse ^ = 500

side
links
links.
c.
286*788
c,
Required angles a and
and
side
By
logarithms
sin
A = -
= =
log.
log. b
10
+ log. rt=
log. b
12-4575613 2*6989700
C= c= By Natural Sines
dvc.
= i^ sin A = -35 55; ^jp- - (^ = 409-576 links.

9'75859i3
90
==
35.
Data as before. Required angles a and c, and side c. a 286-788 '^^^^ = 1= = o'758S9i3 = "at. cos. 55 goo
Case
2.
Given
side
a
c
= 286-788 = 409-576
a.
Required angle
tan a
= -, and Z tan a = 10 + log. = 12-4575613 - 2-6123345 = = L tan 35.

b
log. c
9-8452268
Case 3. Given hypotenuse

angle
500
= 90 T = Sin A,
c
Required C, a, A = 55
..
a = 35 and c.
= b sin a = 2-6989700 log. b, 500 Z sin A - 10 = 17585913

a
2-4575613
log.
286-788
= a.
For base
|-
= b sin C = log. ^ + log. b = 2-6989700 c - 10 = 1-9133645

:.
sin 55,
-^ sin
10
Z sin
2-6123345
log.
409'S76
144

Case
4.
Given side a = 286'788

angle
35"
Required
c
c, b,
and
c.
90
A,
A
.".
=
i>
55
= sin
Z
sin
= = =
-,
and
log. d
log.
(L
sin
10)
log.
2-4575613
c:
10
17585913
2"69897oo
= log.
=
tan
500
i>.
For base
= tan
A,
. .
tan
= log. a (L tan a + 10) log. a = 2-4575613 A 10 = 1-8452268 2-6123345 = log. 409"576 =

log. c
<^'
II.
Oblique-angled Triang:Ies.
The
1.
When two
solution of oblique-angled triangles has four cases, viz. angles and a side opposite to one of them are
sides
sides
given.
2.
3.
When two When two

When
i.
and the included angle are given. and an angle opposite to one of them are
given.
4.
three sides are given.

sines
Case
Huk. The
of the angles are in the same
ratio as their opposite sides.
In the triangle a b c (Fig. 197)

side c
given
angle b
= 610 = 115 = 423o'

:
To
find the side

sin
l>
= 65) = 0-1703167 log. 610 = 2-7853298 Z sin 65 = 9-9572757

l>
sin B (suppl,
a7-.
sin 42 30'
comp.
2-9129222
= log.
818-32
=: ^.

To
find the side
OBLIQUE-ANGLED TRIANGLES.
a
:
US
Z sin
= o' 1703 167 610 = 2"7853298 A,i8o-(ii5+423o') = 223o' = 9-5828397

42 30'
ar. C(7/.
L sin
log.
2-5384862 = log.345-S3=tJ.
Fig. 197.
Case 2. Rule. As the sum of the two given sides is to the difference of those sides, so is the tangent of half the sum of their opposite angles to the tangent of half their difference. This half difference added to the half sum will give the greater
angle,
and taken from the half
sum
will give the less angle.
In the triangle a b c (Fig. 198) given side a = 1272 c= 1636 angle b = 97 30'
To
find angles
a.,
a and c
log. c -^
(2908) ar. comp.

log.
c(
a,
(364)
= =
=
6-5364056 2-5611014
Z
7-
tan
(^^) -
'^3~
9-9429879
,
=Z
t =L
tan
41"^ 15'
\{sti,m of these) /a c\ L tan(^- j=|^ logs-^6) \=

.
44949
their
tan 6
iô
,'
15
5^
sum 47
diff.
To
find the side b
comp.
log.
their
30' 52" 34 59' 8"
=c =a
Z sin A ar. Z
sin suppl. B, 82
= = 30' =
a
0-2415645 3-1044872 9*9962686 3'3423203
= log.
2199-48
= b.

U6

Case
3.
Rxik.
Same as
in
Case
2.
In the triangle a b c (Fig. 199)

side a
given
= 923'6 side b = 530 angle b = 29 26'

Required angles a and
c.
a-\rb= 923'6
(1!-^
+c^
2
1453-6 log. i453"6 ar. comp. 923-6 -530 = 393-6 log. 393-6 180 - 29 26 yô j^,^ 2; tan
'
+ 530 =
6-8375551
= sum =
diff.
= 2-5950551 = 12:5806126
10-0132228
Then
75 17' 75 17'
is
45 52'
52'
-45
= Ztan4552'2o" = A^:-? 20" = 121 9' 20" = a 20" =29 24' 40" = c.
when the given angle is shown by the dotted lines in Fig. 199, the data apply to two distinct triangles a b c and a' b c, where the given angle b and the given sides a and b retain their
less
Case 3 than a
called the ambiguous case
right angle, because, as
dimensions, b' being equal to b, the unknown side c extending from B to a'. The ambiguity can scarcely occur in ordinary practice, because in a properly conducted survey other measurements obtained in the course of the work will determine whether the given angle is obtuse or acute. In cases of this sort, it is best to solve the triangle by the rule given below under Case 4, or by the method given for triangle cab, Fig. 276. Case 4. Rule. From the greatest angle let fall a perpendicular to the opposite side (which we will call the base), dividing it into two parts and the whole triangle into two rightangled triangles. Then As the whole base the sum of the other two sides : : the

HEIGHTS AND DISTANCES.
difference
D3.S6<
147
of those sides
the difference of the parts of the
Half the difference of the parts, added to half the base, will give the greater part; and subtracted from half the base will give the less part. In the triangle a b c (Fig. 200) given
^
D
a
b c
= 1272 = 1636 = 2200

:
(log. (log.
= 3-1044871) = 3-2137833)
:
Fig. 200.
Required the parts a d and d b and the angles. As 2200 2908 364 48^diff. of parts a d and d Half diff. of parts = 240-5
: :
b.
adding to and subtracting from half the base
1100
noo For angle a

cos
+
:
240-5 240-5
= =
1340-5 859-5
= A D = D B
(log. (log.
= =
3-1272668)
2-9342459).
rad X a D A = = 10 + 3-1272668 ^ = 9'9i3483S = L cos 34 58' 39".

:
3'2i37833
For angle b
cos b
D b = rad X = 10 + 2-9342459 ^ = 9-8297588 = L cos 47 29' 27" and angle c = 180 - (a + b) = 97 31' 54".
3-1044871
If s be put to denote half the sum of the three can also be solyed by the formula
sin
sides, the case
^ 2
= ^
'
be
holds for the other half-angles.
which by due change of
letters
Heij^hts and Distances. The trigonometrical measurement of height and distance of an object is a not unimportant part of surveying, and involves various problems arising out of the special conditions of different cases of these we shall now consider the principal ones. In the following examples, the angles of triangles are denoted by capital letters, Fig. 201. and the sides by italic small ones ; it being understood, in order to avoid multiplicity of lettering, that where two or more angles meet in the
:
148
point, the angle and the side or sides referred-to are those belonging to the triangle specified. Thus, in the triangle A b c (Fig. 201), the angle a is c a b, the side a being b c ; whereas in the triangle a b d the angle a is D a b, the side a being b d and so on. The position of the theodolite or other instrument of observation is represented by a little tripod. It is further to be noted, that in practice all linear and angular measurements must be made with the most scrupulous carefulness and precision, the correctness of the result depending upon the accuracy of measurement of a line or an angle of sometimes very small dimensions.
same
Fig. 202.
Problem
I.
To
find the height of

;
face B D, accessible to the observer horizontal (Fig. 202).
an object having a vertical the ground line e d being
Fig. 203.
Fig. 204.

Measure e d
149
= ac,
in the right-angled triangle A are given, and a = tan a
and the angle of elevation b a c. Then, a c b, the side b and the acute angle
^ (Case
d b d the height required. Note. If the ground slopes, as e f or e G (Figs. 203 and 204), the difference of level c f or c g can be ascertained by levelling, and the length of slope e f or e g measured. Then, in the rightangled triangle e n f (or e d g), the sides e and d are given,
this
To
add a e
I., 4,
p. 142).
c d.
Then
+c
whence e d
-f
= ^ d^
-J-
e^,
and the required height of building
b c
c F (or B c
g).
If the ground slopes upwards as e h (Fig. 205) so that the foot of the building is above the horizontal a c, ascertain the difference of level between e and h d h by levelling, and
Fig. 205.
A c
measure length of slope e h. Hence is obtained e d = a c and X tan B A C (a c X tan h a c) = b h the height required. Problem II. To find the height of an object having a vertical
;
face c B inaccessible to the observer. At the stations selected for the observations (in the same vertical plane as the point c of the object c b), from the nearer one of which stations the foot of the object is visible, drive pegs E and F (Figs. 206 and 207), their heads level with surface of
ground ; and measure the length of base e f.* Set up theodolite over peg f, measure f d, the height of its horizontal axis d, and from D observe the angle of elevation h d c. Remove theodolite to station e ; and from a observe the angle d a h' between the
* The height of a theodolite above the ground varies according to the spread given to the legs, and it is difficult to place it accurately in position over two pegs in succession with its axis at the same height above each. usual and an unusual spread occasion a difference in height of about 7J inches, corresponding to a difference of o'ooi96 per cent, between the length of base as measured on the ground and that of a line joining the axis of the instrument at the two stations, the length of the laiter being that whereon the triangulation To avoid prolixity in working the problems, the correction for is founded. this difference has been omitted in the examples, the two lines being taken as
parallel
and equal.
ISO
reading F d on a levelling-staff set on peg f and the horizontal
h'.
H D and A h' being horizontal and therefore H D A and D A h' are equal and c d h + h d a C D H A 1) H (Fig. 207) = C D A.
;
parallel lines,
(Fig. 206) or
Fig. 206.
Fig. 207.
From
and
and
A,
observe angles c a d, k a
c,
and k a
b.
Then, in the triangle a c d, 180

sin
(a
+ d) = c
II. i, p. 144).
sin
D
A
(^
(Case
c,
In the right-angled triangle a k

sin
.^
sin
rt
(=
90 c c k).
In the right-angled triangle a k b, b tan A = a ( = K b), whence ck-)-kb = cb = the height sought. In the above two examples, the foot of the object is visible from the nearer station. When it is visible from the further one only (Fig. 208) the problem may be solved as follows From D, observe the angles c d b and and c d h ; and measure
:

D F the height of instrument above peg f. station e ; and from a observe the angles
>SI
Remove instrument
to
cad
and d a
h'.
CDH + HDA =
Then,
in the triangle
CDA.
(a
if.
a c
:
d, i8o
:
+ d)
and
sin c
<: :
sin
In the right-angled triangle c h d, 90 d In the triangle c b d, 180 (c d) = b,
= c.
Fig. 208.
and and
sin
sin
d=
c-B, the height sought.
Problem III. To find the surface-length of an inaccessible slope c D, as that of a steeple on a tower (Fig. 209).
Fig. 209.
Set out and measure base-line e
f,
and place theodolite
at

IS 2

;
and F successively. From a observe angles cad, c a h, and D A H and from b the angles c b d, c b h", d b h", c b a, and A b h'. D B h" D A H = A D B, C B h" C A H = A C B,
CAH +ABH'=CAB.
In the triangle a b
sin
sin
c,
c
c
b,
f f
sin
rt
sin b
(= B (= a
c),
c).
In the triangle
ad
sin
sin
D D
rf (/
sin sin
A
B
a (= B
/J
d), d).
(= A
In the triangle c b d we have given

side
if
side c
(= (=
B c), B d),
;
and angle b
then (Case
II. 2, p.
145)
cwX.z.'o.y
d-\-
c\d
/d
I
tan
),
whence
tan
/d - c\ c\ + = tan + tan
,
d,
/d
^^"
sin
\-^-) c
c
:
+ c\
:
/d
ta"
:
c\
""'
yrv) = '^"
<:
and
In
all
D =
sin B ^, the length of slope sought.
the foregoing examples the base-line is assumed to be same vertical plane as the point or points of the When, owing to configuration of the ground, or to other object. circumstances, this cannot be done, as in Fig. 210, where the baseline has to be set out on a narrow road bounded by precipitous cliffs on one hand and a river or lake on the other From A observe the vertical angles c a d, d a h, and the horizontal angle h a b. From b observe the horizontal angle
set out in the
:
B A.
The angle A h
=
H
180
b,
:
(h a b
h b
a).
In the triangle a h
sin
/z
sin B
(= H
a).
And
in
with
ha
as base, the heights c
d and d h
are ascertained, as
Problem I. The measurement of inaccessible distances is performed on Thus, if the the same principle as that of inaccessible heights. heights in Figs. 202 to 208 are known, or ascertained, their

dimension serves as a
153
base-line, and the distances are obtained by a process the converse of that followed in the examples. Fig.
210 illustrates a case wherein the height of the observed object does not enter into the calculation, the distance h a (and thence D a) being obtained independently of it. In fact, by far the greater number of such cases are solved by a base-line on the ground, and thus by angles in azimuth only. Suppose it be necessary to ascertain the length between two
trees c d, but
it is
impossible
to approach
them by reason Having meaof the river. sured the base-line a b very accurately, the angles cab, C B A, DBA, and DAB must be observed from which, by
;
preceding problems, the sides c A, D B, c B, and d a must be calculated (see Oblique
Fig. 211.
Triangle, p. 144), together ,v, as .. dag. With these, with the angles a c d, b d c, c d a, and calculated. d be may length c the has been shown,
154

Trigonometrical Surveying,
Trigonometrical Survey. The determination of various points in a survey, to be afterwards filled-in by detailed chain or other surveys, is performed by triangulation founded upon observaFor all triangulation tions starting from a measured base-line. work, the measurement of this needs, as already mentioned, special carefulness. In great undertakings such as the Ordnance and other official surveys, in which the largest base yet measured is short in comparison with the sides of triangles thereon built up some of these upwards of eighty and even a hundred miles in length the matter is one of national importance. To ensure its utmost attain-
particulars whereof, too lengthy to
able accuracy, extraordinary pains have been bestowed upon it be here adequately described, are to be found detailed in several works dealing with the subject.*
Fig. 212.
From the measured base, triangles are successively deduced, the length of their sides being increased as rapidly as possible ; and upon these, secondary and tertiary systems of triangulation are in In the setting-out of all these, attention has to turn continued. be paid to their being " well-conditioned," i.e. that their angles are The limits recommended as the neither too obtuse nor too acute. maximum and minimum of those for great surveys, 120'' and 30, cannot, however, always be adhered-to in minor work nor in observations for calculation of heights and distances. " A B [Fig. 212] is supposed to be the measured base, of two or three miles, or as long as can conveniently be obtained ; and c and D the nearest trigonometrical points. All the angles being
* Frome, "Outline of the Method of conducting a Trigonometrical Survey;" Yolland, "Account of the Measurement of the Lough Foyle Base ;" Bourns, " Principles and Practice of Surveying."
TRIGONOMETRICAL SURVEY.
155
observed, the distances of C and d from the extremities of the base are very carefully calculated. Then in each of the triangles, d a c
and D B
c, we have two sides and the contained angles, to find d c ; one calculation acting as a check upon the other. This line, d c, is again made the base from which the distances of the stations e and F are computed from d and c ; and the length of e f is afterwards obtained in the two triangles e d f and e c f. In like
manner the relative positions of the points h, g, i, &c. are obtained and some such system should be pursued until the stations arrive
at the required distance apart.
The length of the sides of the smallest triangles must depend upon the intended method of filling If the contents of parishes, estates, &c. are to be in the interior. computed, the distances between the points must be diminished to one or two miles, for an enclosed country ; and to two or three If no contents are required, and the perhaps, for one more open. object of the triangulation is solely to ensure the accuracy of a topographical survey, the distances may be augmented according to the degree of minuteness required." * The average length of side of the primary triangles of the Ordnance survey of the United Kingdom was from 40 to 60 miles ; of the secondary ones about 10 to 12 miles J and of the tertiary ones i mile to 3 miles. The triangles thus established by observation being plane triangles, while their actual nature is that of spherical ones, a correction has to be applied for spherical excess a correction unnecessary in small surveys by reason of the minuteness of the difference, sufficient, however, to occasion in extensive ones a measurable variation from absolute correctness, since in a spherical triangle the sum of the three angles exceeds 180, the amount of this excess in any given case being proportional to the area of the Let e represent the spherical excess in seconds, a the triangle. area of the triangle calculated as a plane one, and r the mean radius of the earth (these two being expressed in terms of the same unit of measurement), and it circumference in terms of
. . .
diameter; then
A X 648000
Another rule is From the log of the area of the triangle in square feet subtract the number 9-3267737, and the remamder will be the log of the spherical excess in seconds. A simple method of determining the spherical excess, when very great accuracy is not required, is by dividing the area of the triangle in square miles by 76, the result being the spherical excess
:
in seconds.
For the
practical application of the correction, the simplest of
* Bourns,
" Principles and Practice of Surveying," pp. 271 273.
156
three possible methods is that of Legendre, viz. : " In any spherical triangle, the sides of which are very small compared with the radius of the sphere, if each of the angles be diminished by one-third of the true spherical excess, the sines of these angles will be proportional to the lengths of the opposite sides, and the The triangle may therefore be calculated as if it were plane." area of the triangle having been calculated as a plane one from the obsei-ved data, and the spherical excess e obtained by the i8o e. The formula, the sum of the observed angles should difference (if any) is due to error of observation ; and, if an error of excess, one-third of it is to be deducted from, and if of defect From each of them is then to be added to, each of the angles. to be deducted one-third of the spherical excess ; and from the thus corrected angles and a given side the other sides are calculated as those of a plane triangle.
The
at in
latest figures representing the radius of the earth arrived
1880 by Colonel A. R. Clarke, C.B., F.R.S., are
Major Semiaxis Minor Semiaxis
20,926,202 20,854,895
feet,
feet.
The mean
taken as
radius
may
therefore, without material error,
be
20,890,548-5 feet
3956-54 miles.
CHAPTER
V.
CHAIN-SURVEYING.
Surveying with Chain only. I have in the previous chapters elected to treat all the preliminary questions together, leaving the present exclusively for the consideration of chain-surveying of estates, &c., and the method of keeping the field-book, with such other matters "as may appear necessary.
Field-book. First I will deal with the field-book, because this I may here say that the a very essential element in surveying. manner in which the field-book is kept is in the highest degree important, bearing as it does upon the accuracy with which the It is quite a mistaken theory (comsurvey is made and plotted. monly held by old-fashioned surveyors) that the field-book should be so kept as to be only understood by them. Those days have gone by, and the modern surveyor must be so qualified that his work is not only as clean and simple as possible, but is capable of the most searching scrutiny.
is
Ordnance Field-book. The Ordnance surveyors are obliged to keep their field books in ink, and so particular have they to be,, that when the survey is completed the books are sent in to Southampton, and possibly are never seen again by the surveyor, for the work is plotted by special draughtsmen, who may never have seen the ground they have to plot ; so that unless the book has; been kept clean and accurate it would be impossible to plot the
survey.
Necessity for Reconnoitre. I have strongly recommended a reconnaissance previous to commencing a survey, for the purpose of determining the base and other lines, for establishing stations,, and to make a sketch of the chief boundaries and features of the; The latter is very important, not only to enable you property. to lay down the various lines, with their relative directions and positions, but in plotting will be found to be of the greatest
assistance.
Survey Lines to be numbered consecutively. The lines should be numbered consecutively from i upwards ; and it is agreat help to the surveyor if he represents his principal stations by

158
letters; as a, b, &c., for
CHAIN-SURVEYING.
one cannot have too
much
detail in one's
field-book, bearing forcibly in

self
mind the
fact that others
than your-
may have
to plot the work.

It may be well at this point to refer which are usually adopted by surveyors to
:
Conventional Signs.
to conventional signs
I.
indicate special features
Ditch and hedge are shown by a straight

fl/feff
line,
which
line
Lint
of
ar-;
Ditch
B
\
"
_5L
tnao
^B
represents the edge of the ditch ; the hedge being delineated by a T, showing on which side it belongs. 2. Where a change of position of ditch and hedge occurs, it should be carefully noted as in the sketch, which shows that at a certain point the ditch passes to the other side of the hedge, so and on the right to B. that on the left the hedge belongs to 3. When a hedge alone separates two properties and on neither side is there a ditch, it is called a " foot-set " fence, and is shown
in the third illustration above.

4. In most cases it is desirable to show gates, and they delineated in either of the ways indicated. Gates thus
:
may be
oxen
5.
GATE
GATE |==|
on
Post-and-rail fencing
is
shown thus
RAIL
1 r

1 f I
I
POST 4
FENCE
I
1
I-
6.
Close-paling thus
CLOSE
I I
-I
PALina l_J
I
7.
Walls by a double
line.
8,
Footpaths are shown by a single dotted
line.
BRIDLE
OR FOOT .?K-'
9, Cart-track or bridle-path
by a double dotted
line; but in

CONVENTIONAL SIGNS.
measuring upon the ground
159
it is usual only to take the centre of the track, and allow twelve to fifteen links for the width.
flOAD
10.
Trees are shown thus, and are described

TUSES
Qgilf
Ctiesnut
II.
Orchards are sketched thus:

...
3.
.,
s^
12.
Woods.
13.
Brushwood.
*
"""^
wH
-*-
la^-i.
14.
Marshy ground.
15.
Heath or
gorse.
i6o
16.
CHAIN-SURVEYING.
Railways, or preferably by a strong blue
I I
line.
I
I
MM
I
I I
I
I
I
I
M M
17.
Railway embankment.
HAILWAY IH BAtIK
^^,.iii>iiMiiiiir(,(
18.
Railway cutting.
UMLWAY
IN
OUTTlna
'^''mimm
19.
Broken ground or
cliff.
eaoKEN GROUND
,*'*'^^-f^,^^%.
20.
Parish boundaries.
21.
County boundaries.
22. Surveying sUtions.
23. Direction of line.
Field-book. ^The usual kind of field-book is 8 inches long by 4j inches wide, opening lengthwise, and having a central column

FIELD-BOOK.
i6i
about f inch wide for the longitudinal measurement, whilst the right and left columns are for marking the offsets, sketching in the fences, buildings, &c., and any memoranda '''^^ ^"'"^ that may be necessary, as in the following
example
In Fig. 213 I have given but a very simple illustration of the use of such a field-book, and so long as all is plain
sailing there
P
3m
may be
;
little
or
no objection
to this system
but in complicated work, where we have fences crossing our lines 210 in all directions, and to take note of a large amount of detail, neither the size nt nor arrangement of the book can be recommended. For instance, supposing we have a fence crossing our chain-line obliquely, it would have to be entered in the book as in Fig. 214; or if a fence \r Commenf of crosses our chain-line at right angles, but at the point of intersection another fence Fig. 213. joins in an oblique direction, it would have to appear as in Fig. 215, the word "at" written against the sketch distinguishing that at 316 the oblique fence c joins a b at the Again, if our chainpoint where it is intersected by the chain. line runs at a point on the edge of the ditch, so that in plotting at such a point the fence will impinge on the survey-line, it will have
316
too
30
Fig. 214.
Fig. 215.
Fig. 216.
be shown in the field-book as in Fig. 216, the word "at" at 300 signifying that this is the point of impingement. Then as to noting the stations, I maintain that the double column is anything but convenient ; and to illustrate my argument I have given (Fig. 2 1 7) a portion of a field-book the system of which is advocated by one of the best authorities on modern surveying, in which it will be seen that stations occur at 1025 for line No. 3 to the left ; at 1425 for No. 1740 and 1875 for lines Nos. 5 and 10 whilst at 2185 ]
to
l62
CHAINS UR VE YING.
we have
a station for the intersection of lines 13 and 14, and 3325 a station for No. 21; all being on the left side of the chain-line the point of the station being delineated by a small circle outside the column against the chainage, with a dotted line to represent the direction of the line diverging from this station, whilst a circle enclosing a number indicates the line to which it refers. Can anything more
troublesome be conceived
this ex-
traneous sketching on the book to represent so little ? so that to indicate that at 2185 there is a station whence two lines diverge involves three circles, two dotted lines, and two sets of figures, as in Fig. 218. I have taken the liberty of drawing a horizontal line above and below the station in the central column,
0-
Ô
2185
Fig. 217.
Fig. 218.
which
is
the custom of
many
surveyors,
and
it is
sometimes done
as in Fig. 217.
Best Size of Field-book. In the first place, I maintain that I prefer a quarto size (opening the field-book is too small. lengthwise), which gives plenty of room for sketching in detail any features that may require to be taken, and for remarks, either as to the name of the field, &c the description as to whether it is arable or pasture (distinguished by ara. or pas), the county and parish or township, the occupiers, and the proprietors of the
,
adjoining lands, &c.
PLAIE
PART
OF
WIMBLEDON
PARK.
/"^
!,
Oapl.odjic
Scale,
4~ Chains to
an Inch.
in,.,
,
f .,< i^V
SURVEY OF PART OF WIMBLEDON PARK.
163
Singfle Line preferable to Double Column. Instead of the central column, I recommend a single line upon which the longitudinal measurements may be marked. This line represents in the book what the chain does in the field, and any crossing or intersection of a fence can be accurately shown in its proper position and direction, and a station may be represented with greater facility by drawing a circle or oval round the distance. To illustrate my meaning, I reproduce in Plate II. (p. 165) a field-book adapted to the system I advocate, which is at once
simple and
I
intelligible,
it
and one
to
which one soon gets accustomed.
the most useful in my own practice ; and in preparing a large number of pupils I have had ample evidence of the great facilities it affords.
have found
Chain Survey
also
of Part of
Wimbledon Park.
I give
here
an example of a complete survey in Wimbledon Park recently executed by one of my pupils (see Plate I.). This is a survey of somewhat undulating ground, the rise from b to- G being about 90 feet. Commencing at a at the north-eastern end of the property for line i, it was found impossible to restrict the offsets to fifty links, as the point b was an important station ; consequently
offsets of ninety-nine links, which, as a rule, is too much but as this survey was for a special purpose, connected with the higher ground, the absolute accuracy of this particular fence, to the left of the line i, was not a matter of great moment, especially as in the subsequent operations of traversing the road this fence was On reaching b (at the end of line i), we ran carefully adjusted. the line No. 2 to c ; thence a third line to d, and from a to d by line 4. This trapesium was tied by the base-line b d and a check-line from ^ to a ; an additional check-line e' g completely The south-western corner of secures the accuracy of this figure. the property had to be taken by a triangle b e e', tied by e ^ U^ e, tied by V^, whilst a further small triangle was necessary, P. Line No. 6 from e to f, passing through b c at e' and c d at G, was a survey-line to take .up the post-and-rail of the fencing of small triangle is formed by line 7 the road to Wimbledon Park. from c to F, as much to keep up the curve of the fence on the western side as to accurately fix the position of the line e f. The north-western indent was taken up by means of a triangle h j d on the line c d, with a check-line Yi h*
we had
lj>^
Few Lines as possible. Thus it will be seen that the whole of this figure has been accurately surveyed by means of as few lines as possible, and the accompanying field-book (Plate II., p. 165), which is given in detail, will enable the student to plot this work
* In the field-book (Plate II.) the lines 8 and 9 are given on page 5 representing end of line 3.
64
CHAIN-SURVEYING.
Referring to line i, it will be seen that the first point of importance at 550 is the gate, the position of which should be fixed by a small triangle upon the chain-line formed by 60 and 67 links at 600; the width of the gate in links between the posts to be noted in the field-book next. At 700 is a point on the chainline which it is necessary to measure from to the corner where the small stack fence cuts the main fence. Similarly, each of the other corners should be fixed upon the chain-line by means of triangles as shown ; and finally the small pond near the end of line i should be so treated. It should be noted that any defined point, such as an indentation in a fence, the position of a gate-post, the intersection of one fence with another, should be accurately fixed upon the survey-line by means of a triangle, and certainly on no account should such an important point be trusted to a simple
for himself.
offset.
Tape not to be used for Offsets. In Chapter II. I have expressed a decided opinion against the use of a tape for taking offsets, and I shall here emphasise that opinion by remarking that the accuracy of a survey, however simple or elaborate, will best be assured by arranging the survey-lines so that the offsets shall be
as short as possible.
Chain-men should be instructed as to their Duties. In commencing a survey it is necessary that the surveyor should satisfy himself that his chain-men are thoroughly conversant with their duties, and that his chain has been properly tested.
Enter every Ten Chains
in Field = book.
At
the com-
pletion of every ten chains, the surveyor should enter that

in his field-book, seeing that the leader receives
number
from the follower
ten arrows, and, placing his foot against the end of the tenth chain, take care that the eleventh arrow is duly put in position.
Boning-out Lines with Laths recommended. It is a considerable saving of time if each line is well boned-out by means of laths, before referred to, especially where the ground is of an undulating character, as they are of great value in guiding both the leader and follower to keep well in line. At any point where it is deemed necessary to make a station, either a peg or a lath with a paper duly figured, or some distinguishing mark, should be left on the chain-line for future reference.
Best
that
Form of Stations. It is quite a mistake to imagine by kicking a hole or cutting a mark in the turf the work will
be
facilitated, as often the time lost in trying to find this point subsequently is a matter of serious moment. If the survey is of an extensive character, occupying some considerable time, all stations and minor stations should be marked by pegs, each of which
PIATE U
flo
/W
pnê IBS)
siy Zockwaod & So-n
'/
7.
S\'ticners Hall Court London
Missing Page
USEFUL HINTS.
in
165
should have a distinguishing letter or number, as shown by Fig. 7
Chapter
II.
Referring to the field-book (Plate II.) in connection with Plate I., it will be seen that it is necessary to begin at the foot of the first page of the book, working upwards, using one side only of the paper; and that, as in the case of line i, on reaching the top of the first page (at 11 00), the line may have to be carried over on to another leaf, where it terminates at 1604; and it is derirable to draw two dashes across the book to represent that you have finished that line, taking care to write at the beginning, " Commencement of line I," and at the finish, " End of line 1."
.
Begin at the End of Book and work upwards.
attempt to
Let each Line have a Separate Page. On no account commence another line on the same page, as paper is
cheap enough to obviate such a necessity. It will be seen that Line 2 on the third page all the offsets are on the left-hand side. should be designated " Commencement of line 2," " End of line i, right." At 489 is a station for a check-line to the end of line 5,
and again at 735 there is another in connection with line 5. 739, 834, and 927, in line 2, intersect the post-and-rail fence which forms the boundary of the road, and between 834 and 927 there are points where it will be found necessary to take offsets to the right of the line to pick up the curvature of the aforesaid fence, Here whilst the final station of line 2 is at its termination 929. again it is necessary to draw two dashes across the book to show the completion of this line, and I would here say that I find it most convenient to indicate all stations by an oval enclosing the figures, thus ^), and, by means of one or more lines as the case may require, indicating the direction and nature of other Line 3, which commences at lines connected with that station. the end of line 2, crosses the road to Wimbledon Park and a small line from the commencement of intersects line 6 at 151 line 3 to the end of line 6 forms a triangle as much to check the position of these lines as to take up the curved fence on the left-hand
;
side.
6,
Line 3 crosses the post-and-rail fence running alongside
line
at the various points indicated, there are offsets on the right to the post-and-rail fence, and on the left to the boundary wall; at 573 there is a station for a tie-line to the commencement At 870 and 900 are points whence a small triangle is of line I.
and thence,
wall, whilst at 874-5 a station for line 9 for the triangle necessary to take up the indentation at the north-west portion of the survey, the end of line 3 being the other point of the triangle on this line at 1296-5, for line From this point also the base-line to the end of line i is com8. menced. Following this, upon page marked (5), is a detailed sketch
is
formed to take up the corner of the boundary
66
CHAIN-SURVEYING.
(Plate II.) of lines 8 and 9 before referred to, which needs no explanation. Line 4, beginning at the commencement of line i, runs to the end of line 3, and crosses the edge of a pond on the right-hand side, the boundaries of which have been fixed by the points where it crossed, and also by offsets ; and, further on the right-hand side, the post-and-rail fence was taken up by offsets, and on reaching the end of this line the junction of the two fences was determined by a diagonal offset from the station. From this point the tie-line to the end of line i was carefully measured over very undulating ground. The reason for taking this step will now be seen, as from the end of line i we were able to survey the two triangles on the left-hand side of line 2 on lines 5, 6, and 7. In order that the student may the better follow and understand the system of procedure illustrated in the foregoing example, he is recommended to plot this survey from the field-book, to a scale of 2 chains to an inch, which will afford him excellent practice both in plotting and in the modus operandi with the chain only.
Mark
it is
Intersection of Lines
by Small
circle
Circles.
In
plot-
ting a survey, at all points of intersection of lines with stations,
round a point of interhave been carefully plotted, the exact length being determined by a puncture sA'Ccy a very fine needle before any detail is plotted, it is absolutely necessary that these lines be finally drawn in with lake or carmine, and on no account should a survey be plotted froro pencil lines.
desirable to
section, and, after the principal lines
draw a very small
Best Form of Base=lines. In the early part of this book have expressed an opinion that a survey is best accomplished by treating its two main base-lines as intersecting the estate surveyed in the form of the letter X, and I cannot impress too strongly upon the student the desirability of doing this wherever practicable. As these lines should form the basis of a complete network of triangulation, it need hardly be said that where possible it is always desirable that the figures formed upon them should be triangles. Plate III. (p. 167) is an illustration of a part chain and a part
I
theodolite survey, the result of a course of lectures I delivered at Cardiff; and, having been first surveyed with the chain only, it is applicable to the present consideration.
Line
to B.
lines.
commences
station
is
Line 2 Line 3 from c to d

it
an acute angle of a fence A and runs b, for the purpose of tying-in other from B to c is tied to line i by the line marked a".
at
left at
is
d',
the longest line of the survey, and has upon b'. From the stations d and d", a triangle d, d', d'" is set out for the purpose of taking up an indented fence on the eastern side of line 3, which triangle is tied
stations at d,
and d", and
PLATE m.
SURVEY OF FIELD PEN-Y-LAN, CARDIFF
Scale,
Ciiains
to
an Inch.
I'ji
pjf
JS7J
Crosby LockWoad
i.
Son
7.Sfatian9'^ ffa^^
'^'^^'-
ZandoTi
BEST FORM OF BASE-LINES.

by the
167
line d". Line 4 from b' is really a tie-line to complete the construction of the chain survey proper, and the lines 3 and I are tied in by lines B^ d'" on line 4 and b^ b on line i, whilst the diagonal line from the end of line i at b to b' in line 3 completely secures the figure.
I should here say that for practical purposes it is possible to survey this figure with the chain alone by a less number of tielines ; but seeing that I was addressing myself to a number cf pupils, I dwelt with greater emphasis upon this question of tying in figures, as I wanted to prove to them that if care and judgment be observed, it is possible under almost any circumstances to make a survey by means of lines which may or may not be in the form of triangles, triangles being, however, preferable. I wanted to prove that the lines forming the outside or boundaries of a survey may have their relative positions one to another accurately determined by such means, and (as I subsequently show under the head of " Theodolite Surveying ") if a survey be so conducted the instrumental observations will confirm the accuracy of the chain survey. From the end of line 3, line 5 from d to e, and line 6 from e to F, line 7 from f to G, and line 8 from G to A, complete the exterior boundaries of the survey. Lines 6, 7, and 8 are fixed to the other portions of the survey by the tie-lines f a, e' a, and e' b^. It will be seen that line 6 passes out of the field through a fence into the waste land adjoining the Pen-y-lan road and again into the field through the fence running alongside this road. It may suggest itself to the student that such a step might have been obviated by moving the station e further inside the field, but the object I had in view was a double one first to show how such a difficulty of crossing a fence at a very awkward point might be overcome ; and secondly, that by the trouble occasioned thereby I sought to impress upon them the fact that the reason which actuated me in taking all that trouble was to carry out my principle of reducing the length of the offsets as much as possible. I might here explain that the dotted line b h was advisedly laid out for the purpose not only of taking a section over it, but to enable me to demonstrate the method of measuring very undulating and broken ground. In this case we had to measure across a disused quarry of nearly two chains in width, and this being partly filled with water rendered our task somewhat difficult, but it had the result of further testing the accuracy of the survey, because its intersection with the tie-lines b c, b^ d"', and b^ a was identical when it came to be plotted, and we had the satisfaction also of finding that on arriving on line 5 at h it measured exactly in its proper position. It will be seen that running nearly parallel east and west are two banks or mounds and a footpath shown by a dotted
:
i68
line
CHAIN-SURVEYING.
from E to b. This should be shown in the field-book by a sketch in the margin.
Foot-paths and Cart-tracks. Foot-paths should always be shown by a single dotted line, cart-tracks by a double dotted line; but in taking the latter it is customary to ascertain the average width, the offsets of which are always taken and booked
to the centre thereof unless for very exceptional reasons to the contrary.
Gates. In picking up a gate in a fence it is necessary to fix the position of one of the posts accurately by means of a triangle and then to ascertain the width of the gate ; it is not absolutely
necessary to take both posts.
to mark Hed:e and Ditch. It will be seen in the course of this survey that the fences are shown by a strong line, which indicates that it is a hedge; the little T's indicate the position of the hedge. In the case of Plates I. and II. it will be seen that the northern and a greater part of the eastern fence are shown by dotted lines, with crossed dashes ; this indicates that it is a post-and-rail fence, and where the line is firm it is evident that it is an ordinary hedge. The north-western fence f h j is a double line, from which it is to be understood that it is a wall.
How
Avoid as much as possible crossing Fences. On a large it frequently happens that many of the lines cut through a large number of fences, but it is very desirable to minimise this as much as possible, and it not unfrequently happens that, if one stands on an eminence at the commencement of (say) line i, it is possible to command a long stretch of country to the termination of that line, passing, it may be, through ten or twelve fields. It is
survey
wise, therefore, for the surveyor, having determined upon his stations at the commencement and termination of this line, to dispatch his
means of marking, with instructions that in front of every fence through which the line passes he is there to leave some distinguishing mark according to directions given
assistant with laths or other
by means of signalling right or left as the case may be. This should be done at every fence, for it is not at all an uncommon
the process of chaining such a line, especially in a it is not only found impossible to command a view of the end of the line, but the hedges themselves may obscure the view also. But another reason in favour of marking the exact point of intersection is, that the chain-men can see the exact place
thing, in
valley, that
through which the chain should pass, for which purpose the offset staff has a hook arrangement (as illustrated at Figs, i and 2, Chap. I.) to facilitate getting it through.
Be
careful not to cut Fences unnecessarily,
There are
AS TO CLEARING UP THE GROUND.

many
169
parts of England, especially in Leicestershire, where the hedges are not only very thick but exceedingly high ; and in a survey for a railway which I made some years ago, of about twenty miles in length, with the snow on the ground, my patience and that of my assistants was very severely taxed by the constant necessity of passing through such fences j and here I would repeat the warning I have given elsewhere, that the surveyor must exercise very great judgment as to how he passes through such fences. I have seen most wanton damage done to a fine, handsome, fullygrown hedge by thoughtless and often wilful cutting of huge gaps. No good surveyor would descend to such a questionable practice, and it is to obviate such expedients that I recommend the line to be accurately ranged out before proceeding to chain. Here again my theory of becoming intimately acquainted beforehand with all
the characteristics of the property, holds good, as unless the surveyor has walked completely round the boundaries and made mental note of the position and form of the various fences and other circumstances, he must not be surprised if after the expenditure of some hours' work he is brought face to face with the fact that the line, which he thought would be clear of a fence running parallel therewith, at an unexpected point projects apparently right into the fence, involving a fresh line being set out and all the previous work thrown away.
Don't cut down a Tree to save moving a Line. Again, by a reconnoitre such as I have recommended, the necessity of
cutting
down
trees (which intercept the line)
is
avoided.
speak
somewhat
feelingly
on
this
subject, as in
carelessness of one of
not only involved me in heavy pecuniary oak-tree in my absence loss and other unpleasantness, but very nearly was the means of throwing an important project out of Parliament. In conclusion, it only remains for me to say that when a surveyor goes on a property no matter whether at the instance of the owner or occupier, or whether he is really a trespasser there are certain courtesies which devolve upon him, which, if neglected, may involve him in unpleasantness if not in more serious results. If it be necessary to pass through a gate, it is equally desirable that you should close it after you ; the same remark applies to If curiosity prompts individuals to interrogate you as to doors.
my
assistants
in
one case the reckless
cutting
down
a valuable
little tact may evade the necessity of your divulging your business, and protect you from the mortification of afterwards finding out that a discourteous answer was given to a person who not only had a right to know what you were doing, but who had the power to make things very unpleasant
what you are doing, a
Clear up the Ground after
you. After
having completed
70
CHA INS UR VE YING.
removing
the survey, before leaving the ground insist upon the chain-men all pegs and laths, which are often considered not worth
carrying away, and pieces of paper that may have been used in In fact, leave the ground as nearly as possible in the operations.
the state in which
you found
it.
Cautions. It is not only not desirable to throw stones at dogs on the property, but the time occupied in so doing may be devoted
to better purposes without the risk of giving offence to those to In putting pegs in the ground, especially in whom they belong meadow land, care should be observed that they project very
!
slightly
to cattle
above the surface, as otherwise serious injury is often done and horses grazing thereon. Tlie chain should be tested every morning before commencing
operations. If a station has

it
been made by driving a peg into the ground, necessary to remove the peg if a rod is to remain there for the purpose of chaining to, as it should be exactly in the same position as the peg.
is
CHAPTER
VI.
THE OD OLITE-S VR VE YING.

It seems hardly necessary to say, that the long lines in many important and extensive surveys can be best ranged, and are nowexecuted, with the theodolite or other instrument for obtaining the angles which a line or lines make with another. In Chapters II. and V. I have endeavoured to show how surveying may be accomplished with the chain only; and for small surveys in open country, perhaps the base-lines are most accurately connected by chain measurements ; but in the present chapter I propose to demonstrate how any large or complicated survey can be checked and considerably expedited by means of the theodolite.
In the first place we have seen that a four-sided figure, whose sides may have been carefully chained, it is impossible to plot the same except by diagonal or other check-lines the only means of testing the accuracy of the work whereas with a theodolite check-lines can be reduced in number, and in the field the accuracy of the
in the simple case of
Check=lines reduced.
relative positions of the four stations addition of the four angles together, the 360 deg.
is
made absolute by the sum of which should give
In commencing a theodolite necessary to establish the chief stations in the first case, and at these points to drive stout pegs well into the ground, and intothe centre of each should be driven a nail to mark the exact point of intersection of the lines, which is absolutely necessary.
survey,
it is
Accurately mark Station.
When to take Angles. It is a matter entirely of choice whether the angles be taken at the commencement of the survey or not; but it will be found most convenient to take them
altogether (and possibly it is preferable to do so the last thing), as it is not desirable to keep the instrument knocking about in the field, where accidents, often of a serious nature, easily happen.
The Necessary Number of Angles. The number of angles necessary to be taken depends so much upon configuration of the ground, extensiveness of the survey, and complexity or otherwise of the system of survey-lines and the tie-lines needful for checking
172
THEODOLITE-SURVEYING.
viz.
:
them, that only a general rule can be laid down,
In
all
cases, the taking of angles serves as a useful check, but ought not to be employed to the exclusion of tie-lines where these can be
run without undue increase of time and expense. In the case of Fig. 2 1 9, if the side A c and the angles at a and c
A
Fig. 220.
are given, it is possible to calculate the sides a b and b c ; or if the an^le b and the sides a b and b c are given, so may a c be found. Therefore in the field it is not absolutely necessary to take more than the angle b in the one case, or the angles a and c in the other, to check the accuracy of the sides a b, b c, a c j but this is a very
primitive illustration, and really to do the thing properly I should that all the angles be taken. Again, in Fig. 220, if the angles a and b are taken, then it will be possible to test the accuracy of the line b c ; but it would be better to take the angles
recommend
at
a and c and run a
tie-line
from
Fig. 224.
In the case of a fivesided figure (Figs. 221 and 222), tie-lines B d and B e and the angles at a and c would answer as well as taking all the five angles. In a figure such as Fig. 223, by taking the angles bag, BCD, C D E, D E F, and F G a,
b to D.
some of
be omitted.
And
in Fig. 224,
even
if
the tie-lines shown might the seven angles at a, b, c.
WHAT
D, E, F,
TO AVOID.
173
and G were taken, this would not dispense with the need of tie-lines from c to g and from g to d, or angular observations by which their length could be calculated. It is in making a survey of a large estate that the greatest judgment is required as to what angles should be taken or not. And as a simple illustration I reproduce a part of a survey at Cardiff (see Plate III.), executed by the pupils attending my lectures. Here it will be seen that the general outline of the estate is one of seven sides, a b, b c, c d, d e, e f, f g, and g a, whilst the indentations are dealt with by small triangles b a ^, d d" d", and d j e. Although this is only a sketch from memory, yet it is fairly proportional, and serves to illustrate how the long offsets on lines a b, c d, and d e were avoided. I do not say that the angles of these small triangles should not be taken indeed, if time permitted, it would be very desirable to do so but I offer this sketch as a type of those angles which should be taken and those which may be avoided.
Angles necessary. Thus angles i, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, and 7 are indispensable to the accuracy of the survey, whilst the triangles may be treated in the ordinary way. So in the survey of an estate, large or small, a similar treatment will be found desirable.
Requirements by the Examiners
In the instruction to candidates, under the head Institution. of " Land Surveying and Levelling," issued by the Surveyors' Institution, each candidate for Associateship in Subdivisions I. and II. is required " to make a survey with the chain of about 20 acres of land, more or less, (situated in any locality most convenient) comprising not less than four separate fields or inclosures, and having a minimum variation of 5 feet in the surface levels, and to take the angles of the principal inclosing and check lines with the theodolite, entering them in the proper place in the fieldbooks." The whole of the work has to be executed from actual survey by the candidate, unaided by any other surveyor or skilled
of
the Surveyors'
His general knowledge in surveying is thus tested in making the survey complete with the chain alone, and his acquaintance with the use of the theodolite by taking the angles as mentioned ; while at the same time the value of that instrument as a check upon the accuracy of the chain-survey is well emphasized by the enjoinment of the latter operation.
assistant.
in
to
What to avoid. In Fig. 225 I reproduce an example given an old work upon surveying which, I think, will illustrate what avoid in theodolite-surveying. It will be seen that by a more
illustrated.
judicious use of the instrument the irregular boundaries of this property might have been more accurately determined than by the
system
174
THEODOLITE-SURVEYING.
I
have an estate consisting of three large fields and one small one, irregularly formed, and encompassed by fourteen main survey-lines. I have reproduced (Figs. 226 and 227) the field-book of lines i, 2, 3, and 4. Now, commencing line i, we have the angle
We
Fig. 225.
which
line
11
makes with
it,
viz.
73 deg.
and
at
490 we have
line 5 making an angle of 86 deg. 25 min. with line No. i ; and at 910 line No. 9 makes an angle of 78 deg. 20 min. with line No. i ; but at
980, the station for line No. 4 on the right,

to take this angle, nor indeed
is
it is
not
deemed necessary
sufficiently
line
No. 4A regarded as
IV
HAT TO
AVOID.
175
important to have its position fixed with the theodolite. It is true that from 490 and 980 in line No. 1 the lines 4A and 4 have at 175 in the former, and at 222 in the latter, a check-line of 160;
!o
In
at 1335 in
Y'ls.-
226.
Fig. 227.
but the importance of having the meandering stream accurately fixed would surely justify, whilst the instrument was fixed at 490
to observe line No. 5, the taking of the angle of the line 4A.
Now
176
instead of forming two stations close together on line No. i at 910 and 980 for lines 9 and 4 respectively, by slewing line 9 round (which would be more convenient for the small fence) we should have only one instead of two stations for lines 9 and 4, and the
angles formed by lines 9 and 4 respectively with line No. i could be taken at the same time. At 1335 in line No. i we have line No. 2 making an angle of 109 deg. 15 min., but instead of the small triangular field being fixed by the line 22 deg. 40 min. from 1335 in line No. i it would have been quite as well to check the actual position by finding the intermediate angle, without which I am
of opinion the position of this triangular field is not sufficiently So much for what angles have been taken. I now turn reliable. to those that have been omitted, which lines in my judgment are essential to the satisfactory and indeed accurate completion of the survey. The angles between lines Nos. 2 and 3, 3 and 4, 4 and 4A, 5 and 10, 5 and 6, 7 and 8, 10 and 11, and i and 4.
Surveying' a River.
In
surveying a river, I do
its
iiot
know
that I can suggest a better
method of recording
serpentine
Here, we have line 228. No. 2 forming an angle of 95 deg. 38 min. with No. i, line No. 3 forming an angle of 61 deg. 50 min. with No. 2, line No. 4 forming an angle of 43 deg. 40 min. with No. 3, and line No. 5 forming an angle of 51 deg. 5 min. with No. 4. The various small triangles on lines Nos. 2, 3, and 4 required for the purpose of taking up the bends of the river will serve as additional checks
course, than that suggested in Fig.
to the work.
Don't spare the Use of the Theodolite. Thus I trust I have established a rule that the theodolite, when once called into requisition on a survey, should not be used sparingly, but all the chief lines, constructing as it were the main network, should be systematically connected by means of ascertaining their various
included angles.
Corroboration of Observation.
observed angles
corroboration of of angles giving
illustration.
factory, to take a simple illustration, than to find the
more satissum of three of a triangle make 180 deg.; and much greater your work in the field will attend a large number a similar result, as I have shown in a preceding
What can be
Now let me guard against any possible misinterpretation of my meaning in the foregoing paragraphs. There are cases, as in Fig. 229, where it is quite unnecessary to take more than the six angles, A, B, c, d, e, and f, which govern the lines that absolutely
affect the external
boundaries of the estate, such as

3,
i, 2, 3, 4, 7,
and
give
8.
The truncated cone formed by lines i, 2, by the sum of the angles a, b, e, and f 360
and 4 should
deg., whilst the
CORROBORATION OF OBSERVATION.
angles c and d serve to determine the exact position of a portion of line 3
^77
and line Line
7.
5,
by reason
ot
each of its extremities being fixed by the chainage on lines 2 and 4, should by its length be an additional check of the accuracy of the survey, whilst it serves to pick up the fence which
runs alongside
it.
The
same
applies to line 6, whilst if the angles c and
D and
7
the lines 3 and have been accurately taken and plotted, then
line 8 should exactly fit in at their extremities.
By reference to
No.
I.
Plate
.q.'.
it
will
be seen
of
that a
portion
my
ground at Wimbledon Park is here delineated

to illustrate the method of testing a chain-survey.
The
estate,
bounded on
the east and south by a wood, on the west by roads, and the north by
a plantation, has been

surveyed by chain only,
on the
5,
6,
lines i, 2, 3, 4,
8, and 9 with the various check-lmes as shown. Now, having thus made an accurate chain-survey, it was de7,
szo
^--
sirable
to
show
my
same
pupils
dolite,
how I should have

and
at the
proceeded with a theotime to check the other The following work.
178
j h d, and C D a, d b, a a, e ^, c G,
angles were necessary : d a b, A b c, c b e, b c d, by means of which it was shown that the tie-lines
and
As under
were obviated. the head of " Traversing " I shall have
nh
to deal with that part of
survey which has reference to the roads in the wood, I shall not at the present say anything
this
about them. I have reproduced the field-book in connection with this survey, which will better
Fig. 229.
illustrate the
modus
ope-
randi. few brief hints as to the practical part of theodolite will form a useful conclusion of this chapter.
work
Hints on the Use of the Theodolite. i. It is of little use attempting to use the theodolite on a foggy, rainy, or windy day. I need not dilate on my reasons in the first-mentioned case ; but in the second, the wet gets into the glasses, and the constant necessity to take them out and wipe them is not only a source of delay but a very great tax on patience ; and with regard to wind, not only does it affect the steadiness of the telescope, but the chief difficulty is to keep the plumb-bob from swaying about, and unless it is perfectly plumb over the nail or cross-cut the accuracy of the observations will be impaired. 2. Before planting the instrument, see that the point of the plumb-bob is exactly over the point of intersection of the line. 3. Always plant the legs of your instrument firmly in the ground Don't force all three as nearly level as your judgment directs. legs in at once by pressing from the apex, but take each leg separately, and with both hands press it into the ground. 4. Having planted the instrument, before you proceed to level it take care to clamp the upper plate to the lower one at zero. 5. Now level the instrument by means of the parallel screws, having previously attended to the adjustments for coUimation,
parallax, &c. (referred to in
6.
Chapter
III.).
telescope in direction of the extremity of the first line which forms the angle as b (Fig. 230), and when as near upon the point as is possible, clamp the lower plate, and bring it exactly to allow the cross-wires to intersect the point b by means of the lower tangent or slow motion. Note. Do not on any account touch any other than the lower clamp and tangent screws in this operation.
Now direct the
HINTS ON THE USE OF THE THEODOLITE.
179
7. Now (having entirely done with the lower clamp and tangentscrews) unclamp the upper plate and gently turn the telescope in direction of c, then clamp it at as near the point as possible, and with the upper tangent or slow-motion screw bring the cross-wires until they exactly intersect the point c. 8. Now proceed to read the number of degrees and subdivisions of degrees on the lower plate, and the number of minutes and Fig. 230. subdivisions in the vernier. g. Always take the lowest point of a rod, and preferably the point of it, or an arrow held upon the nail or cross-cut in the peg. In the case of a church steeple it is advisable to take the apex.* 10. The observer should not talk or be listening to conversation during instrumental observations, as the distraction of his attention often leads to serious mistakes. 11. Most theodolites are graduated in the direction of the motion of the hands of a watch. When an angle has to be taken in the opposite direction, it has to be deducted from the instrumental reading at which it starts from 360 if that reading is Thus, if at starting the instrument is set at zero, an angle zero. of 10" 25' to the left of the direction in which the telescope points 10 25' 349 35'. If the instrument is set at will read 360 12 40' 182 20'. (say) 195, an angle of 12 40' will read 195 If at 11 25', an angle of 32 56' to the left will read 360 -|- ii25' 32 56' 338 29'. Working to the left is often a difficulty to a beginner ; but it is really a simple affair, requiring only care and
^
attention.
* Chesterfield church excepted.
CHAPTER
VII.
TRA VERSING.
dependent upon a system of must be accurately measured, and whose relative points of intersection must be tied in with the greatest care, traversing may be termed a method of following the meandering of any irregular figure, whose sides shall be determined by angular observation.
surveying proper
is
Whilst
entirely
triangles or other figures,
whose
sides
Traversing with Chain. Traversing may be accomplished with a chain only, but this mode of proceeding is open to great objection, as inaccuracies may find their way into the work itself, and there is no real security for its accuracy. I illustrate by Fig. 231 the general principles of a chain traverse, and I think it will be manifest to those who have read the preceding chapters that little or no dependence should be placed upon the relative positions of lines to each other, which rely solely upon the measurement of a short length at the extremities of lines. Take the lines a b, b c, c d, d e, and e f (Fig. 231), whose directions are entirely dependent upon the care with which the triangles a b '&, c c J), T) d e, and ^ g are taken, not only as affecting the measurement upon the ground, but more particularly the after operation of plotting; for, unlike a chain survey of a series of triangles and check lines, there is nothing in a chain traverse to guarantee the accuracy of the work. Upon fairly level ground, in the enforced absence of instruments, it may be admissible to ascertain the relative positions of diverging lines by some such method, to do even which I should strongly advise the use of an optical square to establish the triangles, which, wherever practicable, should be right angled ; but in undulating '!-- B ground I do not hesitate to say that ^ chain traversing is inadmissible. \ '~~\l^
Z*^
also be performed by taking the included angles a b c, B c D, F c D E, and D E F (Fig. 231) either with a box- sextant or, preferably, a theodolite. Fig. 231. These angles having been accurately observed, and the lengths, a b, b c, c d, d e, and e f carefully
Yi'
'f~p^
\ -
A
,'
\ /
Traversing may
Traversing by Included Angles.
TRAVERSING BY INCLUDED ANGLES.

>,
9fi
>
MAGNETIC NORTH
measured, the survey
may be
plotted with a straight-edge
and
i82
TRA VERSING.
is
protractor, but the greatest minuteness what is called an " unclosed '' traverse.
necessary, for
it is
only
The most
tions
generally adopted system of traversing is by observafrom magnetic north, as is illustrated in Fig. 232, which is
;
an unclosed traverse
of being adjusted to
option.
in other words, the survey has

its
no means
starting point, either
from
real cause or
If we were to take such a figure as an octagon (Fig. 233), and work all round its eight sides at the points a, b, c, d, e, f, g, and H, then, if we had observed the necessary care in taking the angles, when we closed from h upon a we should find our work prove itself. But in the case of Fig. 232, which is the traverse survey of a meandering road on either side of which are dense
i Plumb-bob imiiimiimmiid
Fig. 234-
our work at f we have nothing to guarantee its accuracy, as it is impossible to command the starting point A, which, if we could do so, would enable us to test our work. Now, in commericing a traverse, or any operations in which the compass is used, it is imperative to guard against any metallic attraction, as even with the most studious care traversing is a very It is necessary to carefully select your stations, delicate process. and by means of pegs or other means to mark the various points, as A, B, c, D, E, and f ; the measuring of the lines between these points, together with the necessary offsets right and left, may be performed in the first instance or subsequent to the instrumental observations, but the one operation should be distinct from the other. Possibly it would be more convenient to have the survey made first, so that the angles and other information may be It neatly entered in the book in their proper order and place. should be here noted that after the instrument has been adjusted, the upper and lower plates being clamped at zero (and duly levelled, care having been taken to firmly plant it exactly over the point of intersection of the line*), and when the zero of the upper and lower j)late has been made to coincide with magnetic north, that the lower plate should be firmly clamped, and on no account must
plantations, in terminating
* This is best accomplished by driving a brass-headed nail in the centre of the peg, and let the point of the plumb-bob be coincident with it. See
Fig 334.

NORTHINGS AND SOUTHINGS.
be touched be in error.
it
183
either
by accident or
intent, otherwise the
work
will
having taken all these necessary precautions, the instrument being placed at a (Fig 232), direct the telescope to a rod held on the peg at b, being careful that the wires intersect the spike of the rod. In the illustration before us the angle which b makes with magnetic north at a is 50 deg. on the a vernier and 310 deg. on that at b ; * now remove the instrument to b, with the upper plate still clamped at 50 deg., and, after having adjusted it, direct the telescope back to a, and by means of the tangent-screw see that the wires exactly cut the bottom of the rod.
Now
Plenty of Assistance required. Here let me say that plenty of assistance is required in traversing, as I am opposed to leaving a rod either stuck in the hole of the peg or behind the peg itself, either of which in the case of road or town surveying is impossible. Consequently I prefer that the spike of a rod should be held by an assistant on the nail in the peg. Having intersected t^he point a, unclamp the upper plate and bring it to zero ; the result should be that the needle will record magnetic north, if not, something wrong has occurred, which must be attended to at once, even to the commencement de novo. Having satisfied ourselves that the needle is in its normal position, unclamp the upper plate and turn the telescope to c, which will give 135 deg. or 85 deg. from magnetic north. Keeping 135 deg. in the instrument, remove it to c, observe back upon b, bring the top plate to zero, and the needle should again assume magnetic north. Next direct the telescope to d, when the reading will be 282 deg. or 147 deg. from magnetic north, and so proceed at the points d, e, and f ; the various angles should be entered as follows
:
360 ,. 1 ^ o 5-2IOO Imks. 50 J 85 2880 147 1400 E = 82 2780 F=i43 2150
B= c= D=
Northings and Southings. Now in plotting the foregoing it necessary, to ensure accuracy, to draw a series of vertical and horizontal lines intersecting the various points, and readily converting them into a series of right-angled triangles, whose base and perpendicular are the sines and cosines of the complements of the various angles ; they are also designated " northings " and " southings " for the perpendiculars, and " eastings " and " westings " for
is
In the first case draw the vertical line reprethe horizontal lines. Now we have seen that senting magnetic north at the point a.
* Most theodolites have their verniers marked A and B, the former being used to take the angle proper and the latter as a check.
84
TRAVERSING.
the sine and cosine of the complement of an angle will give us the lengths of the base and perpendicular as a , <? b (Fig. 232), there50 40, and the natural sine of 40 is 0-64279, which, fore 90 2100, will give 1350 links as if multiplied by the length a b the length a b; and the cosine of 40 = 076604 X 2100 = 1609 = A a. Again, b c makes an angle of 85 with magnetic north, 85 5, then nat. sin. 5 = 0-08716 X 2880 consequently 90 2869 = b b. 0-99619 X 2880 ^ c, or nat. cos. 5 251 Now if the angle be greater than a right angle it must be deducted from 180 deg., and if greater than two right angles then
from 270
Thus
it
= =
greater than 270 deg. then from 360 deg. the angle being 147 deg., we must deduct 147 33, and nat. sin. 33 from 180 deg. ; thus 180 d T), nat. COS. 33 = 0-83867 X 1400 0-54464 X 1400 = 762 1174 = d c; and in like manner all the various sides may be
deg.,
and
if
in the case of
=
:
calculated which are tabulated as under
MAGNETIC VARIATION.
185
which was work requiring to be done, it would be satisfactory to continue back to a by the zigzag route f g, G h, h j, j k, and k a ;
Fig- 23Sit would be more satisfactory to have the lengths of these lines, as well as their bearings, yet it is not absolutely necessary, as the sum of the angles will give, if the observations be carefully taken, the result of working back on to A as we commenced. By such a method the necessity of calculating the sines and cosines is obviated.
and although
Care in Checking:. In taking angles from magnetic north it necessary to be very careful that the readings are correct ; and as an additional check upon the work, especially in a close survey, it is desirable to take frequent objects, such as the chimney at m in Fig. 235, to which observations may be made at the points d, e,
is
F, G,
H,
and
K.
Relative Position of Bearings. In booking the bearings, it them in their proper order. For instance, all angles less than 90 deg. will be N.E. ; between 90 deg. and 180 deg. S.E. ; between r8o deg. and 270 deg. S.W. ; and between 270 When it is possible to take the included deg. and 360 deg. N.W. angle between points such as e f g (Fig. 235), it is, of course, very desirable to do so.
is
desirable to have
Magnetic Variation.
what
is
It is
necessary to
make allowance
for
termed the magnetic declination or variation, which alters every year. This at Greenwich, at the beginning of the present
year (1904),
variously given as 16 5' and 16 17' W., decreasing It is needless to say that the declination varies with the geographical position of the point of observation.
is
6'2' annually.
CHAPTER
To make
VIII.
TO IVN-S UR VE YING.
a survey of a town or even a village is by no means an easy task, added to which it is a very tedious proceeding, for it seldom happens that lines of any great length can be arranged. It is desirable, however, that when possible a base-line should be taken through the town from end to end, in order to tie all the other lines on to it. Triangulation is almost impossible owing to the irregularity of the streets. It is equally out of the question to do town-surveying without an instrument for taking the angles of the various lines. The surveyor should provide himself with a skeleton plan of the principal thoroughfares, upon which he should lay out such lines as appear to him feasible and then proceed to examine them upon the ground. Having determined upon some of the chief lines, he should establish stations, where possible using hydrants or sewerventilators to mark the spot. In the absence of such, he will have to drive down iron spikes or " dogs " into the pavement, for which
_
///!f^/"i'..-'."i.
^
J'B^'i'.
krMMr/m
S T n E 7
DALE W
Fig. 236.
purpose he should be provided with a small steel bar and a fairly heavy hammer. The spikes should be of |-in. iron and from 2^ in. to 4 in. long, pointed at one end. They should be driven well home and their position very carefully observed by means of a detail sketch, with several measurements from well-defined points, as in Fig. 236, taking distances from the four angles of Cross Street
TAKING ANGLES OF STREETS.
187
and Dale Street; or, as in Fig. 237, with two distances from the angles of Church Lane and High Street, and from the end of the " Crown Inn " and from a point measured along the face of
HIGH
R E E
Fig. 237.
the hotel from George Yard; or, in Fig. 238, from the two angles of the Market Place and those of Market Street. It is recommended by some writers to take " lamp-posts, corners of buildings, &c.," as " objects at a distance," forgetting that inasmuch as instrumental observation will be necessary at all points of divergence, such points will be of very slight service, independent
J
HIGH
S
J
T.
Fig. 238.
Town-surveying of their somewhat questionable applicability. requires great care and patience, with a very considerable amount of method. It resolves itself into three distinct operations after i, the observation the lines and stations have been determined of the angles ; 2, the chainage of the lines between these points; and 3, the detail measurement of the yards, gardens,
:
buildings, &c.
Taking Angles.
There are two ways of taking the
angles.
i8S
TO WN-S UR VE YING.
First by taking (with theodolite or prismatic compass) the angle which a street or road makes with the magnetic meridian j but this cannot be recommended in towns (although in villages it may be more practicable), in consequence of the numerous sources
of attraction to the needle, such as tram-rails, lamp-posts, hydrants, man-holes, iron railways, &c. By the second and most reliable method the included angles of one or more lines are taken with the theodolite as illustrated in Fig. 239, where a line along Station Road terminates at the junction of three streets. Here the theodolite should be planted, and after being carefully adjusted, the angle between Station Road and High Street (90 30'),
between High Street and West Gate (71), and between West Gate and Mill Street (46), should be observed ; the sum of which
Fig. 240.
should be 207 30'. Now take the angle between Station Road and Mill Street, which should be 152 30', or the difference between 360 and 207 30'.
Objection to Lamp -posts, &c. reason for w/ taking lamp-posts, corners of houses, &c., as distant points upon which to fix the telescope, is that in the first place they can only be of a temporary character, and a lamp-post especially is not sufficiently defined for the purpose even if it be perfectly perpendicular. If spikes are driven in the streets or roads at points of intersection, it is surely the most accurate method for a chain-man to hold the point of the rod upon the spike, which point only is to be taken, for I cannot impress upon the student too strongly the necessity of observing the bottom of the rod as in Fig, 240 in all surveying
My
: ;
TAKING ANGLES OF STREETS.

operations, whether it be simple chainsurveying or with a theodoUte. By
this means we have an absolute point upon which our instrument will in turn be placed, so that with neces-
189
sary care
all
our observations should
be accurate, and judgment (often very misleading) as to which is the actual

centre of a far distant lamp-post obviated.
is
In consequence of the circuitous nature of many streets in European towns which, unlike American cities, were evidently never laid out with any idea that it would be necessary to survey them it is often impossible to get a straight line from end to end. Take the case of Fig. 241. Here we have, at a, to take the two angles right and left equal to 180. At B we should take the angle between
and that between and c, whilst to test our work we must observe the angle
Street,
A and Bemer
Bemer
Street
C B A,
all
three being equal to 360
c d and its supplement ; at d, all four angles, which should equal 360 deg. Now a very natural question might be asked " Yes, I see how you do such a street, and if I have taken the angles and distances between the
at c, the included angle b
:
points correctly,
all
well
that
and good
it
but
how do
know
will all
fit
on
to the other parts of the survey ?
"
I will
endeavour to clear
this ques-
tion up. In Fig. 242 we have a sketch map of part of the town of Leatherhead, of which it was desired to make a
It was found imdetailed survey. possible to run a larger base-line through the principal streets than the line A b, about 1,200 ft. ; but c d, 2,050 ft., could be tied on to the other portion of the survey outside the
HOti/(DA
Kof.a
Fig. 241.
igo
TO WN-SUR VE YING.
AS TO THE CHAIN.
town, and as it adopted c d.
is
191
always best to take the longest line for a base we so happened that a b is so situated that it was possible to set out the hne at right angles to c d, which of course was of immense advantage. But with the exception of the short line gh, this is the only case in which it was possible. Taking the upper portion first, it will be seen that g c at the ends of c D and of a g with a b circumscribed this portion of the
It
town
whilst
on the hne a b, stations at a, a', b', d, /, and n were ,left, on G c, stations b, c, and d; and on the upper part of c d,
/.
h and
G c d should be taken as argued that if these latter two angles are accurately taken, and the distances Ga,an, and n c are carefully measured, then by calculation in the one case and measurement in the other the length g c will be proved. I say it is so argued, but my own opinion' is that whilst about it the most
Strictly speaking, the angles
aoc and
it is
well as
G b and
en a;
although
satisfactory
especially as
way will be to take the angles with the we must take the angles Gbe,ccf,G dg.
theodohte, It is not
absolutely necessary to take the angle b ef, but those cfj,fjg, k Ic are imperative ; as are also a 3' e and kd m. The angle a a' e is not necessary, but the line d e should be carefully measured as a tie ; g h needs only to be measured from its two terminal points and will act as a check on dg and c /i. Similarly, if the angles Ab' f and a d be carefully observed in the lower portion, it is not absolutely necessary to take more than y tn and u s ^, a.s all the other lines tend to check the trapesium b' Fvn; ior tn and w a; in one direction and ry' and x z in the other are as complete checks as can be wanted. Thus will be seen the relative systems to be adopted in street surveying, but let it never be forgotten that there should be no The question about the angle any street may form with another. line c D was able to be produced until it fitted into the system of triangulation for the survey of the district around the town. The traffic in the streets is a considerable drawback to the operations of the surveyor, whilst from twelve till two and -after four o'clock are periods towards which he looks with dread, as at these times he is sure to be accompanied or surrounded by a powerful contingent of the rising generation, whose inquisitiveness and love of mischief are of the greatest impediment to his progress, and test his patience and temper to the utmost.
gj k, and
As to the Chain. For ordinary small scale plans the measurements may be taken with a 66-ft. chain, but when great detail and
accuracy are requisite the loo-ft. chain is the best. The offsets should be taken in feet and inches with a tape; those at right angles to the chain-line require the greatest care and are best set out with an ordinary square (as it is seldom, from the narrowness
192
TO WN-SUR VE YING.
of the streets, that an optical square can be used) having one arm 6 ft. and the other 4 ft. long (see Fig. 243). This should be laid on the ground and adjusted until the long arm is in line with the point to which the offset is to be taken. But it is not sufficient to
N
f
trust to
such
offsets to fix the corners or angles
of buildings.
tie-line is necessary, as in sketch.

It is very seldom that the frontages of streets are straight or that they are of equal width. It more frequently happens that indentations of all kinds occur as in Fig. 244, where it will be seen that in order to accurately take up the various angles and inden-
tations a very elaborate
network of triangulation
is
necessary, as
shown by the dotted
lines.
It is not sufficient at the angles formed by one street running out of another to take an offset at right angles, and form a rightangled triangle as a check. It is necessary to make an independent triangle such as a ^ ir, k.ab, A.cd, he d, hef, A gf, a g h, ox hha
in Fig. 245.
The diamond formed by those trianês whjch are hatched need not necessarily be taken, but it is quite as well to have the
thing complete, especially at important points.* When the outlines of the streets have been surveyed
and
plotted,
the survey^^should make a careful tracing of sections of the work, and thencar^fjally walk over the route to examine every detail, so as to be sîBffied that nothing has been omitted.
Thenâ station plan, drawn to a large scale, should be prepared and mounted, in sizes of about 18 in. square, on a board, so that the details of the houses and outbuildings may be accurately drawn to scale as the measurements proceed. A steel tape or a lo-ft.
rod
is
the best thing for this purpose.
When
to take Angles.
In busy thoroughfares
it is
always
desirable to take the angles soon after daybreak, so that the operations may not be impeded by the traffic.
METHOD OF TAKING
PROJECTIONS.
193
SURVEY OF PART OF THE TOWN

OF
LEATHERHEAD.
hn
194
TO WN-S UR VE YING.
In measuring buildings the greatest care is necessary to see that the total length of a series of frontages is equal to the sum of the For this purpose separate frontages. the addition should always be made on the side of the field-book or upon the detail drawing, and in ink if possible.
Do not erase
Figures.
In
all
branches of surveying it is important to bear in mind that figures when once '9 written down should on no account be erased, but if it is necessary to alter them then draw the pencil through the existing figures, and over or by the side Fig. 245. make the alteration. I have seen some very serious mistakes occur by rubbing-out figures which after all have proved to have been right. If you cannot drive a peg or spike into the road, as in the case of asphalte roads, then the intersection of lines should be arranged so as to cut at some point on the curb or pavement, in order that a nail or spike may be driven in at a joint.
along a should be left to denote the number of chains, and the leader (who should always have plenty of chalk about him) should mark with a "crow'sfoot " the end of the chain together with the number, with chalk,
Use Arrows
for counting:.
In
measuring a
if
line
it
street
an arrow should be stuck
in if possible, or
not,
either
upon the pavement or on the

to Buildings.
walls of the buildings.
Outhouses should be specified in the fieldChurches, chapels, schools, and all public buildings should be carefully noted. Also public-houses, beer-houses, " on " and " off" licences, &c.
book.
As
Lamp-posts, Gullies, &c.
The
position
of lamp-posts,
gullies, ventilators, sluice-valves, hydrants,
manholes, &c., must
be taken en route and carefully plotted on the plan.
As to Streams. Should a street or road cross over a river or stream the full particulars thereof must be noted ; and by an arrow Or in the case of the direction of the flow should be indicated. a railway crossing over or being crossed by a street, the name and particulars of the railway, together with the direction of its commencement and termination, should be ascertained and marked upon the plan. The nature of the street or road should be observed whether gravel, macadam, granite-pitched, wood, asphalte, &c. And the pavement, whether York paving, artificial stone, asphalte, concrete, brick-on-edge, gravel, &c. The boundaries of the various
PHOTOGRAPHIC SURVEYING.
195
parishes must be ascertained and carefully plotted, even in such a case as occurred to me at Hereford, where I found that the intersections of three parishes occurred in one of the bedrooms of a school-house. The parliamentary or municipal boundaries, or those of wards, must also be shown. Each road or street must be plainly marked with its name, and the thoroughfares at the outside of the survey should have written in italics the places to or whence they lead.
As to Plotting. The survey of a town or parish should always be plotted so as to be north and south ; in other words,
the top of the sheet
is
north and the
left
and
right sides are west
and
east respectively.
Photographic Surveying. The employment of photographic views as data upon which to construct a topographical survey, was originally suggested by Colonel Laussedat a French
ofiScer,
some time Professor
in
the Ecole
Polytechnique and
Director of the Ecole Centrale des Arts et Metiers, whose exposition of the theory and procedure still forms the foundation of Various points and features of the its application in practice. ground surveyed are shown in views photographed from various stations, and are located by intersection of the sight-lines from two or more such stations; the position of the several stations being fixed by a trigonometrical survey. The general principle is the same as that of plane-table surveying ; but whereas the plotting of the work in the case of the latter is, practically speaking, done on the ground, that of a photographic survey is performed The process of this plotting is one of at leisure in the office. considerable complexity, and the business altogether requires no small acquaintance with the theory and practice of photography. To teach a. learner the work of such a survey by a brief descripa course of instruction possessing any real tion is impossible value would form a treatise in itself, and even this would be of little use unless supplemented by illustrative teaching and practical
:
example. The student is referred to an excellent handbook by Mr. E. Deville, Surveyor-General of Dominion Lands in Canada,* which goes fully into the subject, and appears to carry the learner as far as is possible in print, beyond which nothing but actual experience in practice can qualify him in knowledge.
Photography has been extensively employed in Government

surveys in Canada ; and would probably be found advantageous for a general topographical survey of mountainous and rough country, as a basis for subsequent detailed surveys by the ordinary In the preface to his book, Mr. Deville has stated methods.
* "Photographic Surveying," 8vo,
Ottawa 1895.
96
TO WN-S UR VE YING.
and discussed the advantages and the difficulties of the photographic method, and regards it as possessing great superiority over It must, however, be added that the that of the plane-table. Geographer of the U.S.A. Geological Survey has recorded * a distinctly unfavourable opinion of it as compared with plane-table
surveying.
*
H. M. Wilson, " Topographic Surveying,"
8vo,
New York
1900.
CHAPTER
IX.
LEVELLING.
Levelling is the art of finding the difference between two points which are vertically at different distances from a plane parallel with the horizon. Take the ocean or a sheet of water, the calm surface of which is in a plane parallel with the horizon, then the bank or beach that is above the water-line at certain points is relatively higher in level than the water itself. Thus in Fig. 246, where a represents the impingement of the water upon
'
Fig. 246.
the slopes of the stream, B is relatively higher, than the horizontal line l l'.
and c and d lower,
This
but
it is
is a very primitive description of what levelling means, nevertheless a true one.
As to the Earth's Curvature. But there is a very important consideration in reference to this question, and that is, that the earth being spherical in form, strictly speaking two points are only truly level when they are equidistant from the centre of the earth. Also, one place is higher than another, or out of level with it, when it is further from the centre of the earth ; and a line equally distant from that centre, in all its points, is called the line of triie level. Hence, because the earth is round, that line must be a curve, and make a part of the earth's circumference, or at least be parallel to it and concentrical with it, as the line p f d b c e q (Fig. 247), which has all its points equally distant from a, the
centre of the earth considered as a perfect globe. But the line of sight f' d' b c' e', given by the operation of levels, is a tangent or right line perpendicular to the semi-diameter of the earth at the point of contact b, rising always higher above

198
LEVELLING.
the true line of level the farther the distances, and is called the apparent true level. Thus c' c is the height of apparent above the true level, at the distance b c from b ; also e' e is the excess of The difference between the true and the apparent height at e.
it is evident, is always equal to the excess of the secant of the arc of distance above the radius of the earth. Now the difference c c' between the true and apparent level, by a well-known at any distance b c or b c', may be found thus c c' b c' : b c' c c' ; or, because property of the circle z a c the diameter of the earth is so great with respect to the line c c' at all distances to which the operation of levelling commonly
level,
c c' in that extends, that 2 a c may be safely taken for 2 a c proportion, without any sensible error, it will be, as 2 a c b c' b c'^ B c^ nearly; that is, the or B c' to c c' c c' therefore 2 A c 2 a c difference between the true and apparent level is equal to the square of the distance between the places, divided by the diameter of the earth; and consequently is always proportional to the square of the distance. Taking the mean diameter of the earth (2 a c), as 41,781,097
: : ;
feet
501,373,164 inches, and the distance b c

:
mile
63,360
inches
63.360'
2
4,014,489,600
AC
is
8 inches in one mile,
501,373,164
501,373,164
which
the difference between the apparent
and the true
level.
Refraction.
considered,
There
that
is
is
also another matter that has to be
"atmospheric refraction." The line of sight, being the line along which the light proceeds from the object looked at to the telescope, is not perfectly straight, being made slightly concave downwards by the refracting action of the air. Hence the point seen on the staff apparently in the line of collimation produced is not exactly in that line, but is below it by an amount called the error from refraction, and thus the error arising
and

ADJUSTMENTS.
from curvature
199
is partly neutralised ; and the correction to be subtracted fpr curvature and refraction usually is somewhat less than the correction for curvature alone. The error produced by refraction varies very much with the state of the atmosphere, having been found to range from one-half to one-tenth of the correction for curvature, and in some cases to vary even more. Its value cannot be expressed with certainty by any known formula ; but when it becomes necessary to allow for it, it may be assumed to be on an average o'iS4 of the correction for curvature; so that the joint correction for curvature and refraction to be subtracted from the reading of the staff is as shown in the following table
:
Table of Deductions from Staff-readings for Correction of Curvature and Refraction together.
Distance, or B c.
"
:
2O0
LEVELLING.
1. To plant the legs of the instrument firmly in the ground, taking care that the parallel plates are made as horizontal as
possible.
2.
To To
level " the instrument," that
is,
to place the vertical axis
truly vertical.
3.
adjust the telescope for the prevention of " parallax,"
that
is,
to bring the foci of the glasses to the cross-wires, look
through the telescope, and shift the eye-piece in and out until the cross-wires are seen with perfect distinctness. Then direct the telescope to some well-defined distant object, and by means of the milled-head screw, shift the inner tube in and out until the image of the object is seen sharp and clear, coinciding apparently with the cross-wire. This latter part of the adjustment must be made anew for each new object at a diflferent distance from the preceding one. The nearer the object the further the inner tube
must be drawn out. A good test of the adjustment for parallax is to move the head from side to side while looking through the telescope. If the adjustment is perfect, the image of the object will seem steadily to coincide with the cross-wires if imperfect, the image will seem If the image seems to shift to to waver as the head is moved. the opposite direction to the head, the inner tube must be drawn out further ; if in the same direction, it must be drawn inwards. Simple Levelling is of two kinds, simple and compound. levelling has only one line of coUimation, whilst compound levelling entails constant changes of coUimation, and hence the
;
Fig. 248.
for extreme accuracy in the work and care in the In the case of Fig. 248 the instruadjustment of the instrument. ment is placed equally between a and b, and the telescope being directed towards a, the line of coUimation cuts the staff at 570 (this being the first reading is called the " back-sight ") ; * the telescope is then reversed, and the reading appears 1 1 '68, consequently, by the invariable rule that if the intermediate or fore-sights are ; greater than the back-sights they are " falls," and if less " rises Here in the present case it is a fall of 5^98 feet from a to b. I would refer to a query which is frequently put by students
necessity
* In simple levelling, the
adjusted
ment
is
first sight after the level has been planted and always the " back-sight," and the very last sight before the instru: " removed is the fore-sight " all others are " intermediates."
is
COMPOUND LEVELLING.
201
" How does the height of the instrument afifect the result ? " The height of the instrument has nothing whatever to do with the operation of levelling, and the jsnly thing that will account for this
it is known to be requisite in levelling with a theodolite to have the distance of the axis of the telescope from the ground, or that in the early days of levelling it was usual to note the height of the instrument. But I think I shall have no difficulty in showing that, as in the case of Fig. 248, the line of coUimation being an imaginary line parallel with the horizon, the heights which are taken at A and b are in reality the depths of the surface of the ground at those points below the line of coUimation, consequently it does not matter whether the Instrument is 4 or 40 feet above the surface of the ground.
fallacy is either that
Compound Levelling consists of following the undulation of the ground along a line of section, by means of varying lines of collimation, according to the rise or fall of the ground. Fig. 249 is a simple illustration of my meaning. The instrument is placed equidistant between a and b, and the reading of the staff
Fig. 249.
A is 4-10, whilst that at b is 10-15, showing a fall of 6-05. Next remove the level to b and establish a new line of collimation. Now where in the previous case was a fore-sight 10-15, the instrument now reads on the same staff 5-30 as a back-sight, consequently Now the line of collimation is 4-85 lower than that from a to b. turn the telescope towards c for a fore-sight 8-19, and then move Here again our line of collimation is lower, the instrument to c. its exact depth being determined by reading off the staff at c a backat
sight of 3-50,
which gives a
fall
4-69.
a fore-sight at d of 0-17,
now move the
level to
Reverse the telescope for d on higher ground,
and we
find that the line of collimation cuts the staff at
for
a back-sight at 7-18, or a rise of 7-01. At e the fore-sight is 0-30, whilst a back-sight from the level at to e is only 0-40, showing the last line of collimation to be only o'lo higher than the one from D to E, the staff at f showing a fore-sight of 6-15 shows a fall
i?
will now tabulate these results, and for of 5 '75 from e to f. the moment I shall only deal with two columns for the readings of back- and fore-sights, and the ordinary " rise " and " fall " columns.
We
202
LEVELLING.
Back-sight.
"
ORDNANCE DATUM.
203
above this datum respectively. It is not, however, usual or necessary to adopt the ordnance datum in ordinary levelling operations, but to assume some convenient depth below the lowest point of the section, the reason for which is obviously that all altitudes shall be' above this datum, so that they will always be positive and never negative heights.
Now, as an illustration, referring to Fig. 249, seeing that by the level-book f is 4"48 ft. below a, we may safely assume our datum to be 20 ft. below a, and to elucidate the operation it is necessary here to explain that the calculated heights above datum are called reduced levels, and appear in another column next to the " fall column, I repeat the level-book to show this.
Back-sight.
204
uninitiated,
LEVELLING.
and I want to make it clear that, having accurately taken the readings of the staff at the back- and fore-sight stations, the identity of the instrument now ceases from the work. This is the real answer to the question so often put as to whether any notice is to be taken of the height of the instrument from the ground.
Bench-marks.
I leave this
portion of the question for the
present, to consider the next important process, viz. that of benchmarks. It has been laid down as an invariable rule, that to secure a perfect system of levelling, some clearly defined and im-
A
BM
Fig. 251. Fig. 252.
shall be established to serve as the basis of all In other words, whether it is the top of a mile-stone, a operations. corner of the top step of some well-known building, a boundary stone, the hinge-post of a gate, the trunk of a tree, or a mark cut on a wall, that such should represent the commencement of a
movable point
Fig. 253.
Fig. 254.
series of levels, which shall be so accurately described and located as to enable the greatest stranger to easily determine its whereabouts. In selecting a bench-mark, if on a mile-stone or a gate-post, the
BENCH-MARKS.
highest point
;
205
is always to be taken or, in the case of a stone post, whose top may be uneven, by intention or wear, then select the extreme point, as shown in Fig. 251 and in the case of iron or round stone posts the apex, as in Fig. 252. Let me say one word
;
regarding
(Fig. 253).
the habit of driving nails

It is
into
the trunks of trees
by no means a satisfactory one, and should be avoided except under most exceptional circumstances. It may be necessary to utilise a tree in close proximity to the work, in which
m
Fig- 2SS-
^S
Fig. 256.
case it is always advisable to cut across or crow's foot on the root, as in Fig. 254. Again, it is usual to advise students to make bench-marks of gate-posts, the favourite expression being the " top hook of the hanging post," as in Fig. 255. I can only say that this is a mistake, as the constant opening and shutting of the gate must loosen the hook and destroy the identity of the mark. The hanging post of gates, in the absence of any more suitable fixtures, may do very well, but instead of being the hook, as in Fig. 255, it
Fig. 257.
Fig. 258.
should be on the top of the post itself, as in Fig. 256. The doorsteps of churches, chapels, public-houses, farmhouses, &c., are frequently adopted for bench-marks, in which case it is always usual to take the top step (Fig. 257), and to be extremely careful Ordnance to describe whether it is north, south, east, or west. bench-marks are invariably cut in the walls of buildings, public or private, or in stone or wooden mile- or gate-posts, and are in the
form of a
crow's-foot, similar to Fig. 258.
2o6
LEVELLING.
Position of Bench-marks. Bench-marks need not necesbe exactly on the line of section, nor is it essential they In starting to take should be at the commencement of the work. levels the staff is held upon some convenient permanent mark, such as I have mentioned, as near to the work as possible. I have known cases where the only fixed point suitable for a bench-mark has been a considerable distance away, in which case it has been necessary to level expressly from this point to that of the commencement of the section, even if it be a mile off or more. Upon the Sligo, Leitrim, and Northern Counties Railway we had only two bench-marks in 42^ miles' length, and each was some considerable distance from the commencement and termination of the railway, and was on the top of iron mile-posts. My advice is always to have frequent bench-marks, say one at
sarily
every furlong, as they are invaluable at the time the section is If the operation of levelling taken or in after times for reference. takes longer than the one day, when leaving off always do so upon a bench-mark, from which you may safely resume your levelling at a subsequent date. In entering the position of a bench-mark in the level-book it needs to be described very minutely, somewhat thus " B M on top of doorstep, n e corner of Coach and Horses p h " or " B M on top of sixth mile-post from Dover ; " or " b m on top of hanging post of gate leading from main road to Cedar Farm."
:
Different Kinds of Levelling. Levelling may be done in ist, by taking observations of altitude at measured points upon a given line, which is called a section ; 2nd, by taking observations of altitude at points along a road ; 3rd, relative levels at points of an estate, whose positions are fixed, upon plan, and
several ways
:
whose
relative values to the
datum are marked thereon.
a line of section. It is usual to set out a line either straight or curved, which shall comprehend a line of country of which it is necessary to determine the various features of undulaAfter having held the staff tion, commenced at a fixed point, as a. upon a bench-mark at a, it is removed to the point which is the
First, as to
commencement
of the section.
Level-book. Before going into details, however,; it is necessary that I should say a few words as to the level-book and the method of taking observations. The following is in my judgment It conthe form of level-book best adapted to modern practice. sists of seven columns on the left page and one column and a The first three columns, viz. large space on the right page. " back-sight," " intermediate," and " fore-sight," are exclusively
for the observations with
the instrument; and these, together with the seventh column on the left page and the whole of the right for " distance," " total distance," and " remarks," have
LEVEL-BOOK.
laj
reference only to field operations, whilst the fourth, fifth, and sixth columns, for " rise," " fall," and " reduced levels," need not necessarily be worked out in the field, but it is always as well to do so if time and circumstances permit.
2o8
LEVELLING.
instrument is always a fore-sight, and all other sights are intermediate. Again, a back-sight signifies the commencement of a series of levels and fore-sight its termination. Now 6*30 is the first reading, therefore book it in the first column, and having entered it take another look to satisfy yourself that the reading is
Now there are three points at which it is desirable to have readings before moving the instrument i"6o, i"45, and o"S5. These being connected with the same line of collimation will appear in the second or " intermediate " column, and for convenience of sight it is arranged that the chain-man should hold the staff at a point the reading of which is 0-59, which, being the last, will appear in the third or " fore-sight " column, and we have now done with this line of collimation, and must proceed to establish another. But the staff must remain at the last point, only be careful, in turning the figures towards the new position of the
correct.*
level, that
it
is
trate
my meaning
exactly upon the same spot.t To better illusby reference to Fig. 259, the instrument is at a
Fig. 259. (for the first line of collimation), and b is the point deemed desirable for a change of collimation, the staff being held on some fixed point at b and the sight taken at a, the reading of which The second line of collimation is established by planting is 0*59. the level at c, and reading the staff still held at b, but cutting it at Now the o'59 goes in the third column and b, which reads 9"8o. 9*8o in the first, but whilst the readings are different the point b is just the same, the staff never having moved (except to turn its
face towards c). collimationj
The difference
it
lies in
the alteration of the lines of
most important to impress this fact, that the accuracy of the levels is entirely dependent upon the care with
is
and
* To carefully observe a reading and make a mental note thereof enables the leveller to accurately record it in the book ; and looking again, after having booked it, will prove a corroboration of the observation. t I always prefer, in cases of change, before establishing my fore-sight to select a stone, peg, or root of tree, in fact anything firm upon which the If in pasture land, instruct your man to carry a stone, and staff may be held. to well kick it into the ground before placing the staff upon it.
FOOT-PLATES.
209
which the changes of collimation are made, so that if there is the shghtest alteration in the point at p, where the sights a and b are observed in other words, if ihe stafif in the process of turning has shifted only ever so slightly the accuracy of the work is jeopardised, nay, destroyed. Let me further emphasise this. According to
the reading of the stafif at b the value of a is 0*59 when the staff is held on a stone (as a, Fig. 260). Now if the chain-man- is not careful when he raises the staff to turn it towards the instrument, although he may place it back on the same stone, yet if from want of care instead of doing so at a he puts it upon a lower part of the stone, as b, then the difference of the lines of collimation will be \ in. out, and the identity of a and b at B, in Fig. 259, destroyed, for by this error of \ in. they are not
taken on the self-same spot.
To obviate such an unfortunate contingency very desirable that the chain-man should carry slung on his arm an iron foot-plate, such as Fig. 261, or, for soft ground, a foot-peg, as Fig. 262. I think I have sufi&ciently explained the importance of these precautions, and now proceed with the second line of collimation, with 9-80 as the back-sight. By reference to the level-book it will be seen that the real pjg. 261. commencement of the section is not until the 2-20, and first intermediate in the second line of collimation, viz. into use, and three it is here that the seventh column is brought
Foot-plates.
it is
CLBVATION
Fig. 262.
PLAN
measurement. cyphers are booked to notify the zero of the horizontal at At I chain occurs the second intermediate 4-30, and following eight mterare links and 700 600, 500, 150, 180, 200, 300, 400, 10-50 mediate sights, 5-90, 8-30, lO'oo, 7-30, 4-90, 3-50, o-io,and
now make and for the convenience of shifting the instrument we only, having a fore-sight (12-53) on a peg put in for that purpose This ends the no chainage because not intended to be plotted. begins collimation of line third The line of collimation.
second
with
8-60, back-sieht of 5-02, has four intermediates, 4'7o>
r8o,
2IO
LEVELLING.
fore-sight (5 '02) also
and iioo links, and is terminated by a on a peg not to be plotted. The third line of collimation begins with a back-sight (7 "30) on that peg, has an intermediate (7 "40) at 1200 links of chainage, and terminates with a fore-sight (io"2 7) on the bench-mark from which we started this also forms no part io~ of the plotted section, and therefore has is'tT no chainage. I have given this illustration, taken from actual practice over a portion of a section of a railway, which by being for the first 1200 links round a very sharp curve, gave the section the form in which it appears in Fig. 263, and also enabled us to tie upon our original bench-mark.
i3'5o, at 800, 900, 1000,
:
Keeping the Level=book.
now
wish to speak of the method of keeping the level-book, and shall take p. 207 for illustration. On p. 200 I have explained that if the " intermediate or fore-sights are greater than the back-sights they are falls, and if less
and thus in the present case we shall have no difficulty in making up our book as
rises,"
follows.
1
Working diagonally downwards
from
m^
to right, i"6o being less than a rise of 470; i'45 being less than i"6o is also a rise; o'ss being less than i"4S is a rise; but 0-59 being greater than o'S5 is a fall of 0*04. We have now done with the first series ; and although the fore-sight 0*59 and the back-sight 9'8o are taken on the same point, I prefer to
left
is
6'3o,
a fresh line, as a better illustration each series is independent of the other. Thus 9'8o back-sight being greater than 2'2o (intermediate) is a rise, but 2'2o being less than 4-30 shows a fall of 2'io, and 4-30 less than 5'9o a fall of i"6o, and so on until lo'oo being greater than 7^30 we have a rise of 270, 2*40, 1*40, 3*40,
start
that
a fall of io"4o, and finally the fore-sight i2'53 being greater than the last intermediate (lO'So) shows a fall of 2'o3. Now a new line of collimation, with a back-sight of 5"o2, we have a rise of o'32, the three intermediates showing falls of 3*90, 3"20, 170 respectively, whilst the fore-sight gives a rise of 8'48, and the fourth and last line of collimation has a fall of o'lo from the back-sight, and also on to the B.M. a fall of 2 '87.
MAKING UP LEVEL-BOOK.
how
It is here necessary to. explain the level- book. have seen that, commencing with a back-sight of 6'3o on the bench-mark, we terminate upon the same point with a fore-sight of io"27, and that we have four backsights of 6-30, 9-80, 5-02, and 7-30, giving a total of 28-42 ft., and also four fore-sights of 0*59, 12-53, 5-02, and 10-27, in all 28-41 ft. Thus the back-sight being greater by o'oi than the fore-sight shows a discrepancy of j-oo'th of a foot, or Jth of an inch. In so short a distance this should not occur, as i in. in four miles is considered the allowance for errors. I have purposely shown it thus to illustrate my meaning. Now if we have correctly reduced the intermediate and fore-sight from the back-sight, the rises and falls if added together should give the same difference as that existing between the back- and fore-sights, or 32-05 rise 32-04 fall o'oi. Now on p. 202 I have spoken about datum, and in the present case I have assumed a datum of 50 ft. below the bench-mark. This 50 ft. appears in the sixth column, opposite the 6-30 in the first, and it will be necessary to carry forward the system of reduced levels by adding or deducting the consecutive rises or falls as follows 50-00 -f 4-70 0-15 = 54-85, 54-85 -I- 90 54-70, 54-70 55-75, This last being a fall must be deducted. S5'7i' 5S'75 ~" o'4 There is no reduced level opposite 9-80 in the back-sight column, as being identical with 0-59 in the fore-sight column ; its value is just the same* above datum of 55'7i, and to save confusion I simply draw a dash across the space. Then to 55-71 must be 61*21 ; from 61-21 added 7-60 63-31 ; from 63-31 2'io 1-60 57-21; 57"2i 59-61; 59-61-2-40 170 55"Si; 2-70 58-21, and so on until the last fall of 2-87, oppo55-51 site the last fore-sight 10-27, gives a result of 50-01, from which should be taken the height above datum, viz. 50-00 = o-oi, or Having thus obtained all our reduced levels, we Yg-j-th of a foot. now proceed to plot our section, of which I shall have something But I want to explain how to avoid any complito say later on. cations or inaccuracies with the level-book in cases where there are a large number of intermediate sights, so much so as to go over on to the next page. The following is a very simple illustration.
Making up Level-book.
to
make up
We
= =
Some
line, as in
example
surveyors prefer to place their back- and fore-sights upon the same to devote a separate line to each obser; but I prefer vation, as in example B, 4
which shows more

B. S.
clearly the various lines of coUimation. The back-sight g'So
is
placed one lower than
fore-sight O'Sg, being taken on the bame spot, for the
new
collimation-line.
212
LEVELLING.
"
COLLIMATION METHOD.
213
In the first case at the bottom of Example No. i is an intermediate 4-90, and at top of page No. 2 is also an intermediate immediately following, of 3-50, so that the fore-sight 12-53 does not occur until the fifth line. Now it is absolutely necessary to make each page of the level-book balance, so that the difference between the back- and fore-sights, rise and fall, and reduced levels, should correspond. But page No. i (Example i) will not enable you to do this, for you have only one fore-sight, o'S9, as compared with two back-sights, or i6-io, or a rise of 15 '51; and if you deduct the falls from the rises down to 4*90, you will find i8'45 ~ 7*84 = io*6i, and this is not only confusing (although not absolutely wrong), but may lead to serious errors ; whereas if, as in the Example 2, when you get to the bottom of the page, you make 4-90 a temporary fore-sight taking care that what you have borrowed on page i you repay on page 2, so that 4-90 appears there as a back-sight by this means each page can be made to balance, and the facility in making up the book is immense. It may be asked how is it that the total back-sights in case No. i are 28*42 and the fore-sights 28"4i, whilst in case No. 2 they are 33*32 and 33*31 respectively ? The reason undoubtedly is because we have added one more back- and fore-sight thus 28*42 4*90 = 33'32, and 28*41 -|- 4*90 = 33*31 ; but the difference between the back- and fore-sight is exactly the same in both cases, or j^th of a foot. It may from the foregoing example seem hardly a matter of much importance, but I can assure my readers that a whole level-book will involve a very much greater amount of trouble in making up by the old way, and errors in casting up will creep in unawares which could not possibly occur if each page is made to properly balance. Let me here say again that on no account must figures be rubbed out in the back-, intermediate, fore-sight, or distance columns, as any alteration can be made by drawing the pencil through the figures that are wrong,
and
re-written.
Collimation Method. A method of keeping the level-book without " rise " and " fall " columns is termed sometimes the " height of instrument method " and sometimes the " collimation method." The principle is, that all sights taken at the first " set of the instrument are referred to the height of its collimation above the first starting-point ; and those taken at each successive " set," to the height of such new collimation above the spot on which the fore-sight of the previous " set " was taken, the new collimationheight being determined by adding to the reduced level of that fore-sight the reading of the back-sight taken after the shift of the From each collimation-height, the intermediates and instrument. the fore-sight taken at that " set," are deducted, the remainders being the reduced levels of the several points. As the intermediates
214
in
LEVELLING.
some
is
" sets " are numerous, each successive collimationentered (on the same line as the new back-sight) in a column so headed, without which it would have to be either noted The subjoined on a slip of paper or carried in the memory. version of the level-book (see page 207), when kept according to It the coUimation method, exemplifies the mode of procedure. will be observed that the coUimation-height, unlike the reduced levels, is not entered at each sight, but given only at the commencement of the " set " to which it relates, thus effecting a saving of trouble and of possible confusion with the reduced levels of the
height
several points.
COLLIMATION METHOD LEVEL-BOOK.
11
LEVELLINC'STAFF.
215
bench-mark a, that dimension is entered as the reduced level of the bench-mark ; and back-sight 6-30 is added thereto and entered as
collimation-height for the sights of the first " set." From this, the intermediates are one by one deducted, and finally the fore-sight o'59 at peg No. 3 leaves the reduced level of that peg 5S'7i. The
then shifted, and the back-sight 9-80 (on peg No. 3) level of the previous "set," giving 65-51. As a back-sight has no reduced level, a line is there drawn across the reduced level and the distance columns. The intermediates and the fore-sight throughout the second " set " are then one by one deducted from the new colUmation height 65-51 ; and the like procedure is followed at each shift, and so on, to the end of the section. It will be noticed that each sight back, intermediate, or fore is entered on a separate line, and that a new collimation-height always stands on the same line as a new back-sight adherence to this practice will be found conducive to clearness in the entries. The coUimation-method is by many surveyors considered a great improvement on the old " rise " and " fall " system ; and, by keeping the " distance " and " remarks " columns on the righthand page, the level-book can be reduced to a width of 3! inches (a considerable gain in handiness) without cramping the space available for the several entries, while at the same time all risk of confusing the chainage figures with those of the staff-readings is avoided. It is further claimed as a merit of the method, that the surveyor can reduce his levels as he proceeds, and thus save time in officework. The actual gain on this score, however, is at best only slight, and seems to be more than counterbalanced by the inevitable risk of error attending such, work in the field, whatever be the form in which the level-book is kept. On this point, the opinion of an old and deservedly esteemed authority merits careful remembrance " Some surveyors reduce their levels in the field, but it is not a commendable practice ; there is plenty to occupy a man's attention without that." *
instrument
is
is
added
5571 the final reduced a new collimation-height of

to
I proceed now to speak of the levellingdescribed in Chapter III.) and its manipulation. It has been explained that the most approved staves are those upon the 5 ft., 4 ft. 6 in., and 4 ft. 6 in. for telescopic principle in three pieces the 14-ft. ; and 6 ft., 5 ft. 6 in., and 4 ft. 6 in. for the i6-ft. staff. At the top of the two lower members there is a spring-clip (Fig. 264; which presses its way into the oval hole, so as to keep it from Some makers have a spring-clip which, slipping up or down. upon the member being drawn out, closes accurately over the top of the lower portion, as in Fig. 265, whilst some surveyors prefer, * Boiwns,, " Principles and Practice. o Surveying," p. 220<
Levening=staff.
staff (fully
2l6
to
LEVELLING.
It is
have the members of the
screw.
staff secured by means of a thumbvery necessary that the chain-man be carefully drilled in the use of the staff before
commencing
of the staff
is
operations.
He
to
its
should see that each length
drawn out
proper length and the springclips are secure,
and
in carry-
ing
it
he should be careful
not to injure
to strike the
it by allowing it boughs of trees In open counor buildings. try he may carry it with
the lowest portion over his shoulder, but in woods, orchards, etc., he had better carry it trailing with the top joint in front of him; in
crossing a ditch or brook he should either get some one to hold it whilst he gets over, or should lay it gently across with the bottom in the direction in which he is going, and upon no account use it as a jumpFig. 264.
Fig. 265.
The staff must always be perfectly

ing-pole.
plumb, and
the
chainit it
man must
hold standing behind
by
with his fingers on the top of the first joint, as in Fig. 266. When once upon a back- or fore-sight he must never move until so instructed by the surveyor,
DinEcrimi cF
and to avoid any chance of an error in booking by

reason of the staff not being exactly perpendicular, it is
as well to gently
wave the top backwards and forwards from a to b,

FRONT VIW
Fig. 266.
SIDE VIEW
Fig. 267.
as in Fig. 267. It is quite enough for an intelligent
man to
look after
obey the instructions of the leveller, and between them there should be a code of intelligible signals,
holding the
staff
and
to
AS TO DISTANCES.
which
useful. at
217
will
a distance or in windy weather
be extrpmely
As to Distances.After holding the staff upon the benchmark and at such other points en route as may be necessary, at the commencement of the
chainage
or section, the staff-holder holds it on the
surface of the ground, and when directed moves along the chain as required, or to
the end. He should be well acquainted with read_,. '^' ^ ing the divisions on the chain, as it is sometimes necessary to book the distances from a point away, in which case you must trust to your chain-man, but not if you can possibly avoid it. Now across open ground there is little need for taking sights oftener than at the end of each chain, unless the> ground be very undulating. In crossing a bank similar to that in Fig. 268, it is necessary to take the tops and bottoms thus, ii40flr, 11541^, the near bottom and top of slope, 1184^ the foretop; whilst 1200 comes part of the way down the slope, the bottom of which d \^ 12 15, but in a case of this kind it is not absolutely necessary to take a level at
'
Fig. 270.
In the case of Fig. 269, in crossing 1200, being so near to 1215. a ditch and fence levels are required at e,f, g, and h, but distances must be taken at those points such as 1310, 1312, 1317, and 1319,
and
269,
it is
as well to
make a
In crossing a
river,
sketch in the level-book similar to Fig. whose width admits of both banks
2l8
LEVELLING.
being observed from the same station, it is usual to take the edge of each bank and the impingement of the water on the shore, as a, b, c, d in Fig. 270; and if sufficiently shallow to allow the staff to be read with the bottom upon the bed, so much the better if not, the depth of the surface of the water above the bed must be ascertained by sounding either with the levelling staff, or, if not long enough, with a line and lead.
;
Measuring across Streams. If the river be too wide to measure with a chain, resort will have to be had to one or other of the methods of calculating the width described in Chapter IV. It sometimes happens, as in Fig. 271, that the end of a chain comes near to the edge of a river, whose width is too great to admit of a chain-peg being on the other side; in such a case it is unnecessary to resort to calculation, if the exact width is taken with the chain. Supposing it to be not wider than 100 links, by care it is possible to connect and to continue the chainings. In
Fig. 272.
near edge of the river is 1435, and the width to the opposite edge is 80 hnks, thus 1435 80 = 1515, and if 15 links is held at that point, then the end of the chain will be 200 links from the last arrow at 1400. In the case of a wide river, of say 3 or 4 chains' width, it is desirable to establish a bench-mark and send a man across with a staff and instruct him to hold the staff upon a bench-mark on the other side, then take a long-distance sight across and allow for curvature and refraction. This only as a test of the subsequent operation of levelling round by possibly a circuitous route as shown in Fig. 272, when it may be necessary to sight for upwards of i^ mile round by a bridge ; or across some
this case the
convenient ford, in which case, having levelled from a to b, it will be absolutely imperative to check back from B to a before con-
In taking the level of water of a tidal river tinuing the section. is necessary to ascertain the level of high and low water.
it
PROVIDING FOR CURVATURE, ETC.

Providing for Curvature, &c.
It will
219
^ÂfB) STAFF
have
that,
been
#!\
.
\
\
in tâ ISO speaking about curvature and refraction, I said it was seldom LEVEL a'/4""-'-"4(> /
noticed
4^
considered in modern
practice, as
by equalat
in-
ising the distance be-
tween the staflF each end and the
'%.
strument, the necessity for making the
(a| Tao)'kfi STAFF ,-'' \ (F.S 0-59)
allowance would be If only obviated. back- and fore-sights are required it will not be difficult to arrange for the equidistance of the staff, but it does not necessarily follow
%$^
4-30
c4;
Ho/r-ce
~.\
that
be
the instrument must exactly in line with the staves. Al-
ways
which
select
eligible position
level, so as to
some upon
com-
7-30 J
to plant your
mand
a large as range of your work as possible consistent with the necessity to have the backand fore-sights equidistant.
3-soik ^-X-S'
ly
STAFF
|\ (f.S 12-53)
In Fig. 273 I give a simple illustration,
>^C ^S!^ y
which
tion,
really
deals
I
^\.
with the whole ques-
\C LEVEL
however com-
A/*
In the line of section from a to

plicated.
D it is assumed that we commence at a
(fali
D-r STAFF
Fig. 273.

LEVELLING.
with the staff reading 6'3o, the instrument being at a' the staff is then held at a (i'6o), at l> (i'45)> and c (I'SS), all three intermediates, and finally at b for a fore-sight, the same distance (or thereabouts) as from a. Now by keeping a and b the same distance from a' we have fulfilled the condition required by curvature and refraction, and if the instrument is in perfect adjustment the depths of the intermediates a, b, c, below the line of collimation a b, although of different radii to a and b, yet for all practical purposes will be sufficiently accurate. This will ^ I; be possibly better understood
:
by reference to
u] l
Fig. 2 7 4.
Here
say that, whilst it is absolutely essential that the

let
me
^-
^/
-'-
<>/\
'^~\
I
^^^'^'
^''sMfF^'"'
Ije
^^^ fore-sights should most accurately observed,
^y
\
''
\
-J-a
I
<>y.,
^(^
V-?^%-^^
,
because the difference of their sum will be the actual rise or fall from the commencement
to the termination, yet for all
']
LEVEL ^pJilSPMSmM^b
;'
! I
"A-o
\.
I I
purposes it is not necessary (except in the case of the level of water, existing railways, or road crossings) to read intermediates nearer than tenths. Thus i"43 would be
practical
i"4o, and i'47 would appear as 1-50. By so doing a great deal of unnecessary labour and complication in
booked
'^'^ji
FORE SIGHT STAFF
-j
I
making up the book is avoided, and seeing that with even the
largest scale in practice
it
Fig. 274.
is
j^th of a foot, it is minutely in the field. Passing back to consideration of Fig. 273 Having observed the fore-sight at b (0-59), and previously taken care that the staff is held upon some firm place, the face thereof being now turned towards b', to which point the instrument has been transplanted, and duly adjusted, the reading of the back-sight at b is 9 "So; and now follow the various points along the line, d (2-30), e
:
impossible to plot less than a needless waste of time to observe so
C4"-3o)./(5'9). g (8-30), /^ (lo-oo), j (7-30), k (4-90), /(3-5o), (o"io), and n (io"5o), all intermediates, whilst c (i2'53) is the foresight. The same principle as previously explained equally applies, and so on ad infinitum, showing at the finish of the section
PLENTY OF INFORMATION.
Back-sight.
Fore-sight.
221
6-30 9-80 5'o2 2I"I2 18-14

2 -98 rise
0-59 12-53
5-02
l8'I4
from a to D.
only a very simple illustration, but it may be adopted either for a great length of section or for a few chains.
This
is
Instructions to Staff= holder. It is desirable that the surveyor should direct the staff-holder as to the points at which it is necessary to take readings, especially for back- and fore-sights, and unless he has some trustworthy person to read the distances on the chain-line he should ascertain the longitudinal measurements himself; certainly he must personally superintend the establishment of bench-marks, and see that the staff is not only held on the highest point, but that it is the same place which is described in the " remarks " column.
Plenty of Information. Another point is that the remarks should be in as much detail as possible, accompanied by neat and graphic sketches of any important features met with in the section, especially with regard to the bench-marks. sight should certainly be taken at the end of every chain except under exceptional circumstances. It may be well here to explain^ that it is not by any means necessary that there should be any longitudinal measurements at either a back- or a fore-sight, but if it be found convenient to change at a point on the line of section which is to be determined by measurement, then the distance will appear opposite the fore-sight and opposite the next back-sight (which represents the same spot). There will be no distance, but for facility in after work a dash should be drawn across the column. Thus, referring if with the level at a' the surveyor had intended to" to Fig. 273 take an intermediate at b, but found that the rise of the ground would hardly justify his continuing further; instead of entering 0-59 as an intermediate he would book it as a fore-sight, and put the distance upon the chain-line opposite, as in Fig. 275 and having moved the level to b', in sighting the staff held at the same place (viz. b) would read and enter in the first column the back-sight 9-80, so that at 1-60 the distance was i chain (100 links), at 1-45 200, at 0-55 300, at f s 0-59 = 400, at b s 9"8o = 400, at 2*30 = 430 links, and so on. I should explain that in Fig. 273 the back- and fore-sights a, b, c, and d are, for particular illustration of a system, shown upon the line of sectiori,
222
LEVELLING.
Back-
LEVELLING WITH THEODOLITE.
223
the principles illustrated under " Heights and Distances " (pp. 147When, however, a section has to be taken where, owing to 153)steepness or loose shifting surface, a level cannotbe properly planted, or where configuration of the ground would necessitate too many shifts of the instrument and sights of inconvenient shortness or objectionable inequality of length the theodolite wiTl be found useful. The operation presents varieties of detail too numerous to be all worked-out here ; but the following example illustrates the mode of procedure, and, with due modification according to circumstances, will enable the student to solve all other cases. The last point to which levelling by the ordinary means can be carried, is marked by a peg at h (Fig. 276). The theodolite
:
7M
'%'
._JE
Fig. 276.
here planted, and the height of its axis A above the peg is The points on the slope at which sights are to be taken, b, C, d, e, are then selected and marked, and the straightline distances from point to point, on the slope, a b, b c, c d, d e, are measured these measurements must be made with the utmost
is
measured.
possible accuracy.
A vane
or
mark
is
fixed
on the
levelling-staff

224
at the reading
LEVELLING.
corresponding to the height A
starting-peg
at
and the angles of elevation of each selected point on the slope.

;
this
mark
of the axis above are observed
Let the data thus obtained be
Lengthen ground a b

i43'5
BC=i72'4; CD =129-0;
angle of elevation b a b' c AC'

154-8; Angle c a B 34 45' - 26' 38 10' - 34" 45' DA c 40" - 38 10' EA D
DE=
= = dad' = eae' =
26
34 45' 38 10' 4o"
= = =
= = =
8 45' 3" 25'

1 50'.
:
The observations are then worked out as follows From obtuse angle b let fall perpendicular b f on base a c, dividing triangle a b c into two right-angled triangles a F b, c f b. From obtuse angle c let fall perpendicular c g on base A d, dividing triangle a c d into two right-angled triangles a G c, d g c. From obtuse angle d let fall perpendicular d j on base A e,
dividing triangle
a
b'
e into two right-angled

angle
side
triangles
j d,
j d.
In triangle a
b are given
b'
= 90"
143-5
a = 26
U =
To
find sides 6
and
a.
= a =
b
cos 26 sin 26
143*5 i43"S
= 128-9591 = 62-9063.
In triangle a f b are given
angle F
90"
8 45'
A=
b
:
:
= side/ =
then sin 90 and sin 90
90 - 8 45' = 81" 15' 143-5 sin 81 15' : d = 141-8299 143*5 143-5 sin 8 45' a = 21-8297.
:
In triangle c f b are given

angle f
90^^
then 172*4
= 82*^ 43' 32" = B and sin 82 43' 32" 6 = 171-0124 whence sin 90 172-4 and ac = af-^pc= 141-8299 + 171*0124 = 312-8423,
:
:
sin : sin 7 16'^ 28" 7 16' 28" 90

:
side/'= 172-4 c = 21-8297 90 21-8297 sin c = 9'io25io6

: :
LEVELLING WITH THEODOLITE.

In triangle a
c'
225
c are given
angle
side
c'
=
X X
90
A = 3445' d = 3i2'8423
312-8423 = 257'0458 3i2'8423 = 178-3190.
then c
= and a =
cos 34 45' sin 34 45'
In triangle a g c are given angle g = 90

,.
A
c
:
= =
3 25'
90
:
: :
:
3 25'
86 35'
:
side^= 312-8423
then sin 90 and sin 90
:
312-8423 312-8423
sin 86 35'
sin
3 35'
= =
r
3i2"286i
18-6448.
In triangle d G c are given angle g
side^
then 129-0
sin 90 sin 8 18' 36" 8 18' 36' 90
: : :
90 129-0 18-6448 ,, 18-6448 sin d

:
= = d=
= 9'iS9958i
= 81 41' 24" = c and whence sin 90 129-0 sin 81 41' 24" = and AD = AG + GD = 312-2861 + 127-6434
:
:
i27-64'34
= 439-9294.
In triangle A
d'
d are given
angle d' A
= 90" = 38 10' side d' = 439-9294

X X
439-9294 439-9294
then
d=
j
and a =
In triangle a
cos 38 10' sin 38 10'

are given
= 345-8898 = 271-8549.
angle J A D
side
= 90 = i5o'
=
90
: :
:
I" 50'
sin
88 10'
d = 439-9294
88 10'
1 50'
:
:
then sin 90 and s'in 90
439-9294 439-9294
are given
sin
d = 439-7041 = 14-0671.
In triangle e
angle
side J
then 154-8
and whence
sin 90" sin 5 12' 50" 5 12' 50" 90

: :
154-8 14-0671 14-0671 : sin e
= = d=
j
qo''
= 89584343
:
=
:
sin
90
154-8
84 47' 10" = D sin 84 47' 10"

:
d=
andAE = Aj + jE = 4397041 +
iS4'iS95
154-1595 593'8636.
226
LEVELLING.
In triangle A
e'
e are given
angle
side
e'
A /
then e
and
= cos 40 a = sin 40
= 90" = 40" = 593"8636 x S93'8636 = x S93'8636 =
455'o369 3817282.
line
Where any considerable break occurs in the general groundbetween two selected points, as shown by the dotted line
K L M, and the point l cannot be observed with the theodolite and levelling-staflf, it may be determined either by measurement from the two nearest selected points c and d, or by separate
observation with a hand-level or a clinometer. The heights b b', c c', &c., added to the reduced level of peg H, will give the reduced height of the several selected points above
datum.
Levelling with Aneroid.

fully described in
its
The aneroid barometer has been

and
it is
Chapter
III.,
necessary only to explain
manipulation in the
field.
The
larger the size, the
more
satis-
surveyor should provide himself with an accurate plan or map of the district through which he proposes to take the levels, and at the points of observation he should mark with a small dot, and place letters as a, b, c, &c., so that he may
factory the observations.
identify their relative positions
The
from
his
note-book in which he
records the readings. The temperature at starting should be noted, and the index or zero of the movable scale " should be set to where " On ascending a mountain the hand of the instrument points." the hand travels backward, and as each division represents 100 ft. (on the movable scale), an approximate indication of the ascent is The aneroid should be held perfectly thus readily obtained." " Subtract horizontal, and gently tapped during an observation. the reading at the lower station from that at the upper station the difference is the height in feet,"
The hypsometer is a Levelling: with the Hypsometer. portable instrument for ascertaining heights by the temperature at which water boils. The following description of it, and the tables for its use, compiled by Mr. Francis Gallon, F.R.S., given in Appendix to the present volume, are by permission extracted from the Royal Geographical Society's "Hints to Travellers,"
vol.
i.
boiling-point apparatus consists of a thermometer, a, generally graduated from 180 to 215* ; a spirit-lamp, b, which fits into the bottom of a brass tube, c, that supports the boiler, d ;
* " When they are intended to be used at very great elevations, the mometers will have to be specially constructed with extended scales." ther-
"The

LEVELLING WITH THE HYPSOMETER.
227
and a telescope tube, e, which fits tightly on the top of the boiler. The thermometer is passed down the tube, e, from the top until
within a short distance from the water, which it should never touch, is supported in that position by an india-rubber washer, f. The steam passes from the boiler up the tube, E, and escapes by the hole, g. To pack this instrument for travelling, withdraw the thermometer, and put it into a brass tube, lined with indiarubber, having a pad of cotton-wool at each end; take off the tube, E, shut it up, and put the small end into the boiler, d, which it fits, then withdraw the spirit-lamp, b, screw the cover over the wick and replace it in c. The whole of this apparatus fits into a circular tin case, 6 inches long, and 2 inches in diameter. " To use the boiling-point thermometer Take the apparatus to pieces, pour some water into the boiler, d, about one quarter full is quite sufficient; then put the instrument together, as shown in the drawing, taking care that the thermometer is just clear of the water, and light the spirit-lamp; as soon as the water boils, the steam ascending through the tube, e, will cause the mercury to rise ; wait until the mercury becomes stationary, and then read the thermometer; at the same time, take the temperature of the air in the shade with an ordinary thermometer. "If the traveller is visiting a region where the elevations are very great, he should, when purchasing this apparatus, see that the thermometers are capable of registering a greater height than those which are usually supplied, and that the lamp is large enough to hold a good supply of spirit, as it is a common fault to make it too small, and the tube carrying the wick should be long to screen, prevent overheating the spirit. which may be made of tin to fold up, is most useful to place on the windward side, g 5;"%a_^^;j23 and at a very low temperature is almost Fig. 277. indispensable, as the heat is otherwise carried off too rapidly for the water to boil properly." " Enter Table I., with the boiling-point at each of the two stations, and extract the numbers that stand opposite to them in
and

228
'
LEVELLING.
The difference between these the column headed Altitude, &c.' numbers gives the difference of height between the two stations, supposing the mean temperature of the intermediate air to be 32 Fahr. The correction for the temperature of the air, when it take the mean differs from this value, is given in Table II. of the thermometers (exposed in shade) at the upper and lower stations, and we enter Table II. with that mean value, and the number that stands opposite to it, in the column headed ' Multiplier,' must be multiplied with the results obtained from Table I.
We
Thus :
At
station
a the boiling-point
B
= =
i9S'i, tabular 210-3, ..
number
>.
= = =
9040
887
Approximate difference of height

"
8153
ft.
To
1)
correct for temperature of intermediate air
At
station a, temp, of air

î
J)
=
^^
65 Fahr.
73
>>
2)138
69
= mean
temp, of intermediate
air.
the multiplier corresponding to 69 is i'o82, 8821 (neglecting decimal fractions). and i*o82 X 8153 " In those rare cases where greater altitudes are dealt with than are included within the limits of the table, the traveller should allow 570 feet for the difference between 185 and 184;
II.
"In Table
572 feet for that between 184 and 183; 574 feet for the next
interval,
and so on."
by the
the boiling point at the upper station alone is observed he . . . [usually] has no option but to take the mean height of the barometer, reduced to the sea-level, in the district in which he is, and for the same season of the year, and to use this in the place of observations at a lower station. He will find what he wants in the maps of mean barometric pressure, reduced to sea-level, that are given in most of the physical atlases ('Bartholomew's Physical Atlas,' Vol. III., is the most recent of these), and also in Report on the Scientific Results of the Voyage of the Challenger, during the years 1873-76,' Physics and Chemistry,' Vol. II." " Whenever the observatioiis at the upper and lower stations are not strictly simultaneous, or when the mean barometer is taken in place of the lower station, the correction for diurnal variation must not be omitted, especially in the tropics, where, in other respects, the barometer is very steady. The mean amount of diurnal variation in different parts of the world is also given in
traveller,
' '
"
When

CROSS-SECTIONS.
Berghaus' maps.
often be caused
229
An
error of one
or two hundred feet might

it."
by the neglect
to allow for
Cross-sections.
Cross-sectiong
in their general acceptance
mean a line
at
of levels taken at right angles to the longitudinal section every chain, or oftener if necessary. Their length is regulated by circumstances ; for railways from i to 5 chains on each
side, at points right and left at all changes of contour. They are set out either with a cross-staff or preferably an optical square. The most satisfactory and accurate method is to treat the sections at each chain as consecutive members o, i, 2, 3, 4, &c., starting at the commencement of the longitudinal section and, looking in direction of its termination, to treat all observations either of height or distance as being right or left of the centre line (or line of section), as in Fig. 278 ; and having set out three
Fig. 278.
measure from the centre, right and left in each separate case, noting any irregularity in the surface of These measurements should be personally made by the ground. the surveyor, who should be provided with a quantity of pieces of white paper (about i^ in, square), upon which he writes the number of the cross-section, and the measurement in feet (all cross-sections should be measured in feet) ; and after these particulars have been carefully written upon the paper, it should be placed in a slit of a stick or twig, pointed at the other end, and
sight-lines,
commence
to
RIGHT
S9l-
|j.
i^f-JL iOJ-
ISJ-
39J-
m/-
CROSS\ SECTION OÔl"!'

I
Fig. 279.
stuck in the ground at the point to be observed.
Thus, as
is
in
Fig 279,
(no miles,
it
will be observed that the cross-section
at
q.^j
chain),
and on the right-hand side there are
five points,
230
a,
b, c, d,
e,
LEVELLING.
of lo ft., 25 ft, 39 ft., 58 ft., and 66 ft. from the on the left there are also five points,/, g, h,j, k, of
centre, whilst
4 ft., 16 ft. 6 ins., 30 ft., 59 ft., and 66 ft. respectively. Take the point b on the right and g on the left, they would be marked on the paper (as in Figs. 280 and 281), No. i section, 25 ft. right
N9l
25l-
^
NU
'/6
Fig. 280.
Fig. 281.
The chief advantage obtained by this proft. 6 in. left. cess is, that not only does the surveyor personally superintend these preliminary operations, but after a series of eight or a dozen cross-sections have been set out and measured all the higher points of the series may be taken from one point, so that the change of The staff-holder, who should be properly instrument is minimised. instructed as to his duties, proceeds to each of the points, and
and 16
holding the staff thereat, he picks up the ticket, and at a signal from the surveyor he reads out in a clear, loud voice, " Crosssection number one, 16 feet 6 inches left," the surveyor booking this repeats it, and if correct the ticket should be destroyed, so as not to be taken again. In conclusion, I recommend the surveyor to make his assistants thoroughly understand their duties and his requirements, and, by a code of signals mutually understood, a great deal of satisfactory work may be accomplished in almost dumb show.
is a term applied to a system of levelling purpose of ascertaining, with the closest possible approach to absolute accuracy, the elevation of bench-marks pertaining to great territorial surveys such as the Ordnance Survey of the United Kingdom, the Government surveys of the United States of America, and similar works executed for national purposes. It is a highly complex affair of exceeding delicacy and minuteness of detail; and, with the exception of work required in certain vast hydraulic engineering undertakings, it lies wholly outside the sphere of ordinary surveying. It requires a course of special study and instruction which cannot be adequately set forth within the limits assignable The whole matter is to such a subject in the present volume. admirably treated in a work by Professor J. B. Johnson,* to which,
Precise Levelling
for the
and
to the publications relating to the levelling of the Ordnance Survey, the student is referred for full information and details.
*
"Theory and
Practice of Surveying," 8vo,
New York
1900.
CHAPTER
Contouring
is
X.
CONTOURING.
which represent certain
upon a plan a series of lines altitudes parallel with the horizon, or, in other words, " lines of intersection of a hill by a horizontal plane."
the art of delineating
The
simplest illustration is the high and low water marks along the where the fringe of seaweed marks the extreme boundary of high water, and its zig-zag outline is due to the water finding out the inequaUties of the level of the shore, so that whatever form " this fringe may take, all round the coast of this " sea-girt island will be found a line approximately parallel to the horizon. Another and very primitive illustration if varying quantities of different coloured liquids, commencing with the lightest colours in the largest quantities, were poured into some basin-shaped vessel whose sides would absorb some of the colours, so as to leave the mark of their highest level, and smaller quantities of colour of graduating darkness were successively poured in and emptied out, the defined lines made by those different colours would represent concentric circles on the sides of the basin, whose distance apart would be governed by the varying quantities of the different coloured liquids, and these lines would be the contours of the sides of the vessel.
sea-shore,
:
Vertical Intervals and Horizontal Equivalents.
It is
the province of the modern surveyor to practically show upon his plans these lines of contour. The known differences of height thereof are called the vertical intervals, and J their distances apart upon the survey are termed the horizontal egtiivalents, as will be seen by Fig. 282. In Figs. 283 and 284 we have a simple illustration of contour lines upon the horizontal equivalent truncated cone (Fig. 283) at points A, B, c, D, E, F, G, H, which in plan F;g_ 282. are represented by the concentric circles in Fig. 284, so that in the former case the relative heights b over A, c over b, 5z:c., represent the vertical intervals, whilst in Fig. 284 the distances b from A, c from b, &c., are the horizontal
'
equivalents.
232
CONTOURING.
In Figs. 285 and 286 we have examples of the form contour show on plan whose planes are projected from a section
lines will
Fig. 283.
Fig. 284.
of irregularity.
The
contours will occur in smaller horizontal

a'
Fig. 285.
SECTION
Fig. 285.
distance, in proportion to the steepness of the ground. The contour lines in Fig. 285, besides giving the relative altitudes

VERTICAL INTERVALS.
233
explain the form and flexure of every slope ; thus a a' and b b' (Fig. 285) show the exact concavity and convexity of the slopes A a', b b' in Fig. 286. Now these vertical intervals are to be determined by two methods ; ist by angular observations, 2nd by means of levelling. As to the first of these it has been shown, in the chapter on " Chain Surveying," that in chaining up or down a slope allowance for hypotenusal measurements can be made by observing its angle of elevation. Conversely, the difference of level between angle points on a slope may be calculated from that angle. If a of slope, v the vertical interval between the contours, h the horizontal equivalent, and l the length of slope from contour to contour; then L cot A X V, H sec A X L.
:
= =
Fig.
different lines,
287 shows the slope of a hill having in profile three a c, c d, and d e, their angles of elevation being
'
c__
234
CONTOURING.
For smaller vertical intervals, the tabular number divided by 25 and multiplied by the new v, will give the l and h value. For sketch surveys this method is useful; and Figs. 288 and 289 show how sections thus obtained may enable contour lines (lines of equal altitudes) to be sketched-in. Contouring by angle of slope, however, is not suitable for cases where much accuracy is required for this purpose the work must be done by actual levelling, the two usual methods being that of cross-sectioning, and that of setting out the contour lines on
:
the ground.
'''??.is,-;Cllr--.-
li\
PLA N
!f\
I
\
i
SECriON
Mi
I*..--' > ........
"JK
.1^^
Fig. 288.
Fig. 289.
of these, cross-sections are taken along lines normal can be judged) to the general curves formed in plan by principal salient and retiring features of the ground, as shown in Fig. 290 by the lines d e, f g, h j, k l. These lines being set out, levels are taken along them, from which, when plotted, points answering to the reduced levels of the intended vertical intervals are marked-off on the plan and determine the figure of the contour lines. Or, alternatively, the reduced level of the first contour line having been settled by reference to a benchmark, the levelling-staff is shifted along the line of each crosssection in succession until it stands on a spot where its reading
In the
first
(as nearly as
'
VERTICAL INTERVALS.
:
235
gives that reduced level a peg is driven at each such spot, the positions of these pegs marking the several points of the contour
lines.
In the second method, the reduced level of the first contour having been determined as before, the staff is held at a salient or retiring feature in the estimated run of the contour line, and
line
\d
t-
^"IXl
'"-
/'
! f //////'
y""' \ii\ "/-.,

Fig. 290.
there shifted up or down the slope mitil the desired reading' is peg is driven at the spot the staff is then removed obtained. to a suitable point further along the estimated contour line, and a peg driven where the reading is the same ; and so on. The staff remaining at the furthest" point along the contour line which the surveyor chooses to read with that set of the level, he enters the
236
CONTOURING.
reading as a fore-sight, the level is then planted at a suitable place further in advance and a back-sight taken ; after which the staff is
chainsurveying, or by traversing, as may be found most advisable, and plotted on plan. The location and height of several points being known, their contour lines can be laid down intermediate between other known points, with more or less approximation to accuracy according as the slopes of the ground are more or less uniform. In Fig. 291,
taken forward to another selected feature of the ground, readings agreeing with the last back-sight are taken and the marked with pegs, as before. In each of the above cases, the lines formed by the pegs reduced level is the same are surveyed, either by ordinary
where
places
whose
*0d
30r c
-A-, ^"ô
-50
Fig. 291.
b, c, d, e, f, h, a, and g being known, and the contour d h, and /^ determined, the position of the intermediate ones may be plotted by proportional interpolation. The hori-
the points
lines ba,
zontal equivalent of bf being 640 ft. with a total rise of 40 ft. and a nearly uniform slope of i in 16, the horizontal equivalent of each contour is 160 ft. and its vertical interval 10 ft. The horizontal equivalent of ag \5 360 ft. with a total rise of 40 and a slope of I in 675, the horizontal equivalent of each contour
being 90 feet. A cross-section of the slope through the point h has a horizontal equivalent of 540 feet, and the contour lines there will be 135 feet apart. The completed contours in the figure are shown in full lines and the interpolated ones by dotted lines. An ingenious mode of marking-off interpolated contours is given by Mr. N. Kennedy, M.Inst. C.E.*
* "Surveying with the Tacheometer."
London; Crosby Lock wood & Son.
CHAPTER
XI.
SETTING OUT CURVES.

Practical surveyors are nowadays required to perform so many more duties than heretofore, that any work upon the subject of their duties would be incomplete if it did not treat upon the setting
out of curves. It does not necessarily follow that these curves are only for railway work, as in the development of property it is often requisite to lay out new roads and boundaries, which, for economical and other reasons, frequently are required to take the form of
regular curves. The most accurate and satisfactory method of laying out curves is by means of a theodolite, but for approximate results the operation may be performed by tangents and offsets, or chords and ordinates.
In most cases a curve
is
whose
relative positions are such that
used to connect two straight lines, one forming an angle with
V
5/
Fig. 292.
In Fig. the other they intersect each other at some given point. 292 it will be seen that the lines a a and c c intersect at the point
238
B.
SETTING OUT CURVES.

It
acute or obtuse the angle of intersection curve, great or small, which will connect these two lines, to which they will be tangential. In considering a railway, as an illustration, it simply consists of a series of straight lines, whose directions form angles with each other, whereby it is necessary to connect each with the other by means of curves, as is illustrated in Fig. 293, by the five lines a b, matters not
is
how
may
be, there
some
V
Fig. 293.
c,
CD, D
E,
F,
we have
ground.
the angles the value of which

It
and four curves a d, b b', c d, and d d'. Here a b c, b c d, c d e, and d e f, without knowing it is impossible to set out the curves upon the
"
well here to mention that for railway work it is better to lay out these straight lines and make them the base-lines of the survey. This may be done either by traversing or, preferably, by It need hardly be taking the included angles with the theodolite. explained that for the purpose of taking up the features on the right and left hand of these lines a complete system of triangula-
may be
must be adopted. Having obtained an accurate record of the relative positions of these straight lines, which should be plotted to as large a scale as possible, together with the details of the survey, it will then be
tion
possible to determine the various radii of the connecting curves.
Limit of Radii. In speaking of the radii of curves, I may say that curves of less than 1 2 chains' radius are not desirable for railway work. I have known less, but for many reasons sharp curves are to be avoided. It is a very mistaken theory that curves of small radius enable the engineer to economise in the design of his work, or in other words to avoid undue severance of property ; and it is a very questionable policy, for against a small saving in the purchase of the necessary land (which is settled once for all) must be placed the constant wear and tear of the permanent way and rolling stock, which, if capitalised at a period of years, will prove a very formidable amount. Again, in these days of high
PRELIMINARY.
speed
it
239
is
absolutely out of the question to adopt sharp curves.
There
no fixed rule to govern the limit of radius of curves, as so much depends upon local and other circumstances, which it is not the province of this work to consider.
is
Preliminary. Now to take a simple illustration, we will assume that in Fig. 292 the L of intersection a b c is 135 ; "bisect this = 67 30', which deducted from 90 = 22 30' the L of deflection &ac='Dba = -&oa. The hne b is at right angles to the line a c. We will assume the radius of the curve = 30 chains, and it is
required to find its centre. Multiply the natural secant of the L of deflection (=22 30') by the radius; then
Nat. sec. 22" 30'
i"o8239
30
32*47i8 chains,
is the distance from the intersection b of the tangents to the centre o of the curve; and 32'47i8 2"47r8 chains the 30 distance b b from the point of intersection to the point b where the arc is bisected. To determine the points of commencement and termination of the curve (the " tangent-points "), multiply the natural tangent of the L of deflection by the radius ; this gives the length of tangents B a and b c. Thus
which
Nat. tan. 22^ 30'
= o'4i42i x 30 = t2'4264
is
chains
b a and b
c.
When
the point of intersection
not accessible, the length of
Fig. 294.
tangents is set out as follows (Fig. 294), tangent to tangent ; then
Run any
line
e f from
240
SETTING OUT CURVES.
therefore
and
= l8o" - Z. A E F = l8o" - Z. B F E aacb = i8o"-(Z.cef+Z.cfe) E F X sin C F E side e c =

/.
Z.
C E F C F E
sin
A c B
and side f c
E F
sin c
E f
sin
A c B
When a portion of the curve itself is inaccessible (Fig. 295), a The point B in it from tangent-point a is set out as follows.
C
Fig. 295.
chord of any arc = twice sine of half the chord at centre of curve. Thus
subtended by that
Z.tab=JZ.acb;
The
whence
AB = 2sinTABX
radius.
tangents having been produced to their intersection B
(Fig. 292), a stout peg is driven there, and the exact point of intersection marked by a spike driven into the top of the peg.
The
ABC
is adjusted over this mark; the L of intersection observed; the distance b b calculated; and the point b fixed by bisecting Z. a b c and driving a peg lined-in by the
theodolite
The theodolite on the line of bisection at the distance b b. length of tangents is then set-off from B, a peg is lined-in by the theodolite and driven at their ends a and <r, and distinguished by a peg driven at each side on a line transverse to the tangent
(some prefer to drive four pegs, as shown in Figs. 296, 297, 298). The data assumed and calculated as above described, being adopted for illustration, we are now prepared to set out the curve by one or other of several methods, the most useful being By Tangential Angles ; by Offsets from Chords produced ; by Offsets from Tangents ; and by Ordinates from Chords.
:

BY TANGENTIAL ANGLES.
The symbols and
R
I
241
formulas are as follows
= radius of curve = half L of intersection F = Z. of deflection = half L at centre of curve) D = distance from centre of curve to intersection of tangents X = external secant of f T = length of tangents L = length of curve c = tangential L in minutes and decimals for each chord of
(
same denomination
as radius
N = number Then
F
of chords
90
D X T
L
=r sec F
=DR = tan F X = "000582 15400
X R
R R (5400
I
in
I in minutes and decimals) minutes and decimals

C
_
i7i8-873387
Fig. 296.
POIHT
SL " TAMEST
FOIHT
TANGENT
o o D POINT o o
ENLAROED PLAN
Fig. 297.
COmt^HCEHIEIlT TCimiUATIOH OF CUKtE PES
Am
Fig. 298.
Angles. Plant theodolite over first tangentand sight upon a pole in the straight line backwards. Unclamp upper plate, and reverse by bringing the reading to zero, when, if the work has been correctly set out, the
point,
By Tangential
clamp
at 180,
cross-wires should sight the spike in the intersection peg; and, with the vernier set to Z. of deflection, the cross-wires should The radius of curve being sight upon the second tangent-point.

242
SETTING OUT CURVES.

L
for
30 chains, the tangential
a i-chain chord =
first
57'
i7'7468".
With one end of chain

end, ranged to that
,
at the tangent-point, a pin at the other
L marks
the
point on the curve.
Point
Fig. 299,
ranged at
I St
No. 2 is marked by a pin i chain from point No. I, ranged by a reading of double the first L. For the third point, the L 57' 177468" is multiplied by 3, and a pin i chain from point No. 2 is that L, and so on (Fig. 299): the record of the
:
several angles at the points being as follows
tangential
Z.
=
=1
57' 54'
2nd
3rd 4th 5th
four
= =
2 51'
49'
=3"
4 46'
17-7468" 35-4936" 53-2404" 10-9872" 28-7340"
=
=1
57' 18"
=
= = =
S7'296'
= = =
54' 35"= 1 54-592' 2 51' 53" 2 51-887'
3" 49' 11"
4 46' 29"
3 49-183' 4 46 479'
In the above example, the fractions of seconds are given to places of decimals to show the reason of the apparent
irregularity in the additions.
As
theodolites for ordinary railway
and survey work seldom read
to smaller angles than 20 seconds
one-third of a minute, tables of tangential angles are rarely Excess or defect in any one L carried to smaller subdivisions. is too small to be of any practical account in setting out a curve, and, being in the table adjusted to the nearest half or one-third Decimals are easily converted of a minute, it is not cumulative. into thirds by the following table
:
From 0-0000
>,
to 0-1666 both inclusive

..
0-1667 .. 0-4999 0-5000 0-8333 0-8334 I -0000
1.
"
=f =I =I
=|.
not often the case that a curve commences or terminates at even chainage ; and, the initial or the terminal chord, or both, being thus less than the others, the tangential Z. must be modified accordingly. Retaining the data already employed in illustration, We will suppose that a curve commences at 6 miles 27-32 chains,
It is

BY TANGENTIAL ANGLES.
and
is
243
tangential links
= -^
23'56 chains in length. The first chord on it will have a L corresponding not to i chain but to 100 32 = 68 38-96' X 57'296' and the last chord will be de-
;"
termined thus
chains.
Chains.
Length of curve I chord of 68 links 22 chords of 100 Hnks

Last
= = oo"68 = 2 2'oo chord =
23*56
22'C
00^8
Its tangential L will be^^^^ x 57*296 = 5o*53'; and the curve ends at 6 miles 5o"88 chains. Before commencing to set out, it is advisable to make a complete list of the tangential angles of the curve, from the first
tangent-point to the last in the field, it saves much trouble where the surveyor has his mind occupied and his hands full. For the curve we have taken as an illustration, the list of tangential angles will be as follows .^:
I St
chord
244
SETTING OUT CURVES.

After a shift, it is necessary to resume by
sighting
on some one
:
or other of the back pegs, as follows Bring vernier to tangential L of 1 80" the peg from which the
setting-out
is
to sight
be
re-
sumed,
that
plate,
and
upon
peg.
Clamp lower
and bring vernier to whole tangential L of the forward peg next to

be
set out.
Thus, on the curve already used as an illustration, 30 chains radius and curving to the right, five chords having been set out from tangent-point
(Fig. 300),
ting
of any
and the setmore being

obstacle,
impeded by an
the theodolite is removed, and planted at peg No. 5 Tangent - point a (a'). being No. o, its tangential L is 0 o' ; and to re-
sume from
is
it
the vernier
brought to
cross
it.
-
180 and
sighted
the
hairs
upon
plate,
Clamp lower
bring vernier to 5 2S'44', the whole tangential L of peg No. 6,

^ set out peg No. 6 on that bearing, and the
succeeding ones each
Fig. 300.
SETTING OUT WITH TWO THEODOLITES.
245
on its own whole tangential L, i.e. peg No. 7 on 6 2274', No. 8 on 7 20'03', &c. When peg No. 13 is set out, perhaps another obstacle may oblige another removal of theodolite. Plant it at peg No. 13 as a fresh station. Bring vernier to 180 tangential L of previous station (peg No. 4 28-14', sight on peg No. 5, and clamp lower plate. 5) = 180 Bring vernier to read 13 3-81' the whole tangential L of peg No. 14, and set out that peg; and so on. Observe that in a curve to the left the vernier is to be brought to 180 tangential L of the peg from which the setting-out is to be resumed. As a check upon the work as it proceeds, it is well to occasionally bring the vernier to 180 -f (or as the case may be) the tangential Z. of the furthest visible back peg, and sight upon that peg, clamp lower plate, and bring vernier to whole tangential L of second tangent-point if visible ; the cross-hairs should then cut this
point.
If
they
fail
to
do
so,
some
error
has
crept
into the
setting-out.
At the close of the work, the tangential L of the final chord ought to cut upon the second tangent-point. It is best not to drive the stumps until the whole curve has been set out ; not only because chain-pins can be more accurately set out at first, but because they may need shifting, and also because driving the stumps may shake the theodolite.
Setting-out Curves with Two Theodolites. This is in respects the most satisfactory instrumental method: the points on the curve may be found without measurement, and it is especially suitable in cases where a river, a part of a lake, or other
some
obstacles prevent the use of the chain ; also in very hilly ground, where the measurement of the chord-lines would be attended not only with difficulty but also with liability to inaccuracy. The straight lines if Fig. 301 is an illustration of this method. produced to b would intersect in the bay, and it is required to set By the method out the points of the curve at i, 2, 3, 4, 5, and 6.
explained on pp. 239 and 240, and illustrated by Figs. 294 and 295, L of intersection may be obtained and the tangent-points a and c fixed. At each of these points a theodolite should Le planted and adjusted to its tangent-line a b or c b. In this example we will assume the curve to be to the right, the radius 8 chains, the Z. a b c 92 30' and the chords 2 The L of deflection is 43" 45', the tangential L for chains each. each of the 2-chain chords 7 972', the length of the curve 12-24 chains, and the number of chords 6-1 1. Bring vernier of theodolite at a to 180" and sight a mark on the straight line a d backwards towards d. Clamp lower plate, and bring vernier to 7 9-72', the tangential L of ist chord.
the

246
SETTING OUT CURVES.

The number of chords being 6ti, and the bearing of the first them being thus set off from a, the tangential L from c
of
Fig. 301.
corresponding to peg No. i of the curve will be (6" 11 i) = 5"ii X 7 972' = 36 35"86'. Bring vernier of theodolite at c to 180 and sight a mark on the straight line c e forwards towards e. Clamp lower plate and bring vernier to 360 36 3S"86' = 323 24"i4' ; and at the intersection of this bearing with the bearing from a, put down the pin for first point of the curve. The tangential Z. at a for chord No. 2 is 14 i9'44', and the corresponding /. at c is 360 (36 35'86' 7 9'72') = 360 29 26'i4' = 330 33'86', and so on; the complete list of tangential angles being as follows
:
Chord No.
DIFFERENT
RADII.
247
The Z. B A c, if calculated according to the tangential L for a 2-chain chord, would be 43 45 "5 8', or nearly 35 seconds in excess of the L of deflection, owing to the difference between the true length of the curve and the sum of 6'ii chords of 2 chains each. difference of this nature always exists in the case of a curve set out by chords ; but in all ordinary cases the difference is so small as to be immaterial. When, however, the radius of the curve is small relatively to the length of the chords, the difference becomes so great that, in order to avoid confusion by suggestion of error in the work, the final tangential L should be so modified as to make up the total L of deflection ; as is done in the foregoing example.
Curves of Different Radii. It may happen that whilst for good reasons it may be desirable to traverse a certain portion of the ground by a curve of say 60 chains radius, yet an obstruction
may occur which involves either

or (what
is
a change in the radius of the curve, frequently done) the stoppage of the original curve at some point, and after a short length of straight line the adoption of a curve of different radius in order to avoid the obstruction. Thus in Fig. 302 we see that after setting out a certain distance
jfomr or conpouno
'^*N^
CURYATURE
'i'r-'TAiieciiT
"
/V"
foiur
from A to ^ with a radius of 50 chains, that from this latter point Now, assuming it is necessary to reduce the radius to 40 chains. that we have set out 8 chords from a, then the tangential angle B A l> will be 4 35'. Remove the theodolite from a to ^ and set
the vernier at 335 25' (being 360 4 35', as we are now working the upper plate from right to left), clamp the two plates, direct the telescope on to a, clamp the lower and unclamp the upper plate, fix the latter at zero, and we obtain a tangent-line
248
% b
SETTING OUT CURVES.
T common to the two curves, and from b, which is termed the point of coynpound curvature, we may now proceed to set out the tangential angles for the curve whether of greater or smaller
radius than the
first
one.
Curves
of Contraflexure.
" Reverse
"
curves or curves of
contraflexure, as Fig. 303, are set out
by establishing a common
^vB
Fig. 303.
g by the same process as just described, and setting out tangential angles from right to left from c, in which case each angle for one chord must be consecutively deducted from 360 deg. It should here be stated that a length of straight line, usually two chains, should always intervene between any curves, whether similar or reversed, as it is under very exceptional circumstances that one curve at least as far as English practice is concerned proceeds directly from another. Upon the Continent it is, I am aware, customary to use parabolic curves, but a whole library of scientific reasoning and deductions will not supersede the result of our own practical experience ; and seeing that we have express trains running at more than double the highest speed of the Continental railways, I think we may fairly assume that the principles which govern our own system are well founded.
tangent-line f
Setting out Curves by Offsets.
I shall
very briefly con-
'
-'^^P*? ^
PKODUCCD
'
jO
Fig. 304.

SETTING OUT BY OFFSETS.
sider
249
these
be used
ance.
in cases only
methods, experience having proved that they can where accuracy is not of much importusual system
is
The most
by means of an
offset
from the
tangent-line, at the first point on the curve ; and from the chord produced, for each subsequent point (Figs. 304, 305),
y
jy^\
r-
\
\
\ \ \^, N\
\
\
I
/
./
\\\\\\
N\\\\
1/
1.'//
~"v\\\\l///
-^M
Fig- 305-
from tangent-point length measured in units of radius along tangent, for first offset ; and from the several points of curve set out, along their chords produced, for the
:
offset
second and subsequent offsets. from the end of this length and at the line on which it has been measured.
of curve.
right angles to
= radius
:
The
follows
formulas for calculating the length of offsets are as
For
ist offset (b b)
from tangent,
tJ'S?
L^
For and and succeeding

produced,"
offsets {c c,
d, &c.)
from chords
(r
Vr^
L^)
the offset from chord being double that from tangent.
250
SETTING OUT CURVES.

Thus
for
if
chain,
and r
20 chains,
I St
offset {b b)
=
o
for
20
V 20^
i-^
i'65 foot
foot 7| inches,
2nd and succeeding

2
offsets {c d,
d d,
&c.)
=
If L
(20
aJ 26^
i'^)
3-3 feet
3 feet 3-J inches.

''
does not exceed

\?
for
20
the formula o
is
=
2
for first offset, '
and o
succeeding ones,
practically correct.
Should the curve terminate at the end of a whole chord, as at must be the same as that for the first point, viz. b B, and should exactly reach to the straight line d / beyond the curve. If the curve terminates on a broken chord, the length of the offset must bear the same proportion to the first one as the fractional length of the chord does to the length measured along
(Fig. 305), the offset
the
first
tangent.
by this or the next following method requires the very greatest care, any error, even if slight, having a tendency
set out a curve
To
to accumulate throughout the work.
have always used an
offset-
i-7l
Fig. 306.
good hard wood a little longer having on one edge, at the exact length of the tangential and the chord offsets, two notches to admit the arrow by which the point of the curve is to be marked. The length A b having been measured along the tangent, and the end of the offset-staff set at the arrow there fixed, the chain is laid from A to B and held at the first notch, and an arrow there put in. The chord-line a b is then produced to c and measured, becoming Here the line from which the second offset is to be measured. the same operation is repeated, but the chain is now laid from b to the second notch, and an arrow put in ; and so on.
staff (Fig. 306),
made
of a lath of
than the longest
offset,
Setting out Curves from Same Tangent. Another method of setting out a curve by offsets is from the same tangent
being all at right angles thereto. In this found by the same rule as in the preceding method and the subsequent offsets are this result multiplied by the square of the number of points. Thus for a 20-feet curve
(Fig. 307), the offsets
system the
;
first offset is
BY ORDINATES.
2-51
252
SETTING OUT CURVES.
for example as Krohnke's "Kurven," it is easy and extremely expeditious.* Finally, as regards curves in general, it is to be borne in mind that the permanent chain-stumping of the curve should always be set out by careful measurement after the setting-out (by whatever
method performed)
*
is
completed.
Of its merits I can speak from experience, having employed it in Sweden in the survey and setting out of some 120 miles of railway line, much of which lay through forest land, where any other system with which I am acquainted would have necessitated the felling of a great deal of large timber. i2mo, handy pocket-size translation of Krohnke has since then been published by Kegan Paul, Trench, Triibner & Co., Limited, Londoii, 1896. A. B.
"
CHAPTER
Next
XII.
OFFICE WORK.
work is of great ever so clever a surveyor, and even renowned for his accuracy, but unless he can portray the results of his observations graphically, so that the least initiated can easily comprehend their meaning, his work will be deprived of a very considerable amount of merit. He may be an excellent draughtsman in some ways, yet fail utterly to give adequate expression to the result of days or even weeks of patient labour, if he cannot in a minimised form give a true reproduction of his operations.
to proficiency in all field operations, office
importance.
man may be
Necessity for System. System is a very potent element in branches of surveying, especially draughtsmanship. The beautiful Ordnance plans, in various scales, are the result of accuracy Take even in the field and methodical elaboration in the office. the I -inch map, and it seems to speak for itself; whilst the larger scales enable the authorities, by their perfect administration, to delineate the most minute features, of which these plans are faithful
all
representations.
George Stephenson, in the early days of railway enterprise, was wont to express the opinion that a map or detailed drawing should ; be so executed as to enable either to be read " like a book and there is no reason whatever why a survey should not be so as
well.
To
this end, I
wish to give a few preliminary hints which
may
be of service to the student.
Roughly plot the Survey=lines. ist. Roughly plot the chief lines of your survey to see what form it will take, so that you may arrange it symmetrically upon the paper upon which you
intend to plot
it.
Let the Paper be well seasoned. 2nd. Provide a piece of well-seasoned paper Whatman's double-elephant, cold-pressed, is the best and the paper should be mounted upon holland.
Draw a Scale on Paper before commencing. 3rd. Before commencing to plot your survey draw the scale upon the paper, so that you may apply your boxwood scales from time to time to ascertain whether the paper has been affected by temperature.
254
OFFICE WORK.
Boxwood Scales
best.
4th.
Boxwood
scales are preferable
to ivory.
Plot Survey North and

survey looking north, so
South.
5th.
that the top,
bottom,
Always plot your left, and right

perfectly
flat,
respectively represent north, south, west,
and
east.
Paper Perfectly Flat. and endeavour not to move

process of plotting.
it
6th.
Keep your paper
from the drawing-table during the
Laying down the Survey=lines on Paper. 7th. Having made a rough plan of your principal lines, proceed to lay them down carefully upon the permanent paper, commencing with your
principal base-lines.
Check Measurement.
to right (using a pricker)
8th.
Measure each
upon a
faint pencil-line,
line from left and check back
from
right to left
and
test its accuracy.
Stations. 9th. Mark round the puncture representing a station with a pencil-ring thus 0, and opposite each
station in faint pencil enter the distance, thus
-.
Marking
Straight-edge.
loth.
Having plotted your
principal base
and
survey-lines with a steel straight-edge (the longer the better),
proceed to draw in these with a fine red line * (carmine or crimson lake), being specially careful that the lines are drawn accurately between the points only.
Never plot from Pencil Lines.
nth.
Under no circum-
stances plot your offsets or any detail lines from pencil chain-lines.
As to plotting Long Lines. 12 th. If the base or any other lines are longer than your straight-edge, do not seek to produce the line hand-over-hand-wise, but take a silk thread and stretch it tightly between the extreme ends, and with a pricker (held perfectly vertical) make punctures at frequent intervening points, then you may apply the straight-edge, and be sure you
have as true a
line as is possible.
Plot all Survey-lines
first.
It is
much
better to plot
all
the survey-lines previous to commencing details, as any error, if detected, may be adjusted by re-measurement upon the ground, which might seriously affect the position of certain points of
offset.
Plot each Day's as soon as possible. Generally speaking, it is better to plot each day's work at once. I do not say the same evening, for arduous duties in the field (often upon a very meagre meal) and a heavy feed on one's return from work are
*
Work
good surveyor need never be
afraid of leaving the survey-lines
upon
his plan.
EQUIPMENT.
255
not conducive to the patience, clearness of brain, or energy required for the purpose. On a large survey I recommend alternate days for field and office work, or using fine weather for the former, for say two or three days, and devoting wet days to office work.
of Office. Now as to the equipment of an office. from those who argue that a surveyor who may have to take up temporary quarters at an hotel or inn, near the scene of his field operations, should plot his work under the very
Equipment
I differ entirely
inconvenient circumstances often attending his sojourn. I am not speaking of a small survey, which may be plotted almost anywhere, and it is certainly preferable to do plotting in close proximity to the work rather than at a distance, in case of any mistakes in the chaining. But on a large survey it would be next to impossible to expect at an inn such facilities for plotting the work as are necessary, unless a room be specially engaged and fitted up for the purpose. This, however, must entirely depend upon circumstances, and no general rule can be laid down. Assuming, however, that arrangements of a satisfactory nature can be made, it is necessary for us to consider the needful equipments of the office.
Drawing = tables. The drawing-table is of great importance. should be made of well-seasoned timber and free from all imperfections, such as knots, &c. it should be perfectly joined and clamped, and planed to conan even surface. venient size is 8 ft. long by 4 ft. wide, and it should be supported upon a substantial under-framing with The edge legs, not trestles. round should have a all
It
bull-nose from 3 to 4 in. deep, and it is better to have a slot lengthwise on Figs. 309 and 310. each side, well rounded on the inner edge, so that the paper, if longer than the board, may pass through, and thus be protected from creasing during the
process of plotting (see Figs. 309 and 310). The paper should be held down by lead weights, 3" X 2" X i" (weighing about 2J lbs.), covered with cloth or, preferably, washleather, and care should be observed in resting them, even so covered, by placing them on pieces of waste paper, in case of any I have already stated that a steel defect in the covering, or dirt. straight-edge should be provided, as long as possible (say 6 ft.), havino- a bevelled edge. This straight-edge should, when done with
2S6
OFFICE WORK.
each day, be carefully wiped, as the moisture of the hand is productive of rust, and be placed either in a specially constructed case lined with green baize, or hung up in a dry place, encased in wash-leather or brown paper, to protect it from damp.
Scales.
A box
i -chain
of six
five,
boxwood
scales, 12 in. long, with the
accompanying
offset scales, is indispensable.
one, two, three, four,
and
six chains to
and corresponding
length of the
side
feet
on the other side that is to say, the full scale of 12 in. represents 12 chains on one
These scales one inch .on one
are,
side
and 792 ft. on the other; the 2-chain scale, 24 chains and 1,584 ft.; the 3-chain, 36 chains or 2,376 ft.; the 4-chain, 48 chains or 3,168 ft.; the 5-chain, 60 chains or 3,960 ft.; and the The offset scales are 2 in. long, 6-chain, 72 chains or 4,752 ft. representing 2, 4, 6, 8, 10, and 12 chains, or 132, 264, 396, 528, Boxwood scales are more reliable than ivory, 660, and 792 ft. and I prefer them to vulcanite. Always wipe them well before and after use, as the moisture of the hands encourages them to
collect dirt.
Pricker.
All surveys should be plotted with a pricker with
as
and care should be taken to avoid making either too many or too large punctures, and round those required for further reference I always mark lightly with a pencil thus 0.
fine a point as possible,
Pencils. work.
HHH or HHHH
pencil,
Only the best quality of lead should be used

are the best
;
to plot
upon the
as a line.
and don't lean too hard as by so doing you make an indentation as well
Points of Pencils. As to the best form of point for a pencil, cannot say that I am very much enamoured of the chisel-shape. It certainly marks well against the straight-edge, and for mechanical drawing is much the best but for plotting a survey, if (as it always should) the pencil be held perfectly vertical and a fine point kept,
I
;
I think
it is
easier
and
better to manipulate.
Protractors.
The best form
of protractor
is
circular, of as
Fig. 311.
large a diameter as possible. Electrum or brass protractors are best, of which there are various kinds. Figs. 311, sra, and 313
PROTRACTORS.
257
represent the simplest types, but for extensive "kork there are protractors having arms, at the end of each of Which is a very fine pricker, and the instrument is so arranged that the centre of the
Fig. 312.
protractor being adjusted to the point of intersection, the arms are in line on either side with this centre, and may be fixed upon the It has a glass disc in the centre, with hnes at right line (Fig. 314). angles to each other, thus enabling the instrument to be adjusted
Fig. 313-
any point on the survey-line. An arm b, working from a collar attached to the centre, is governed by a slow-motion screw/ which actuates the arms a a ; these when not in use are folded over as shown. Another form of protractor which makes its appearance " ivory " or " mihtary " protractor, at all times is what is called the
to
s
2S3
Fig. 315.
It is
OFFICE WORK.
a wonderful combination, and for portability and
Fig. 314.
general
utility
(except for the purpose for which
it
is
made)
it
is
Fig. 315-
to
it
be commended. For plotting a survey I should say do not use except as a ruler for inking-in the boundaries, &c.
Compasses. For striking arcs of large radius such as are often required in plotting a chain-survey, ordinary compasses are useless even with the lengthening bar. For such purposes these arcs should be described by means of beam compasses or trammels This excellent instrument consists of two brass (see Fig. 316). boxes, each having a movable plate parallel with its vertical side, which is actuated by screws a a, so that it can be clamped tight against the mahogany * beam a. One of these brass boxes has a slow-movement screw d which enables the point c to be slightly moved at pleasure, whereby it may be adjusted to a hair's-breadth. The points may be removed at either end, and a pen or pencil one
substituted.
Beam
How to use
late the
the
Beam Compass. The best way to

is
manipu-
and upon this to carefully measure the required length with a scale, and then to apply the compass by moving the boxes approximately along the beam so that the points are near the mark, then clamp the screws a a, and with the slow-motion screw d get the exact position.
to
beam compass
draw a pencil
line,
* These beams are made in any having a " T " head to stiffen them.
fair
length of well-seasoned mahogany,
BEAM
striking
COMPASSES.
259
care
until
is
Great Care in striking an Arc. Great an arc with beam compasses, as at first,
one
required in is accus-
Fig. 316.
tomed to their use, they appear clumsy. Place the point of one end upon the station, holding the box lightly with the left hand, whilst with the right you guide the other box in the direction required, taking care TlfO to keep vertical the arm carrying the points, and not to press heavily upon the box. Thus if upon the line A b (Fig. 317), which is A'D
1,260 links long, we wish to determine the point c, we must measure on a pencil line the length a c 1,430 links, and placing And the point at a describe an arc at c. again with the length b c adjusted in the CHAIN LIHE compasses, viz. 1,825 links, we describe an arc intersecting the other arc at c, and Fig- 317from A and b we draw the lines a c, b c Should there be a check- or tie-line, as from a to d, respectively. on b c we must strike the arc whose radius is 1,115 links, corresponding with the distance which the station d is from b, and draw a line a d, which when scaled should correspond with our
measurements
in the field, viz. 1,040 links.
26o
OFFICE WORK.
Pricker or Needle-holder. No survey should be plotted without a pricker or needle-holder, as the finest puncture is all that is necessary to mark a point, and in a small-scale survey the thickness of even a very hard pencil would represent several links. Fig. 318 illustrates the usual type of jricker, in the absence of
EDO:
Fig. 318.
30>
which, however, a very useful tool may be made with a halfpenny pen-holder and an embroidery needle heated in a candle and driven I have one by me now whose total cost was under in eye-ways. a penny, which I have used for years.
Fig- 3I9-
Parallel rules are exceedingly useful in Parallel Rules. plotting a survey, and for traverse work they are indispensable. Those made to work upon rollers (as in Fig. 319) are the most reliable, and should be from 15 to 24 in. long, brass or gun-metal
being far preferable to ebony.
Set-squares, &c.
tate
For
setting out right angles
and
to facili-
plotting, vulcanite or
mahogany
set-squares are necessary,
Fig. 320.
Fig. 321.
similar to those illustrated in Figs. 320 and 321, those in Fig. 321 being framed in mahogany and edged with ebony the former are less liable than the latter to get " out of square," but are more
:
apt to soil the paper.
THE DRAWING-PEN.
261
An extremely serviceable set-square is a skeleton one resembling what is shown in Fig. 321, made of electrum or other not readily tarnishable metal, having on each face three tiny ivory knobs which enable it to run frictionless on the paper, and allow of its use on parts of the drawing where lines already inked-in are not yet Weight dry the latter feature rendering it in many cases a welcome time-saver to the draughts-
man.
Offsets. In plotting offsets or any of the features of a survey the greatest care is requisite. Place the edge of the scale accurately on the line, as in Fig. 322, and place two weights on a and b, then gently draw the offset scale c along the edge of the other scale to the point where it is rig. 322. required to make a lateral measurement, and prick off the length of the offset. It will be seen that a portion of a triangular field has been already plotted.
Curves.
No
oflfice
should be without a box of curves, such
Fig- 323-
as Fig. 323, which are made of pearwood, from i^ to 150 in. French curves are also very useful for drawing irregular curved figures.
and are of regular

*
radii
Drawing - pens. A survey should be distinguished by good draughtsmanship, equally with accuracy in execution.
RIGHT
WRONG
WAY
WAY
The various boundaries, fences, streams, buildings, &c., should be neatly

drawn
which a good drawingindispensable; and the the basis of the whole work survey-lines require to be drawn with a clear but
in ink, for
is
or ruling-pen
fine line.
^'S- 3^4-
A good
drawing-pen
will
with care
last for years.
have one
262
OFFICE WORK.
make
that I
of Swiss
it
had
at the present time.

is
in 1862, and I am in the habit of using Much depends upon the way in which a
pen
used and the care that is taken of it. Fig. 324 illustrates and wrong way of holding a drawing-pen. In the former case not only do you wear the point equally, but you have perfect command over the pen, whilst in the latter you wear the points at one angle, and you cannot manipulate the pen with the same facility
the right
Fig. 325.
The various types of drawingor neatness as if held vertical. pens are shown in Fig. 325. a is the ordinary pen; b has a hinged nib a which enables it to be cleaned better than a, and also is easier to sharpen ; c is a double or road pen, its chief advantage being assumed to be the possibility of drawing lines But I am straight or curved parallel to each other at one stroke. bound to confess that I have only used one upon one single
DRAWING INSTRUMENTS.
263
occasion, and found it to be not only a great nuisance but such a heavy tax upon my equanimity, that I have not tried one since. An instrument-maker would strongly recommend it ; I don't, d and E are dotting- or wheel-pens, the latter of which has at the head a small receptacle for wheels of different lengths of dot. These instruments are neat as pieces of workmanship, but, without great care, are apt to make a smeared instead of a dotted line. If you are the draughtsman you should be and there is no possible
excuse
why you should not
dottfed lines far more neatly trivances than you can with them.
you and
can draw parallel and effectively without such con-
Dividers.
Fig.
326
illustrates the usual
form of dividers, a
is
Fig. 326.
the ordinary sector type, as
is b,
only with double
joints,
which
for
264
OFFICE WORK.
purposes required in plotting and surveying are not to be recommended, as even with the best instruments their joints in time get loose, c and d are hair-dividers, with outside and inside screws These instruments will be found exceedingly useful respectively. And let me here warn the student for accurate measurements. against applying the points of the dividers upon the scale for the purpose of measuring on a plan ; it is wrong and slovenly, and
spoils the scales.
Mark
off the dis-
tance you require on paper, and apply your dividers thereto.
Spring-bows. Needle springbows (Fig. 327) are indispensable

for plotting a survey
:
the other kind

in the paper.
make too large holes The equipment
of
surveyor
would be quite incomplete without

a set of ordinary drawing instruments such as is shown in Fig. 328. a is the ordinary cheek compass; at a, the point may be removed, and in the slot may be substituted either the pencil or ink point b, or if the sweep is not sufficiently long a
lengthening
intervene.
bow may be made
to
Fig. 327.
Fig. 328.
Proportional Compasses. For enlarging and reducing which I shall have something to say presently, I now mention the proportional compass, of which Figs. 329 and 330 are illustrations ^the former when closed, the latter when open for use. On the one face of the divider (as in Fig. 330), on the Irft of the groove, is a scale of lines, whilst 'on the right side is one of circles ; and on the other face (see Fig. 329), on
plans, of
PROPORTIONAL COMPASSES.
the
left
265
side of the groove
is
a scale of plans and on the right one
of solids.
To set the instrument, it must first be accurately closed (as in Fig. 329), so that the two legs appear but as one; the nut ^ being then unscrewed, the slider may be moved, until the line across it
coincides with any required division upon any one of the scales. Now tighten the screws and the compasses are set.
To use the Proportional Compasses. To enlarge or reduce a plan,

once, twice, thrice, or up ten times, bring the line on the slider, opposite the scale of lines to a mark represented by 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9, or 10, and at the short end you will have that much less than the
to other,
and
vice versd.
But
of this I shall say

presently.
more
thin
Horn Centre.
transparent disk of horn in. in diameter, about having three small needlepoints to keep it steady. Placed over the centre from which an arc is to be struck with compasses, it prevents their point from making a hole in the paper.
India
RubbehThis
useful aid to erasure should be resorted to as little as possible, for good work and
workmanship should not require to be obliterated.
Fig. 329.
Fig. 330.
Yet, if it is necessary at times and it must be, of course the best kind is the soft white vulcanized rubber ; only use it gently, taking care not to damage the surface of the paper, or you will regret it when you commence
putting the tints on your plan.
Indian Ink.
is
For
all
the only ink to be used,
purposes of draughtsmanship the best and the extra cost of good quality, as

266
OFFICE WORK.
that of inferior, is so slight as to be hardly worth Indian ink should be used quite fresh each day, and should be kept covered up. To mix it properly, place sufficient water in the saucer, and rub the ink round until it adheres to the Never use either a brush or a pen for filling the drawingsides. pen, but dip the nib gently into the ink, and with a piece of washleather rub off the superfluous. For mixing up Indian ink or any large quantity of colour, the
compared with
discussing.
^^g- 33'-
Fig. 332.
nest of saucers (Fig. 331) is most useful as fitting one on the other. They virtually keep the colour hermetically sealed. For colouring plans in great variety the round slant and basin (Fig. 332) is ex-
Colours. -For colouring plans, I prefer the cake to the pans, as in mixture you get a better tint without risk of foreign matter getting in, which can hardly be avoided by using a brush with the pans. Of course, in the case of mixture, each colour must be separately rubbed up, and the incorporation must take place afterwards.
tremely useful, as you may have occasion to wash your brush frequently, whilst for ordinary variety of tints the ordinary straight slant (Fig. 333) is convenient.
The
surveyor
following
:
is
a hst of the chief colours required by the
Brown Madder
Burnt Sienna
French Blue
Raw
Sienna
Gamboge
Hooker's Green Indian Red
Umber
Umber Scarlet Lake
Carmine
Chinese White Cobalt Blue
Sepia
Yellow
Vandyke Brown
Venetian Red Vermilion Yellow Ochre Ultramarine
Crimson Lake Chrome Yellow Emerald Green
Indigo Neutral Tint Payne's Grey Prussian Blue
Conventional Signs and Colours. The following are some of the conventional colours used to illustrate the principal features of a survey. Fences are shown by a firm line ; post and rail thus
SYMMETRY OF THE
-|
PLAN.
;
267
thus
I I
1^
walls
by
parallel
lines
paled fences
Roads are tinted in light burnt^sienna. Footpaths of macadamised roads by a darker tint of the same colour. Pavements by neutral tint. Buildings are variously tinted lake, whilst outbuildings are shown by light indian ink. In some cases existing buildings are shown by neutral tint or light indian ink, whilst new or proposed buildings are tinted lake. Churches or public buildings are generally
delineated by some special method, such as hatching. Water is shown by Prussian blue or ultramarine. There are various ways of doing it, the most eifective being by what is termed rippling ; or it may be coloured dark at the edge, and led off by a
PLiAN
Parish of Bland
Fig- 334-
dry brush, called shading. Trees are either sketched in indian ink or are coloured. Pasture-land is tinted green, or if uncoloured land. Marsh-land is marked Pas., in distinction to Ara. for arable and heath or gorse are shown as on page 159. All buildings when inked-in and coloured should be back-hned on the right-hand side and bottom, bearing in mind that light falls me over the left shoulder at an angle of 45 deg. And here let
fairly
at least say that, if possible, a plan should not be coloured for preventive twenty-four hours after it has been inked-in, as a against the ink running. , , r The addition of a few drops of photographer s solution ot rubbmg bichromate of potash, well mixed with the indian ink after used up has been found to set it so quickly that colour may be
,
268
OFFICE WORK.
within a very short time after it dries. This expedient may be of considerable service to the draughtsman when time is of much importance; but if adopted, care must be taken to frequently change the ink in the drawing-pen, as this soon thickens and interferes with a free flow.
Inking-in from Top. In commencing to ink-in always best to begin working from top to bottom, taking care to keep the lower part well covered over, so as to prevent dirt or grease getting on the paper.
a plan,
it
Commence
is
Always work from Left

or
office, it will
to Ri^fht.
In
all
operations, field
be found most convenient to work from left to right, and in all cases the top and bottom, left and right sides of the paper, should represent north, south, west, and east.
Place
Work
in
Centre of the Paper.

is
Great care should

from the
be taken so that the plan

sides, leaving as
in the centre of the paper,
as possible for the title, which should always be at the top, and should any of the ground be irregular in shape, as in Fig. 334 at a, it is as well to place the north point in such a spot as will keep the plan symmetrical.
much space
REFERENCE,
IHE VARIOUS BOUHDMtlS OF PROPERTY SHEWH on THIS PUN ARE INDICATED THUS
Boundaries of Different
Properties.
Boundaries
;
of
different property
may be shown
T.
JONES ESQ.
by an edging of different colours if for one only, lake or green is most usual but when there
J.
H.
MORRIS ESQ.
EXORS OF LATE
SMITH
ESQ.
a variety of owners, the boundaries are generally indiare
LORD NOWHERE.
MRS GREENE.
TRUSTEES OF SION COLLEGE.
THOS. BLAKE i OTHERS
kt./fltf/An /fi*|
Fig- 335-
cated by lake, green, blue, yellow, burnt sienna, neutral tint, light indian ink, with a schedule of colours as reference in the And corner, as in Fig. 335. where I have written the name of the colour it should be tinted in the block to correspond with the edging of the boundaries.
Paint Brushes and Pencils. With regard to paint brushes, or pencils, as they are properly called, I need hardly say that the To best are the cheapest, and if taken care of will last a lifetime. leave brushes in water, or to neglect to cleanse them after use,
is
unpardonable.
sufficient,
Precautions in Colouring;. never mix more than
In colouring take
is
care to mix
wanted, but a
less quantity
NORTH
makes
it
POINTS.
269
sometimes
difficult to
match.
Colours should be mixed
the tints are not dark enough, they can be easily strengthened by an extra coat, whereby blotched colouring is avoided. It is best to colour towards you, taking care not to go over the same place a second time if possible; the colour in parts wants to be floated towards the draughtsman. Do not take too much colour in your brush, and always have a small clean brush handy to finish-off an edge. It is most convenient to have a piece of clean white blotting-paper to rest the wrist on when colouring, also to take up colour that oversteps the boundary. Be very careful not to go over the edge, as it makes a plan look very ragged. Colouring is best done by a slow and regular stroke, extra care being observed at boundaries. For shading, a- brush at each end of the handle is requisite, the one to put the colour on, and the other clean and slightly moistened to lead off the colour. The process is best done from left to right. Sable brushes are preferable to camel's hair.
light, as, if
North Points.
North
some ornamental and
points are shown in various ways, others quite plain, of which types are here
Fig. 336.
Fig- 337-
given.
estates got
have seen the plans of noblemen's and gentlemen's up with such elaboration that they were almost pictures. For instance, the north points were painted to represent lilies of
I
270
the valley
OFFICE WORK.
and other
beautiful flowers, evidence of the artistic skill of the draughtsman ; but
the practical surveyor of to-day has no time or inclination to adorn his plans with out-of-place
decorations,
and
recommend
the
adoption of a neat and simple figure, such as the ex-
amples in Figs. 336, 337, and

In all cases the magnetic 338. north should be shown by a dotted line.
Borders.
Every
plan
should have a border round it, with a margin of from i to i\ inches. A simple line is very neat for an ordinary plan, and
greater elaboration is necessary, then either a thin line on the top and left, with a thick line bottom and right, as in Fig. g p. '^' ^ 339, or as in Fig, 340, with a Sometimes a very fine lines. fine of two midst the in line thick and large plan, the size of which say is 16 feet square, will bear a
'
where
Figs. 339
and 340.
Fig. 341.
c_
Q
Figs. 342
and 343.
Fig. 344-
Fig. 345-
ENLARGING AND REDUCING.
271
line of neutral-tint, say three-eighths thick, and strongly blacklined in indian ink. Seine plans are finished with ornamental corners, such as are shown in Figs. 341, 342, 343, 344, and 345, which are as simple and effective as possible ; for I need hardly say that a good survey does not require much adornment, and the neater it is finished off the better it will commend itself.
Printing and Writing on Plans. One of the last and most important things in connection with a plan is the writing, to which too much attention cannot be paid. For a plan may be perfect so far as draughtsmanship and colouring are concerned, but entirely spoilt by reason of bad writing. Here again simplicity should govern the work. There is nothing neater than block letter, either vertical or on the slant, but with a very little extra time the letters may be made effective by using tints. Now there is a strong prevailing idea that any kind of printing will do on a plan, and a great fancy is expressed for stencil-plates. This
decidedly wrong, as the neater the writing the Stencil-plates are coneffective the plan. venient for marking sacks or the address of voyageurs upon those clean deal boxes one sees outside the trunk manufacturer's, but in the drawing office (except of course where work is done at so much an hour) they are out of place. The title of a plan should be carefully set out from
is
more
a centre
, line, and the letters, especially the large ones, ^. pencilled faintly, for which the template. Fig. 346, will be found very useful, giving as it does the angle of the slanting portions of the various letters.
Scales. The best kind of scales for plotting are divided into chains and tens of links on one side, and equivalent feet on the other, so that the mark of two chains would be 132 feet on the feet scale, and the same applies to the offset scale. explaI do not suppose the scale-maker could offer any other nation why 2-chain, 3-chain, and other such scales should be
True it is they are sometimes 20, 30, 40, &c. engineers to plot work to 20, 30, 40 feet to an inch, but it to bear in mind that the scales marked 10, 20, 30, 40, 50,
marked
used by
is
well
and 60
are really i, 2, 3, 4, 5, and 6 chains to an inch, and the subdivisions are each ten links, and equally on the "feet" side, the i, 2, 3, 4, subdivisions &c., represent 100, 200, 300, 400, &c., feet, the greater each. feet lesser 10 and the 5
Enlarging and reducing Plans. It
is
often necessary to
enlarge or reduce either whole or portions of surveys. For reliable purposes, the most satisfactory method is to replot the work to a
272
OFFICE WORK.
But this may not larger or smaller scale from your field notes. always be possible, consequently in these days of " labour saving," we have appliances for expeditiously accomplishing these results. As this work would be incomplete without a description of the pantagraph and eidograph, I have elected to quote from an excellent authority upon the subject * an author to whom I have already But although I do so, it must not be referred {ante, pp. 73, &c.). inferred that I entirely approve of either instrument, against the use of which I have somewhat of a prejudice, added to which I do not consider their great cost always justifies their adoption.
rulers,
Pantagraph. " The Pantagraph (Fig. 347) consists of four a b, a c, d F, and e f, made of stout brass. The two longer
a b and a
c,
rulers,
are connected together by, and have a motion
Fig. 347-
round, a centre at a. The two shorter rulers are connected in like manner with each other at f, and with the longer rulers at d and e ; and, being equal in length to the portions a d and a e of the longer rulers, form with them an accurate parallelogram, a d f e, in every position of the instmment. Several ivory castors support the machine parallel to the paper, and allow it to move freely over it in all directions. The arms, a b and d f, are graduated and marked \, -J, &c., and have each a sliding index, which can be fixed at any of the divisions by a milled-headed clamping-screw, seen in the engraving. The sliding indices have each of them a tube, adapted either to slide on a pin rising from a heavy circular weight
* "Drawing and Measuring Instrnments," Crosby Lockwoud & Son, London.
p. 65,
by
J.
F. Heather,
M.A.
THE PANTAGRAPH AND EIDOGRAPH.

_
273
called the fulcrum, or to receive a sliding holder with a pencil or pen, or a blunt tracing-point, as may be required.
"
When
the instrument
will
is
correctly set, the tracing-point, pencil,
and fulcrum
be in one straight line, as shown by the dotted line in the figure, and which may be proved by stretching a fine string over them. The motions of the tracing-point and pencil are then each compounded of two circular motions, one about the fulcrum, and the other about the joints at the ends of the rulers upon which they are respectively placed. The radii of these motions form sides about equal angles of two similar triangles, of which the straight line b c, passing through the tracing-point, pencil, and fulcrum, forms the third side. " The distances passed over by the tracing-point and pencil, in consequence of either of these motions, have then the same ratio, and, therefore, the distances passed over in consequence of the combination of the two motions have also the same ratio, which is that indicated by the setting of the instrument.
" Our engraving (Fig. 347) represents the pantagraph in the act of reducing a plan to a scale of half the original. For this purpose the sliding indices are first clamped at the divisions upon the arm marked \ ; the tracing-point is then fixed in a socket at c, over the original drawing ; the pencil is next placed in the tube of the sliding index upon the ruler d f, over the paper to receive the copy ; and the fulcrum is fixed to that at b, upon the ruler a b. The machine being now ready for use, if the tracing-point at c be passed delicately and steadily over every line of the plan, a true
copy, but of one-half the scale of the original, will be marked by The fine thread represented the pencil on the paper beneath it. as passing from the pencil quite round the instrument to the tracing-point at c, enables the draughtsman at the tracing-point to raise the pencil from the paper, whilst he passes the tracer from one part of the original to another, and thus to prevent false lines
from being made on the copy. The pencil-holder is surmounted by a cup, into which sand or shot may be put, to press the pencil more heavily on the paper, when found necessary.
" If the object were to enlarge the drawing to double its first then the tracer must be placed upon the arm d f, and the pencil at c ; and if a copy were required of the same scale as the original, then, the sliding indices still remaining at the same divisions upon d f and a b, the fulcrum must take the middle station, and the pencil and tracing-point those on the exterior arms,
scale,
A b and A
c,
of the instrument."
The Eidograph.*
four supports
* Heather's
" The pantagraph
just described requires
upon the paper, and from this cause, and from its numerous joints, its action is apt to be unsteady. An instrument
" Drawing and Measuring Instruments,"
p. 70.
274
to avoid these defects
OFFICE WORK.
was invented by Professor Wallace
in
1821
Fig. 348.
This instrument (Fig. 348), called the eidograph,
is
more
regular
THE EIDOGRAPH.
in
275
its action than the pantagraph, as will be readily understood from the following description of its construction, by which it will be seen that there is only one point of support upon which
joints, if
the entire instrument moves steadily and regularly ; and the we may so term them, consist of fulcrums fitting in accurately ground bearings, the motion round these fulcrums being capable of adjustment for regularity as well as accuracy. It also possesses the further advantage over the pantagraph, that it may be set with equal faciUty to form a reduced copy bearing any proportion whatever to the original, while the pantagraph can only be set to vary the relations between the original and the copy in the few proportions which are specifically marked upon it. " The point of support of the eidograph is a heavy weight, h, formed exteriorly of brass and loaded internally with lead, and having three or four small needle-points to keep it steady on the paper. The pin, forming the fulcrum upon which the whole instrument moves, projects from the centre of this weight on its upper side, and fits into a socket attached to a sliding-box, k. The fulcrums are ground to fit very accurately. The centre beam, c, of the instrument fits into and slides through the box k, and may thus be adjusted to any desired position with respect to the fulcrum, and then fixed by a clamping-screw attached to the box. Deep sockets are attached to each end of the centre beam, into which are accurately fitted the centre pins of the two pulley-wheels j j. These pulley-wheels are made most exactly of the same diameter, and have two steel bands, i i, attached to their circumference, so that they can move only simultaneously, and to exactly the same amount. By means of screw adjustments these bands can have their lengths regulated so as to bring the arms of the instrument into exact parallelism, and, at the same time, to bring them to such a degree of tension as shall give to the motions of the arms the required steadiness, which forms one of the advantages of the instrument over the pantagraph. The arms, a and b, of the instrument pass through sUding boxes upon the under side of the pulleywheels, these boxes, like that for the centre beam, being fitted with clamping-screws, by which the arms can be fixed in any At the end of one of the arms is fixed a socket desired position. with clamping-screw, to carry a tracing-point, g, and at the end of the other is a socket for a loaded pencil, d, which may be raised when required by a lever, f f, attached to a cord which passes
over the centre of the instrument to the tracing-point. The centre beam c, and the arms, a, b, are made of square brass tubes, divided exactly alike into two hundred equal parts, and figured so as to read one hundred each way from their centres, and the boxes through which they slide have verniers, by means of which help these divisions may be subdivided into ten, so that with their
276
OFFICE WORK.
the arms and beam may be set to any reading containing not more than three places of figures. loose leaden weight is supplied with the instrument to fit on any part of the centre beam, and keep it in even balance when set with unequal lengths of the centre beam on each side of the fulcrum. " The pulleys, j j, being of exactly equal size, when the steel bands i i are adjusted so as to bring the arms of the instrument into exact parallelism, they will remain parallel throughout all the movements of the pulleys in their sockets, and thus will always make equal angles with the centre beam. If, then, the two arms and the centre beam be all set so that the readings of their divisions are the same, a line drawn from the end of one arm across the fulcrum to the end of the other arm will form with the
beam and arms two

proportionals,
triangles,
having their sides about equal angles
and being, therefore, similar; hence any motion communicated to the end of one arm will produce a similar motion at the end of the other, so that the tracing-point being moved over any figure whatever, an exactly similar figure will be described by
the pencil."
To adjust the
Eidojfraph,
and examine
its
Accuracy.
" Set the indices of all three verniers to coincide with the zero divisions on the centre beam and arms, and make marks at the same time with the tracer and with the pencil ; then move the pencil-point round until it comes to the mark made by the tracer, and if the tracer at the same moment comes into coincidence with the mark made by the pencil, the arms are already parallel, and the instrument consequently in adjustment ; but if not, make a second mark with the tracer in its present position, and bisecting the distance between this mark and the mark made by the pencil, bring the tracer exactly to this bisection by turning the adjusting screws on the bands. The instrument being now in adjustment, if the zero division be correctly placed on the arms and beam, the pencil-point, tracer, and fulcrum will be in the same straight line, and they will still remain so when the instrument is set to give the same readings on the three scales, whatever those readings may be, if the dividing of the instrument be perfect. " The instrument being adjusted we have next to set it so as to make the dimensions of a copy, traced by its means, bear the desired proportion to the original. It must be borne in mind that the divisions on the instrument are numbered each way from the centres of the beam and arms up to loo, and that the verniers enable us to read decimals or tenths of a division ; so that if the indices of the verniers were a little beyond any divisions, as 26, and the third stroke of the verniers coincided with the divisions marked 29, the reading would be 2 6;3. Now suppose it were required to set the instrument so that the proportion of the copy to the original

TO ADJUST THE EIDOGRAPH.
277
should be that of one number, a, to another number, b. Suppose x to represent the reading to which the instrument should be set, then the centre beam and arms are each divided at their fulcrums into portions whose lengths are 100 a; and 100 x respectively.
and consequently
required reading
,
100 \- X ^ '
=-, from which we

b
' ;
find
that
the
thus
^
if
the proportions are as

J
^,
-\-
a
(2
-,
= 33 3, and the m3 strument must be set with the third divisions of the verniers beyond the indices on the third divisions of the instrument beyond the 33rd. have, therefore, the following simple rule Subtract the lesser term of the proportion from the greater, and multiply it by 100 for a dividend, add together the two terms of the proportion for a divisor, and the quotient will give the reading to which the
I
to
2,
we have x
100
i)
= 100
We
instrument is to be set. " The following readings are thus obtained

Proportions.

278
OFFICE WORK.
setting to
same way the
make
the linear dimensions of the copy
one-third of those of the original."
Enlarging and reducing by Squares. Failing

plotting of the
the re-
work
for the purpose, the only satisfactory
and
accurate method of enlarging and reducing plans is by means of squares and proportional compasses. This method is illustrated by the following example Let Fig. 351 represent the plan of an estate which it is required to copy on a reduced scale of one-half. The copy will therefore be half the length and half the breadth, and consequently will occupy but one-fourth of the space of the original. Take a sheet of tracingpaper and draw two lines at perfect right angles to each other, as o J, o 9, at the top and left of the sheet ; now very accurately and carefully divide these lines into spaces of some convenient length,
:
say,
ij to
c
2 ins., as
.7,
b, c,
d,
e,
f, g, &c.,
and
i,
2,
3,
4,
5,
6,

GENERAL HINTS.
upon a
line pick off
279
bisect this length
any length A b, then if the points C d accurately you have the right proportion. And as a further test, try your squares in the same way, a b being fixed at one of the subdivisions in Fig. 351, then if the sheets of squares have been accurately drawn, c d will exactly measure the length on the reduced sheet of squares. To reduce the plan, mark those points on the large squares where the fences, &c., intersect, and measure vertically and horizontally the distance from the nearest intersection of the horizontal and vertical lines with the a b end of the compass, and at similar points on the small squares mark the same distances with the c d end of the compasses and make marks, then if with a fine pencil you draw the Unes connecting these points, you will not only have a record of thq work you have accomplished, but it will be transferred to the paper beneath.
To copy a plan it has been recommended over a sheet of clean paper, and to prick-through all the fences, buildings, &c., and then to connect the punctures by drawing the lines first in pencil and then in ink. Such a system first, because it spoils both the plan and is to be condemned the copy by the prick-marks ; secondly, there is a liability of the plan becoming shifted, in which case there is no possibility of readjusting it ; and thirdly, it takes just twice the necessary time to accomplish ; added to which, there is always a liability of error. The method I recommend is to make a neat tracing of the plan, and to place this upon transfer-paper over a sheet of drawingThen place a clean sheet of tracing-paper over the whole, paper. and retrace the plan, by which means you have an accurate record of how much of the work you have accomplished, and no injury is done to the paper upon which the plan is to be copied. When working over transfer-paper, a clean sheet of stiff
Copying a Plan.
it
to place
enamelled metal, having two knobs for lifting when shifting it, should be laid upon that part of the work whereon the hand or anything else rests ; otherwise pressure is apt to set off from the transfer-paper grimy marks on the paper underneath.
General Hints.
In
plotting a survey the
following hints
may be
useful
upon 1. Dust your table, and well cover that part of the paper which you are not working. 2. Do not wear your watch in your waistcoat pocket. colour-pans on the same 3. Do not have an inkstand or your
table.
4.
.
Always clean your
scales, protractor, set-squares, straight-
edge, &c., before use. lines in lake or carmine before you 5. Rule-in your survey
commence
to plot your details,
28o
OFFICE WORK.
6. Always use fresh ink every day, and (if possible) do not colour over work recently inked-in. 7. Before commencing to plot, draw a scale on the paper, and also a north point. 8. Do not make calculations upon slips of paper, but always have a foolscap scribbling-book at hand, in which enter all your calculations and the dates upon which they are made. 9. Keep a separate field-book for each survey, and be careful to enter the dates of each day's work.
CHAPTER
XIII.
LAND QUANTITIES
The surveyor has not performed all his duties when he has plotted and finished his plan, for a matter of the greatest importance next to an accurate survey is to have a true record of the areas of the various properties shown upon the plan. There are so many works which deal more or less exhaustively with the subject of computation of areas and quantities, that I do not propose to do more than briefly consider the various methods which may be adopted for the purpose, and to endeavour to apply them practically for the information of those who may not have had an opportunity of perusing such books, or to whom possibly the meaning of all that was contained therein has not been made
sufficiently clear.
The
following are the items of superficial measure of chief

:
importance to the surveyor

Sq. Linlts.

282
LAND QUANTITIES.
Suppose we have a piece of ground which measures 23 J chains long and 6J chains wide, then
23"2S
6'5
151T25 square
chains.
Now
if we divide i5i*i25 by 10 we get is"ii25 acres, the decimal part of which should be multiplied by 4 to reduce it to roods, and the decimal part of the remainder by 40 to reduce it to perches, thus
A.
A.
R.
p.
15-1125
15
18.
Averages in Fence Lines. One of the first things necessary be perfectly understood is, how to determine the averages of uneven fences or boundaries. I mean that it is simple enough with a piece of ground whose boundaries form a regular figure, such as a square or rectangle ; but in practice this is seldom if ever the case, and the fences or boundaries being uneven and irregular, it is necessary to adjust them so that the inequalities may be accounted for. Fig. 353 is a simple illustration of what I mean.
to
Fig. 353.
The boundary fence a b curves in and out, so that it is necessary to To establish a mean line that will represent fairly the average. do this we resort to what is termed a " give-and-take line," as c d
;
by which those portions of the ground on the top
side of c
d are
ignored, as their area is considered to be equivalent to that of those portions below the line, which are really out of the property.
principles apply in a slanting boundary, whence it is necessary to measure to get the mean length between two parallel boundaries, as in Fig. Fig. 354Here, on the left of the 354. property, is a fence running diagonally, whose length on the top side is 6 chains, and on the bottom side 8 chains. To get
The same
of
the case
the
mean
length of course
little
we can
will
say
4-8 =
-
7 chains,
but in
fairly
practice a
judgment
enable one to arrive at a
accurate result.
BV TRIANGLES.
By
283
Triangles. The most simple, and indeed most satisfacmethod of computing areas is by means of triangles. Thus, if upon the plan to be measured a sheet of tracing-paper is spread and securely fastened, then, with a fine pencil, let the whole area be
tory,
divided into triangles, each of which (beginning at the top) should be consecutively numbered, and at the boundaries let the indentations of the fence be carefully treated oa the give-and-take principle. This being done, lines perpendicular to the longest sides of
rig. 3SS-
each triangle should be dotted, and these, together with the longest sides, should now be accurately measured, and the dimensions scheduled as in the following example. Fig. 355. Here we have a property ^the internal fences being purposely left out the area of which it is necessary to compute. It will be seen that it has been divided into eleven triangles, the sides of some of which have been arranged so as to " give and take " the inequalities of
the boundaries.
The
dotted lines show the triangulation, whilst

284
LAND QUANTITIES.
by a dot and
cross-stroke,
the perpendiculars are delineated following is the schedule

:
The
Triangle No.
AREAS BY TRIANCULATION.
3.
V,
285
rt
a b
= =
I'40 i'2o
I
4.
a b
i"2o
I
-{c
d=
=
"30
'68 area.
a c
2-50 2-50
6-25 area.
5.
-\-
c e
1-30
6.
f=
o'4o
y= 0*40 \-g h= i-8o

^
f ^
7-
LAND QUANTITIES.
=
286
The double
and No.
2 is 8'i5
area of No. i triangle 25'428. X 3"i2
is
i4"4o
6*05
87'i2;
Ascertaining Areas on Ground. In Fig. 357 is illustrated Simpson's method of computing the area of an irregular piece of ground, either with or without plotting. In this case the line a b should be measured as near as possible in the middle of the plot, and marks should be left in the '^ ground at the end of each chain lines at right angles should be drawn through these points, and should be measured.
:
The
F'g- 357I St.
following rule applies in
this case
last
:
be added together
The
first
and
lengths
should
separately.
2nd. Now add the 2nd, 4th, 6th, and 8th lengths together, and multiply the result by 4.
3rd.
Take
3rd, 5 th,
and
7 th lengths,
and multiply
their
sum
by
2.
4th. Collect all these
distance, or 100 links,

area.
sums together, multiply by the common and one-third of the product will be the
Example
A
B
a
^
= 300 links. = 300

600
6,200 2,460
9,260
= 350 links. = 450 e 6 = 400 ^8 = 350

2
..
,,
= 400 links. = 430 /7 = 4oo

(5
^5
..
1230 1550 4
2
2,460
100
3)926,000 308,666
6200
3 A. o R. i3'87 p.
Ans.
approximate, line through

strips, I
Another and simpler way, but at the same time somewhat is to mark every half-chain, so that an imaginary
c, d, e, f, g, h,
i,
k, will give a
7,
mean
length of the
2, 2 3,
3 4, 4
5, s 6,
7 8, 8 9.
If these lengths are

COMPUTATION SCALE.
added together and the
area, as follows
:
287
result multiplied
by
100,
we
shall
have the
Example c = 325 D = 37S E = 425 F = 440 G = 415 H = 400

I = 375 K = 325
37S 100
307,500
3 A. o R. 12
P.
Ans,
between this result and that gained in same example aboye, shows the necessity of adhering to the previous and more accurate method, although it must be noted that neither of these is so simple or so satisfactory as the method of computing areas by means of triangles.
slight discordance
The
the
Computation Scale. This last example serves as an excellent introduction to the computation scale, for the principles involved are precisely the same. For this, it is customary to prepare a piece of tracing-paper with horizontal lines a certain distance apart, drawn in blue. This distance between the lines is so arranged that a scale divided especially for the purpose, and moved from left to right between any two lines, shall record the area of the strip according to the length traversed. Thus, as a simple illustration, suppose we have spans of one quarter of an inch, and use a scale of four chains to an inch, the span would thus represent one chain. If we apply the scale to the left end of the span, and read ten chains on our scale, we shall have obtained an area of one acre ; and supposing we were to measure the whole length of a 12-inch scale, which would give 48 chains, then we should record 4 acres and S^jths of another acre, or 4 a. 3 r. 8 p. Now, what is done is to place the sheet of tracing-paper upon the plan to be computed and carefully fasten it down, taking care that one of the parallel lines cuts the most extreme point of the top of the plan ; then, as each span will pass through the boundaries of the property, so may the area be computed. Plate IV. (p. 289) is a practical illustration of the modus operandi of ascertaining the acreage by means of the computing scale. It represents a plan of an estate, drawn to a scale of 4 chains to an inch, over which is placed (and fastened down with drawing-pins) a sheet of tracing-paper, upon which have been carefully drawn blue
PLATE
Scalf
IV.
4 Chams
to aniuJli
Roods fchai ns
(^
'
llj
J!
t
ip
R
i
1
1
"
'^^^
>
III
T^"
^'ts^^^;s^^^!;^te^m^^mk^vm^v^^^^s^^^^^^^
HaJf iidl Size.
Ooffiy ^cAwoad k Sen,
7.
Siationtrs-Sail Caurf Zondan

,
{'/>:
fare
po^p
?.'iU
VARIOUS KINDS OF COMPUTING-SCALES.
289
are placed, those on the left side of the index to read with the divisions of the scale on the upper side of the groove, and those on the right of the index to read with the divisions on the under side of the groove.
In some scales the frame carries a piece of thin horn on which are ruled two lines parallel to the rule, at a distance apart which represents a chain, and the centre of this enclosure being determined by the intersections of its diagonals, a line l l, called the index line, is drawn through this centre at right angles to the parallel lines, and in the same straight line with the index on the brass tongue. But many scales are made with small holes pierced at L L, through which a piece of fine wire or thread is passed and held tightly in position by means of screws. The scale shown in the plate is arranged on this principle, and the index wire or line is shown to have passed from left to right, from zero to 2 acres and past 2 roods, whilst the index on the tongue records' on the left side 21 perches (of course reading from right to left) so that the area of the space between the lines from j' to k' is 2 a. The dotted outline of the index frame on the left shows 2 R. 21 p. the position at the commencement, whilst that on the right shows its position at the end of the scale, so that the arm, having only traversed about one-half the length of the scale from j' to k', the scale must be carefully taken up and adjusted so that the index
line cuts the
" give-and-take
" line
of the next span from
l'
to m',
and so on
until the full length of the scale has
been run.
Refer-
ring to the plate,
it will be seen that the progress of the index frame from A to B was o A. i r. 24 p., and having been moved to c it reads i A. i R. o p. at d, 2 a. 2 r. i p. at f, 3 A. 3 R. 26 p. at h,
5 A. I R. 18 p. at J, and we arrive at the extent of the scale before we can reach l, consequently when the index is at 6 a, o R. o p. as at a, we mark the point with a fine pencil-hne. Here I would pause to say that in this, as in all surveying
operations, I strongly advocate working always from left to right, I should prefer the lower portion of the scale to 6 to 12, working left to right, instead of the way from divided be It will be seen that I have used it in this in which it is shown. case, as I advocate, instead of retracing our steps from 6 to is, to
and consequently
do which I have added the readings on the upper scale to 6, to n 18, 24, and 30 acres as the case has been, so that from a
12,
the
scale recorded o a. 3 r. 21 p., therefore 6 a. -|- o a. 3 r. 21 p. 6 A. 3 R. 21 p., and so on until b, c, d, and e. Thus, in the position of the scale at j' k' we have \aAfive changes of six acres, and a
length from ? to k' of 2 A. 2 r. 21 j' k' of 32 A. 2 R. 21 p.
p.,
or a total area from
A b to
Various Kinds of Computing=scales.There are numerous types of computing-scales, some of a universal character, and
29
LAND QUANTITIES.
others so constructed that instead of the frame working upon a tongue, the groove is made to receive strips of very thin box-wood, upon which are divided scales of from i to 6 chains to an inch, and the various Ordnance scales.
Areas by Different Scales to Plan.

in the plate is of so simple
^The
scale illustrated
a character that it commends itself; and whilst it is desirable, in an office where computation on a large scale is carried on, to have computing-scales of the various scales in vogue, yet it is quite possible to arrive at an accurate estimate of the area of property drawn to a different scale from that of the computer. For instance, suppose we have a plan 5 chains to an inch, the area of which it is desired to ascertain, but our computing-scale is 3 chains to an inch. As an example, we will assume that the operation of computation gives a result of 6 a. 2 r. o p. with the scale. Now, as 5 chains to an inch is much smaller than 3 chains, then the area will necessarily be greater, so that if we treat it as a rule-of-three sum we shall get the correct result. In examinations, I regret to say, this question has been a source of trouble and embarrassment to many students, who, even if they are happy in thinking of the proportion, quite forget that it will not be as three to five ; but, as they are dealing with areas, it is as the square of three is to the square of five, so is the known area to that required. So that, having the area with the 3 chain scale of 6 a. 2 r. o p., we proceed as follows 5^ 3^ 18 a. or. 8 p. 26 yds. 8 ft. = area of 6 A. 2 R. o p. the plan drawn to a scale of 5 chains to an inch.
reliable
: : : :
and
Planimeter.There is another method of ascertaining the areas of a plan by what is known as the planimeter, invented by But it J. Amsler, Professor of Mathematics at Schaffhausen. is a very delicate instrument, and the slightest dirt or rust will throw it out of gear. " It consists essentially of two arras jointed
together, so as to move with perfect freedom in one plane, and a wheel which is attached to one of the arms, and turning on this arm as an axis, records by its revolutions the area of the figure traced out by a point on the arms to which it is attached, while a point on the other arm is made a fixed centre, about which the instrument revolves." For a full description of its various parts, and of the method of using it, I cannot do better than refer the reader to Heather's " Drawing and Measuring Instruments," p. 80.* Like all instruments the object of which is to save labour, the planimeter, from the very delicacy of its construction, has to be used with the greatest care ; and for ordinary practice it is hardly advisable to adopt it, on account of its great liability to injury.
either
For myself, I much prefer to take off the by triangles or with a computing-scale.
Crosby
quantities of land
Lockwood & Son, London.
CHAPTER
XIV.
COLONIAL LICENSING REGULATIONS.

In most of the British Colonies, surveyors enjoy a " Protection " to the profession in the United Kingdom ; the practice of surveying being lawful to licensed persons only, licences being granted on condition of passing certain examinations and complying with regulations from time to time promulgated by the various Colonial Governments, the latest dates whereof appear to
unknown
be as follows
1877; Manitoba, 1883; Prince Edward 1884; Quebec, 1889; British Columbia, 1897; Natal, 1899; Ontario and Queensland, 1900; New South Wales and New Zealand, 1901 Cape Colony, Orange River, and Southern Rhodesia, 1902 ; Tasmania, Transvaal, South Australia, Victoria, and Western Australia, 1903.
Brunswick,
Island,
;
New
To qualify a candidate for examination for a licence, the majority of the above Colonies prescribe preliminary conditions some, preliminary conditions and entrance examination others one set of conditions and a single examination. In the following list (Section I. relating to the two former cases, and Section II. to the latter, and to the final examination in cases where more than one is prescribed) are set forth, under the titles of the Colonies, the latest particulars of those conditions and of the The terms of the conditions and examisubjects of examination. nations for the Australasian Colonies and the Transvaal are compiled from the official documents themselves those for the other African Colonies, and for Canada, froih abstracts given in the Emigrants' Information Office " Professional Handbook " and other sources, and they are less specific in details than the former, though equally correct so far as they go. It may be added, that attainment of the age of 20 or 21 years, and production of goodcharacter certificates, are in most cases stipulated for these items
: : : :
are not here inserted. In cases where there appears to exist a distinction between Ordinary land-surveyors and " Government," " Departmental," or " Dominion " land-surveyors, it is to the former only that the present chapter relates ; but the distinction (if any) is not always
clearly expressed nor easy to make out. It will be seen that, in all save one Colony, the conditions are

292
COLONIAL LICENSING
more or
less modified in favour of candidates in respect of their professional or other status. Cape Colony stands as the sole exception, expressly declaring that " Admission as surveyors in
Cape Colony
is granted only to those who have qualified themselves for this profession in the Cape Colony, no foreign diploma
or certificate being recognised."
I.
Preliminary Conditions and Examination.
Canada.
person may be admitted as an he has passed an examination in British Columbia in penmanship, orthography, arithmetic, algebra, Euclid, plane trigonometry, and use of logarithms. He must then serve for three years with a surveyor in British Columbia, or for one year only if (i) he has served three years elsewhere, or (2) has had two years' course of study in surveying
British Columbia.
No
articled pupil to a surveyor unless
in
any college or
university.
Manitoba. An ordinary candidate must pass an examination in English and elementary mathematics, and then be articled to a surveyor in the province for three years. Any one who has after two years' study in any college or university received a diploma of competency in mathematics and surveying ; or who is a duly licensed surveyor of Great Britain and Ireland and has served three years with a surveyor there need serve only one year with a surveyor in Manitoba. Persons who have served with a Dominion land-surveyor are entitled to go up for the final examination.
New Brunsvk'ick. Certificate from some licensed surveyor that the candidate has had three months' practice in actual
field-work.
Nova Scotia. Certain [unspecified] qualified civil engineers must serve for a year in Canada before going up for final examination. qualified surveyor of the United Kingdom must serve in Canada for a year, and must pass the prescribed examinations. For persons without qualification, an entrance examination, to be followed by a three years' service under articles. The subjects for the entrance examination include penmanship and orthography, arithmetic, algebra, plane geometry, plane and spherical trigonometry, mensuration of superficies, and the use of logarithms.
REGULATIONS.
293
Ontario. candidate must have served three years as apprentice to a sijrveyor in Ontario ; and no person is admitted as an apprentice unless he has passed an examination in orthography, certain [unspecified] parts of mathematics, geography, and
Canadian history. Any one who has been practising as a surveyor elsewhere in His Majesty's dominions where the qualifications are similar to those required in Ontario, need not serve as an apprentice, or
only for a certain [unspecified] limited time, before undergoing the final examination or such portions of it as the Board thinks necessary. Graduates of the Royal Military College, Kingston, or of the Ontario School of Practical Science, or of the McGill College, Montreal, or of the School of Mining, Kingston, in civil engi/neering or mining engineering, have the privilege of a shortened term of apprenticeship; and they are also exempted from the apprenticeship examination.
Prince Edward Island. None specified ; the imposition of preliminary examination upon a candidate being in the discretion of the Board of Examiners and depending upon circumcandidate producing, from a well-known College or stances. University, certificates of his experience in surveying and thorough acquaintance with the use of the several instruments, would probably be exempted. From the wording of Sect. 7 of the Colonial Act 47 Vict. cap. 5, it would appear that a person who has been in the actual practice of a land-surveyor for a period of at least five years before the passing of that Act ; or who is qualified under the provisions of a statute of the Canadian Parliament, is ipso facto qualified to practise.
he has passed an examination geography and that of Canada
admitted to study surveying until in English and French, general in particular, history of Canada, arithmetic, elements of geometry, use of logarithms, and algebra candidate must have up to and including quadratic equations. served for three years under a surveyor of the province, and had
is
Quebec.
No person
one
in
year's practice in the field.
A candidate who has
studied the above subjects for two ye^rs
some University or College in the province ; or if he belongs to the Province of Quebec and has followed a complete course or study at the Royal Military College, and has received from such
University or College a diploma as civil engineer or surveyor; received as a student by a surveyor, and one year's service with him, instead of three, is sufficient.
may be
394
COLONIAL LICENSING
Australasia.
New South Wales. (a) A candidate shall have served under Articles, or other similar agreement, with some qualified surveyor * or surveyors, for a period of four years, three of which must have been in the field ; and shall produce satisfactory evidence of having received such education as will qualify him for
the proper exercise of his profession.
\b) Or he shall have passed at any University recognized by an Australasian University, the matriculation examination, including English, geography, arithmetic, geometry, algebra and physics, or such other examination as shall, in the opinion of the Board, be equivalent thereto ; and shall have been professionally employed with some qualified surveyor or surveyors for not less than three years, two of which must have been in the field. (c) Or shall have taken the degree of Bachelor in Engineering at any University recognized by an Australasian University, and have been professionally employed in the field for a period of two
years with a qualified surveyor or surveyors. {d) In addition to evidence of service, a candidate shall produce a certificate from a qualified surveyor or surveyors, with whom he has served, that he is competent to undertake surveys. {e) candidate shall produce his original field-notes and plan plotted by him therefrom, of the survey of an area of not less than 40 acres, one of the boundaries of which shall be a watercourse or other natural feature or an irregular road. The fieldnotes, plan, and survey must be certified by the candidate to be
entirely his
own work.
field service
Zealand. {a) Same as New Sotith Wales (a), but two instead of three years. (b) Same as New South Wales (J)), adding trigonometry. (c) Or shall have completed a course of the degree of Bachelor in Engineering at a recognized University, and have been professionally employed in the field for a period of two years with a
qualified surveyor or surveyors.
{d) Safiie as
(e)
New
New South Wales (d). Every candidate shall forward a plan and particulars of the measurement of a base-line not less than 80 chains in length connected by a series of at least three triangles with the triangulation of the district a plan of at least 100 acres of rural land, contained within not less than ten sides a plan of an area, having buildings thereon, in illustration of a town survey under the Land
:
:
' * " qualified surveyor ' shall mean any person entitled to practise as a land surveyor in any part of the British Empire where the standard of examination is, in the opinion of the Board, equivalent to that prescribed by these Rules."
REGULATIONS.
295
Transfer Act ; and the original field-books, tabulations, and all calculations connected with the above surveys. The plans must be drawn and plotted on paper 18 in. by 18 in. from surveys. made in accordance with the Survey Regulations, and shall be signed, dated, and certified as the work of the candidate. *
() Same as New South Wales (a), and of " qualified surveyor " the same. (b) Same as New South Wales {b). (c) Same as New South Wales (c), with the following addition : Provided always that at least one year of such field service shall have been served in one of the Australasian colonies.
Queensland.
definition
{d)
(e)
Same as New South Wales (d). Same as New South Wales (e).
(i)
(c)
South Australia. {a) Same,as New South Wales (a), Same as New South Wales (6). Or shall have completed a course of the degree of Bachelor
any University recognized by an Australasian and have been professionally employed in the field for a period of two years with a qualified surveyor * or surveyors. Provided always that at least one year of such field service shall have been in any part of the British Empire or the United
in Engineering at
University,
States of America.
candidate may be required to produce his original. field(d) notes and plan plotted by him therefrom of the survey of an area of not less than 40 acres, one of the boundaries of which shall be a water-course or other natural feature, or an irregular road. The field-notes, plan, and survey must be certified by the applicant to be entirely his own work.
Tasmania. (a) Same as New South Wales (a) : definition of a " qualified surveyor " being the same as that for South
Australia
(b) (c)
(c).
(d)
(e)
Same as New South Wales (b). Same as New South Wales (e). Same as New South Wales (d).
shall produce his original field-notes and plan by him therefrom, of the survey of an area of not less than 40 acres, one of the boundaries of which shall be a watercourse or other natural feature or an irregular road, and of an area having buildings thereon in illustration of a town survey. The field-notes, plan, and survey must be certified by the candidate to be entirely his own work.
A candidate
plotted
* qualified surveyor shall mean any person entitled to practise as a land surveyor in any part of the British Empire or the United States of America where the standard of examination is, in the opinion of the Board,
equivalent to that prescribed by these regulations."
"A
296
COLONIAL LICENSING
Victoria. () Same as New South Wales (a) : definition of a " qualified surveyor " being the same as that for South Australia (c). Same as New South Wales {b). (J)) {c) Or shall have taken a degree in Civil Engineering at any University recognized by an Australasian University, and have been professionally employed in the field for a period of two years with a qualified surveyor or surveyors. {d) Same as New South Wales {d).
{e)
Same
as Tasmania
(e).
Western Australia. (a) Same

of a'''' qualified surveyor South Australia (c). (b) Same as New South Wales (b).
(a)
:
as
New
definition
" being the
South Wales same as that for
(c)
(d)
(i)
Same as Victoria (c). Same as New South Wales Same as Tasmania {e).
(d).
Africa.
Cape Colony.
Colony
is
granted only to those
for this profession in

certificate
{b)
'
Admission as surveyors in Cape who have qualified themselves the Cape Colony, no foreign diploma or
{a)
being recognized. All persons passing the examinations are termed ' Government Land Surveyors, even though practising privately. (f) The first examination is held by the University, and is purely theoretical, and embraces the following subjects Arithmetic ; Algebra ; Geometry ; Plane and Spherical Trigonometry ; Astronomy, and the elements of Geometrical Optics, and Expansion under Heat; Co-ordinate Geometry, Mensuration, and the
:
elements of Geodesy.
Natal.
years.
None
specified
save attainment of the age of 21
See Section II.
Orange River. None specified save in so far as may be implied in a somewhat vaguely-expressed clause (b. 2) in Section II.
Southern Rhodesia. Cape University examination
Transvaal.
A candidate shall have passed the

in the theory of land surveying.
See Section II.
REGULATIONS.
II.
297
SoLK
OR Final Conditions and Examination.
Canada.
British Columbia. (a.) candidate must pass an examination in plane and solid trigonometry; spherical trigo-
nometry so
far as it includes the solution of triangles ; the use of logarithms ; measurement of areas ; dividing or laying-oif lands elements of practical astronomy ; the solution of some elementary problems ; and the system of survey and registration of places in
;
British Columbia.
properly qualified surveyor of any other Province of a commission as surveyor without serving articles, or passing any examination other than as regards the system of surveys of the lands of British Columbia. land-surveyor in any of His Majesty's dominions other (c.) than Canada, in which the standard of requirements is similar in theory and practice to that prescribed for this province, need not pass any examination other than as regards the system of surveys of lands of the province, and need not serve articles. (d.) Any one who has passed the examination for and served two years in any of His Majesty's surveys, or as an officer in the Royal Engineers, or has for two years served under articles with a surveyor in any of His Majesty's dominions, or who has been in the active employ of any chartered railway company in British Columbia as a surveyor and engineer for five years, shall be admitted as provincial land-surveyor on passing the examination referred to in (d.) * above, without serving further apprenticeship. (e.) Any British subject who is a qualified civil engineer, and who holds credentials as such from any British or Canadian University, or Chartered Institute of Engineers, or from any British or Canadian civil engineer, or firm of British or Canadian civil engineers of repute, may make surveys incidental to works of construction on which he is employed, and plans of such surveys are admissible to public record ; and he may practise as a provincial land-surveyor on presenting such credentials to the
(b.)
Canada
shall receive
Board or otherwise satisfying them that he is qualified to practise as a civil engineer in some part of His Majesty's dominions, and of is possessed of a proper knowledge of the provincial system land surveys, and has resided in the Province for the year preceding his application.
Manitoba.
(a.)
An
ordinary candidate must be articled
to a surveyor in the province for three years after passing the entrance examination; and then pass a final examination in
mathematics and surveying.

*
Corresponds to referefice in " Prof.
Handbk."
Qy,
(b.) or (c.) ?

298
; ; ;
COLONIAL LICENSING
(b.) Persons who since October 1875 have been admitted as surveyors in any Province of Canada, where the qualification required is similar to that in Manitoba, and when the province grants reciprocal privileges to Manitoba surveyors, are entitled to be admitted as surveyors in Manitoba without any examination other than one in the survey of land and the law as to regis*
tration of plans in Manitoba.
candidate must pass an examiBrunswick. nation in arithmetic ; algebra ; geometry ; mensuration ; trigonometry ; use of logarithms ; surveying and dividing lands ; plotting and map-drawing ; spherical trigonometiy and astronomy so far as will enable him to lay down a true meridian line and ascertain the latitude ; and practical use of instruments.
New
Nova Scotia. (a.) The subjects of examination are Euclid, first four books, and propositions first to twenty-first of sixth book ; plane trigonometry so far as it includes solution of triangles ; use of logarithms ; mensuration of surfaces, including calculation of area of right-lined figures by latitude and departure dividing and laying-ofif of land] rules for solution of spherical triangles, and of their application to surveying in the following
:
to ascertain elementary problems of practical astronomy, viz. the latitude of a place from an observation of a meridian altitude of the sun or of a star to obtain the local time and the azimuth from an observed altitude of the sun or a star from an observed altitude of a circumpolar star, when at its greatest elongation from
:
:
:
the meridian, to ascertain the direction of the latter. candidate must be familiar with surveying operations (b.) and capable of reporting intelligently thereon; conversant with the keeping of field-notes and their plotting on plans of survey the describing of land by metes and bounds for title ; the adjustments and methods of use of ordinary surveying-instruments; the Dominion system of survey, and the standing instructions for Dominion land surveyors from time to time published by
authority.
Ontario.
(b.)
(a.)
Same
as
Nova
Scotia
(a.),
Same
as
Nova
Scotia (b.).
Prince
(b.)
Edward
Island.
(a.)
Same
as
Nova
Scotia
(a.),
as Nova Scotia (b.), the clauses following the words use of ordinary surveying-instruments being altered to the Dominion and Provincial systems of survey.
Same
Geometry Quebec. The subjects of examination are and spherical (theoretical and practical) trigonotnetry linear and topographical drawing ; levelling practical astronomy and all other questions relating to practical surveying ; the use
:
rectilinear
REGULA TIONS.
; ;
299
and theory of instruments ; geology ; mineralogy the forest flora of Canada the mode to be pursued in establishing boundary lines the investigation of titles to property and finally all fundamental questions of law connected with the measurement of
; ;
land.
Australasia.
New
spherical
;
South Wales.
(a.)
Trigonometry,
plane
geometry and algebra.
These subjects
will
and be treated
so far as they are applicable to surveying. (b.) Reduction of traverses ; computation connected with the setting out of roads and curves; adjustment of discrepancies in surveys ; computation of areas, including such as have irregular and curved boundaries. (c.) Detail of field practice, including the keeping of field notes ; topographical surveying ; setting out of areas ; redetermination of boundaries ; laying out of roads ; setting out curves plotting from field-notes ; stadia surveying ; barometric and other measurement of heights; surveying under Real Property Act; writing descriptions of boundaries. (d.) Levelling ; measurement of earthworks. (e.) Principles of construction, adjustment, and use of the Theodolite, plane-table, sextant, telefollowing instruments meter, level, compass, clinometer, barometer, thermometer, and
:
band. Determination of time, latitude, and azimuth; reduction of star places ; elementary geodesy, including spherical excess and convergence of meridians ; declination of the magnetic needle. projection of maps (g.) Plan-drawing ; compilation of plans ;
steel
(f.)
and
charts.
(h.)
Elementary physics ; elementary geology. Candidates producing satisfactory evidence of having been matriculated, or of having passed the senior examination at a University, or of having completed a course of the degree of Bachelor in Engineering at any University recognized by, an Australasian University, may be exempted from working out papers in elementary geometry, trigonometry, and algebra, and will be credited with 65 per centum of the maximum marks allotted those papers. entitling to practise are issued without exami(j.) Certificates
(i.)
nation to duly qualified surveyors of other Australasian States.

(a.) Same as New South Wales (a.), South Wales (b.), with addition of triangulation, including polygonal and ray-trace computations. <?/ cutting (c.) Same as New South Wales (c), with substitution
New
Zealand.
as
(b.)
Same
New
300
COLONIAL LICENSING
off given areas insteati of setting out of areas, nnd Land Transfer Act 1885, instead of Real Property Actj and omitting writing
descriptions of boundaries. (d.) Same as New South Wales (d.). (e.) Same as New South Wales (e.). (f.) Same as New South Wales (f.).
(g.)
Same Same
as as
New
South Wales
(g.),
with addition of descripwith addition of survey
tion-writing.
(h.)
New
South Wales
(h.),
regulations.
Wales (i.), with addition after the (i.) Sa7ne as New South words senior examination at a University, of : or the Senior Civil Service Examination of New Zealand. (j.) The examination in each subject may be viv& voce or in In the writing as the Board may from time to time determine.
event of a candidate failing to pass at the first examination, the Board may, at its discretion, allow him to come up at the next examination, and may determine the special subjects in which he must pass on the second occasion. (k.) Same as New South Wales (j.)
(b.)
(c.)
Queensland. (a.) Same as New South Wales Same as New South Wales (b.).
(a.),
(d.)
(e.)
(f.)
(g.)
Same as New South Same as New South Same as New South Same as New South Same as New South
Wales (c). Wales {&.), Wales (e.). Wales (f ). Wales (g.).
(h.) Elementary optics and light in relation to the construction and use of surveying instruments ; elementary stratigraphical
geology.
(i.)
(j.)
Same as New South Wales Same as New South Wales
(i.).
(j.).
(b.)
South Australia. (a.) Same as New South Wales (a.). Same as New South Wales (b.), with addition (j/'triangu-
lation.
(c.) Same as New South Wales (c), substituting cutting off given areas instead ^setting out of areas. (d.) Levelling ; grading ; measurements of earthworks ; including practical tests. (e.) Saine as New South Wales (e.), with addition of tacheometer. (f.) Sa7ne as New South Wales (f.), with addition of; With
practical tests.
(g.) Same as New South Wales of sections and contours.
(g.),
with addition of; drawing
REGULATIONS.
301
(h.) Physics and geology (elementary) ; names and description of Australasian timbers of economic value (w/wi voce).
(i.) Candidates producing satisfactory evidence of having matriculated or passed the senior examination at a University, or the senior Civil Service examination of New Zealand, may be exempted from working out the papers in elementary geometry, trigonometry, and algebra, and will be credited with 66 per centum of the maximum number of marks allotted to those papers. (j.) Candidates producing evidence of having taken a degree in Civil Engineering at any University recognized by an Australasian University, may be further exempted from working out the papers in physics and geology. (k.) Certificates entitling to practise are issued without examination to duly qualified surveyors of the other Australasian States or of any part of the British Empire or of the United States of
America.
(b.)
Tasmania. (a.) Same as New South Wales Same as South Australia (b.).
(a.).
(c.) Detail of field practice, including the keeping of field notes; topographical, trigonometrical, subdivisional, and other surveys ; setting out of areas ; redetermination of boundaries laying out of roads ; setting out curves ; plotting from field-notes and from co-ordinates; stadia surveying; barometric and other measurement of heights; surveying under Real Property Act; (Candidates may be required writing descriptions of boundaries.
to
make
(d.) (e.)
(f.)
Same
actual surveys.) as South Australia (d.).

(e.).
Sapie as South Australia
Same as South Australia (f.). Australia (g.). (g.) Same as South (h ) Same as South Australia (h.). (i.) Same as South Australia (i.). South Australia (j.). (j.) Same as (k.) Same as New South Wales (j.). Victoria. (a.) Same as New South Wales (a.). (b.) Same as South Australia (b.). Transfer of Land Acts (c.) Same as Tasmania (c), substituting
instead
(d.)
(e.)
(f.)
of&sA
Property Act.
(g.) (h.)
(i.)
(j.)
(k.)
Same as South Australia (d.). Same as South Australia (e.). Same as South Australia (f.). Same as South Australia (g.). Same as South Australia (h.). Same as South Australia (i.). Same as South Australia (j.). Same as New South Wales (j ).

302
COLONIAL LICENSING
Western Australia.
(b.)
(c.)
(a.) Same as New South Wales (a.). Same as South Attstralia (b.). Same as Tasmania (c), substituting Transfer of Land Act
for Real Property Act. (d.) Same as South Australia (d). (e.) Same as South Aiistralia (e.). Wales (f.) Same as New South
tests.
(f.),
adding With practical
(g.)
(h.)
(i.) (j.)
Same as South Atistralia (g.). Same as South Australia (h.). Same as South Australia (i.). Same as South Australia {].).
issued, with or entitling to practise are (k.) Certificates without examination, to licensed surveyors of the other Australasian States.
Africa.
Cape Colony. (a.) The second examination is held in the Surveyor-General's office, and is of a practical nature, embracing the following subjects including topography, copying plans, and (b.) Drawing, Neatness as well as accuracy in this branch is essential. lettering. (c.) Use and adjustments of theodolites, and use of scales and
:
planimeter.
(d.) Measurement of a base-line, and the different methods employed for securing extreme accuracy. Candidates may be required to measure a base-line. (e.) Co-ordinates and their practical application to land-surCandidates may be required to determine the co-ordiveying. nates of a number of given points, and to fix in the field their
positions.
(f ) Overcoming difficulties in the field, such as observation of angles the vertices of which are inaccessible, and reduction of observations when there are small known errors in the positions of the observed signals. (g.) Re-survey, under Land Beacons Act or otherwise ; subdivision of private property ; construction of plans and diagrams according to the regulations in force. (h.) Astronomical determination of the latitude of a place, and of the true azimuth of one or more lines of a triangulation. Candidates may be required to determine, by astronomical observations, the direction of the meridian with reference to given points, and to determine the variation of the compass. examination is to be followed by a Trial (i.) The above Candidates may be required to frame a plan of the Survey.

REGULATIONS.
survey,
303
and to lay down on it accurately rivers, roads, etc., or other marked features of the ground within the hmits of the survey.
Natal. (a.)
English
history
arithmetic
elementary
geometry and algebra.

(b.) Mathematics, embracing geometry; algebra ; elementary trigonometry ; co-ordinate geometry of the straight line ; statics and dynamics. (c.) Theory, embracing plane and spherical trigonometry ; practical astronomy and geodesy, including determination of time, latitude, longitude, and azimuth; determination of heights by angular measure, spirit-level, and barometer. (d.) Practical subjects, embracing use and adjustment of
:
theodolite, level, sextant,
and prismatic compass
subdivision of
land ; setting-out curves ; measuring-up earthworks ; preparing plans; showing longitudinal and cross sections of earthworks;
taking-out quantities.
(e.) Persons who hold diplomas from any recognized examining ijody are exempted from examination in the subjects covered by such diplomas.
Orange River. (a.) Any person entitled to practise as a Government Land Surveyor* in Cape Colony may practise as a Land Surveyor in Orange River Colony. (b.) Any person admitted as a Government Land Surveyor in Great Britain or Ireland or in any British .Possession shall be entitled to be admitted as a Government Land Surveyor in Orange River Colony on proof to the satisfaction of the Deputy Administrator thereof
:
That he has been admitted to Land Surveyor in any such country as

(i)
of his application is still entitled practised as such therein for not less than three years ; (2) That he has passed an examination or examinations prior to such admission, equivalent to the examinations required to be passed in the Cape of Good Hope for admission as a Government
Government and at the date to practise and has actually

practise as a
aforesaid,
Land
Surveyor.
Southern Rhodesia. An examination in the practice of land-surveying, conducted by the Surveyor-General. \See Cape
Colony
(a. to i.).]
Transvaal. No person shall be admitted to practise as a Licensed Surveyor until he has worked in the field for a period of not less than two years with a qualified Government Surveyor, and has passed
:
* See
Cape Colony
(i)
in Section I,
304
COLONIAL LICENSING REGULATIONS.
(a.) In this colony such examination or examinations as may be prescribed by the Board of Examiners and approved by the Lieutenant-Governor in Council or (b.) In some other part of His Majesty's Dominions such examination or examinations as the Board of Examiners with the approval of the Lieutenant-Governor in Council may deem to be equivalent to the examination or examinations prescribed under sub-section (a.). If examination or examinations passed else;
shall be deemed to be equivalent in part only, the applicant be required to pass such supplementary examination or examinations as the Board of Examiners may prescribe ; and (c.) In addition to such examination or examinations prescribed in sub-section (a.) or (b.), such examination in the methods and procedure of surveying and in the Land Laws of the Colony as
where
shall
the Surveyor-General shall prescribe.
APPENDIX
TABLES
HYPSOMETER TABLES.
TABLE
I.
3o8
HYPSOMETER TABLES.
HYPSOMETER TABLES,
309
310
HYPSOMETER TABLES.
TABLE
II.
Correction for Temperature of Intermediate Air.

Mean
tem-
TABLES OF NATURAL SINES, TANGENTS, AND SECANTS, WITH THEIR COMPLEMENTS.

Tables of
natural
sines, cosines,
numerical values of the lengths of the of arcs of a circle whose radius = i.
tangents, etc., represent the sines, cosines, tangents, etc.,
The The
natural
sines etc., also the arcs for
sines etc., are found
any given natural from the table in the same manner as is
used for logarithmic ones.

natural sines etc., are easily found from logarithmetic subtracting lo from the indices of the latter the number corresponding to this logarithm is the natural sine etc., required. Given the logarithmic sine of 36 44', namely 9"7767676, to find the natural sine.
ones,
by
L
Hence
sine 36 44'
= = =
97767676
lo'
Subtract
Z natural
sine natural sine
17767676
o"598o9i6
Conversely, natural sines etc., can be converted into logarithmic ones, by finding the logarithm corresponding to their numerical value and adding 10 to the index. Given the natural cotangent of 63 25', namely 0-5003989, to find its logarithmic cotangent.
Nat. cot. 63 25'
log.
0-5003989 0-5003989
= 01-6993164
10-
Add
L cotangent
63'' 25'
9-6993164
312
NATURAL SINES AND

Deg.
1
COSINES.
NATURAL SINES AND

3
Degr.
COSINES.
313
SH
6 Deg.
NATURAL SINES AND

1
COSINES.
3i6
12 Dee.
7>ÂTURAL SINES
AND
COSINES.
3i8
NATURAL SINES AND

18 Deg:.
COSINES.
320
NATURAL SINES AND

27
Degr.
COSINES.
29
Deg'.
321
S8 Heg.
Cosine
8910065 8908744 8907423 8906100 8904777 8903453
8902128 8900803 8899476 8898149
8895493 8894164 8892834 8891503 8890171
Sine
1
Sine
4694716 4697284 4699852 4702419 4704986 4707553
4710119 4712685 4715250 4717815 4720380
Cosine
8829476 8828110 8826743 8825376 8824007 8821269 8818527 8817155 8815782
Sine
4848096 4850640 4853184 4855727 4858270 4860812 4863354 4865895 4868436 4870977 4873517
4876057 4878597 4881136 4883674 4886212
Cosine
8746197 8744786 8743375 8741963 8740530 8739137
2
3
4 6 6
7
4539905 4542497 4545088 4547679 4550269 4552859
8
9 10
11 12
4555449 4558038 4560627 4563216 4565804
8737722 8736307 8734891 873347s 8732058 8730640 8729221 8727801 8726381 8724960 8723538 8722116 8720693 8719269 8717844 8716419 8714993 8713566 8712138 8710710 8709281 8707851 8706420 8704989 8703557
8702124 8700691 8699256 8697821 8696386
13 14 15
16 17 18 19 20
21
4568392 4570979 4573566 4576153 4578739

4581325 4583910 4586496 4589080 4591665
4722944 4725508 4728071 4730634 4733197
8814409 8813035 8811660 8810284 8808907

8807530 8806152 8804774 8803394 8802014
8800633 8799251 8797869 8796486 8795102
8793717 8792332 8790946 8789559 8788171
8887506 8886172
8883503
4735759 4738321 4740882 4743443 4746004

4748564 4751124 4753683 4756242 4758801 4761359 4763917 4766474 4769031 47715S8 477414+ 4776700 4779255 4781810 4784364 4786919 4789472 4792026 4794579 4797131
4799683 4802235 4804786 4807337 4809888
4888750 4891288 4893825 4896361 4898897

4901433 4903968 4906503 4909038 4911572
22 23 24 25
26 27 28 29 30
31
4594248 4596832 4599415 460199S 46045S0

4607162 4609744 4612325 46x4906 4617486
8882166 8880830 8879492 8878154 8876815

887547s 8874134 8872793 8871451 8870108
4914105 4916638 4919171 4921704 4924236

29 28
32 33 34 36
4620066 4622646 4625225 4627804 4630382 4632960 4635538 463811S 4640692 4643269
4645845 4648420
8868765 8867420 8866075 8864730 8863383
8786783 8785394 8784004 8782613 8781222
4926767 4929298 4931829 4934359 4936889
36 37
8862036 8860688 8S59339 8857989 8856639 8855288 8853936 8852584 8851230 8849876 8848522 8847166 8845810 8844453 8843095 8841736 8840377 8839017 8837656 8836295
8834933 8833569 S832206 8830841 8829476
8779830 8778437 8777043 8775649 8774254

8772858 8771402 8770064 8767268 8765868 8764468 8763067 8761665
8760263'
4939419 4941948 4944476 4947005 4949532 4952060 4954587 49S7II3 4959639 4962165 4964690 4967215 4969740 4972264 4974787 4977310 4979833 498235s 4984877 4987399
8694949 8693512 8692074 8690636 8689196

8687756 8686315 8684874 8683431 8681988 8680544 8679100 8677655 8676209 8674762 8673314 8671866 8670417 8668967 8667517 8666066 8664614 8663161 8661708 8660254
4650996
4653571 4656145
4658719 4661293 4663866 4666439 4669012
4812438 4814987 4817537 4820086 4822634 4825182 4827730 4830277 4832824 4835370 4837916 4840462 4843007 4845552 4848096
4671584 4674156 4676727 4679298 4681869

46S4439 4687009 4689578 4692147 4694716
8758859 8757455 8756051 875464s 8733239 87S'832 8750425 8749016 8747607 8746197
4989920 4992441 4994961 4997481 5000000
Cosine
Sine
Cosine
Sine
Cosine
Sine
Deg-. 60.
Deg', 62.
Deg'. 61.
322
NATURAL SINES AND

30
Deg:.
COSINES.
NATURAL SINES AND

33
Dee:.
COSINES.
35
'Deg.
323
34
Cosine
83S6706 8385121 8383536 8381950 8380363 8378775
8377187 8375598 8374009 8372418 8370827
Degr.
Sine
5446390 S448830 5451269 5453707 5456145 5458583
Sine
5591929 5594340 5596751 5599162 5601572 5603981
5606390 5608798 5611206 5613614 5616021 5618428 5620834 5623239 5625645 5628049 5630453 5632857 5635260 5637663 5640066 5642467 5644869 5647270 5649670 5652070
Cosine
8290376 8288749 8287121 8285493 8282234
8280603 8278972 8277340 8275708 8274074
5461020 5463456 5465892 5468328 5470763

5473198 S475632 5478066 5480499 5482932
548536s 5487797 S490228 5492659 5495090
S369236 8367643 8366050 8364456 8362862
8272440 8270806 8269170 8267534 8265897 8264260 8262622 8260983 8259343 8257703
8256062 8254420 8252778 8251135 8249491
49
8361266 8359670 8358074 8356476 S354878

8353279 8351680 8350080 8348479 8346877
8345275 8343672 8342068 8340463 8338858
5497520 5499950 5502379 5504807 5507236

5509663 5512091 5514518 5516944 5519370 5521795 5524220 5526645 5529069 5531492
5533915 5536338 5538760 5541582 5543603
5654469 5656868 5659267 5661665 5664062 5666459 5668856 5671252 5673648 5676043 5678437 5680832 5683225 5685619 5688011
5690403 5692795 5695187 5697577 5699968
8247847 8246202 8244556 8242909 8241262 8239614 8237965 8236316 8234666 8233015
8231364 8229712 S228059 8226405 8224751
8337252 8335646 8334038 8332430 8330822

8329212 8327602 8325991 8324380 8322768 8321155 8319541 8317927 '8316312 8314696
5546024 5548444 5550864 5553283 5555702

5558121 5560539 5562956 5565373 5567790
8223096 8221440 8219784 8218127 8216469

8214811 8213152 8211492 8209S32 8208170
8313080 8311463 8309845 8308226 8306607

8304987 8303366 8301745 8300123 8298500 8296877 8295252 8293628
5702357 5704747 5707136 5709524 5711912 5714299 5716686 5719073 5721459 5723844
5570206 5572621 5575036 5577451 5579865 5582279 5584692 558710S 5589517 5591929
8206509 8204846 8203183 8201519 8199854 8198189 8196523 8194856 8193189 8191520
8290376
5726229 5728614 5730998 5733381 5735764
Oosine
Sine
Beg'. 56.
Cdsine
Sine
Deg'. 55.
324
NATURAL SINES AND

36
"Dag.
COSINES.
38
Segr.
37
Cosine
"Deg.
ine
5882558 5884910 5887262 5889613
326
328
NATURAL TANGENTS AND CO-TANGENTS.
329
33
331
332
333
334
33S
336
NATURAL TANGENTS AND CO-TANGENTS
338
339
340
NATURAL SECANTS AND CO-SECANTS.
342
343
344

35
1
34S
2 3
4
1*2207746 1*2210233 I '22 12723 1*2215215 1*2217708 1*2220204

1*2222702 z '2225202 I "22 27703 1*2230207 1*2232713 1*2235222 1*2237732 1*2240244 1*2242758 1*2245274
1*2247793 1.2250313 1*2252836 1*2255361 1*2257887
6
7
8
9
10 11 12 13 14 IS 16 17
18 19 20 21 22 23 24 25 26 27
1*2260416 1*2262947 1*2265480 1*2268015 1*2270552

J-227309I 1-2275633 1-2278176 1-2280722 1-2283269
346
348
3S0
352
17
INDEX.
CRE
of land, 2, 269 Acute angle, 103
Areas by
different scales,
290
Acute-angled triangle, 102, 103
Arithmetical complement, 139 computation, 142
Adjustment of the eidograph, 276

of the level, 74, 199 of the pantagraph, 273
for parallax, 76,
Arrows, 3
how
to use
them, 12
necessity for booking change of, 12
200
200, 207 Ball and socket arrangement, 46 Barometer, aneroid, 79
of the theodolite, 41 of the vertical axis, 41
DACK sight,
lines, 23,
Allowance
for slope,
adjustment
of,
22
for collimation,
74
Base
154
of, 1 66
219 Altazimuth theodolite, 98 Aneroid barometer, 79 levelling with, 226

for curvature, 197,
best form
Beam
compass, 259
Angle, acute, 103 of buildings, 16

chain, 25
striking an arc with, 259 Bench-marks, 204, 206 Boning lines with laths, 164 Borders of plans, 270 Boundaries, how shown, 13
complemental, 109, no, 116
of different properties, 13, 268
"defect"
of fences,
of,
117
Box
of deflection of curve, 239, 241

1
sextant, 59 how to use
it,
61
Box-wood
scales, 254,
256
'
of intersection, 237, 241 obtuse, 103

plane, 102
plane rectilineal, 103
how shown, 158 Broken ground, how shown, 160 Brushwood, how shown, 159 Buildings, how to measure, 16
Bridle-path,
of reference, 113, 121

right,
description of, 194
103
of slope, 2 of streets, 187
pAP and spanner,
45
Cardiff, survey at, 166
Angles, when to take, 171, 192
Apex, inaccessible, 239
Care in checking, 185 Cart-tracks, how shown, 158, 168

Centering-plates of theodolite, 43 Centre of circle, 103
Arc of circle, 122

vertical, of theodolite,
50
354
Chain,
INDEX.
how to hold it, how to use it, 12
angles, 25
1
Conventional signs, 158, 266
Copying a plan, 279

Corroboration of observations, 176, 208 Co-secant, definition of, 1 10 Cosine, definition of, 109
Cotangent, definition
of,
advantages of loo-feet, 2
decametre, 3
divisions of Gunter's, 3
109
10
Gunter's 66-feet, 2
testing, 9 Chain and arrows, 2, 10 Chaining a hedge, 14 Chain-men, 10 should be instructed
County boundaries, how shown, 160

Coversed
sine, definition of, 1
Cross-sections,
Cross-staff,
229
29
in
their
duties, 164
Curvature of earth, 197 allowance for, 197, 199, 219 Curve, length of, 241
Chain-surveying, 157 Check-lines, 24

obviated, 171
impeded point
in,
240, 243, 244
Curve-rangers, 92, 94 Curves, setting-out, 237
check measurements in plotting,
formulas
for,
241
254
setting-out with theodolite, 239

arc,
1
Chord of an
Circle, 103
10
with two theodolites, 245 with offsets, 248
centre of, 103
with ordinates, 25
of different radii, 247
limit of radii,
diameter
of,
103 103
segment
of,
semi, loi
setting out
238 from same tangent,
Circumferentor, 40
250
of contraflexure, 248
for office use, 261
Clamps, 48, 49
Clinometer, 31
rule, scale,
32 35
HATUM,
how shown,
158
75
202
Clips, 50
ordnance, 202
Close-paling,
Closing a traverse, 184 Collimation, adjustment

line of, 74,
Decametre chain, 3 Decimals converted into

Diameter of
circle,
thirds,
242
of, 74,
Declination or variation, ms^nelic, 185
200 method of keeping level-book,
103
Diaphragm of level, 73
theodolite, 51
213
Colonial surveyors, licensing regulations,
Distances, inaccessible, 25, 152

in levelling,
291
in,
217
13,
Colour saucers, 265

Colouring, precautions
Colours, 266
Ditch and hedge,

268
Dividers, 263
15S
Compass, prismatic, 38 of theodolite, 50
Double sextant, 62 Drawing instruments, 256-265

Drawing-pen, 261
Compound
levelling, 201
scale,
how
to hold,
261
Computation
287 various kinds of, 289

of,
Drawing-tables, 255
Contouring, 215 Contours, interpolation
PARTH'S
236
curvature, 197
for, 197,
allowance
2ig
71
INDEX.
Earth's radius, 156
355
Horizontal equivalents, 231

table of, 233
Eidograph, 273 to adjust, 276 Enlarging and reducing plan, 271 by squares, 278 Equilateral triangle, 104 Equipment of office, 255 of surveyor, 5 Eye-piece, 51, 73, 100
Horn
centre, 265 Hypotenusal allowance
for
sloping
ground, 22
Hypotenuse, in relation
to other sides
1
of right-angled triangles,
10
Hypsometer, 226
levelling with, 228, 307
pENCES, how
corners
of,
to measure, 13
INACCESSIBLE
height, 149
apex, 239
how shown,
17
1
158
distances, 25, 152
intersection of,
India-rubber, 265
not to be cut or crossed unneces-
168 Field-book, 6, 157, 160 ordnance, 157 best size of, 162
sarily,
Indian ink, 265 to prevent running, 267 Instruments, spare parts, 100
novelties in, 100
Intermediate sights, 200, 208

Intersection of fences, 17
Isosceles triangle, 104
Figures not to be erased, 194 Flags, 4
Follower, duties
of,
Footpaths and cart-tracks, 158, i58 Footpaths, how shown, 158, 1 58

Footplates, 209
T AMP-posts
in towns, 194
objections to, as stations, 179
Land
^
quantities, 281
Foot-set hedge, 14, 158

Foresight, 200, 208
by triangles, 283 by computation scale, 287

Laths, bundle
PATES, how
Gauge,
test,
shown, 158
of,
Laying out a
of, 5 base, for telemeter,
position
168
66
9
cleared after sur-
survey lines on paper, 254 i Leader, duties of, 10
down
Glass, object, 73
Ground should be
veyor, 169
Gullies in towns, 194
Level " Abney," 33 adjusting, 74, 199 book, 206, 210, 214 collimalion method, 213
Gunter's chain, 2
divisions of, 3
dumpy, 71
reflecting, 33,
77
UEAD-stock
of level and theodo-
tube, to replace; 100
lite,
45
Heath or gorse, how shown, 159 Hedge and ditch, as boundary of

property, 13
"Y,"69, 70 Level ground, what

Levelling, 197
is,
20
how
to mark, 158, l58
foot-set, 14, 158 Hedges, crossing, 12 Heights and distancesj 147 Hints on use of theodolite, 169 Hints and cautions, general, $, 169
200 coUimation method, 213 compound, 201

different kinds of,
the plates, 49 "precise," 230

simple, 200
staff,
77,
21S
356
Levelling with aneroid, 226 with hypsometer, 228
tables,
INDEX.
Optical square, 30 how to use it, 15, 30 Orchards, how shown, 159
Appendix
with theodolite, 222 Limb or lower plate, 46 Limits of offset, 18

radii,
Ordnance bench-mark, 205

field-book, 157
238
of,
pACING,
how shown,
1
IS
Line, direction
60
Paint brushes, 268
Lines, base, 23, 154 of collimation, 74, 200
Pantagraph, 272 Paper to be perfectly
flat,
254
ranger, 31
ranging out, 19 Logarithmic sines
well seasoned, 253 Parallax, adjustment of, 76, 200

etc.,
141,
and
Parallel lines, 106

plates
rules,
Appendix
Logarithms, 137
division by, 139 evolution by, 140
and 260
their screws, 45,
46
Parish boundaries,
Pencils,
how shown,
160
Pencil lines, no plotting from, 254
involution by, 140
256
multiplication by, 139 proportion by, 139
Perpendicular, 103
relation to hypotenuse
and
base,
Lower
plate or limb, 46
variation, 185
III
lUAGNETIC
Photographic surveying, 195 Plane angle, 102

rectilineal angle, 103
Marshy ground, how shown, 159 Measure, standards of, 2

Measuring across stream, 27,28,69,218 Minus signs in trigonometry, 118
Mirror, reflecting, 77 Multilateral figures, 102
surface, 102
table, 63,
97
Planimeter, 290
Plans, enlarging or reducing, 271, 278
copying, 279
Plotting, 253, 254
141,
TVATURAL
North
sines
etc.,
311;
long
to
tables of, 312

points, 269 Northings and southings, 183 Novelties in instruments, 100
lines, 254 be north and south, 254 survey lines first, 254
each day's work, 254

Plus and
Poles,
solu-
minus
signs
in
trigono-
metry, llS
QBJECT-GLASS,
Oblique-angled
50, 73 triangles,
tion of, 144 Obtuse-angled triangle, 104 Office work, 253

Offsets,
Post-and-rail fence, how shown, 158 " Precise " levelling, 230
Preliminary operations in setting-out

curve, 239
Pricker, 256, 260
14
of,
limits of, 18
Printing and writing on plan, 271
plotting
staff, 3,
261
19
objections to tapes for, 18
Prismatic compass, 38 and combined clinometer, 35 Proportional compasses, 264
Omnimeter, 82
Omni-telemeter, 84
how
to use them, 265
Protractor,
256
INDEX.
357
QUADRANT of circle,
improved, 32 Quadrilateral figures, 104
Quantities, laud, 281, 283
io8,
in
Sines, in terms of sides, 136
of semi-angles, 136
for 18 degrees, 125
for
30 degrees, 124, 125 60 degrees, 124, 125
for 45 degrees, 123
TDADIUS
of circle, 103 of curve, 238, 241
for
for 120 degrees, 126 for 225 degrees, 126 Sketch map, 7
of earth, 156
ratio of, 127
unity, 122
Skew
shown, 160
chaining, 14
of,
Railways,
how
Slope, observing angle
21
Ranging
rods,
4
of, 7,
adjusting allowance for, 22

staff,
Ray
shade, 96
21
See Triangles
Reconnoitring, necessity
level, 33,
157
table of allowances for, 22
Reflecting clinometer scale, 35
Solution of triangles.
77
Southings and northings, 183
mirror, 77 Refraction, 198
Spanner and cap, 45

Spare parts of instruments, 100
of, 27,
River,
how
to
measure breadth
Spherical excess, 155

Spirit-level tube, to replace, 100
28, 69,
2lS
of,
survey
Roads,
how
176 shown, 159

for colours,
Spring bows, 264 Square, optical, 30
how
to use
it,
15,
30
C AUGERS
266
Stadiometer, 81
Staff, cross,
Scale to be drawn on plan, 253
29
215
Scalene triangle, 104

Scales, 254, 256, 271
holder, instructions to, 216, 221

levelling, 77,
offset, 3,
Screws, parallel plate, 46 Secant, log

Sections, cross, 229
Set- square,
19
Segment of circle, 103 260

Setting-out curves, 237
slope, 21 Standards of measure, 2 Station marks, 8
pegs, 8
Stations, fixed, 7
by by
offsets,
248
main, 7
subsidiary, 8
ordinates, 251
with two theodolites, 245 from same tangent, 250

Sextant, box, 59 how to use it, 6i
marking
Stepping, 23
of, 1 60,
254
Stock head or tripod head, 42, 45, 97 Straight-edge, 254

Superficial land-measures, 281
double, 62
Signalling against wind, 6
Supplemental angles,
Surface, plane, 102
Signs in use on plans, 158, 266 Sine A in terms of Cos A, 115
Survey lines to be numbered consecutively, 157 Survey, trigonometrical, 154 Surveying with chain only, 157
Tan
A, 115
Sec A, 115
Sines, etc., of half an angle, 132
of twice an angle, 132 of three times an angle, 133
with theodolite, 171

photographic, 19S
358
Surveying a river, 176 a town, 186
stations,
INDEX.
Trees,
how shown, 159 not to be cut down, 169

equilateral,
isosceles,
how shown,
160
oi,
Triangle, acute, 102, 103
Surveyors' Institution, examination
173 System, necessity
104 104
of,
for,
253
obtuse-angled, 104 oblique-angled, solution

right-angled, 104
TABLE,
Tan A
144
plane, 63, 97 Tables of natural sines etc., 311

in terras of sine A,
solution of, 142

scalene, 104
Tacheometer, 83
11
Triangles, solution of, 142-147
of cos A, 115 Tangent of an angle, 109 of curve, 241

points,
Triangular plates of levels, 69 Trigonometrical canon, 108

ratios,
109
239
ratio of
two angles, 128
screw, 48, 49 Tangential angle, 241, 243
survey, 154
Trigonometry as applied to surveying,
Tape, 4 not to be used for
102
offsets, 18,
155
Tripod head or stock head, 42, 45, 97

T
Telemeter, 65 ^ how to use
it,
66
TPPER
or vernier plate, 47
Telescope of level, 72
theodolite, 50
Test gauge, 9 Testing chain, 9 Theodolite, adjustment
yARIATION,
Vernier, 52
of,
magnetic, 185
41
or upper plate, 47
" Everest," 58
levelling with, 211
Versed
sine,
10
Vertical arc of theodolite, Jo

intervals
lents,
stand, 41
transit, 54,
and horizontal equiva-
use
of,
91 not to be spared, 222
231
"Y,"47
Theorems, geometrical, 104 Ticketing, 230
IITALLS, how shown,

Whites, 5
158
of,
Water, taking level
222
163
Town
surveying, 186
Transit theodolite, 54, 91 Traversing, 180

closing, 184
Wimbledon Park, survey Woods, how shown, 159
of,
Work
in office, hints as to, 245
Writing on plans, 271
THE END.
PRINTED BY WILLIAM CLOWES AND SONS, LIMITED, LONDON AND BECCLES.
CATALOGUE OF
SURVEYING INSTRUMENTS
MADE BY
W.
4
F.
STANLEY &
Co., Ltd.,
&
5,
GREAT
TURITSTILE, HOLBORN, LONDON.
THEODOLITES.
Stanley's
New Model Telemetrical Theodolite, patent, Telescope supports and axis in one casting, tribrach mechanical stage,
;
s.
d.
trough compass, with ease and tripod, 4-in., 31 6-in., 37; 8-in If without Compass, 1 less (except 8-in.). Bubble on Verniers (as illustrated) or on Telescope.
extra
5-in.,
34
60
If on hotU,
10
STANLEY'S SURVEYING INSTRUMENTS.
Telescopic (instead of trough) compass to either of above, extra
10
(?.
Transit, as foregoinpf, but without mechanical and tripod, 4-in., 26 lOs. 5-in., 28; 6-in. ... If without compass, 1 less. New Transit, witli circular compass and old four-screw adjustment, but made of solid construction, 5-in., 27 C-in Either of the foregoing Instruments, with illuminated axis and lamp, striding level, erecting and diagonal eye-pieces, extra Framed stand (in place of solid) or sliding adjustable legs, extra Transit Theodolite, 8-in., reading to 10", etc., double clamping arc, framed stand, diagonal eye-piece, illuminated axis, lamp, striding level, etc. suitable for astronomical and geodetic work ... Lister's Inolinometer-Theodolite, Stanley model, perfect as a theodolite, and with supplemental axis to set out railway
;\Iodel
stage, with case
;
New
30 10
29 10
5
10
50
cuttings, 5-in.
30
Engineers' Theodolite (new model), telescope transiting eye end, divided on silver platinumiridium point stadia reading diaphragm very strong, light instrument 4-in., 21 ; 5-in., 23 6-in. Trough compass extra, 1 Stanley's Hedley's IMiners' Dial, with movable sights, fitted also with telescope in Y's with limb circle to read outside as a theodolite, fitted witli combined ball and socket and parallel .Subtense points for reading distances 6-in. only, plates. ... Same as above, but with cranked gimbal, patented, enabling Vernier reading telescope or sights to read 90 both ways. circle with clamp and tangent and Hoffmann head 6-in. only,
Stanley's
1!
ail way
25
20 10
25
SEXTANTS,
Xautioal Sextant,
silver,
7-in.,
Etc.
metal bronzed, arc 120, divided on

fittings complete, in
two telescopes, and

divided on
mahogany case
5 8
Ditto, highly finished, arc 140, three telescopes, extra fittings
Box Sextant,
leather case
silver,
best make, witli telescope, in
Ditto, with supplementary arc, ditto, ditto
4 4 5 10
;
Optical Square, incase, 15.; with adjustment, 22s. Aetificlal Horizon, mercurial, superior make, iron
double
...
bottle, etc.
2 4
Ditto, Captain George's, complete in sling leather case
STATION POINTERS and PLANE TABLES.

Station Pointer, 12-in., divided to 30', two verniers, in case Ditto, 12-in., extending to 24-in. by lengthening arms, two clamp and tangent adjustments, divided on silver, in case Plane Table, mahogany, on tripod stand, portable alidade, with trough compass and level, all packed in one case Ditto, with telescope, as supplied to the Indian Government, with adjustment, 8 10. with vertical arc
;
6 10
11 10
7
10
Stanley's Kew Engineers' Level (Three Fatonts), centre cast in hard guu-mctal with, and directly upon, the telescope body
and object end. The strongest and most compact level yet made. Clamp and tangent adjustment. Tribrach stage. 14-in., 13 10s. 12-in., 12 10-in
;
;
10 10
Stanley's
New Model
16
10s.
;
Level, very
rigid, patent tribrach stage 18-in.
for stand or wall.
Aluminium compass, prism reading

14-in.,
18 10
Ditto, 16-in.,
14
10.; 12-in
...
Fourteen-inch, ditto, without compass, 13 10s.; 12-iu., ditto
With
ball joint to set to
compass, 14-in.,
14-in.,
any angle before screw adjustment, with 16 10s. ; 12-in., 15 10s. without compass,
;
15
10s.;
12-in
Any
of the above with clamp
and tangent adjustment, extra

for
Stanley's Patent Gkadiometbe, H-in., specially designed
Drainage
Work
or Irrigation
Any
of the above with framed stand, extra

;
Solid leather over-cases, with strap, for 18-in., 4Gs.

14-in., 38.; 12-in., 34s.
;
16-in., 42s.
10-in
Capt. Abney's Pocket Level and Clinometek
Levelling Staves (Sopwith's),
14-ft., 45s.
16-ft.,
60s
18-ft.
...

ANEROIDS, MOUNTAIN BAROMETERS, Etc,
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THE MECHANICAL ENGINEER'S POCKET-BOOK.

Comprising Tables, Formulse, Rules, and Data A Handy Book of Reference for Daily Use in Engineering Practice. By D. Kinnear Clark, M, Inst. C.E., Fifth Edition, thoroughly Revised and Enlarged. By H. H. P. Powles, A.M.I C.E., M.I.M.E. Small 8vo, 700 pp., bound in flexible Leather Cover, rounded corners. [Just Published. Net 6/0 SUMMARY OF CONTENTS : MATHEMATICAL TABLES. M EASU RE MEN! Ot SURFACES AND Solids. English Weights and measures. French metric WBiCHTb and Measures. Foreign Weights and measures. MONEVb. Specific gravity,
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" Mr. Clark manifests whac ts an innate perception of what Is likely to be useful In a pocketbook, and he is really unrivalled in the art of condensation. It is very difficult to hit upon any mechanical engineenng subject concerning which this work supplies no information, and the excellent index at the end adds to its utility. In one word, it is an exceedingly handy and efficient tool, possessed of which the engineer wiu be saved mEuy a wearisome calculation, or yet more wearisome hunt through various text-boolcs and treatises, and, as such, we can heartily recommend It to our readers." TTm Engineer, " It would be found difficult to compress more matter within a similar compass, or produce a book of 700 pages which should be more compact or convenient for pocket reference. . . TVill be appreciated by mechanical engineers of all aass^."Practical Ensitteer,
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MR. HUTTON'S PRACTICAL HANDBOOKS.
THE W0RK5' MANAGER'S HANDBOOK.

Comprising Modern Rules, Tables, and Data. For Engineers, Millwrights, and Boiler Makers Tool Makers, Machinists, and Metal Workers Iron and Brass Founders, &c. By W. S. Hutton, Civil and Mechanical Engineer, Author of "The Practical Engineer's Handbook." Sixth Edition, carefully Revised, and Enlarged. In One hand.some Volume, medium 8vo, strongly
; ;
bound
15/0
A uthor
having compiled Rules and Data for his own use in a great variety of modern engineering work, and having found his notes extremely useful, decided to publish them revised to date believwg that a practical work, suited to f/( DAILY REQUIREMENTS OF MODERN KUGINKSRS, WOUld OC faVOUrubly receivcd, " Of this edition we may repeat the appreciative remarks we made upon the first and third.
T'Atf
B9^
Since the appearance of the latter very considerable modifications have been made, although the total number of pagês remains almost the same. It is a very useful collection of rules, tables, and workshop and drawing otHce data." The Bngineer, May lo, 1895. " The author treats every subject from the point of view of one who has collected workshop notes for application in workshop practice, rather tiian from the theoretical or literary aspect. The volume contains a great deal of that kind of information which is gained only by practical experience, and is seldom written in books." The En^tneer, June 5, 1885, "The volume is an exceedingly useful one, brimful with engineer's notes, memoranda, and lules, and well worthy of being on every mechanical engineer's bookshelf." Mechanical World. " The information is precisely that likely to be required in practice. . The work forms . a desirable addition to the library not only of the works' manager, but of any one connected with general engineering." Mining yourtial, " Brimful of useful information, stated in a concise form, Mr. Hutton's books have met a pressing want among engineers. The book must prove extremely useful to every practical man possessing a copy," Practical Engineer.
.
THE PRACTICAL ENGINEER'S HANDBOOK.

~
Comprising a Treatise on Modern Engines and Boilers, Marine, Locomotive. and Stationary. And containing a large collection of Rules and Practical Data relating to Recent Practice, in Designing and Constructing all kinds of Engines, Boilers, and other Engineering work. The whole constituting a comprehensive Key to the Board of Trade and other Examinations for Certificates of Competency in Modern Mechanical Engineering. By Walter S. Hutton, Civil and Mechanical Engineer, Author of " The Works' Manager's Handbook Sixth Edition, for Engineers," &c. With upwards of 420 Illustrations. Revised and Enlarged. Medium 8vo, nearly 560 pp., strongly bound. 18/0
to the Author's original features,
WV^ This Work k designed as a companion Manager's Handbook." It possesses many new and
"Works'
and
con-
tains, like its predecessor, a quantity of matter not originally intended for publication but collected oy the Author for his own use in the construction of a great variety 0/
Modern Engineering Work. The information is given in a condensed and concise form, and is illustrated by upwards of 420 Engravings ; and comprises a quantity of tabulated matter of great value to all engaged in designing, constructing, or estimating for Engines, Boilers, at^ OTHER Engineering Work.
"We have kept It at hand "for several weeks, referring to It as occasion arose, and we have not on a single occasion consulted its pages without finding the information of which we were In quest." >^ thena um. " A thoroughly good practical handbook, which no engineer can go through without learning something that will be of service to him." Marine Engirteer. " An excellent book of reference for engmeers, and a valuable text<book for students of engineering." Scotsman. "This valuable manual embodies the results and experience of the leading authorities on mechanical engineering." Building News. " The author has collected together a surprising quantity of rules and practical data, and has shown much judgment in the selections he has made. . There is no doubt that this book is one of the most useful of its kind published, and will be a very popular compendium." Engineer. " A mass of information set down in simple language, and in such a form that it can be easily referred to at any time. The matter is uniformly good and well chosen, and Is greatly elucidated by the illustrations. The book will find its way on to most engineers' shelves, where it will rank as one of the most useful books of reference. " Practical Engineer, " Full of useful information, and should be found on the office shelf of all practical engineers English Mechanic,
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MR, HUTTON'S PRACTICAL HANDBOOKS-c(mi*nd.
STEAM BOILER CONSTRUCTION.

A
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Containing a large Collection of Rules and Data relating to Recent Practice in the Design, Construction, and Working of all Kinds of Stationary, Locomotive, and Marine Steam-Boilers. By Walter S. Hutton, Civil and Mechanical Engineer, Author of "The Works' Manager's Handbook," "The Practical Engineer's Handbook," &c. With upwards of 500 Illustrations. Fourth Edition, carefully Revised, and Enlarged. Medium 8vo, over 680 pages, cloth, strongly bound. [Just Published. 1 8/0
M09* This Work is issued in continuation 0/ the Series of Handbooks written .-"The Works' Manager's Handbook " and " The Practical Engineer's Handbook," which are so highly appreciated by engineers for the practical nature 0/ their information ; and is consequently written in the same style
by the Author, viz,
as those works. The Author believes that the concentration, in a convenient form for easy reference, of such a large amount of thoroughly practical information on SteamBoilers, will be of considerable service to those for whom it is intended, and he trusts the book may be deemed worthy of as favourable a reception as has been accorded to its predecessors. " One of the best, if not the best, books on boilers that has ever been published. The Information is of the right kind, in a simple and accessible form. So far as generation is concerned, this Is, undoubtedly, the standard book on steam practice." Electrical Reuie-ui, " Every detail, both in boiler design and management, is clearly laid Isefore the reader. The volume shows that boiler construction has been reduced to the condition of one of the most exact sciences ; and such a book is of the utmost value to the fin de sikclt Engineer and Works Manager." Marine Engineer. " There has long been room for a modem handbook on steam boilers ; there is not that room now, because Mr. Hutton has filled it. It is a thoroughly practiccil book for those who are occupied in the construction, design, selection, or use of boilers." Engineer. " The book is of so important and comprehensive a character that it must find its way into the libraries of every one interested in boiler using or boiler manufacture if they wish to be thoroughly informed. We strongly recommend the book for the intrinsic value of its contents." Machinery
Market.
PRACTICAL MECHANICS' WORKSHOP COMPANION.

Comprising a great variety of the most useful Rules and Formulae in Mechanical Science, with riumerous Tables of Practical Data and Calculated Results for By William Templeton, Author of Facilitating Mechanical Operations. " The Engineer's Practical Assistant," &c., &c. Eighteenth Edition, Revised, Modernised, and considerably Enlarged by Walter S. Hutton, C.E., Author of "The Works' Manager's Handbook," "The Practical Engineer's Handbook," &c. Fcap. 8vo, nearly 500 pp., with 8 Plates and upwards of 250 Illustrative Diagrams, strongly bound for workshop or pocket wear and tear 6/0 " In its modernised form Hutton's Templeton should have a wide sale, for it contains much
.
' '
valuable information which the mechanic will often find of use, and not a few tables cuid notes which he might look for in vain in other works. This modernised edition will be appreciated by all who have learned to value the original editions of Templeton.' " English Mechanic. " It has met with great success in the engineerinjg workshop, as we can testify ; and there are a great many men who, in a great measure, owe their rise in life to this little book." Building
'
News.
" This familiar text-book well known to all mechanics and engineers Is of essential service to the every-day requirements of engineers, millwrights, and the various trades connected with engineering and building. The new modernised edition is worth its weight in gold."Building Netus. (Second Notice.) , "This well-known and largely-used book contains information, brought up to date, of the sort so useful to the foreman and draughtsman. So much fresh information has been introduced as It will be largely used in the office and workshop." to constitute it practically a new book.
Mechanical World.
"The
twok to Mr. UutLon, than
publishers wisely entrusted the task of revision of this popular, valuable, and useful whom a more competent man they could not have found."/t-itm.
ENGINEER'5 AND MILLWRIGHT'S AS5I5TANT.

more suitable present to an apprentice to any of the mechanical trades could not possibly be made." BtUlding News. "A deservedly popular work. It should be in the 'drawer' of every mechanic," English
Mechanic,
Useful Tables, Rules, and Data. Eighth Edition, with Additions. i8mo, cloth "Occupies a foremost place among books of this kind.
A Collection of
By William Templeton. 2/6
CROSBY LOCKWOOD
&
SON'S CATALOGUE.
THE MECHANICAL ENGINEER'S REFERENCE BOOK.

For Machine and Boiler Construction. In Two Parts. Part I. General Engineering Data. Part II. Boiler Construction. With 51 Plates and numerous Illustrations. By Nelson Folbt, M.I.N. A. Second Edition, Net Revised throughout and much Enlarged. Folio, half-hound 3bi part i. measures. circumfbrencbs and areas, &c., squares, cubes, Fourth powers.square and Cube roots. Surface of tubes. Reciprocals. Logarithms. mensuration. Specific Gravities and weights. work and power. Heat. Combustion. Expansion and Contraction. Expansion of Gasbs.Steam. static Forces. gravitation and attraction. motion and Computation of Resulting forces. accumulated work. Centre and radius OF Gyration. Moment of inertia. Centre of Oscillation. electricity. Strength of Materials. Elasticity. test Sheets of metals. friction. Transmission of Power. Flow of Liquids. flow of Gases. air pumps. Surface Condensers, &c. Speed of sthamships.propellers. Cutting tools. Flanges. Copper Sheets and tubes. Screws, nuts, bolt heads, &c.various Recipes and Miscellaneous Matter.With DIAGRAMS for Valve-Gear, belting and ropes. Discharge and Suction Pipes, screw propellers, and copper Pipes. PART II. Treating of power of Boilers. Useful ratios.Notes on Construction. Cylindrical boiler Shells. Circular furnaces. Flat Tests. riveting. Boiler PLATES. Stays. Girders.Screws. hydraulic SETTING, Chimneys, and Mountings. Fuels, &c. Examples of boilers and Speeds of Steamships. Nominal and normal horse power.With DIAGRAMS for all Varieties Drawings of many of boilers, BOILER Calculations and
.
" Mr. Foley is well fitted to compile such a work. The diagrams are a great feature of the It may be stated that Mr. Foley has produced a volume which will undoubtedly fulfil the desire of the author and become indispensable to all mechanical engineers." Marine Engineer.
work.
"
We
for the use of
have carefully examined this work, and pronounce it a most excellent reference book marine engineers." yournat 0/ American Society 0/ Naval Engineers,
TEXT-BOOK ON THE STEAM ENGINE.

With a Supplement on Gas Engines and Part II. on Heat Engines. By T. M. Goodeve, M.A., Barrister-at-Law, Professor of Mechanics at the P-oyal College of Science, London Author of *' The Principles of Mechanics," " The Elements of Mechanism," &c. Fourteenth Edition. Crown 8vo, cloth 6/0
; .
" Professor Goodeve has given us a treatise on the steam engine which will bear comparlsoD with ansrthing written by Huxlev or Maxwell, tuid we can awatd it no higher praise." Engineer, " Mr. Goodeve's text-book is a work of which every young engineer should possess himself."
Mining journal,
ON qas engines.
With Appendix describing a Recent Engine with Tube Goodeve, M.A. Crown 8vo, cloth
It is
Igniter.
By
T.
M.
2/6
Mr. Goodeve's writings, the present a valuable little volume." Mechanical IVorld.
all
" Like
is
no exception
In point of general excellence.
QAS AND OIL ENGINE MANAGEMENT.

A
Practical Guide for Users and Attendants, being Notes on Selection, Construction, and Mnnagement By M. Powis Bale, M.I M.E., A.M.I.C.E. Author of " Woodworking Machinery," &c. Crown 8vo, cloth. \Just Published, Net 3/6
THE GAS-ENGINE HANDBOOK.

A
Manual of Useful Information for the Designer and the Engineer. By E. W. Roberts, M.E. With Forty Full-page Engiavings. Small Fcap. 8vo, leather. Nst 8/6
A TREATISE ON STEAM BOILERS.

Their Strength, Construction, and Economical Working. By R. Wilson, C.E. Fifth Edition, i2mo, cloth 6/0 "The best treatise that has ever been published on steam boilers." Engineer,
THE MECHANICAL ENGINEER'S COMPANION

of Areas, Circumferences, Decimal Equivalents, in inches and feet, millimetres, squares, cubes, roots, &c. ; Strength of Bolts, Weight of Iron, &c. ; Weights, Measures, and other Data. Also Practical Rules for Engine Proportions. By
R. Edwards, M.Inst.C.E. Fcap. 8vo, cloth. It contains many tables, classified data and memoranda very useful little volume. generally useful to engineers," Engineer,, "What It professes to be, * a handv office companion,' giving' In a succinct form, a variety of information likely to be required by mechanical engineers in their everyday office work."A'<M*-e
"A
3/6
With
S-c.
A HANDBOOK ON THE STEAM ENGINE.

especial Reference to Small and Medium-sized Engines. For the Use of Engine Makers, Mechanical Draughtsmen, Engineering Students, and users of Steam Power. By Herman Haeder, C.E. Translated from the German with additions and alterations, by H, H. P. Powles, A.M.I.C.E., M.I.M.E. Third Edition, Revised. With nearly i,ioo Illustrations. Crown 8vo, cloth jêi
"
man snt
A perfect encyclopedia of the steam

place
7/6
an excellent book, and should be in the hands of all who are interested in the constractlon and design of medium-sized stationary engines, ... A careful study of its contents and the arrangement of the sections leads to the conclusion that there is probably no other book like It this country. The volume aims at showing the results of practical experience, and it certainly may claim a complete achievement of this idea.."Naiure. "There can be no question as to its value. We cordially commend it to all concerned in the design and construction of the steam engine."Mec/tanicai IVorld.
IS
This
and one which must take a perm English drawing-offices and workshops. "~Adetails, Foreman Patttm-mafcer.
its
engine and
BOILER AND FACTORY CHIMNEYS.

Their Draught-Power and Stability. With a chapter on Lightning Conductors, By Robert Wilson, A.I.C.E., Author of " A Treatise on Steam Boilers," &c.
Crown
8vo, cloth
A valuable contribution to the literature of scientific building." TVw Builder,

With Examples of
3/Q
BOILER MAKER'S READY RECKONER & ASSISTANT.

Practical Geometry and Templating, for the Use of Platerf Smiths, and Riveters. By John Courtney, Edited by D. K. Clark, M.I. C.E. Fourth Edition, 480 pp., with 140 Illustrations. Fcap. 8vo, half-
"
bound No workman or apprentice
7/0
should be without
this
hook." Iron Trade Circular.
REFRIGERATION, COLD STORAOE, & ICE-MAKINQ:

A
'
'
Practical Treatise on the Art
Wallis-Tayler, A.M.Inst-C.E., Author

tant
and Science of Refrigeration. By A. J. of "Refrigerating and Ice-Making
Machinery." 600 pp., with 360 Illustrations, Medium 8vo, cloth. Net 1 5/0 The author has to be congratulated on the completion and production of such an impor-
it cannot fail to have a large body of readers, for it leaves out nothing that would in any way be of value to those interested in the subject." Steamship. " No one whose duty it is to handle the mammoth preserving installations of these latter days can afford to be without this valuable book." Glasgorw Herald,
work and
THE POCKET BOOK OF REFRIGERATION AND

MAKINQ.
Edited by A. J. Wallis-Tayler, A.M.Inst.C.E. and Ice-making Machinery," &c. Small Crown 8vo,
cloth.
ICE-
Author of " Refrigerating
Wst Published,
Net 3/6
REFRIGERATING & ICE-MAKING MACHINERY.

A
Descriptive Treatise
8vo, cloth . , 7/6 and profusely illustrated." G/ajr^tra* Herald. which gives the cost of various systems and illustrations showing details of parts of machinery and general arrangements of complete installations." Builder, " May be recommended as a useful description of the meichinery, the processes, and of the facts, figures, and tabulated physics of refrigerating. It is one of the best compilations on the subj ect. Engineer,
and Ice-Making A.-M. Inst. C.E.

explicit,
for the Use of Persons Installations, and others. By
Employing Refrigerating A. J. Wallis-Tayler,
Third Edition, Enlarged.
Crown
" Practical,
'*
We recommend the book,
ENGINEERING ESTIMATES, COSTS, AND ACCOUNTS.

A Guide
to Commercial Engineering. With numerous examples of Estimates and Costs of Millwright Work, Miscellaneous Productions, Steam Engines and Steam Boilers and a Section on the Preparation of Costs Accounts. By A General Manager. Second Edition. 8vo, cloth 1 2/0
;
" This is an excellent and very useful book, covering subject-matter In constant reqûlsltlon In every factory and workshop. . . . The book is invciluable, not only to the young engineer, but also to the estimate department of every -works."Builder, " accord the work unqualified praise. The Information Is given In a plain, straightforward manner, and bears throughout evidence of the intimate practical acquaintance of the author with every phase of commercial enipneenag."Mechanical Irorld,
We
CROSBY LOCKWOOD
An Elementary
Crown
&
SON'S CATALOGUE.
HOISTINQ MACHINERY.
Treatise on. Including the Elements of Crane Construction By Joseph and Descriptions of the Various Tj-pes of Cranes in Use. Horner, A.M I.M.E., Author of '* Pattern- Making," and other Works.
8vo, with 215 Illustrations, including Folding Plates, cloth.
[Just Published.
Net 7/6
AERIAL OR WIRE-ROPE TRAMWAYS.

Their Construction and Management. By A, J. Wallis-Tayler, A.M. Inst.C.E.
With 81 Illustrations. Crown 8vo, cloth This is in its way an excellent volume. Without foing into the minutiae of the subject. It yet lays before its readers a very gtiod exposition ofthevanous systems of rope transmission in use, and frives as well not a Uttle valuable information about their working, repair, and management. can safely recommend it as a usefid general treatise on the subject." The Engineer.
7/6
*'
We
MOTOR CARS OR POWER-CARRIAGES FOR COMMON

R0AD5.
J. Wallis-Tavler, A. M. Inst. C.E., Author of "Modern Cycles," &c. 212 pp., with 76 Illustrations. Crown 8vo, cloth " The book is clearly expressed throughout, and is just the sort of work that an engineer thinkine of turning his attention to motor-carriage work, would do well to read as a prehminary to startmg operations." Enffineering.
By A.
....
AI6
PLATINQ AND BOILER MAKING.

Practical Handbook for Workshop Operations. By Joseph G. Horner, . A.M.I.M.E. 380 pp. with 338 Illustrations. Crown 8vo, cloth . 7/6 " This work is characterised by that evidence of close acquaintance with workshop methods which wiU render the book exceedingly acceptable to the practical hand. We have no hesitation in commending the work as a serviceable and practical handbook on a subject which has not hitherto received much attention from those qualified to deal with It in a satisfactory manner." Mechanical World,
PATTERN MAKING.
A
Practical Treatise, embracing the Main Types of Engineering Construction, and including Gearing, Engine Work, Sheaves and Pulleys, Pipes and Columns, Screws, Machine Parts, Pumps and Cocks, the Moulding of Patterns in Loam and Greensand, estimating the weight of Castings &c. By Joseph G. Horner, A.M.I.M.E. Third Edition, Enlarged. With 486 Illustrations. Crown 8vo,
cloth.
tised
Net 7/6
" A well-written technical guide, evidently written by a man who understands and has pracwhat he has written about, , . . We cordially recommend it to engineering students, young journeymen, and others desirous of being initiated into the mjjsteries of pattern-making." Sitilder. '^ An excellent vade tnectim for the apprentice who desires to become master of his trade." Ênglish Mechanic,
MECHANICAL ENQINEERINQ TERMS

(Lockwood's Dictionary of). Embracing those current in the Drawing OfficC) Pattern Shop, Foundry, Fitting, Turning, Smiths', and Boiler Shops, &c. Comprising upwards of 6,000 Definitions. Edited by J. G. Horner, A.M.I.M.E. Third Edition, Revised, with Additions. Crown 8vo, cloth Net 7/6
. .
"Just the sort of handj^ dictionary required by the various trades engaged
gineering.
The practical engineering
pupil will find the
foreman engineer and mechanic should have a copy."
book of great value inTiis Building Newi.
in mechanical enstudies, and every
TOOTHED GEARING.
A Practical Handbook for Offices and Workshops. By J. Horner, A.M.I. M.E.
With 184
*'
Illustrations.
Crown
8vo, cloth
6/0
We give the book our unqualified praise for its thoroughness of

interested as the most practical
it
to
all
treatment, and recommend book on the subject yet written." A/ie<:/(a^ca/ World,
FIRES, FIRE-ENGINES,
AND FIRE BRIQADES.
With a History of Fire-Engines, their Construction, Use, and Management ; Foreign Fire Systems ; Hints on Fire-Brigades, &c. By C. F. T. Young, C.E. 8vo, cloth 1 4s. " To such of our readers as are Interested In the subject of fires and fire apparatus we can must heartily commend this book." Bttgxnetrtng.
S'C.
AERIAL NAVIGATION.
A
Practical Handbook on the Construction of Dirigible Balloons, Aerostats, Aeroplanes, and Aeremotors. By Frederick Walker, C.E., Associate Member of the Aeronautic Institute. With 104 Illustrations. Large Crown
8vo, cloth
Net
7/6
STONE-WORKINQ MACHINERY.
Manual dealing with the Rapid and Economical Conversion of Stone. With Hints on the Arrangement and Management of Stone Works. By M. Powis Bale, M.X.M.E. Second Edition, enlarged. Crown 8vo, cloth . 9/0 "The book should be in the hands of every mason or student of stonework." Cvlliery
.
Guardian.
"A capital handbook Machinery Market,
for
all
who manipulate
stone for building or ornamental purposes. "
PUMP5 AND PUMPING.

for Pump Users. Being Notes on Selection, Construction, and By M. Powis Bale, M.I.M.E. Fourth Edition. Crown 8vo, cloth 3/Q " The matter Is set forth as concisely as possible. In fact, condensation rather than diffuse* ness has been the author's aim throughout ; yet he does not seem to have omitted anything likejy to be of use." journal 0/ Gas Lighting. " Thoroughly practical and clearly written." C/aj^tfw Herald.
A Handbook
Management.
MILLING MACHINES AND PROCESSES.

A
Practical Treatise on Shaping Metals by Rotary Cutters. Including Information on Making and Grinding the Cutters. By Paul N. Hasluck, Author of " Lathe-Work." With upwards of 300 Engravings. Large crown Svo,
cloth
. . .
\
;
terested in milling machines
"A new departure in en^neering literature. We can recommend this work to professes to bea practical treatise." Engineer, it is what " A capital and reliable book which will no doubt be of considerable service both to
it
2/6
all in*
those
who
are already acquainted with the process as well as to those Industries.
who contemplate
its
adoption."
LATHE-WORK.
Practical Treatise on the Tools, Appliances, and Processes employed in Eighth Edition. Crown Svo, the Art of Turning. By Paul N. Hasluck. cloth 6/0 " Written by a man who knows not only how work ought to be done, but who tilso knows how to do it, and how to convey his knowledge to others. To all turners this book would be valuable,"
Er^neering.
"
invaluable.
We can
To
safely
recommend the work to youn?

it
the student
will
engineers. To the amateur It will simply be convey a great dealof useful information." Engineer.
SCREW-THREADS,
of Producing Them. With numerous Tables and complete Directions for using Screw-Cutting Lathes. By Paul N. Hasluck, Author . of "Lathe-Work," &c. Sixth Edition. Waistcoat-pocket size Taps, dies, and screwing tools Full of useful information, hints and practical criticism. ^.W are illustrated and their action described." Mechanical World. It is a complete compendium of all the details of the screw-cutting lathe j In fact, a multum in-parvo on all the subjects it treats upon." CarpenUr and Builder.
And Methods
.1/6
'
TABLES AND MEMORANDA FOR ENGINEERS,

Selected and Arranged
MECHANICS, ARCHITECTS, BUILDERS, &c. by Francis Smith. Seventh Edition, Revised, including Electrical Tables, Formula, and Memoranda. Waistcoat -pocket size, \Just Published. 1 1B limp leather.
;
" It would, perhaps, be as difficult to make a small pocket-book selection of notes and formulas ALL engineers as it would be to make a universal medicine but Mr. Smith's waistcoatpocket collection may be looked upon as a successful attempt." Engineer. " The best example we have ever seen of 270 pages of useful matter packed into the dimen" A ventable pocket treasury of knowledge." A-wi. sions of a card-case."Building News.
to suit
POCKET GLOSSARY OF TECHNICAL TERMS.

English-French, French-English with Tables suitable for the Architectuial, By John James Engineering, Manufacturing, and Nautical Professions. Fletcher. Third Edition, 200 pp. Waistcoat-pocket size, limp leather 1 /6 " It ts a very great advantage for readers and correspondents In France and England to have so large a number of the words relating to engineering and manufacturers collected m a liUputian volume. The little book will be useful both to students and travellers."WrcAi/crf. *' The glossary of terms Is very complete, and many of the Tables are new and well arrjuiged We cordially coounend the \xiOk." Mechanical IVorld.
;
CROSBY LOCKTVOOD
SON'S CATALOGUE.
1904.
THE ENQINEER'S YEAR BOOK FOR
Comprising Formulx, Rules, Tables, Data and Memoranda in Civil, Mechanical, Electrical, Marine and Mine Engineering. By H. R. Kempe, A.M. Inst. C..| M.I.E.E., Principal Technical Officer, Engineer-in-Chief 's Office, General Post Office, London, Author of "A Handbook of Electrical Testing," "The Electrical Engineer's Pocket-Book," &c. With i,ooo Illustrations, specially
Engraved
known, and
'
for dbe work.
Crown
8vo, 900 pp., leather.
[Just
Publ^MO.
8/0
really requires no commendation. Its sphere of usefulness Is widely Th> atifftneer, used by engineers tae world over.' "Tbe volume is disonctiy tn adviince of mo:>t similar publications in this country." Engituertng. This valuable and well-designed book of reference meets the demands of all descriptions of engineers. Saturday Review. ** Teems with up-to-date hiformatlon In every branch of engineering and constnictloiL*'-' Building News. * The needs of the engineering profession could hardly be supplied tn a more admirable, complete and convenient form. To say that it more than sustains all comparisons is praise of the highest sort, and that may justly be said of ic" Mining journal, " There is certamly room for tbe newcomer, which supplies explanations and directions, as well as formulce and tables. It deserves to become one of the most successful of the technical
it is
"Kempe's Year Book
'
annuals. 'Architect. " Brings together with great skill
day by day.
all the technical Information which an engineer has to use It is in every way admirably equipped, and is sure to prove successiaL" Scotsman, " The up-to-dateness of Mr, Kempe's compilation Is a quality that will not be lost on the busy work people for whom the is intended." Glasgow Herald.
THE PORTABLE ENGINE.

A
of
Practical
Wansbrough.
Manual on its Construction and Management. For the use Owners and Users of Steam Engines generally. By William Dyson Crown 8vo, cloth 3/6
" This is a work of value to those who use steam machinery. . . . Should be read by every one who has a steam engine, on a farm or elsewhere." JVfitr<fe Lane Express.
IRON AND STEEL.

A Work
useful,
for the Forge, Foundry, Factory, and Office. Containing ready, and trustworthy Information for Ironmasters and their Stock-takers Managers of Bar, Rail, Plate, and Sheet Rolling Mills Iron and Metal Founders Iron Ship and Bridge Builders Mechanical, Mining, and Con; ; ;
sulting Engineers ; Architects, Contractors, Builders, &c. By Charles Author of The Slide Rule," &c. Ninth Edition, azmo, leather
Hoarb,
.
S/0
CONDENSED MECHANICS.
their
Selection of Formulae, Rules, Tables, and Data or tbe Use of Engineering Students, &c. By W. G. C. Hughes, A.M.I.C.E. Crown 8vo, cloth . 2/6 Tbe book is well fitted for those who are preparing for examination and wish to refresh knowledge by going through their formulae again. Marine Engineer.
"
THE SAFE USE OF STEAM.

Containing Rules
for
Unprofessional Steam Users.
By an Engineer.
Seventh
Edition. Sewed Qd. " If steam-users would but learn this little book by heart, boiler explosions would become sensations by their rarity." English Mechanic.
THE CARE AND MANAGEMENT OF STATIONARY

BNaiNE5.
Practical
Handbook
for Men-in-charge.
By
C.
Horst, Crown
8vo.
Nit 1 /Q
THE LOCOMOTIVE ENGINE.

The Aatobiography of an Old Locomotive Engine. By Robert Weatherburn, M.I.M.E. With Illustrations and Portraits of George and Robert Stephenson. Crown 8vo, cloth. Net 2/6
THE LOCOMOTIVE ENGINE AND

A Popular
ITS
DEVELOPMENT.
Treatise on tbe Gradual Improvements made in Railway Engines between 1803 and 1903. By Clement . Stretton, C.E. Sixth Edition, Revised and Enlarged. Crown 8vo, cloth. [Just Published. Net 4/6
" Students of railway history and all who are Interested In the evolution of the modern locomotive will find much to attract and entertain in this volume." 7%e Titnes.
<^c.
MODERN MACHINE 5H0P

Including both
Illustrated
TOOLS,
THEIR CONSTRUCTION. OPERATION. AND MANIPULATION.

Manner.
Practice.
Hand and Machine Tools. An entirely New and Fully Work, treating this Subject in a Concise and Comprehensive Book of Practical Instruction in all Classes of Machine Shop
;
Drills, Reamers, and their Tools
Including Chapters on Filing, Fittinp, and Scraping Surfaces on Taps, and Dies the Lathe and its Tools Planers, Shapers, Milling Machines and Cutters ; Gear Cutters and Gear
;
;
Cutting
Drilling Machines
;
and
Drill
Work
Work; Hardening and Tempering,

Machinery Useful Data and Tables.
Gearing,
Grinding Machines and their Belting, and Transmission
By William H. Van Dervoort, M.E.
Illustrated by 673 Engravings of Latest Tools and Methods, all of which are fully described. Medium 8vo, cloth. i/usi Published. Net /O
21
LOCOMOTIVE ENGINE DRIVINO.

Manual for Engineers in Charge of Locomotive Engines. By formerly Locomotive Inspector, L. B. S. C. R. Edition, Including a Key to the Locomotive Engine. Crown 8vo, cloth 4/6 " Mr. Reynolds has supplied a want, and has supplied it well. We can confidently recommend the book not only to the practical driver, but to everyone who takes an interest in the performance of locomotive engines." The Engineer. " Mr. Reynolds has opened a new chapter in the literature of the day. This admirable practical treatise, of the practical utility of which we have tospeakin terms of warm commendation,"
Practical
Michael Reynolds,
Eleventh
&
Atktnttunt,
THE MODEL LOCOMOTIVE ENGINEER,

Fireman, and Engine-Boy. Comprising a Historical Notice of the Pioneer Locomotive Engines and their Inventors. By Michael Reynolds. Second Edition, with Revised Appendix. Crown 8vo, cloth 4/6 " We should be g'lad to see this book in the possession of everyone in the kingdom who has ever laid, or is to lay, hands on a locomotive engine."/r^m.
CONTINUOUS RAILWAY BRAKES.

A
"
Practical Treatise on the several Systems in
Use
in the
United Kingdom
8vo, cloth
their Construction
and Performance.
By Michael Reynolds.
9/0 A
public opinion,
popular explanation of the different brakes. It will be of great assistance In forming and will be studied with benefit by those who take an interest in the brake."v/ir
Medtanic.
STATIONARY ENGINE DRIVINQ.

A
"
"
Practical
Manual
for
Engineers
Sixth
in
Michael Reynolds. Crown 8vo, cloth

The
know something about
Edition.
Charge of Stationary Engines. By With Plates and Woodcuts.
4/6
He
all
author's advice on the various points treated

is
Our author leaves no stone unturned.

the stationary engine, but
is clear and practicaL"^'W^. determined that his readers shall not only about \t." Engineer,
ENQINE-DRIVINQ LIFE.
Stirring Adventures and Incidents in the Lives of Locomotive EngineDrivers. By Michael Reynolds. Third Edition. Crown 8vo, cloth , 1 /6 From first to last perfectly fascinating- WUkie Collms's most thrilling conceptions are thrown into the shade by true incidents, endless in their variety, related in every page."A'brrt
"
British Mail.
THE ENQINEMAN'S POCKET COMPANION,

And Practical Educator for Enginemen, Boiler Attendants, and Mechanics. By Michael Reynolds. With 45 Illustrations and numerous Diagrams
Fourth Edition, Revised.
The Miller.
Royal iSmo, strongly bound
for
pocket wear
3/6
" A most meritorious work, giving in a succinct and practical form all the information an ' engine-minder desirous of mastering the scientific principles of his daily calling would requiie.
ro
CROSBY LOCK WOOD
SON'S CATALOGUE.
CIVIL ENGINEERING, SURVEYING, ETC.

PIONEER IRRIGATION,
A
Manual of Information or Farmers in the Colonies. By E. O. Mawson, Executive Engineer, Public Works Department, Bombay. With Numerous Plates and Diagrams. Medium 8vo, cloth, ijtisi ready. Price about 7/6 ^^'
Summary of Contents : Value of irrigation, and Sources of Water SUPPLY. Dams and weirs. Canals. Underground water. methods of irri. cation.- Sewage irrigation. imperial automatic Sluice Gates. The culti. vation of Irrigated crops, Vhgetables, and fruit Trees. Light Railways for heavy Traffic Useful memoranda, tables, and data.
TUNNELLING.
A
Practical Treatise.
S.
By Charles
With
Prelini, C.E.
.
With
. .
Charles
cloth
Hill, C.E.
150 Diagrams and Illustrations.
additions by Royal 8vo,
Net
-{
6/0
PRACTICAL TUNNELLING.
Explaining in detail Setting-out the Works, Shaft -sinking, and Heading-driving, Ranging the Lines and Levelling underground, Sub-Excavating, Timbering and the Construction of the Brickwork of Tunnels. By F. W, Simms, M. Inst. C.E. Fourth Edition, Revised and Fturther Extended, including the most recent (1895) Examples of Sub-agueous and other Tunnels, by D. Kinnear Clark, M. Inst. C.E. With 34 Folding Plates. Imperial 8vo, cloth 2i. " The present (1896) edition has been broueht right up to date, and is thus rendered a work to
engineers generally should have ready access, and to which engineers who have construction work can hardly afford to be without, but which to the younger members of the profession Is invaluable, as from its pages they can team the state to which the science of tunnelling has
which
civil
attained."
Rail-way News.
THE WATER SUPPLY OF TOWNS AND THE CONSTRUCTION OF WATER-WORKS.

Practical Treatise for the
Inst.
By W. K. Burton, A.M.
Water-works,
I.
Second Edition,
Use of Engineers and Students of Engineering. C.E., Consulting Engineer to the Tokyo Revised and Extended. With numerous
Plates and Illustrations.
SUPPLY IS sufficient. V. ON ESTIMATING THE STORAGE CAPACITY RHQUIRBD TO BE PROVIDED. VI. CLASSIFICATION OF WATER-WORKS. VII. IMPOUNDING RESERvoiRS. VIII. Earthwork Dams. IX. Masonry Dams. X, The Purification of WATER.XI. SETTLING RESERVOIRS. XII. SAND FILTRATION. XIII. PURIFICATION OF Water by action of iron, Softening of Water by Action of Lime, Natural FILTRATION. XIV. Service or Clean Water ReservoirsWater towers stand Pipes. XV. The Connection of Settling Reservoirs, Filter Beds and service reservoirs. XVI. PUMPING MACHINERY.-XVII. FLOW OF WATER IN CONDUITS Pipes and Open Channels.-XVIII. Distribution systems.XIX. special ProVISIONS FOR THE EXTINCTION OF FiRE. XX. PIPES FOR WATER-WORKS.XXI. PREVENTioN OF Waste of Water. XXII. Various Appliances used in Connection with water-works. appendix I. By prof. JOHN MILNE, F.R.S. CONSIDERATIONS CONCERNING THE PROBABLE Effects of earthquakes on Water-works, and the special Precautions to be taken in Earthquake Countries. appendix II. By JOHN DE RIJKE, C.E. ON SAND DUNES AND DUNB SAND AS A Source of Water supply. " The chapter upon filtration of water Is very complete, and the details of construction weU Illustrated. The work should be specially valuable to civil engineers engaged iu work In
. . .
Water to be provided. IV. On ascertaining whether a Proposed Source of
INTRODUCTORY.
Super-royal Svo, buckram. [Just Published.
II.
DIFFERENT QUALITIES OF WATER.
III,
25/0
QUANTITY OF
Japan, but the interest is by no means conmied to that locality." Engineer. " We congratulate the author upon the practical commonsense shown In the preparation ol The plates and diagrams liave evidently been prepared with gêat care, and this work. , . cannot fail to be of great assistance to the student." Suilder.
.
RURAL WATER 5UPPLY.

A
Practical Handbook on the Supply of Water and Construction of WaterBy Allan Grebnwell, A.M.I.C.E., works for small Countiy Districts. and W. T. Curry, A-M.I.C.E., F.G.S. With Illustrations. Second Edition,
Revised. Crown Svo, cloth 6/0 "We conscientiously recommend It as a very useful book for those concerned In obtainlne water for small districts, giving a great deal of i}ractical information in a smal Icompass."-i^wÂêr. " The volume contains valuable information upon all matters connected with water supply. It is full of details on points which are continually before water-works engv<eers." A'aAcrv. .
i,
CIVIL BNGINBERING, SURVEYING,
A-c,
ii
THE WATER SUPPLY OF CITIE5 AND T0WN5.

By William Humber, A. M. Inst. C.E., and M. Inst. M.E., Author of *' Cast and Wrought Iron Bridge Construction," &c., &c. Illustrated with 50 Double Plates, I Single Plate, Coloured Frontispiece, and upwards of 250 Woodcuts, and containing 400 pp. of Text. Imp. 410, elegantly and substantially half-bound in morocco IVet 6s. List of Contents, i. Historical sketch of some of the means that have been auupted fok hk supply of water to cities and towns. ii. water and the foreign matter usually associated with it. iii. rainfall and evaporaTION. IV. Springs and the Water-bearing formations of various Districts. V. Measurement and estimation of the flow of Water.VI. on the Selection OF the Source of supply. vii. WELLa.viii. reservoirs. ix. the purification OF WATER.-X. PUMPS.XI. PUMPING MACHINERY. XII. CONDUITSXIII. DISTRIBUTION OF WATER. XIV. METERS, SERVICE PIPES, AND HOUSE FITTINGS. XV. THE LAW AND Economy op Water-works.XVI. constant and intermittent Supply. XVII. description of plates. Appendices, giving Tables of Rates of Supply, Velocities, tec., &c., -together with specifications of several works illustrated, among which will be found ABERDEEN, ElDEFORD, CANTERBURY, Dundee, Halifax, Lambeth, Rotherham, Dublin, and others. " The most systematic and Veiluable work upon water supply hitherto produced In "English, or
in
any other language. Mr, Humber's work is characterised almost throughout by an exbaustlveness much more distinctive of French and German than of English technical treatises."
THE PROGRESS OF ENGINEERING

By Wm. Humber, A.M. Inst. C.E. Complete
Double
in
(1863-6).
3 HYDRAULIC POWER ENGINEERING.

A
nearly 200 Illustrations.
8vo, cloth.
Containing 148 Plates, with Portraits and Copious Descriptive Letterpress. Impl. 410, half-morocco. Price, complete, "| or each Volume sold separately 1 Ss, ! at 3s. per Volume. Descriptive Iîsi oy Conien^s on amplication,
Four Vols.
Practical Manual on the Concentration and Transmission of Power by Hydraulic Machinery. By G. Croydon Marks, A.M. Inst. C.E. With
Nei 9/0
Summary of contents, principles of Hydraulics, the flow of water. Hydraulic pressures, material. test load Packings for Sliding Surfaces. Pipe joints. Controlling Valves. platform Lifts. Workshop and foundry cranes. warehouse and dock cranes. hydraulic accumulators.- presses FOR Baling and other purposes. Sheet Metal working and Forging Machinery. Hydraulic Rivetters. hand, power, and Steam pumps. Turbines. Impulse turbines. Reaction turbines. design of Turbines in detail. Water wheels. hydraulic engines, recent achievements. pressure of water. action
of PUMPS,
In
&C. " We have nothing but praise for this thoroughly valuable work. The author has succeeded rendering his subject interesting as well as instructive." ^racrtca/ Engxneer.
"Can be unhesitatingly recommended as a useful and up-to-date manual on hydraulic transmission and utilisation of power." Mechanical World
HYDRAULIC TABLES, CO-EFFICIENTS, & FORMUL/E.

For Finding the Discharge of Water from Orifices, Notches, Weirs, Pipes, and Rivers. With New ForinulEs, Tables, and General Information on Rain-fall, Catchment- Basins, Drainage, Sewerage, Water Supply for Towns and Mill Power. By John Neville, C.E., M.R.-I.A. Third Edition, revised, with
additions.
"
It
is,
Numerous
Illustrations.
Crown
8vo, cloth
14/0
of
all
English books on the subject, the one nearest to completeness."^rf/(iV(.
HYDRAULIC MANUAL.
Consisting of Working Tables and Explanatory Text. Intended as a Guide in Hydraulic Calculations and Field Operations. By Lowis D'A. Jackson, Fourth Author of "Aid to Survey Practice," "Modern Metrology," &c. Edition, Enlarged. Large crown 8vo, cloth 1 6/0 "The author has constructed a manual which may be accepted as a trustworthy guide
to this branch of the engineer's profession."^^Me>-i^.
WATER ENQINEERINQ,
A
power,
Practical Treatise
tion of Water for the
on the Measurement, Storage, Conveyance, and UtilisaSupply of Towns, for Mill Power, and for other Purposes.
8vo, cloth
.
ByCHARLEsSLAGG, A.M.Inst.C.E. Second Edition. Crown

" As a
tnts
7/6
<iinaU prartical
IS
woric
in
memy
treatUe on the water supply of towns, and on some applications of waterrespects excellent.' ^n^tneeriMt
12
CROSBY LOCKWOOD
A Handbook
Works
&
SON'S CATALOGUE.
THE RECLAMATION OF LAND FROM TIDAL WATERS.

for Engineers,
Landed
Proprietors,
and others interested

8vo, cloth.
in
of Reclamation.
By Alex. Beazeley,
M.Inst. C..
Net 10/6
" The book shows in a concise way wbat has to be done in reclaiming land from the sea, and the best way of doing^ it. The work contains a great deal of practical and useful information which cannot fail to be of service to eneineers entrusted with the enclosure of salt marshes, and to landowners intending to reclaim land from thesea." 77w Engineer. "The author has carried out his task efficiently and well, and his book contains a large amount of information of great service to engriueers and others interested in worlcs of reclamation."
Nature.
MASONRY DAMS FROM INCEPTION
TO
COMPLETION.
Including numerous Formula, Forms of Specification and Tender, Pocket Diagram of Forces, &c. For the use of Civil and Mining Engineers. By C. F. Courtney, M. Inst. C.E. 8vo, cloth 9/0 *' The volume contains a good deal of valuable data. Many useful suggestions will be found in the remarks on site and position, location of dam, foundations and coasxxMCtioxCBuilding' News.
RIVER BARS.
of their Formation, and their Treatment by " Induced Tidal Scour " ; with a Description of the Successful Reduction by this Method of the Bar at Dublin. By I. J. Mann, Assist. ng. to the Dublin Port and Docks Board. Royal 8vo, cloth 7/6 " We recommend all interested- In harbour works and, Indeed, those concerned In the
The Causes
improvements of rivers generally
to
read Mr. Mann's interesting work."
Engineer.
TRAMWAYS: THEIR CONSTRUCTION AND WORKING.

Embracing a Comprehensive History of the System ; with an exhaustive Analysis of the Various Modes ot Traction, including Horse Power, Steam, Cable Traction, Electric Traction, &c. a Description of the Varieties of Rolling Stock; and ample Details of Cost and Working Expenses. New Edition, Thoroughly Revised, and Including the Progress recently made in Tramway Construction, &c., &c. By D. Kinnear Clark, M.Inst. C.E. With 400 Illustrations. Svo, 780 pp., buckram. 28/0 " The new volume is one which will rank, among tramway engineers and those interested In tramway working, with the Author's world-famed booK on railway machinery." The Engineer.
;
SURVEYING A5 PRACTISED BY CIVIL ENGINEERS

AND SURVEYORS.
Including the Setting-out of Works for Construction and Surveys Abroad, with many Examples taken from Actual Practice. A Handbook for use in the Field and the Office, intended also as a Text-book for Students. By Tohn Whitelaw, Jun., A.M. Inst. C.E., Author of " Points and Crossings. With about iVfif 10/6 260 Illustrations. Demy Svo, cloth "This work is written with admirable lucidity, and will certainly be found of distinct value both to students and to those engaged in actual practice." The Builder,
PRACTICAL SURVEYING.
A Text-Book for Students preparing for Examinations or for Survey-work in the Colonies. By George W. Usill, A.M.I.CE. With 4 Lithographic Plates and upwards of 330 Illustrations. Seventh Edition. Including Tables of Natural Sines, Tangents, Secants, &c. Crown Svo, 7/6 cloth ; or, on Thin Paper, leather, gilt edges, rounded corners, for pocket use . . . "X 2/6 " The best forms of instruments are described as to their construction, uses and modes of employment, and there are innumerable hints on work and equipment such as the author. In his experience as surveyor, draughtsman and teacher, has found necessary, and which the student In his inexperience will find most serviceable." Engineer. " The first book which should be put in the hands of a pupil of Civil Engineering."
Architect.
AID TO SURVEY PRACTICE.

For Reference in Surveying, Levelling, and Setting-out and in Route Surveys of Travellers by Land and Sea. With Tables, Illustrations, and Records. By Lowis D'A. Jackson, A.M.I.C.E. Second Edition, Enlarged. Svo,
;
cloth
this
" Mr. Jackson has produced a valuable vade-mecum for the surveyor. We can recommend book as containing an admirable supplement to the teaching of the accomplished surveyor."
12/6
Athenteunt. " The author brings to his work a fortunate union of theory and practical experience which, aided by a clear and lucid style of wrldne, renders the book a very useful 0x1:0."Buiidtr,
CIVIL ENGINEERING, SURVEYING,
S'C.
13
SURVEYING WITH THE TACHEOMETER.

A practical
M.
Inst.
Manual for the use of Civil and Military Engineers and Surveyors. Including two series of Tables specially computed for the Reduction of Readings in Sexagesimal and in Centesimal Degrees. By Neil Kennedy,
C.E.
With Diagrams and
Plates.
Demy
8vo, cloth.
JVet
10/6
" The work is very clearly written, and should remove all difficulties in the desirous of making use of this useful and rapid instrument. "yVar,
way of tiny surveyor
ENGINEER'S & MINING SURVEYOR'S FIELD BOOK.

Consisting of a Series of Tables, with Rules, Explanations of Systems, and use of Theodolite for Traverse Surveying and plotting the work with minute accurac3?| by means of Straight Edge and Set Square only ; Levelling with the Theodolite, Setting-out Curves with and without the Theodolite, Earthwork Tables, &c. By W. Davis Haskoll, C.E. With numerous Woodcuts. Fourth Edition, Enlarged. Crown 8vo, cloth 1 2/0 *' The book Is very handy ; the separate tables of sines and tangents to every minute will make
It
useful for
many
other purposes, the genuine traverse tables existing
all
the same."
Athenaum.
LAND AND MARINE SURVEYINQ.

In Reference to the Preparation of Plans for Roads and Railways ; Canals, Rivers, Towns' Water Supplies ; Docks and Harbours. With Description and Use of Surveying Instruments. By W. Davis Haskoll, C.E. Second Edition, Revised, with Additions. Large crown 8vo, cloth . 9/0 " This book must prove of great value to the student. We have no hesitation in recommending It, feeling assured that it will more than repay a careful study," Mechanical World. " A most useful book for the student. We can strongly recommend it as a carefully-written and valuable text-book. It enjoys a well-deserved repute among surveyors."ilwiVf^r.
. .
PRINCIPLES AND PRACTICE OF LEVELLING.

its Application to Purposes of Railway and Civil Engineering in the Construction of Roads ; with Mr. Telford's Rules for the same. By Frederick W. Simms, M. Inst. C.E. Eighth Edition, with Law's Practical Examples for Setting-out Railway Curves, and Trautwine's Field Practice With 7 Plates and numerous Woodcuts. of Laying-out Circular Curves.
Showing
8vo
"
8/6
The
"The
your^r
text-book on levelling in most of our engineering schools and colleges."^M^Mwr. publishers have rendered a substantial service to the profession, especially to the memoers, by bringing out the present edition of Mr. Simms's useful v/ork."Engineering.
AN OUTLINE OF THE METHOD OF CONDUCTING

A TRIGONOMETRICAL SURVEY,
For the Formation of Geographical and Topographical Maps and Plans, Military Reconnaissance, LEVELLING, &c., with Useful Problems, Formulae, and Tables. By Lieut. -General Frome, R.E. Fourth Edition, Revised and partly Re-written by Major-General Sir Charles Warren, G.C.M.G., R.E. 1 6/0 With 19 Plates and 115 Woodcuts, royal 8vo, cloth *' No words of praise from us can strengthen the position so well and so steadily maintained by this work. Sir Charles Warren has revised the entire work, and made such additions as were Sroad Arrow, necessary to bring every portion of the contents up to the present date."
....
TABLES OF TANGENTIAL ANGLES AND MULTIPLES

FOR SETTING-OUT CURVES.
-
By A. Beazeley, M. Inst. C.E. 6th Edition, 5 to 200 Radius. Revised. With an Appendix on the use of the Tables for Measuring up Curves. Printed on so Cards, and sold in a cloth box, waistcoat-pocket size.
From
3/6
printed on a small card, which, placed on the theodolite, leaves the hands free to manipulate the instrumentno small advantage as regards the rapidity of work."êeir. " very handy a man may know that all his day's work must fall on two of these cards, which he puts Into his own card-case, and leaves the rest hehmd."A ihe?ueum..
" Each table
Is
HANDY GENERAL EARTH-WORK TABLES.

Giving the Contents in Cubic Yards of Centre and Slopes of Cuttings aai Embankments from 3 inches to 80 feet in Depth or Height, for use with either By J. H. Watson Buck, M. Inst. C.E. 66 test Chain or 100 feet Chain. 3/6 On a Sheet mounted in cloth case
14
CROSBY LOCK WOOD
SON'S CATALOGUE.
EARTHWORK TABLE5.
Showing the Contents in Cubic Yards of Embankments, Cuttings, &c., Heights or Depths up to an average of So feet. By Joseph Broadbbnt, C.E., and Francis Campin, C.E. Crown Svo, cloth 5/0 " The way in which accuracy is attained, by a simple division of each cross sectloo Into three
elements, two in which are constant and one variable,
is
ingenious."
j4 tJtettautn.
A MANUAL ON EARTHWORK.
By Alex.
iSmo, cloth
J.
Graham, C.E.
With numerous Diagrams.
Second Edition.
2/6
THE CONSTRUCTION OF LARQE TUNNEL SHAFTS.

Practical and Theoretical Essay. By J. H. Watson Buck, M. Inst. C.E., Plates, Svo, R. With Viti Folding " cloth 1 2/0 Resident Engineer, L. and N. W. " Many of the methods given are of extreme practical value to the mason, and tho observations on the form of arch, the rules for ordering the stone, and the construction of the templates,
""
---
Building- News. " will be regarded by civil engineers as of the utmost value, and calculated to save time and obviate many mistakes." Colliery Guardian.
much
CAST &
WROUGHT
IRON BRIDQB CONSTRUCTION
(A Complete and Practical Treatise on), including Iron Foundations. In Three Parts. Theoretical, Practical, and Descriptive. By William Humber, A. M. Inst. C.E., and M. Inst. M.E. Third Edition, revised and much improved, with 115 Double Plates (20 of which now first appear in this edition), and numerous Additions to the Text. In 2 vols., imp. 410, half-bound in morocco 1 6b. 6d.
"
A veiy valuable contribution to

plans,
the standard Uterature of
civil
engineering.
In addition to
elevations, instructive
which very much enhance the worth of those illustrations." Cwil En^neer and Architects Journal. "Mr, Humber's stately volumes, lately issued in which the most important bridges erected during the last five years, under the direction of the late Mr, Brunei, Sir W. Cumtt, Mr. Hawlcshaw, Mr. Page, Mr. Fowler, Mr. Hemans, and others among our most eminent engineers, are drawn and specified in great detalL" Engineer.
and
sections, large scale details are given,
ESSAY ON OBLIQUE BRIDGES

(Practical
Watson Buck,
and Theoretical). With 15 large Plates. By the late George M.I. C.E. Fourth Edition, revised by his Son, J. H. Watson and with the addition of Description to Diagrams for Facilitating the Construction of Oblique Bridges, by W. H. Barlow, M.I. C.E. Royal Svo, cloth 1 2/0
Buck, M.I. C.E.
all engineers regarding skew arches Is Mr. Buck's treatise, a better." Engineer. recognised as a standard text-book, and his treatment has divested As a guide to the engineer and the subject of many of the intricacies supposed to belong to it. architect, on a confessedly difficult subject, Mr. Buck's work is MnsMtâssÂ." Building News,
"The
standard text-book for

treatise
is
and
it
would be impossible to consult
"Mr. Buck's
THE CONSTRUCTION OP OBLIQUE ARCHES

(A Practical Treatise
Imperial 8vo, cloth
on).
By John Hart.
Third Edition, with Plates.
8/0
GRAPHIC AND ANALYTIC STATICS.

In their Practical Application to the Treatment of Stresses in Roofs Solid Girders, Lattice, Bowstring, and Suspension Bridges, Braced Iron Arches and By R. Hudson Graham, C.E. Containing Piers, and other Frameworks. Diaâms and Plates to Scale. With numerous Examples, many taken from existing Structures. Sfiecially arranged for Class-work in Colleges and Universities. Second Edition, Revised and Enlarged. Svo, cloth . 1 Q/Q " Mr. Graham's book will find a place wherever graphic and analytic statics are used or studied. " Engineer. "The work is excellent from a practlca point of view, and has evidently been prepared with much care. The directions for working are ample, and are illustrated by an abundance of well-selected examples. It is an excellent text-tiook for the practical draughtsman." ^/^M^TM^n.
WEIGHTS OF WROUGHT IRON & 5TEEL GIRDER5.

A Graphic
J.
Table for Facilitating the Computation of the Weights of Wrought Iron and Steel Girders, &c., for Parliamentary and other Estimates, By
H. Watson Buck, M.
Inst.
C.E.
On
a Sheet
....
2/6
CIVIL ENGINEERING, SURVEYING,
&-c.
15
QEOMETRY FOR TECHNICAL STUDENTS.

An Introduction to Pure- and Applied Geometry and the Mensuration of Surfaces and Solids, including Problems in Plane Geometry useful in Drawing.
By E.H.Sprague.A.M.I.C.E. Crown
8vo, cloth.
Uust PublUked. AefilO
PRACTICAL QEOMETRY.
For the Architect, Engineer, and Mechanic. Giving Rules for the Delineation and Application of various Geometrical Lines, Figures, and Curves. By E. W. Tarn, M.A., Architect. Svo, cloth 9/0
"No book with the same

the rules laid
down and the
illustrative
objects in view has ever been published in which the clearness of diagrams have been so satisfactory." 5coaM.
THE QEOMETRY OF COMPASSES.

Or, Problems Resolved by the mere Description of Circles and the Use of Coloured Diaâms and Symbols. By Oliver Byrne. Coloured Plates.
Crown
Svo, cloth
3/6
Laws of Failure by
Buckling. By Albert [Just Published. Net 9/0
EXPERIMENTS ON THE FLEXURE OF BEAMS

Resulting in the Discovery of New E. Guy. Medium 8vo, cloth.
HANDY BOOK
FOR
THE CALCULATION
op
STRAINS
. .
In Girders and Similar Structures and their Strength. Consisting of Formulse and Corresponding Diagram^ with numerous details for Practical Application, &c. By WILLIAM HuMBER, A. M. Inst. C.E., &c. Fifth Edition. Crown Svo, with nearly loo Woodcuts and 3 Plates, cloth 7/6 " The fonnulae are neatLv expressed, and the diagrams good." Atkemeum. " We hejirtily commena this really handy book to our engineer and architect readers."
.
Bftglish Mechanic.
TRUSSES OP WOOD AND IRON.

Practical Applications of Science in Determining the Stresses, Breaking Weights, Safe Loads, Scantlings, and Details of Construction. With Complete Working Drawings. By William Griffiths, Surveyor. Svo, cloth 4/6 "This handy little book enters so minutely into every detail connected with the construction of roof trusses that no student
need be ignorant of these matters."Practical Engineer.
THE STRAINS ON STRUCTURES OF IRONWORK.

With
Practical
Remarks on Iron
Construction.
By
F.
W.
Sheilds, M.I.CE.
Svo, cloth
5/0
A TREATISE ON THE STRENGTH OF MATERIALS.

for Application in Architecture, the Construction of Suspension new Edition, revised By Peter Baklow, F.R.S. Bridges, Railways, &c. by his Sons, P. W. Barlow, F.R.S., and W. H. Barlow, F.R.S. ; to which are added, Experiments by Hodgkinson, Fairbairn, and Kirkaldy ; and Formulas for calculating Girders, &c. Edited by Wm. Humber, A.M.I.C.E. . Svo, 400 pp., with 19 Plates and numerous Woodcuts, cloth 8/0
With Rules
.1
"Valuable alike to the student,

in future as
it
tyro, emd the experienced practitioner, It will always rank has hitherto done, as the standard treatise on that particular sah}eiC't."~-E?tineer.
SAFE RAILWAY WORKING.

A
A
Treatise on Railway Accidents, their Cause and Prevention
scription of
Modern Appliances and Systems.

Illustrations
By Clement
with a DeE. Stretton,

;
C.E.
With
and Coloured
Plates.
Third Edition, Enlarged.
Crown
Svo, cloth
;
3/6
" book for the engineer, the directors, the managers and, in short, all who wish for information on railway matters will lind a perfect encyclopsedia in 'Safe Railway Working.'"
Railway Review.
EXPANSION OF STRUCTURES BY HEAT.

C.E., late of the Indian Public Works Department. Crown Svo, cloth 3/6 The aim the author has set before him, viz., to show the effects of heat upon metallic and other structures, is a laudable one, for this Is a branch of physics' upon which the engineer or architect can find but little reliable and comprehensive data la hooks."Builier,
By John Keily,
"
i6
CROSBY LOCK WOOD

*e
S-
SON'S CATALOGUE,
. .
PUBLICATIONS OF THE ENGINEERING STANDARDS COMMITTEE.

The Engineertng Standards Committee
,
is
the outcome of a
at the instance
Committee appointed by the Institution of Civil Engineers to inquire into the of Sir John Wolfe Barry, K.C.B. Standardising Rolled Iron and Steel Sections.
advisability of
is supported by the Institution of Civil Engineers, the Mechanical Engineers, the Institution of Naval Architects, the Iron and Steel Institute, and the Institution of Electrical Engineers and the value and importance of its labours has been emphatically recognised by his Majesty's Government, who have made a liberal grant
The Committee
Institution of
from the Public Funds by way of contribution to the financial resources of the Committee.
The subjects already dealt with, or under consideration by the Committee, include not only Rolled Iron and Steel Sections, but Tests for Iron and Steel Material used in the Construction of Ships and their Machinery, Bridges and General Building Construction, Railway Rolling Stock Underframes, Component Parts of Locomotives, Railway an4
Tramway
Rails, Electrical Plant, Insulating Materials,
Screw Threads and
Limit Gauges, Pipe Flanges, Cement, &c.
Reports already Published
1.
BRITISH STANDARD SECTIONS.

List
I.
Equal Angles. List 2. Unequal Angles. Lists. Bulb Angles,

Bulb Tees. List
5.
List 4.
Bulb Plates.
List
7.
Channels.
List
8,
Beams,
F'cap. folio, sewed.
[/usi P-ublisked.
Net I/O
2.
BRITISH STANDARD TRAMWAY RAILS AND FISH PLATES STANDARD SECTIONS AND SPECIFICATION.
:
KJtsi Published,
Net 21 /O
3.
REPORT ON THE INFLUENCE OF QAUQE LENGTH

AND SECTION OF TEST BAR ON THE PERCENTAGE OF ELONGATION.
By
Professor
W.
C.
Unwin, F.R.S.
Uust Published. Net 2/6

4.
PROPERTIES OF STANDARD BEAMS.

Demy
8vo, sewed,
\.Just Published.
Net 1 /O
MARINE ENGINEERING, NAVIGATION,
^g.
17
MARINE ENGINEERING, SHIPBUILDING,

NAVIGATION, ETC.
THE NAVAL ARCHITECT'S AND SHIPBUILDER'S
nometry. practical Geometry. MENSURATION. Centres and moments of FIGURES. moments OF INERTIA AND RADII OF GYRATION. ALGEBRAICAL EXPRESSIONS FOR Simpson's Rules. Mechanical principles. Centre of gravity. laws of MOTION Displacement, Centre of buoyancy. Centre of gravity of Ship's HULL. Stability Curves and meta centres. Sea and Shallow-water Waves. Rolling of Ships. Propulsion and Resistance of Vessels. speed trials. Sailing Centre of Effort. distances down Rivers, Coastlines. Steering and rudders of Vessels. Launching Calculations and Velocities. weight of material and gear. gun Particulars and Weight. standard Gauges. Riveted Joints and Riveting. Strength and Tests of Materials. Binding and Shearing Stresses, &c. strength of Shafting, Pillars, wheels, AcHydraulic DATA. &c. Conic sections. Catenarian curves. mechanical Powers, work. Board of trade regulations for boilers and engines. Board of trade Regulations for ships. Lloyd's rules for boilers. Lloyd's weight of chains. Lloyd's scantlings for ships. Data of engines and vessels. Ships' fittings and Tests. Seasoning preserving timber. measurement of Timber.ALLOYS, Paints, Varnishes. data for stowage. Admiralty transport regulations. Rules for horse-power, screw propellers, &c. percentages FOR BUTT Straps, &c.particulars of yachts. masting and rigging Vessels.- distances of foreign ports. tonnage Tables. vocabulary op French and English Terms. English weights and measures, foreign Weights and measures. Decimal equivalents. Foreign money. discount AND Wages Tables. useful numbers and ready reckoners. tables of Circular Measures. Tables of areas of and circumferences of Circles. Tables of Areas of segments of Circles. tables of Squares and Cubes and roots of Numbers.tables of logarithms of Numbers. Tables of HyperBOLic Logarithms.- tables of natural Sines, Tangents, &c. tables op Logarithmic Sines, tangents. &c.
*
of Formulae, Rules, and Tables, and Marine Engineer's and Surveyor's Handy Book of Reference. By Clement Mackrow, M.I.N. A. Eighth Edition, Carefully Revised and Enlarged. Fcap., leather. Net 1 2/6 Summary of contents: signs and symbols, Decimal fractions. Trigo-
POCKET-BOOK
it is the most valuable compilation for its purpose that has ever been printed. No naval architect, engineer, surveyor, seaman, wood or iron shipbuilder, can afford to be without this vock."Nautical Magazine. " Should be used by all who are engaged in the construction or design of vessels. . . . Will be found to contain the most useful tables and formulae required by shipbuilders, carefully collected from the best authorities, and put together in a popular and simple form. The book is one of exceptional merit. "^>'. ,.. ^ . , " The professional shipbuilder has now, in a convenient and accessible form, reUable data for solving many of the numerous problems that present themselves in the course of his work." Iron. " There is no doubt that a pocket-book of this description must be a necessity in the shipThe volume contains a mass of useful information clearly expressed and building trade. . . presented in a handy form." Marine Engineer.
veist
In these days of advanced knowledg;e a work like amount of information. We unhesitatingly say that
this Is
of the greatest value.
It
contains
specific
WANNAN'S marine ENQINEER'S quide

To Board of Trade Examinations for Certificates of Competency. Containing all Latest Questions to Date, with Simple, Clear, and Correct Solutions ; 302 Elementary Questions with Illustrated Answers, and Verbal Questions and Answers ; complete Set of Drawings with Statements completed. By A. C. Wannan,C.E., Consulting Engineer, and E. W. I. Wannan, M.I.M.E., Certificated First Class Marine Engineer. With numerous Engravings. Third Net 1 0/6 . Edition, Enlarged. 30 pages. Large crown Svo, cloth "The book is clearly and plainly written and avoids unnecessary explanations and foimulas, and we consider it a valuable book for students of marine engineering."y^'awAVa/ Magazine.
.
.
WANNAN'S MARINE ENQINEER'S POCKET-BOOK.

Containing Latest Board of Trade Rules and Data for Marine Engineers. By A. C. Wannan. Third Edition, Revised, Enlarged, and Brought up to [/m< Pitblished. BIO Date. Square tSmo. with thumb Index, leather. "There is a great deal of useful infonnation in this little pocket-book. It is of the rule-of thumb order, and is. on that account, well adapted to the uses of the sea-going enguieer.
THE SHIPBUILDINQ INDUSTRY OP QERMANY. With Coloured Prints

Compiled and Edited by G. Lehmann-Felskowski. Art Supplements, and numerous Illustrations throughout the
royal 4to cloth.
text.
Super
l/ust i'uilisiea.
NeilOie
18
CROSBY LOCKWOOD
SON'S CATALOGOB.
SEA TERMS, PHRASES, AND WORDS

(Technical Dictionary of) used in the English and French Languages (English-French, French-English). For the Use of Seamen, Engineers, Pilots, Shipbuilders, Shipowners, and Ship-brokers. Compiled by W. Firrib, late of the African Steamship Company. Fcap. 8vo, cloth limp . 6/0 This volume will be highly appreciated by seamen, engineers, pilots, shipbuilders and shlp' ' owners. It will be found wonderfully illy accurate emd complete." Scotswtan. ^ ^ *" '' ^" French and English engineers, " A very useful dictionary, which has long lor~ been Wcuited by masters, officers and others."5Aj//if- ffôri
. . '
.
..
ELECTRIC SHIP-LIOHTINQ.
A
Handbook on the Practical Fitting and Running of Ships' Electrical Plant, Use of Shipowners and Builders, Marine Electricians and Sea-going in Charge. By J. W. Urquhart, Author of "Electric Light," "Dynamo Construction," &c. Second Edition, Revised and Extended. With numerous Illustrations. Crown 8vo, cloth 7/6
for the
Engineers
MARINE ENQINEER'S POCKET-BOOK.

Consisting of useful Tables and Formulse. Third Edition, Royal 32mo, leather
"
"
By Frank Proctor, A.LN.A.
We recommend it to our readers as going far to supply a long-felt want."

A
most useful companion to
all
4/0
Navat ScUnct.
marine enêers."
United Service GaMtUt,
ELEMENTARY MARINE ENQINEERINQ.

Manual for Young Marine Engineers and Apprentices. In the Form of Questions and Answers on Metals, Alloys, Strength of Materials, Construction and Management of Marine Engines and Boilers, Geometry, &c. With an Appendix of Useful Tables. By J. S. Brewer. Crown 8vo, cloth 1/6 " Contains much valuable information for the class for whom it is tended, especially in the
i
chapters on the
management of boilers and engines."
Nautical Magazine,
MARINE ENGINES AND STEAM VESSELS.

A
Treatise on. By Robert Murray, C.E. Eighth Edition, thoroughly Revised, with considerable Additions by the Author and by George Carlisle, C.E., Senior Surveyor to the Board of Trade at Liverpool. Crown
8vo, cloth
4/6
PRACTICAL NAVIGATION.
Consisting of The Sailor's Sea-Book, by James Greenwood and W. H. RossER together with the requisite Mathematical and Nautical Tables for the Working of the Problems, by Henry Law, C,E., and Professor J. R. Young. Illustrated, izmo, strongly half-bound 7/0
;
THE ART AND SCIENCE OF SAILMAKINQ.

By Samuel B. Sadler, Practical Sailmaker, late in the employment of Nlessrs. Ratsey and Lapthome, of Cowes and Gosport. With Plates and other Illustrations. Small 4to, cloth 12/6 *' This extremely practical work gives a complete education In all the branches of the manu> Incture, cutting out, roping, seaming, and goring. It is copiously illustrated, and will form a tirstrate text-book and gîae"Portsmouth Times,
CHAIN CABLES AND CHAINS.

Comprising Sizes and Curves of Links, Studs, &c., Iron for Cables and Chains, Chain Cable and Chain Making, Forming and Welding Links^ Strength of Cables and Chains, Certificates for Cables, Marking Cables, Prices of Chain Cables and Chains, Historical Notes, Acts of Parliament, Statutory Tests, Charges for Testing, List of Manufacturers of Cables, &c., &c. By Thomas W. Traill, F.E.R.N., M.lnst.C.E., Engineer-Surveyor-in-Chief, Board of Trade, Inspector of Chain Cable and Anchor Proving Establishments, and General Superintendent Lloyd's Committee on Proving Establishments. With numerous Tables, Illustrations, and Lithographic Drawings. Folio, cloth, bevelled boards * 28< "It contains a vast amount of valuable Information, Nothing seems to be wanting to make it
a coinplte and standard
work of reference on the subject." A'ixttiUca/ Magaztne.
MINING, METALLURGY.
&'
COLLIERY WORKING,
ig
MINING, METALLURGY,
PETROLEUM INDUSTRY.
AND
COLLIERY WORKING.
THE OIL FIELDS OF RUSSIA AND THE RUSSIAN
Practical Handbook on the Exploration, Exploitation, and Management of Russian Oil Properties, including Notes on the Origin of Petroleum in Russia, a Description of the Theory and Practice of Liquid Fuel, and a Translation of the Rules and Regulations concerning Russian Oil Properties. By A. Beeby Thompson, A.M.LM.E., late Chief Engineer and Manager of the European Petroleum Company's Russian Oil Properties. About 500 pp. With numerous Illustrations and Photographic Plates, and a Map of the Balakhany-Saboontchy-Romany Oil Field. Super-royal 8vo, cloth. Net \ Just Published. 3s,
MACHINERY FOR METALLIFEROUS MINE5.

A
Practical Treatise for
Mining Engineers, Metallurgists, and Managers
Mines.
and other
By E. Henry Davies, M.E., F.G.S. Illustrations. Medium 8vo, cloth
" Deals exhaustively; with the many and complex details which go to make up the sum total of machinery and other requirements for the successful working of metalliferous mines, and as a book of ready reference is of the highest value to mine managers and ^\x&cX.q\^." Mining yoiirnal.
....
600 pp.
of
With Folding Plates Net 25/0
THE DEEP LEVEL MINES OF THE RAND,

And their Future Development, considered from the Commercial Point of View. By G. A. Denny (of Johannesburg), M.N.E.LM.E., Consulting Engineer to
the General Mining and Finance Corporation, Ltd., of London, Berlin, Paris,
and Johannesburg. Fully Illustrated with Diagrams and Folding Plates. Net 25/0 Royal 8vo, buckram Mr. Denny by confining himself to the consideration of the future of the deep-level mines of the Rand breaks new ground, and by dealing with the subject rather from a commercial standpoint than from a scientific one, appeals to a wide circle of readers. The book cannot fail t prove of very great value to investors in bouth African mines." Mining yottrnal.
*'
PROSPECTING FOR GOLD.

^
the prospector's benefit. A special table is given to accelerate the spotting at a glance of minerals associated with gold." Mining youmal.
Handbook of Information and Hints for Prospectors based on Personal Experience. By Daniel J. Rankin, F.R.S.G.S., M.R.A.S., formerly Manager of the Central African Company, and Leader of African Gold Prospecting Expeditions. With Illustrations specially Drawn and Engraved for Net 7/6 the Work F'cap. 8vo, leather " This well-compiled book contains a collection of the richest gems of useful knowledge for
THE METALLURGY OF QOLD.

A
M.
Practical Treatise on the Metallurgical Treatment 01 Gold-bearing Ores. Including the Assaying, Melting, and Refining of Gold. By M. Eisslek, Fifth Edition, Enlarged. With over 300 Illustrations and Inst. M.M.
numerous Folding Plates.
Medium
8vo, cloth
'
Net
2110
" This buok thoroughly deserves its title of a Practical Treatise.' The whole procesfcofgold mining, from the brealdng of the quartz to the assay of tlie bullion, is described in clear and orderly narrafive and with much, but not too much, fulness of detail."Saturci<xy Review.
THE CYANIDE PROCESS OF QOLD EXTRACTION.

And its By M.
Practical Application on the Witwatersrand Gold Fields and elsewhere. Eisslek, M. Inst. M.M. With Diagrams and Working Drawings. .Net 7/6 Third Edition, Revised and Enlarged. Svo, cloth
.
. .
"This book is iust what was needed to acguauit mining men with the actual working of a process which is not only the most popular, but is, as a general rule, the most successful for the extraction of gold from tailings."V)/iMf ytntmal.
DIAMOND DRILLING FOR QOLD & OTHER MINERALS.

A
Practical Handbook on the Use of Modern Diamond Core Drills in Prospecting and Exploiting Mineral-Bearing Properties, mcludmg Particulars of theCostsof Apparatus and Working. By G. A. Denny, M.N.E. Inst. M.E.,
M.Inst.
" There
M.M.
Medium
diamond drilling, is certainly scope for a work on ycw^Tfa/, recognition for supplying a decided want." Jl/ii^
. Svo, 168 pp., with Illustrative Diagrams 12/6 and Mr. Derniy deserves grateful
20
CROSBY LOCKWOOD
A
&-
SON'S CATALOGUE.
GOLD ASSAYING.
others.
Practical Handbook for Assayers, Bankers, Chemists, Bullion Smelters, Goldsmiths, Mining and Metallurgical Engineers, Prospectors, Students, and By H. Joshua Phillii-s, F.I.C, F.C.S., A.I.C.E., Author of " Engineering Chemistry," etc. Large Crown 8vo, cloth. [Just ready^ price about 7/6 ^^st.
FIELD TESTING FOR GOLD AND SILVER.

A
Practical
Manual
for
Prospectors and Miners.
By W. H. Mereitt,
Plates and other
M.N.E.
"As an
Inst. Illustrations.
M.E., A.R.S.M., &c.

Fcap. 8vo, leather
With Photographic
Net
BIO
instructor of prospectors' classes Mr, Merritt has the advantage of knowing The contents cover exactly the information likely to be most valuable to the miner in the field. useful addition to a prospector's all the details of sampling and testing gold and silver ores.
kit.
"Mining- yournal.
THE PROSPECTOR'S HANDBOOK.

A Guide for the Prospector and Traveller in search of Metal-Bearing or other Ninth Valuable Minerals. By J. W. Anderson, M.A. (Camb.), F.R.G.S. 4/6 Edition, Small crown 8vo, 3/6 cloth or, leather " Will supply a much-felt want, especially among Colonists, In whose way are so often thrown
;
....
mineralogical specimens the value of which it is diflicult to determine." Engineer. " How to find commercial minerals, and how to identify them when thev are found, are the leading points to which attention Is directed. The author has managed to pack cis much practical detail mto his pages as would supply material for a book three times Its s\2a.M{ning^ youmal,
many
THE METALLURGY OF SILVER.

A Practical
Ores.
"
Treatise on the Amalgamation, Roasting, and Lixiviation of Silver Including the Assaying, Melting, and Refining of Silver Bullion. By
M. EissLER, M.Inst. M.M.
Third Edition.
Crown
8vo, cloth
10/6
want amongst
practical treatise, and a technical work which we are convinced will supply a long-felt practical men, and at the same time be of value to students and others Indirectly
connected with the industries."^^ youmal.
THE HYDRO=METALLURQY OF COPPER.

Being an Account of Processes Adopted in the Hydro-Metallurgical Treatment of Cupriferous Ores, Including the Manufacture of Copper Vitriol, with Chapters on the Sources of Supply of Copper and the Roasting of Copper Ores.
Net 1 2/9 EissLER, M. Inst. M.M. 8vo, cloth In this volume the various processes for the extraction of copper by wet methods are fully Costs are given when available, and a great deal of useful information about the copper industry of the world is presented in an interesting and attractive manner."Jl/mzw^ youmal.
By M.
....
**
detailed.
THE METALLURGY OF ARGENTIFEROUS LEAD.

Practical Treatise on the Smelting of Silver-Lead Ores and the Refining of Lead Bullion. Including Reports on various Smelting Establishments and Descriptions of Modern Smelting Furnaces and Plants in Europe and America. By M. EisSLER, M. Inst. M.M., Author of "The Metallurgy of Gold," &c. Crown 8vo, 400 pp., with 183 Illustrations, cloth 1 2/6 " The numerous metallui^cal processes, which are fully and extensively treated of, embrace all the stages experienced in the passage of the lead from the various natural, states to its issue from the refinery as an article oi coiaxaetc^.Practical Engineer.
METALLIFEROUS MINERALS AND MINING.

Sixth Edition, thoroughly Revised and much C. Davies, F.G.S. Enlarged by his Son, E. Henry Davies, M.E., F.G.S. 600 pp., with 173 Jset 1 2/6 Large crown 8vo, cloth Illustrations.
By D.
**
Neither the practical miner nor the general reader, interested in mines, can have a better
book
for his
companion and
his
guide."Aff^
youmaL
EARTHY AND OTHER MINERALS AND MINING.

C. Davies, F.G.S., Author of " Metalliferous Minerals," &c. Third Edition, Revised and Enlarged by his Son, E. Henrv DaviBs, M.E., F.G.S. ( 2/6 With about 100 Illustrations. Crown 8vo, cloth " We do not remember to have met with any EngUsh work on mhilng matters that contains the same amount of information packed in equally convenient form."-4cay.
By D.
BRITISH MINING.
A
Treatise on the History, Discovery, Practical DevelopmeDt, and Fnture By Robert Prospects of Metalliferous Mines in the United Kingdom. Hunt, F.R.S., late Keeper of Mining; Records, Upwards of 950 pp., with 230 Illustrations. Second Edition, Revised. Super-royal 8vo, cloth 2a.
MINING, METALLURGY.
6-
COLLIERY WORKING.
21
POCKET-BOOK FOR MINER5 AND METALLURQISTS.

Comprising Rules, Formulae, Tables, and Notes
Work.
By
for
Use
in Field
and
Office
F.
Danvers Power,
F.G.S.,
M.E.
Second Edition, Corrected.
Is an admirable example of its kind, and ougiit amongst English-speaking prospectors and mining engineers." w^>-i^,
Fcap. 8vo, leather " This excellent book
g/0
to find a large sale
THE MINER'S HANDBOOK.

Book of Reference on the subjects of Mineral Deposits, Mining Operations, Ore Dressing, &c. For the Use of Students and others interested in Minmg Matters. Compiled by John Milne, F.R.S., Professor of Mining the Imperial University of Japan. Third Edition. Fcap. Svo, leather 7/6 " Professor Milne's handbook is sure to be received with favour by all connected with mining, ^^nd will be extremely popular among students."A ehenaum.
A Handy
IRON ORES
Their
of
GREAT BRITAIN
and IRELAND,
.
Age and Origin, and the Methods of Searching for and Working Them. With a Notice of some of the Iron Ores of Spain. By Crown Svo, cloth J. D. Kendall, F.G.S., Mining Engineer. . 16/0
of Occurrence,
Mode
MINE DRAINAGE.
A
Complete
Practical
Treatise
on
Direct-Acting
Underground Steam
.
Pumping Machinery. By Stephen Michell. Second Edition, Re-written and Enlarged. With 250 Illustrations. Royal Svo, cloth iVe/ 25/0 HORIZONTAL PUMPING ENGINES. ROTARY AND NON-ROTARY HORIZONTAL Enc.ines. Simple and compound Stbam pumps. VERTICAL PUMPING ENGINES. ROTARY and Non-Rotary Vertical engines. Simple and Compound Steam pumps. Triple-Expansion Steam Pumps. pulsating steam Pumps. pump Valves. SINKING pumps, &c., &c.
" This volume contains an immense amount of important and interesting new matter. The book should undoubtedly prove of great use to all who wish for information on tiie subject." T'A? Engineer.
ELECTRICITY AS APPLIED TO MINING.

By Arnold Lupton, M.Inst.C.E., M.I.M.E., M.I.E.E., late Professor of Coal Mining at the Yorkshire College, Victoria University, Mining Engineer and Colliery Manager; G. D. Aspinall Parr, M.I.E.E., A.M.I.M.E., Associate of the Central Technical College, City and Guilds of London, Head
of the Electrical Engineering Department, Yorkshire College, Victoria University; and Herbert Perkin, M.I.M.E., Certified Colliery Manager, Assistant Lecturer in the Mining Department of the Yorkshire College, Victoria University. With about 170 Illustrations. Medium Svo, cloth.
(For
Summary of Contents,
Net 9/0
see page
23.)
THE COLLIERY MANAGER'S HANDBOOK.

A Comprehensive Treatise on the Laying-out and Working of Collieries, Designed as a Book of Reference for Colliery Managers, and for the Use of Coal Mining Students preparing for First-class Certificates. By Caleb Pamelv, Mining Engineer and Surveyor Member of the North of England Institute of Mining and Mechanical Engineers and Member of the South Wales Institute of Mining Engineers. With 700 Plans, Diagrams, and other Illustrations. Fourth Edition, Revised and Enlarged. 964 pp. Medium Svo, cloth 1 5 s. GEOLOGY. Search for Coal. Mineral Leases and other Holdings. Shaft Sinking.- Fitting Up the Shaft and Surface arrangements.Steam Boilers and their fittings. timbering and walling. Narrow work and Methods of working. underground conveyance. Drainage.the Gases MET with in Mines ventilation. on the friction op air in Mines. the PRiESTMAN Oil Engine; Petroleum and Natural gas. Surveying and planning. Safety lamps and firedamp Detectors. Sundry and incidental Operations and appliances. colliery explosions. miscellaneous Questions and A.HSViB,VS.Appendi3e: SUMMARY OF REPORT OF H.M. COMMISSIONERS ON Accidents in mines.
; ; ;
" Mr, Pamely's
work
is
Interesting, exhaustive, rich in detail,
every department.
A mining engineer could scarcely go wrong who followed this 7/ot]c" Colliery
eminently suited to the purpose or which it is intended, being clear, and up to date, giving descriptions of the latest meichines in
" Mr. Pamely has not only given us a comprehensive reference book of a very high order suitable to the reciuirenients of mining en^neers and colliery managers, but has also provided mining students with a class-book that is as interesting as it is mstxv^ctvfc." Colliery Manager. "This Is the most complete 'all-round woric on coal-mlning published In the English Colliery Engineer language. ... No library of coal-mining books Is complete without (S. ranton, Pa., U.S.A.).
iV
22
CROSBY LOCKWOOD
SON'S CATALOGUE.
COLLIERY WORKING AND MANAQEMENT.

Comprising the Duties of a Colliery Manager, the Oversight and Arrangement of dbour and Wages, and the different Systems of Working Coal Seams. By H. F. Bulman and R. A. S. Redmayne. 350 pp., with 28 Plates and other Illustrations, including Underground Photographs.
Medium 8vo, cloth. 1 "This Is. indeed, an admirable Handbook (or Colliery Managers, in fact It Is an indispensable adjunct to a Colliery Manager's education, as well as being a most useful and interesting work on the subject for all who in any way have to do with coal mining. The underground photographs cire an attractive feature of the work, being very lifelike and necessarily true representations of the scenes they depict." Colliery Guardian. " Mr. Bulman and Mr. Redmayne, who are both experienced Colliery Managers of great literary ability, arc to be congratulated on having suppUed an authoritative work dealiiwwith a side of the subject of coal mimng which has hitherto received but scant treatment. The authors elucidate their text by iig woodcuts and 28 plates, most of the latter being admirable reproductions ofphotoeraphs taken underground with the aid of the magnesium flash-light. These illustrations are excefient."7Vaft.
6/0
COAL AND COAL MINING.

By the late Sir Warington W. Smvth, M.A., F.R.S., Chief Inspector of the Mines of the Crown and of the Duchy of Cornwall. Eighth Edition, Revised and Extended by T, Forster Brown, Mining and Civil Engineer, Chief Inspector of the Mines of the Crown and of the Duchy of Cornwall. Crown
principal
8vo, cloth. 3/6 " As an outline Is i^ven of every known coal'iield In this and other countries, as well as of the methods of working, the book will doubtless interest a very large number of readers."
Mining yournal,
NOTES AND FORMUL/E FOR MINING STUDENTS.

By John Herman Merivale, M. A. , Late Professor of Mining in the Durham Fourth Edition, Revised and College of Science, Newcastle-upon-Tyne. Enlarged. By H. F. Bulman, A.M.Inst.CE. Small crown 8vo, cloth. 2/6 "The author has done his work in a creditable manner, and has produced a book that will be of service to students and those who are practically engaged in minii^ oôxaXXons."Engineer.
INFLAMMABLE QAS AND VAPOUR
IN
THE AIR
(The Detection and Measurement of). By Frank Clowes, D.Sc, Lond., F.I.C. With a Chapter on The Detection and Measurement of Petroleum Vapour by Boverton Redwood, F.R.S.E., Consulting Adviser to the Corporation of London under the Petroleum Acts. Crown 8vo. cloth. Net g/Q " Professor Clowes has given us a volume on a subject of much industrial importance Those Interested in these matters may be recommended to study this book, which is easy of comprehension and contains many good things." TÂ* Engineer.
. .
.
COAL & IRON INDUSTRIES
of
the
UNITED KINGDOM.
Comprising a Description of the Coal Fields, and of the Principal Seams of Coal, with Returns of their Produce and its Distribution, and Analyses of Special Varieties. Also, an Account of the Occurrence of Iron Ores in Veins or Seams Analyses of each Variety ; and a History of the Rise and Progress of Pig Iron Manufacture. By Richard Meade. 8vo, cloth 1 8a. ' Of this book we may unreservedly say that it is the best of its class which we have ever met. ... A book of reference which no one engaged in the iron or coal trades should omit from
; .
bis
library."/row rfC<7o/ Trades Review.
ASBE5T05 AND ASBESTIC.

Their Properties, Occmrence, and Use. By Robert H. Jones, F.S.A., Mineralogist, Hon. Mem. Asbestos Club, Black Lake, Canada. With Ten Collotype Plates and other Illustrations. Demy 8vo, cloth. . 1 6/0 '* An Interesting and Invaluable votk." Colliery Guardian.
GRANITES AND OUR GRANITE INDUSTRIES.

By George
F.
Harris, F.G.S. With
Illustrations.
Crown 8vo,
cloth
2/8
TRAVERSE TABLES.
For use in Mine Surveying. Small crown 8vo, cloth
By William Lintern, C.E. With two plates.
...
Net
3/0
ELECTRICITY, ELECTRICAL ENGINEERING,
S-c.
23
ELECTRICITY, ELECTRICAL
ENGINEERING, ETC.
THE ELEMENTS OF ELECTRICAL ENGINEERING.
First Year's Course for Students. By Tyson Sewell, A.I.E.E., Assistant Lecturer and Demonstrator in Electrical Engineering at the Polytechnic, Regent Street, London. Second Edition, Revised, with Additional Chapters on Alternating Current Working, and Appendix of Questions and Answers. 450 pages, with 274 Illustrations. Demy 8vo, cloth. \Just Published. Net 7jQ Ohm's 1-aw. Units Employed in electrical Engineering. -Series and parallel circuits current density and potential drop in the circuit. The Heating Effect of the Electric current. The Magnetic effect of an Electric Current. the Magnetisation of iron. -Electro-chemistry; primary Batteries. Accumulators. indicating instruments; Ammeters, Vultmeters, Ohmmeters. Electricity Supply meters. measuring instruments, and the Measurement of electrical Resistance. measurement of potential Difference, capacity. Current Strength, and Permeability. Arc Lamps. incandescent Lamps; ManuPactXjre "and, Installation; Photometry. The Continuous Current Dynamo. Direct Current motors. alternating Currents. Transformers, Alternators, Synchronous Motors.Polyphase working.-^ Appendix of Questions and Answers.
;
"An excellent treatise for students of the elementary facts connected with electrical en^neering," The Electrician. " One of the best books for those commencing the study of electrical engineering'. Everything is explained in simple language which even a beginner cannot fail to understand." Engineer. " One welcomes this book, which is sound in its treatment, and admirably calculated to give students the knowledge and information they most require." Nature.
conductors for electrical distribution.

Their Materials and Manufacture, The Calculation of Circuits, Pole-Line Construction, Underground Working, and other Uses. By F. A. C. Perrine; A.M., D.Sc formerly Professor of Electrical Engineering, Leland Stanford, M.Amer.I.E.E. Zvo, c\ot\\. [Just Published, JVet QQIJr., University Conductor Materials Alloyed Conductors Manufacture of Wire Wire-Finishing WIRE insulation Cables Calculation of circuits Kelvin's Law of Economy in conductors Multiple arc Distribution alternating Current Calculation Overhead linesPole Line Line insulators Under.
; ;
ground conductors.
WIRELES5 TELEGRAPHY;
Its Origins,
Development, Inventions, and Apparatus.

85
By Charles Henry
Sewall.
With
Diagrams and
Illustrations.
8vo, cloth. Net ij-ust Published.
Demy
10/6
armature windings of direct current

DYNAMOS.
Extension and Application of a General Winding Rule _ By E. Arnold, Engineer. Assistant Professor in Electrocechnics and Machine Design at the Riga Polytechnic School. Translated from the Original German by Francis B. De Gress, M.E Chief of Tesring Department, Crocker-Wheeler ComNet 12/pany. Wiih 146 Illustrations. Medium 8vo, cloth
,
ELECTRICITY as applied to MINING.

By Arnold Lhpton, M.Inst.C.E., M.I M.E., M.I.E.E., late Professor of Coal Mining at th<. Yorkshire College, Victoria University, Mining Engmeer and Colliery Manager; G. D. Aspinall Parr, M.I.H.E,, A M.I.M E., Associate of the Central Technical College, City and Guilds of Lonaon, Head of the Electrical Engineeung Department, Yorkshire College, Victoria I.M E. Certificated Colliery Manager, University and Hekeket Pkbkin, Assistant Lectuier in the Mining Deparimeni of the Yorkshire College, Victoria University. Witi about 170 Illustrations. Medium 8vo, cloth. Netai THE INTRODUCTORV. DYNAMIC ELECTRICITY. OEIVING OF THE DYNAMO. STOPPING Steam TURBINE -DISTRIBUTION OF bLECTRICALENERl.Y.-STARTINGAND CABLES.-CENTRAL ELECTRICAL EliCTRICrL generator" AND MOTORS.-ELECI RICHAULIMG.-ELECTRICITY APPLIED PLSra-ELECTRIClTY APPLIED TO PUMPING ANDRECENTLY ERECTED - ELECTRIC --TYPICAL ELECTRIC PLANTS APPLICATIONS OF ELECTRICITY 7?r5?iNGS ARC AND GLOW LAMPS-MISCELLANEOUS POWER.TRANSMITTING -SctSicTtY AS COmSreD wfTH OTHER MODES OF PANGERS OF ELECTRICITY,
;
T^^SrCUT
24
CROSBY LOCKWOOD
SON'S CATALOGUE.
DYNAMO, MOTOR AND SWITCHBOARD CIRCUITS

FOR ELECTRICAL ENGINEERS.
Practical Handbook dealing with Direct, Alternating and Polyphase Currents. By William R. Bowker, C.E., M.E;, E.E., Lecturer on Physics and Electrical Engineering at the Municipal Technical School, Bury. 8vo, [Jnst ready, price about BIO net cloth.
DYNAMO ELECTRIC MACHINERY:

TION, DESIGN, and OPERATION. By Samuel Sheldon, A M., Ph.D Professor
,
its
CONSTRUC-
of Physics and Electrical Engineering at the Polytechnic Institute of Brooklyn, assisted by Hodart
Mason, BS.
Vol.
In two volumes, sold separately, as follows : MACHINES. Third Edition, Revised. Large IVet 1 2/0 280 pages, with 200 Illustrations MACHINES. Large crown 8vo. 260 Vol. II.ALTERNATING
I.DIRECT
CURRENT
crown 8vo.
CURRENT
Jêt 1 2/0 pages, with 184 Illustrations Deslefned as Text-books for use in Technical Educational Institutions, and by Enerineers whose work includes the handUns: of Direct and Alternating Current Machines respectLvely, and
for Students proficient in mathematics.
ELECTRICAL AND MAGNETIC CALCULATIONS.

For the Use of Electrical Engineers and Artisans, Teachers, Students, and all others interested in the Theory and Application of Electricityand Magnetism. Bv A. A. Atkinson, Professor of Electricity in Ohio University. Crown 8vo, Net 9/0 cloth "To teachers and those who already possess a fair knowledge of their subject we can recommend this book as bein^ useful to consult when requiring data or fonnulse which it is neither convenient nor necessary to retain
by memory."
The
Electrician.
SUBMARINE TELEGRAPHS.
Founded in part on WOnschenTheir History, Construction, and Working. dorff's " Trait6 de TAl^graphie Sous-Marine," and Compiled from AuthoritaBy Charles Bright, F.R.S.E., A.M.Inst.C.E., tive and Exclusive Sources. M.I.E.E. 780 pp., fully Illustrated, including Maps and Folding Plates.
Royal 8vo, cloth Net Ss. " There are few, if any, persons more fitted to write a treatise on submarine telegraphy than Mr. Charles Bright. He has done his work admirably, and has written in a way wnich will This admirable volume must, for many years to appeal as much to the layman as to the engineer. come, hold the position of the English classic on submarine telegraphy." Engineer, " This book is full of information. It makes a book of reference which should be in every
engineer's library." A'fl^. " Mr. Bright's interestiiK|[ly written and admirably illustrated book will meet with a welcome reception from cable men." Electrician. "The author deals with his subject from all points of view political and strategical as well as scientific. The work will be of interest, not only to men of science, but to the general public. can strongly recommend it," Atkenat*nt,
We
THE ELECTRICAL ENGINEER'S POCKET-BOOK.

Consisting of Modern Rules, Formulae, Tables, and Data. By H. R. Kempb, M.I.E.E., A.M.Inst.C.E., Technical Officer Postal Telegraphs, Author of "A Handbook of Electrical Testing," &c. Second Edition, thoroughly Revised, with Additions. With numerous Illustrations. Royal 32mo, oblong,
leather , 6/0 " It is the best book of Its \Ai\A:' Electrical Engineer. " The Electrical Engineer's Pocket-Book is a good one."Electrician. " Strongly recommended to those engaged in the electrical indusuies."Electrical Review^
'
POWER TRANSMITTED BY
Matter added.
ELECTRICITY.
Crown
8vo, cloth
. .
And applied by the Electric Motor, including Electric Railway Construction. By P. Atkinson, A.M., Ph.D. Third Edition, Fully Revised, and New
With 94
Illustrations.
iV<
9/0
DYNAMIC ELECTRICITY AND MAGNETISM.

By Philip Atkinson, A.M.,
Electricity," &c.
Ph.D.,
Author
of
" Elements of Static

.
Crown
8vo, 417 pp., with 120 Illustrations, cloth
IQ/S
ELECTRICITY, ELECTRICAL ENGINEERING,
S^c.
25
THE MANAGEMENT OF DYNAMOS.

A Handybook of Theory and Practice for the Use of Mechanics, Engineers, Students, and others in Charge of Dynamos. By G. W. Lummis-Paterson. Third Edition, Revised. Crown 8vo, cloth 4/6 " An example which deserves to be taken as a model by other authors. The subject Is treated In a manner which any intelligent man who is fit to be entrusted with charge of an engine should be able to understand. It is a useful book to all who make, tid, or employ electric machinery,"
Architect.
THE STANDARD ELECTRICAL DICTIONARY.

A Popular Encyclopjedla of Words and Terms Used in the Practice of Electrical
Containing upwards of 3,000 definitions, By T. O'Conor Third Edition, with Appendix. Crown 8vo, 69a pp., 3go Illustrations, cloth Net 7/6 "The work has many attractive features in It, and ts, beyond doubt, a well put together and useful publication. The amount of ground covered may be gathered from the fact that in the index 'Blectrical about 5,000 references will be found. Review.
Engineering.
Sloanb, A.M., Ph.D.
ELECTRIC LIGHT FITTINQ.

A Handbook for Working Electrical Engineers,
Installation
Management.
By
J.
W. Urquhart,
embodying Practical Notes on Electrician, Author of

.
"Electric Light," &c. With numerous Illustrations. Third Edition, Revised, with Additions. Crown 8vo, cloth g/O "This volume deals with the mechanics ot electric lighting, and Is addressed to men who are already engaged in the work, or are training for it. The work traverses a great deal of ground, and may be read as a sequel to the author's useful work on 'Hlectric lAsht.' Êiectrician. *' The book is well worth the perusal of the workman, for whom it is written."/rfn'ca
.
.
Revt'eiv^
ELECTRIC LIGHT.
Its Production and Use, Embodying Plain Directions for the Treatment of Dynamo-Electric Machines, Batteries, Accumulators, and Electric Lamps. By J, W. Urquhart, C.E. Sixth Edition, Enlarged. Crown 8vo, cloth.
" The whole ground of electric lighting Is more or less covered and explained In a very clear and concise manner," Electrical Review. "A vade-wucunt of the salient facts connected with the science of electric llghthig."
7/6
BUcMciMn.
DYNAMO CONSTRUCTION.
A Practical
in-Charge.
Handbook
for the
Use
of Engineer-Constructors and Electricians-
Embracing Framework Buuding, Field Magnet and Armature Winding and Grouping, Compounding, &c. By J. W. Urquhart. Second Edition, Enlarged, with 114 Illustrations. Crown 8vo, cloth 7/6
. .
" Mr. Urquhart's book Is the first one which deeds with these matters in such a way that the englneeiing student can understand them. The book Is very readable, and the author leads his readers up to difficult subjects by reasonably simple \e&s."E*i^netnns Review.
ELECTRIC SHIP-LIQHTINQ.
A Handbook on
the Practical Fitting
and Running
of Ships' Electrical Plant.
For the Use of Shipowners and Builders, Marine Electricians, and Seagoing Engineers-in-Charge. By J. W. Urquhart, C.E. Second Edition, Revised
. and Extended. With 88 Illustrations, Crown 8vo, cloth 7/6 "The subject of ship electric lighting is one of vast Importance and Mr. Urquhart Is to be highly complimented for placing such a valuable work at the service of marine electricians." 7%e
. .
ELECTRIC LIQHTINQ (ELEMENTARY PRINCIPLES OF).

By Alan
With
A.
16 Illustrations.
Campbell Swinton, M.Inst.C.E., M.I.E.E. Crown 8vo, cloth
Fifth
Edition.
1/6
ELECTRIC LIGHT FOR COUNTRY HOUSES.

A
Practical Handbook on the Erection and Running of Small Installations, with Particulars of the Cost of Plant and Working. By J. H. Knight.
Third Edition, Revised.
Crown
8vo,
wrapper
1/0
HOW
TO MAKE A DYNAMO.
Containing Illustrations and Detailed Practical Treatise for Amateurs. Instructions for Constructing a Small Dynamo to Produce the Electric Light. . 2/0 By Alfred Crofts. Sixth Edition, Revised. Crown 8vo, cloth
OF ELECTRICITY. THE STUDENT'5 TEXT-BOOK Crown 8vo, cloth. with

By H. M. NoAD,
F.R.S.
650 pp.,
470 Illustrations.
-
9/0
26
CROSBY LOCKWOOD
SON'S CATALOGUE.
ARCHITECTURE, BUILDING, ETC.

PRACTICAL BUILDING CONSTRUCTION.
A
Handbook for Students Preparing for Examinations, and a Book of Reference for Persons Engaged in Building. By John Parnbll Allen, Surveyor, Lecturer on Building Construction at the Durham College of Science, Newcastle-on<Tyne. Fourth Edition, Revised and Enlarged. Medium 8vo, 570 pp., with 1,000 Illustrations, cloth.
[Just Published.
Net TJQ
"The most complete exposition of building construction we have seen. It contains all that is necessary to prepare students for the various examinations In buildii^ consttnclioti" Building
News.
" The author depends nearly as much on his diagrams as on his type. The pages suggest the hand of a man of experience in building operations and the volume must be a Dlessing to many teachers as well as to students." The Architect. " The work is sure to prove a formidable rival to great and small competitors alike, and bids fair to take a permanent place as a favourite student's text-book. The large number of illustrations deserve particular mention fur the great merit they possess for purposes of reference in exactly corresponding to convenient scales." journal o/'t/ie Royai Institute q/" British Architects.
PRACTICAL MASONRY.
Guide to the Art of Stone Cutting. Comprising the Construction, Setting Out, and Working of Stairs, Circular Work, Arches, Niches, Domes, Pendentives, Vaults, Tracery Windows, &c. to which are added Supplements relating to Masonry Estimating and Quantity Surveying, and to Building Stones, and a Glossary of Terms. For the Use of Students, Masons, and other Workmen. By William R. Purchase, Building Inspector to the Borough of Hove. Fourth Edition, Enlarged. Royal 8vo, 210 pp., with 52 Lithographic Plates, comprising over 400 Diagrams, cloth. [Just Published. Net 7/6 "Mr. Purchase's Practical Masonry will undoubtedly be found useful to all Interested in this important subject, whether theoretically or practically. Most of the examples given are from actual work carried out, the diagrcims being carefully drawn. The book is a practical treatise on the subject, the author himself having commenced as an operative mason, and afterwards acted as foreman mason on many laiê and important buildings prior to the attainment of his present position. It should be found of general utility to architectural students and others, as well as to those to whom it is specially addressed." yuwrwa/ a/the Royal Institute 0/ British Architects.
; *
'
MODERN PLUMBING. STEAM AND HOT WATER

HEATING. A New Practical Work for the Plumber,
and the Builder.
&c.
the Heating Engineer, the Architect,
.
With 284
J. J. Illustrations
By
Lawler, Author of " American Sanitary Plumbing," and Folding Plates. 4to, cloth Net 21/-
HEATINQ BY HOT WATER,

By Walter
cloth.
VENTILATION AND HOT

Jones, M.I.M.E.
WATER SUPPLY.
340 pages, with 140 Illustrations. Royal 8vo, Uusi Published. Net 6/0
CONCRETE: ITS NATURE AND USES.

Book for Architects, Builders, Contractors, and Clerks of Works. By L. Sutcliffe, A.R.I. B.A. Crown 350 pp., with Illustrations. 8vo, cloth 7/6 " The author treats a difficult subject In a lucid manner. The manual Jills a long-felt gap. It is careful and exhaustive equally useful as a student's guide and an architect's book of reference." youmal o/the Royal Institute o/British Architects.
George
LOCKWOOD'S BUILDER'S PRICE BOOK

A
Architects,
(or 1904.
*
Comprehensive Handbook of the Latest Prices and Data for Builders, Engineers, and Contractors. Re-constructed, Rewritten, and
Greatly Enlarged,
By Francis
T.
W. Miller.
.
800 closely-printed pages,
crown Svo, cloth . . . . " This book is a very useful one, and should find a place in every English office connected with the buildin? and enemeerli^ professions." Industries. " An excellent booK of reference," Architect. " la its new and revised form this Price Book Is what a work of this kind should becomprehensive, reliable, well arranged, legible, and well \)o^xa.A.''British Architect.
....
4/0
DECORATIVE PART OF CIVIL ARCHITECTURE.

By Sir William Chambers, F.R.S. With Portrait, Illustrations, Motes, and an Examination of Grbcian Architbcturb, by Joseph Gwilt, F.S.A. Revised and Edited by W. H. Leeds. 66 Plates, 4to, cloth . . 21 /O
ARCHITECTURE, BUILDING,
&'C.
27
THE MECHANICS OF ARCHITECTURE.

.
A Treatise on Applied Mechanics, especially Adapted to the

By E.W. Tarn.M.A.. Author
Edition, Enlarged.
Illiistrated
is
Use of
Architects.
of "^ The Science of Building," &c. Second with 125 Diagrams. Crown 8vo, cloth 7/6
" The book
a very useful
and
helpful
manual of architectural mechanics. "Builder,
A HANDY BOOK OF VILLA ARCHITECTURE.

Being a Series of Designs for Villa Residences in various Styles. With Outline Specifications and Estimates. By C. Wickbs, Architect, Author of "The Spires and Towers of England," &c. 61 Plates, 4to, half-morocco, gilt edges 11 8. 6d, " The whole of the designs bear evidence of their being the work of an artistic architect, and they will prove very valuable and suggestive."5MWin^ News.
THE ARCHITECT'S GUIDE.

Being a Text-book of Useful Information for Architects, Engineers, Surveyors, Contractors, Clerks of Works, &c., &c. By F. Rogers. Crown 8vo, cloth.
3/6
ARCHITECTURAL PERSPECTIVE.
The whole Course and Operations of the Draughtsman in Drawing a Large House in Linear Perspective. Illustrated by 43 Folding Plates. By F. O.
Ferguson.
"
E.
It is
INGRESS BELL, ESQ.,
Third Edition, 8vo, boards the most intelli^ble of the treatises on this ill-treated subject that in the R.I.S.A. Journal.
3/6
I
have met with."
PRACTICAL RULES ON DRAWING.

For the Operative Builder and Young Student PvNE. 14 Plates, 4to, boards
in Architecture.
By George 7/6
MEASURING AND VALUING ARTIFICERS' WORK

(The Student's Guide to the Practice of). Containing Directions for taking Dimensions, Abstracting the same, and bringing the Quantities into Bill, with Tables of Constants for Valuation of Labour, and for the Calculation of Areas and Solidities. Originally edited by E. Dobson, Architect. With Additions by E. W. Tarn, M.A. Seventh Edition, Revised. With 8 Plates and 7/6 63 Woodcuts. Crown 8vo, cloth
" This edition will be found tlie most compiete treatise on the principles of measuring and valuing artificers' work that has yet been published."S/(^xm^ News.
TECHNICAL QUIDE, MEASURER, AND ESTIMATOR.

Containing Technical Directions for Measuring the Building Trades, Complete Specifications for Houses, Roads, Method of Estimating the parts of a Building Easy an and Drains, and By A. C. Beaton. Ninth Edition. Waistcoat-pocket size, collectively.
For Builders and Surveyors.

all
Work in
gilt
edges
1/6
" No builder, architect, surveyor, or valuer should be without his * Beaton.' "Buildinz News.
SPECIFICATIONS FOR PRACTICAL ARCHITECTURE.

Guide to the Architect, Engineer, Surveyor, and Builder. With an Essay on the Structure and Science of Modern Buildings. Upon the Basis of the Work by Alfred Bartholomew, thoroughly Revised, Corrected, and greatly added to by Trederick Rogers, Architect. Third Edition, Revised. 8v^
cloth
" The work is too well known to need any recommendation from us. with which every young eirctiitect must be equipped.".<4rcfti/ert.
It Is
IS/0
one of the books
THE HOUSE-OWNER'S ESTIMATOR.

Or,
Price Book for UnWhat will it Cost to Build, Alter, or Repair? Builder. By professional People as well as the Architectural Surveyor and Fifth Edition^ A.R.I.B.A. Miller, W. F. T. by Edited Simon. Jxet 3/6 . . . . . Revised. Crown 8vo, cloth.
Sd!
Carefully
" In two years
it
will
repay
its
cost a hundred times over."Field.
a8
CROSBY LOCK WOOD
SON'S CATALOGUE.
SANITATION AND
A
WATER
SUPPLY.
THE HEALTH OFFICER'S POCKET-BOOK.

Guide to Sanitary Practice and Law. For Medical OSScers of Health, By Edward Sanitary Inspectors, Members of Sanitary Authorities, &c. F. WiLLOUGHBY, M.D. (Lond.), &c. Second Edition, Revised and Enlarged. ^^'t 1 0/6 Fcap. 8vo, leather " It is a mine of condensed information of a pertinent and useful Icind on tlie various subjects of which it treats. The different subjects are succinctly but fully and scientifically dealt with."
T/tt Lancet.
"
We recommend all those engaged in practical

Sanitary Joitrnal,
sanitary
work to
furnish themselves with a
copy
for reference."
THE BACTERIAL PURIFICATION OF 5EWAGE:

Being a Practical Account of the Various Modern Biological Methods of By Sidney Barwise, M.D. (Lond.), D.P.H. (Camb.), etc. With lo Page Plates and 2 Folding Diagrams. Royal 8vo, cloth.
Purifying Sewage.
Net 6/0
THE PURIFICATION OF 5EWAQE.

Being a. Brief Account of the Scientific Principles of Sewage Purification, and By Sidney Barwise, M.D. (Lond.), M.R.C.S., D.P.H. (Camb.), Fellow of the Sanitary Institute, Medical OflBcer of Health Crown 8vo, cloth to the Derbyshire County Council. 5/0
their Practical Application.
....
WATER AND
A
Handbook
IT5 PURIFICATION.
for the
Use of Local Authorities, Sanitary Officers, and others interested in Water Supply. By S. Ridbal, D.Sc. Lond., F.LC. Second Edition, Revised, with Additions, including numerous Illustrations and Tables.
Large Crown 8vo, cloth
Net
9/0
RURAL WATER
A
works
SUPPLY.
Water and Construction of Water-
Practical Handbook on the Supply of for Sirall Country Districts. By
Allan Grebnwbll, A.M.I. C.E.,

Crown
8vo, cloth
andW.
T. Curry, A.M.I.C.E.
Revised Edition.
5/0
THE WATER SUPPLY OF CITIES AND T0WN5.

By William Humber, A.M.
bound morocco.
Inst. C.E.,
and M.Inst. M.E.
Imp.
4to, half-
(See page 11.)
Net
6S.
THE WATER SUPPLY OF TOWNS AND THE CONSTRUCTION OF WATER-WORKS.

Royal 8vo,
cloth.
By Professor W. K. Burton, A.M.

and Extended.
Inst.
C.E.
lo.)
(See page
....
Second Edition, Revised
5s.
WATER ENQINEERINQ.
A
Practical Treatise tion of Water for the
on the Measurement, Storage, Conveyance, and UtilisaSupply of Towns. By C. Slagg, A.M. Inst. C.E. 7/6
SANITARY WORK
By Charles Slagg,
IN
A.
SMALL TOWNS AND VILLAGES.

Inst.
M.
C.E.
Crourn 8va, cloth
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PLUMBING.
A
BuCHAN,
Text-book to the Practice of the Art or Craft of the Plumber. By W. P. Ninth Edition, Enlarged, with 500 Illustrations. Crown Svo, 3/6
VENTILATION.
A
Text-book to the Practice of the Art of Ventilating Buildings.
By W.
P.
BuCHAN, R.P.
Crown
Svo, cloth
3/6
CARPENTRY, TIMBER,
8.
29
CARPENTRY, TIMBER, ETC.

THE ELEMENTARY PRINCIPLES OF CARPENTRY.
the Pressure and Equilibrium of Timber Framing, the Resistance and the Construction of Floors, Arches, Bridges, Roofs, Uniting Iron and Stone with Timber, &c. To which is added an Essay on the Nature and Properties of Timber, &c., with Descriptions of the kinds of Wood used in Buildmg ; also numerous Tables of the Scantlings of Timber for diflFerent purposes, the Specific Gravities of Materials, &c. By Thomas-Tredgold, C.E. With an Appendix of Specimens of Various Roofs of Iron and Stone, Illustrated. Seventh Edition, thoroughly Revised and considerably Enlarged by E. WvNDHAM Tarn, M.A., Author of "The Science of Building," &c. With 6r Plates, Portrait of the Author, and several Woodcuts. In One large
of Timber,
A Treatise on
"Ought
"A
Vol., 4to, cloth to be in every architect's and every builder's ]ibrary,"~Suiider.
"1
skilful
6s,
is
work whose monumental excellence must commend
it
wherever
carpentry
concerned. The author's principles are rather coniirraed than impaired by time. plates are of êat intrinsic value." Buiidin^ Neius,
The
additional
WOODWORKINQ MACHINERY.
and Construction. With Hints on the Management of Saw Mills and the Economical Conversion of Timber. Illustrated with Examples of Recent Designs by leading English, French, and American Engineers. By M. Powis Bale, A.M.Inst.C.E., M.I.M.E. Second Edition, Revised, with large Additions, large crown 8vo, 440 pp., cloth 9/0 " Mr. Belle iSfevidently an expert on the subject, and he has collected so much Information that his hook is all-sufficient for builders and others engaged in the conversion of timber. ".^rcAiterf. " The most comprehensive compendium of wood-working machinery we have seen. The author Is a thorough meister of his subject, " Building News.
Its Rise, Progress,
....
SAW
MILLS.
Their Arrangement and Management, and the Economical Conversion of Timber. By M. Powis Bale, A.M.Inst.C.E. Second Edition, Revised.
Crown 8vo, cloth 1 0/6 " The m^MiM^r/raA'iTM of a Icuge sawing establishment Is discussed, and the subject exeunined from a financial standpoint. Hence the size, shape, order, and disposition of saw milU ctnd the like from reception deUvery and the course of the timber is traced its to its in its gone into in detail, are converted state. We could not desire a more complete or practical treatise." Builder.
THE CARPENTER'S GUIDE.

Or, Book of Lines for Carpenters ; comprising all the Elementary Principles Founded on the late Peter essential for acquiring a knowledge of Carpentry.
A New Edition, Revised by Arthur Ashpitel, Together with Practical Rules on Drawing, by George Pyne. With 74 Plates, 4to, cloth 1 1 a.
Nicholson's standard work.
F.S.A.
A PRACTICAL TREATISE ON HANDRAILINQ.

Showing New and Simple Methods for Finding the Pitch of the Plank, Drawing the Moulds, Bevelling, Jointing-up, and Squaring the Wreath. By George Revised and Enlarged, to which is added A Treatise on CoLLiNGS. Stair-building. Third Edition. With Plates and Diagrams. i2mo, cloth,
2/6
" Will be found of practical utility in the execution of this difficult branch of}oiaery."Builder. "Almost every dS&cuit phase of this somewhat intricate branch of joinery is elucidated by the aid of plates and explanatory \ette.tiit&s&."Furniture Gasette.
CIRCULAR WORK
A
"
IN
CARPENTRY AND JOINERY.

.
Practical Treatise on Circular Work of Single and Double Curvature. By 2/8 George Collings. With Diagrams. Fourth Edition, izmo, cloth
An
definition,
and
excellent example of what a book of this kind should be. practical in the examples selected."5*/rfer.
Cheap
in price, clear in
QUIDE TO THE ENTIRE THE CABINET-MAKER'5 CABINET WORK.

CONSTRUCTION OP
By
Drawings.
Richard Bitmead. Illustrated with Crown 8vo, cloth
Plans,
Sections
and Working
2/6
io
CROSBY LOCKWOOD
SOU'S CATALOGUE.
IN
HANDRAILINQ COMPLETE
EIQHT LESSONS.
On the Square-Cut S:^5tem. By J> S. Goldthorf, Teacher of Geometry and Building Construction at the Halifax Mechanics' Institute. With Eight Plates and over 150 Practical Exercises. 4to, cloth 3/6 " Likely to be of considerable value to Joiners and others who take a pride In good work. The arrangement of the book is excellent. We heartily commend it to teachers and students."
....
Timber Trades youmat.
TIMBER MERCHANT'S
and BUILDER'S
COMPANION.
Containing New and Copious Tables of the Reduced Weight and Measurement of Deals and Battens, of all sizes, and other Useful Tables for the use of Timber Merchants and Builders. By William Dowsing. Fourth Edition, Revised and Corrected. Crown 8vo, cloth 3/0
"
We are glad to
simplicity of
see a fourth edition of these admirable tables, which for correctness and arrangement leave nothing to be desired." Timber Trades yoitmaU
THE PRACTICAL TIMBER MERCHANT.

for the Use of Building Contractors, Surveyors, Builders, &c.| comprising useful Tables for all purposes connected with the Timber Trade, Marks of Wood, Essay on the Strength of Timber, Remarks on the Growth of Timber, &c. By W. Richardson. Second Edition. Fcap. 8vo, cloth 3/6 "This handy manual contains much valuable information for the use of timber merchants, builders, foresters, and all others connected with the growth, sale, and manufacture of timber." journal qf Forestry.
Being a Guide
PACKINQ-CASE TABLES.
Showing the number of Superficial Feet in Boxes or Packing-Cases, from six inches square and upwards. By W. Richardson, Timber Broker. Third Edition. Oblong 410, cloth 3/6
" Will save much labour and
" Invaluable labour-saving tables."
IrontKong-er, calculation." Grocer,
GUIDE TO SUPERFICIAL MEASUREMENT.

i to 200 inches in length by 1 to 108 inches in breadth. Architects, SiurveyorSj Engmeers, Timber Merchants, Fifth Edition. Fcap., cloth. 3/6 " These tables will be found of great assistance to all who require to malce calculations of superficial measurement." English Mechanic.
Tables calculated from
For
the
use
of
Builders, &c.
By Jambs Hawkings.
PRACTICAL FORESTRY.
And
its
F. S. I. ,
Management,
Revised.
Bearing on the Improvement of Estates. By Charles E. Curtis, Professor of Forestry, Field Engineering, and General Estate at the College of Agricultiure, Downton. Second Edition,
Crown
8vo, cloth
Prefatory Remarks. Objects of Planting. Choice of a Forester. Choice of Soil and Site. Laying Out of land for plantations. preparation of the ground for Planting. Drainage. planting. Distances and distribution OF TREES in PLANTATIONS. TREES AND GROUND GAME. ATTENTION AFTER Planting.- Thinning of plantations. pruning of Forest trees. Realization. METHODS OF Sale. MEASUREMENT OF TIMBER. MEASUREMENT AND VALUATION OF Larch Plantation. fire lines. Cost of Planting. " Mr. Curtis has in the course of a series of short pithy chapters afforded much Informa*
3/6
tion of a useful and practical character Jllttstrated Carpenter and Builder.
on the planting and subsequent treatment of trees."
THE ELEMENTS OF FORESTRY.

Designed to afford Information concernin|; the Planting and Care of Forest Trees for Ornament or Profit, with suggestions upon the Creation and Care of Woodlands. By F. B, Hough. Large crown 8vo, cloth 10/0
. .
TIMBER IMPORTER'S, TIMBER MERCHANT'S, AND

BUILOHR'S STANDARD QUIDB.
Net Landed Cost on
By Richard
Home
fixing
E. Grandv. Comprising : An Analysis of Deal Standards, and Foreign, with Comparative Values and Tabular Arrangements for Baltic and North American Deals, including all
intermediate Expenses, Freight, Insurance, &c. ; together with copious Infonna* tion for the Retailer and Builder. Third Edition, Revised. i2mo, cloth 2/0 " Iiverythingf it pretends to be built up gradualljr, it leads one from a forest to a treenail, and throws vs in, as a makeweight, a host of material concemmg bricks, columns, cisterns, &c." JSnglish c
:
DECORATIVE ARTS,
S'C,
31
DECORATIVE ARTS, ETC.

SCHOOL OF PAINTINQ FOR THE IMITATION OF
WOODS AND MARBLBS.
As Taught and
Practised by A. R. Van der Burg and P. Van der Burg, Directors of the Rotterdam Painting Institution. Royal folio, 18J b^ 12J in., Illustrated with 24 full-size Coloured Plates ; also 12 plain Plates, comprising 154 Figures. Fourth Edition cloth. [Just Published. Net 5s,
&\
List of Plates. Various tools Required for wood Painting.2, 3. walnut? preliminary STAGES of Graining and finished specimen. 4. tools Used for Marble Painting and method of manipulation. 5, 6. St. remi Marble; earlier operations and finished specimen. 7. methods of sketching different Preliminary stages and Finished speciGrains, knots, &c.8, 9. ash: men. 10. Methods of sketching Marble Grains. h, k. breche marble; Preliminary Stages of working and Finished specimen. 13. maple methods of producing THE DIFFERENT GRAINS. 14, 13. BIRD'S-EYE MAPLE; PRELIMINARY Stages and Finished Specimen. i6. Methods of sketching the Different SPECIES OF White Marble. 17, 18, White Marble preliminary Stages of Process and Finished Specimen.- 19. Mahogany; Specimens of Various Grains Earlier Stages and and methods of Manipulation, so, 21. Mahogany Finished specimen.sa, 23, 24. Sienna Marble; Varieties of Grain, Preliminary Stages and finished Specimen.25, 26, 27. Juniper Wood; Methods of Producing Grain, &c. Preliminary Stages and finished specimen.28, 29, 30. Vert DE MER marble VARIETIES OF GRAIN AND METHODS OF WORKING, UNFINISHED AND Finished specimens. 31, 32, 33. Oak Varieties of Grain, tools Employed AND Methods of manipulation, Preliminary stages and Finished specimen. WAULSORT MARBLE; VARIETIES OF GRAIN, UNFINISHED AND FINISHED 34> 35> 3Î.
;
;
SPECIMENS.
" Those who desire to attain skill In the art of painting woods tind marbles will find advantage Some of the Working Men's Clubs should give their young men the opportunity to study it." Builder. " A comprehensive guide to the art. The explanations of the processes, the manipulation colours, and the beautifully executed plates will not be the least valuable to of the management and the student who aims at making his work a faithful transcript of nature." Building News. " Students and novices are fortunate who are able to become the possessors of so noble a
In consulting this book.
. . .
work." 77w Architect.
ELEMENTARY DECORATION.
A Guide to the Simpler Forms of Everyday Art. Together with PRACTICAL HOUSE DECORATION. By James W. Facey, With numerous Illustrations.
In
One
Vol., strongly hsJf-bound
5/0
HOUSE PAINTING, QRAININQ, MARBLINQ, AND

SIQN WRITINQ.
Practical
A
"
Manual
of.
By Ellis
Coloured Plates and
Wood
mass of information of use to the amateur and of value to
A. Davidson. Eighth Edition. With Engravings. Crown 8vo, cloth . 6/0 tlie practical uaa."English
. .
Mtchanic.
THE DECORATOR'S ASSISTANT.

Modern Guide for Decorative Artists and Amateurs, Painters, Writers, Gilders, ^c. Containing upwards of 600 Receipts, Rules, and Instructions with a variety of Information for General Work connected with every Class of Eighth Edition. Cr. 8vo . I/O Interior and Exterior Decorations, &c. " Full of receipts of value to decorators, painters, gilders, &c. The book contains the gist of larger treatises on colour and technica^l processes. It would be difficult to meet with a work so full of varied information on the painter's aR."-~Building News.
MARBLE DECORATION
And
Handbook for the Terminology of British and Foreign Marbles. By George H. Blageove, Author of " Shoring and its ApplicaStudents. 3/6 tion," &c. With 28 Illustrations. Crown 8vo, cloth "This most useful and much wanted handbook should be hi the hands of every architect and builder."5M.ii.wf World. ., ^ . "A carefully aud usefully written treatise ; the work is essentially practical."5<fma.
....
,
32
CROSBY LOCKWOOD
SON'S CATALOGUE,
DELAMOTTE'S WORKS ON ILLUMINATION AND

ALPHABETS.
ORNAMENTAL ALPHABETS, ANCIENT & MEDIEVAL.

From the Eighth Century, with Numerals; includin|r_Gothic, Church-Text, and small, German, Italian, Arabesque, Initials for Illumination, Monograms, Crosses, &c., &c., for the use of Architectural and Engineering Draughtsmen, Missal Painters, Masons, Decorative Painters, Lithographers, Engravers, Carvers, &c. Collected and Engraved by F. Dblamotte, and printed in Colours. New and Cheaper Edition. Royal 8vo, oblong,
large
ornamental boards
2/6
" For those who insert enamelled sentences round g:ilded chalices, who blazon shop legends over shop-doors, who letter church walls with pithy sentences from the Decalogue, this book will be \isebA."~Athenaufn.
MODERN ALPHABETS, PLAIN AND ORNAMENTAL.

Including German, Old English, Saxon, Italic, Perspective, Greek, Hebrew, Court Hand, Engrossing^ Tuscan, Riband, Gothic, Rustic, and Arabesque with several Original Designs, and an Analysis of the Roman and Old English Alphabets, large and small, and Numerals, for the use of Draughtsmen, Surveyors, Masons, Decorative Painters, Lithographers, Engravers, Carvers, &c. Collected and Engraved by F. Delamotte, and printed in Colours. New and Cheaper Edition. Royal 8vo, oblong, ornament^ boards 2/6
.
" There Is comprised in it every possible shape Into wiuch the letters of the alphabet and numerals can be formed, and the talent which has been expended in the conception of the various plain and ornamental letters is wonderful" Standard.
MEDIAEVAL ALPHABETS AND

By
F. G.
INITIALS.
Containing 21 Plates and Illuminated Title, printed in Gold and Colours. With an Introduction by J. Willis Brooks. Fifth Edition. Small 4to, ornamental boards Net 5/0 "A volume in which the letters of the alphabet come forth gflorified In eliding and all the colours of the prism interwoven and intertwined and intermingled, "-^mm,
Delamotte.
A PRIMER OF THE ART OF ILLUMINATION.

For the Use of Beginners ; with a Rudimentary Treatise on the Art, Practical Directions for its Exercise, and Examples taken from Illuminated MSS.* printed in Gold and Colours, By F. Delamotte. New and Cheaper Edition. Small 4to, ornamental boards 6/0 " The examples of ancient MSS. reoemmended to the student, which, with much good sense, the author chooses from collections accessible to all, are selected with judgment and lunowledge as
well as taste."
Athenaum.
THE EMBROIDERER'S BOOK OF DESIGN.

Initials, Emblems, Cyphers, Monograms, Ornamental Borders. Devices, Mediaeval and Modern Alphabets, and National Collected by F. Delamotte, and printed in Colours. Oblong royal 8vo, ornamental wrapper Xêt 2/0 "The book will be of great assistance to ladles and young children who are endowed with the art of plying the needle in this most ornamental and useful pretty work."du'2^fl^/i:(iw Titrus,
Containing
Ecclesiastical
Emblems.
WOOD-CARVING FOR AMATEURS.

With Hints on Design. By A Lady. With Edition. Crown 8vo, in emblematic wrapper
*'
10 Plates.
it,
New
may be
and Cheaper
2/0
learnt
The
'
Lady's
handicraft of the wood-carver, so well as a publication."-4 /Acti^w.
book can impart
from
PAINTING POPULARLY EXPLAINED.

By Thomas John Gdllick, Painter, and John Times, F.S.A. Induding Fresco, Oil, Mosaic, Water-Colour, Water-Glass, Tempera, Encaustic, Miniature, Painting on Ivory, Vellum, Pottery, Enamel, Glass, &c. Fifth Edition. Crovm 8vo, cloth 6/0
*
"
1
Adopted as a Pria Book at South Kensington.

"
Much may be learned, even by those who fancy they do not require quire to be taueht, from the perusal of this unpretending but comprehensive treatise."^r/y<*wa / youmaL
NATURAL SCIENCE,
S-c.
33
NATURAL SCIENCE,
THE VISIBLE UNIVERSE.
ETC.
Chapters on the Origin and Construction of the Heavens. By J. E. Gore, F.R.A.S., Author of^' Star Groups," &c. Illustrated by 6 Stellar Photographs and 12 Plates. Demy 8vo, cloth 1 6/0
STAR GROUPS.
A
Student's Guide to the Constellations. By J. Ellard Gore, F.R.A.S., M.R.I.A., &c., Author of "The Visible Universe," "The Scenery of the Heavens," &c. With 30 Maps. Small 4to, cloth 5/0
AN ASTRONOMICAL QLOSSARV.
Or, Dictionary of Terms used in Astronomy. With Tables of Data and Lists of Remarkable and Interesting Celestial Objects. By J. Ellard Gore, F.R.A.S., Author of " The Visible Universe," &c. Small crown 8vo, cloth.
THE MICROSCOPE.
Its Construction
2/6
and Management. Including Technique, Photo-micrography, and the Past and Future of the Microscope. By Dr. Henri van Heurck. Re-Edited and Augmented from the Fourth French Edition, and Translated by Wynne E. Baxter, F.G.S. Imp. 8vo, cloth 18/0
....
A MANUAL OF THE MOLLUSCA.

A
Treatise on Recent and Fossil Shells. By S. P. Woodward, A.L.S., With an Appendix on Recent and Fossil Conchological F.G.S. Discoveries, by Ralph Tate, A.L.S., F.G.S. With 23 Plates and upwards of 300 Woodcuts. Reprint of Fourth Edition (1880). Crown 8vo,
cloth
7/6
Harmony and Wonderful Concord.
THE TWIN RECORDS OF CREATION.

Or, Geology and Genesis, their Perfect By G. W. V. LE Vaux. 8vo, cloth
6/0
LARDNER'S HANDBOOKS OF SCIENCE. HANDBOOK OF MECHANICS.

Enlarged and re-written by B. Loewy, F.R.A.S.
Revised and Enlarged by B. LoEWV, F.R.A.S.
Post 8vo, cloth
.
6/0
6/0 6/0 5/0 5/0 9/6
Cloth,
HANDBOOK OF HYDROSTATICS AND PNEUMATICS.

Post 8vo, cloth
.
HANDBOOK OF HEAT.
Edited and re-written by B. LoEWV, F.R.A.S.
Post 8vo, cloth
.
HANDBOOK OF
New Edition.
OPTICS.
Olver Harding, B. A.
Small 8vo, cloth
Small 8vo, cloth
Edited by T.
ELECTRICITY, MAGNETISM,
Edited by Geo. C. Foster, B.A.
AND ACOUSTICS.
....
.
HANDBOOK OF ASTRONOMY.
Revised and Edited by Edwin DUNKIN, F.R.A.S.
8vo, cloth
.
MUSEUM OF SCIENCE AND

With upwards of 1,200 Engravings. or half-morocco
ART.
1
.
In Six Double Volumes,
1a.
1
.
lis. 6d.
.
NATURAL PHILOSOPHY FOR SCHOOLS ANIMAL PHYSIOLOGY FOR SCHOOLS THE ELECTRIC TELEGRAPH.
Revised by E. B. Bright, F.R.A.S.
I.
3/6 3/6
2/6
=
Fcap. 8vo, cloth
34
CROSBY LOCK WOOD
S-
SON'S CATALOGUE,
'chemical manufactures, chemistry, etc.

THE OIL FIELDS OF RUSSIA AND THE RUSSIAN
PETROLEUM INDUSTRY.
A
Practical Handbook on the Exploration, Exploitation, and Management of Russian Oil Properties, including Notes on the Origin of Petroleum in Russia, a Description of the Theory and Practice of Liquid Fuel, and a Translation of the Rules and Regulations concerning Russian Oil Properties. ByA. Beebv Thompson, A.M.I.M.E., late Chief Engineer and Manager of the European Petroleum Company's Russian Oil Properties. About 500 pp., with numerous Illustrations and Photographic Plates, and a Map of the BalakhanySaboontchy-Romani' Oil Field. Super-royal 8vo, cloth. iVf/ \Jttst Fublisked. s.
3 3
THE ANALYSIS OF OILS AND ALLIED SUBSTANCES.

By A. C. Wright, M.A.Oxon., B.Sc.Lond., formerly Assistant Lecturer in Chemistry at the Yorkshire College, Leeds, and Lecturer in Chemistry at the Nat QIQ Hull Technical School. Demy 8vo, cloth
THE GAS ENGINEER'S POCKET-BOOK.

Tables, Notes and Memoranda relating to the Manufacture, Distribution and Use of Coal Gas and the Construction of Gas Works. By H. O'Connor, A.M.Inst.C.E. Second Edition, Revised. 470 pp., crown 8vo, fully Illustrated, leather 1 0/6 "The book contains a vast amount of information. The author eoes consecutively through the engineering^ details and practical methods involved in each of the different processes or parts of a gas-works. He has cerCaiiUy succeeded in making a compilation of hard matters 01 fact
Comprising
absolutely interestinz to read." Gas iVorld. " The volume contains a great quantity of specialised information, compiled, we believe, from trustworthy sources, which should make it of considerable value to those for whom It is specifically produced. Eng-ineer.
LIQHTINQ BY ACETYLENE
Generators, Burners, and Electric Furnaces. With 66 Illustrations. Crovra 8vo, cloth
By William
E. Gibbs,
M.E.
7/6
ENQINEERINQ CHEMISTRY.
Practical Treatise for the Use of Analytical Chemists, Engineers, Iron Masters, Iron Founders, Students and others. Comprising Methods of Anal3rsi& and Valuation of the Principal Materials used in Engmeering Work, with numerous Analyses, Examples and Suggestions. By H. Joshua Phillips F.I.C, F.C.S. Third Edition, Revised and Enlarged. Crown 8vo, 420 pp., with Plates and other Illustrations, cloth. Net 10/6 "In this work the author has rendered no small service to a numerous body of practical men. The analytical methods may be pronounced most satisfactory, being as accurate as the . despatch required of engineering chemists permits." Chetnical News. " The analytical methods given are, as a whole, such as are likely to give rapid and trustworthy results in experienced hands. . There is much excellent descriptive matteri n the work, the chapter on Oils and Lubrication being specially noticeable in this respect." Engineer.
....
'
'
NITRO-EXPLOSIVES.
Practical Treatise concerning the Properties, Manufacture, and Analysis of Nitrated Substances, including the Fulminates, Smokeless Powders, and Celluloid. By P. Gerald Sanford, F.I.C, Consulting Chemist to the Cotton Powder Company, Limited, &c. With Illustrations. Crown Svo, cloth. 9/0 "One of the very few text -books in which can be found just what is wanted. Mr. Sanford goes steadily through the whole list of explosives commonly used, he names any given explosive, and tells us of what it is composed and how it is manufactured. The book Is excelleat." Engineer.
A HANDBOOK ON MODERN EXPLOSIVES.

A Practical Treatise on the Manufacture and Use of Dynamite, Gun-Cptton, Nitro-Glycerine and other Explosive Compounds, including Collodion-Cotton. With Chapters on Explosives m Practical Application. By M. Eissler, M.E. Second Edition, Enlarged. Crown Svo, cloth 12/6
"
A veritable mine of information on the subject of explosives employed for military,

purposes." .-/r;_y and Navy Gazette.
......
mining
and
blastii^f
CHEMICAL MANUFACTURES, CHEMISTRY,
&-C.
35
A MANUAL OF THE ALKALI TRADE.

Including the Manufacture of Sulphuric Acid, Sulphate of Soda, and Bleaching With 232 Illustrations Powder. By John Lomas, Alkali Manufacturer. and Working Drawings, Second Edition, with Additions. Super -royal 8vo,
^
cloth
10s.
" find not merely a sound and luminous explanation of the chemical principles of the trade, but a notice of numerous matters which have a most important bearing on the successful conduct of allrali works, but which are generally overlooked by even experienced technological aiiOiOTS." Chemical Review.
We
DANGEROUS GOODS.
Their Sources and Properties, Modes of Storage and Transport. With Notes Guide for the Use of and Comments on Accidents arising therefrom. Government and Railway Officials, Steamship Owners, &c. By H. Joshua cloth Crown 8vo, F.I.C, F.C.S. pp., Phillips, 9/0 374
....
" Merits a wide
circulation,
and an
intelligent, appreciative s,ta6.y" Chemical
News.
THE BLOWPIPE
IN
CHEMI5TRY, MINERALOGY,
.
Etc.
Containing all known Methods of Anhydrous Analysis, many Working Examples, and Instructions for Making Apparatus. By Lieut. -Colonel W. A. 5/0 Ross, R.A., F.G.S. Second Edition, Enlarged. Crown 8vo, cloth " The student who goes conscientiously through the course of experimentation here laid down wUl gain a better insight into inorganic chemistry and mineralogy than if he had got up any of the best text-boolM of the day, and passed any number of examinations in their contents 'Chemicai
' '
THE MANUAL OF COLOURS AND DYE-WARES.

Their Properties, Applications, Valuations, Impurities and Sophistications. For the Use of Dyers, Printers, Drysalters, Brokers, &c. By J. W. Slater. . 7/6 Second Edition, Revised and greatly Enlarged. Crown 8vo, cloth "There is no other work which covers precisely the same ground. To students preparing
for
examinations in dyeing and printing
it
will
prove exceedingly useful." CA<tai; News.
A HANDY BOOK FOR BREWERS.

12/6 8vo, 530 pp., cloth for examinational May be consulted with advantage by the student who Is preparing himself discovenes of important the most r/sum/ of aU a find in it will brewer tests. whUe the scientific concise manner, and the author modem tuBes. The work is written throughout in a clear andwell-established facts Brewers' takes great care to discriminate between vague theories and
"
that
In this country;
Being a Practical Guide to the Art of Brewing and Malting. Embracing the Conclusions of Modern Research which bear upon the Practice of Brewing. By Herbert Edwards Wright, M.A. Second Edition, Enlarged. Crown
...
...
...
^^^^ ^^ pleasure in recommending this handy book, and have no hesitation in saying one of the best-lf not the best-which has yet been written on the subject of beer^rewmg; of eveiy brewers library. Brirwcrs it should have a place on the shelves Guardian.
It is
yottrna^^
By Their Analysis and Valuation. For the Use of Chemists and Engineers. H. J. Phillips, F.C.S., formerly Analytical and Consulting Chemist to the 2/0 G.E. Rlwy. Fourth Edition. Crown 8vo, cloth " Ought to have Its place in the laboratory of every metallurgical estabUshment and wherever fiiel is used on a large scafe," CA*k/ Nfws.
FUELS: SOLID, LIQUID, AND QASEOUS.
THE ARTISTS' MANUAL OF PIGMENTS. Non-Permanency, and

Showing
their Composition, Conditions of Permanency, By H. C. Standage. Third Adulterttions, &c., with Tests of Purity. 2/6 Crown 8vo, cloth Edition. good conscjence, recommend it to with can, we and mitltum-in-farva, indeed This work is Ser^ru,. users."-CA,./ or dealers, makers, as whether aU who 7ome ta coiti with pigments,
AND QAUQINQ. A POCKET-BOOK OF MENSURATION for Revenue Officers, Brewers,

Containing Tables, Rules, and Memoranda By J. B. Mant, Inland Revenue. Second Spirit Merchants, &c. Revised. i8mo, leather journal. " be in the hands of every pracdcal brewer. "-Srwr'
Should
Edmon,
*'"
36
CROSBY LOCK WOOD
SON'S CATALOGUE.
INDUSTRIAL ARTS, TRADES, AND
MANUFACTURES.
TEA MACHINERY AND TEA FACTORIES.
A
A. J.
Descriptive Treatise on the Mechanical Appliances required in the Cultivation of the Tea Plant and the Preparation of Tea for the Market. By Walus-Tayleb, A. M. Inst. C.E. Medium 8vo, 46B pp. With 918
N'et
Illustrations
summary of contents. Mechanical Cultivation or Tillage of the soil.Plucking or Gathering THE LEAF. Tea FACTORIES. The Dressing, Manufacture, or Preparation OF Tea by Mechanical Means. artificial Withering of the leaf. Machines for Rolling or Curling the Leaf. Fermenting Process. Machines for the Automatic Drying or Firing of the Leaf. Machines for Non-Automatic Drying or Firing of the Leaf. Drying or Firing Machines, breaking or Cutting, and Sorting machines.- Packing the tea. Means OF Transport on Tea plantations. Miscellaneous Machinery and Apparatus. Final treatment of the Tea. tables and memoranda.
"
26/0
The
subject of tea machinery
is
now one
of the
lirst
If any, machinery was employed, but now its use is almost universal. This volume contains a very full account of the machinery necessary for the proper outfit of a factory, and also a description ot the processes best carried out by tliis machinery,"y<jta/ Society o/Arts.
whom we strongly commend the volume," Cha^mbir 0/ Comtnerce youy^tal. "When tea planting was first introduced into the British possessions little,
interest to a large class of people, to
FLOUR MANUFACTURE.
A Treatise on Milling Science and Practice. By Friedrich Kick, Imperial Regierungsrath, Professor of Mechanical Technology in the Imperial German Poljrtechnic Institute, Prague. Translated from the Second Enlarged and
Revised Edition with Supplement.
By H. H.
P.
Powlss, Assoc. Memb.
Institution of Civil Engineers. Nearly 400 pp. Plates, and 167 Woodcuts. Royal 8vo, cloth
Illustrated with 28 Folding
1
modem
Ss.
"This invaluable work Is, and will remain, the standard authority on the science of milling. . . . miller who has read and digested this work will have laid the foundation, so to speak, of a successful career ; he will have acquired a number of general principles which he can proceed to apply. In this handsome volume we at last have the accepted text-book of milling in good, sound EnijUsh. which has little, if any, trace of the German idiom." The Miller, " The appearance of this celebrated work in English is very opportune, and British millers will, we are sure, not be slow in availing themselves of its pages." Millers' Gazette.
The
COTTON MANUFACTURE.
A Manual of Practical Instruction of the Processes of Opening, Carding, Combing, Drawing, Doubling and Spinning of Cotton, the Methods of Dyeing, &c. For the Use of Operatives, Overlookers, and Manufacturers. By John Lister, Technical Instructor, Pendleton. 8vo, cloth , . 7/6
" Tliis invaluable volume
is
a distinct advance in the literature of cotton manufacture."
Machinery.
"
It is
thoroughly
reliable, fulfilling nearly all
the requirements desired." G/ojf-im' Herald.
MODERN CYCLES.
Handbook on their Construction and Rep^r. By A. T. WallisTayler, a. M. Inst. C. E., Author of " Refrigerating Machineryj'^^&c. With upwards of 300 Illustrations. Crown 8vo, cloth 1 0/6 "The large trade that is done in the component parts of bicycles has placed in the way of men mechanically incUned extraordinary facilities for building bicycles for their own use. The book will prove a valuable guide for all those who aspire to the manufacture or repair of their own
. . .
A Practical
construction. " IVheelitig:
nachines. rê Field. " most comprehetulve and up-to-date treatise." 77m Cycle. " very useful book, wWch is quite entitled to rank as a standard work for students of cycle
A A
MOTOR CARS OR POWER CARRIAGES FOR COMMON

ROADS.
By
A.
J,
Wallis-Tayler, Assoc. Memb.
Cycles," &c.
"The book is cleariy
thinking of turning his starting operations." Engiiieiring
Inst. C.E., Author of "Modern 212 pp., with 76 Illustrations. Crown 8vo, cloth . . 4/6 expressed throughout, and is just the sort of work that an enrineer, attention to motor-carriage work, would do well to read as a prelimmary to
INDUSTRIAL AND OSEPUL ARTS.
37
PRACTICAL TANNINQ.
A Handbook of Modern Procesess, Receipts, and
of Hides,
Slcins,
and Pelts of every Description.

472 pages.
8vo, cloth.
American Tanner.
THE ART OF LEATHER MANUFACTURE.

Dressing, &c.
"
Suggestions for the Treatment By L. A. Flemming, l/ust Published. Net 25/0
Being a Practical Handbook, in which the Operations of Tanning, Currying, and Leather Dressing are fully Described, and the Principles of Tanning Explained, and many Recent Processes Introduced ; as also Methods for the Estimation of Tannin, and a Description of the Arts of Glue Boiling, Gut
By Alexander Watt.
Fourth Edition.
Crown 8vo
cloth.
A sound, comprehensive treatise on tannine and its accessories.
9/0
The book is an eminently
valuable production, which redounds to the credit of both author and publishers." CAewiiMti
Review,
THE ART OF SOAP-MAKINQ.

Handbook of the Manufacture of Hard and Soft Soaps, Toilet Soaps, &c. Including many New Processes, and a Chapter on the Recovery of Glycerine from Waste Leys. By Alexander Watt. Sixth Edition, including an Appendix on Modern Candlemaking. Crown 8vo, cloth . 7/6 "The work will prove very useful, not merely to the technological student, but to the practical soap boiler who wishes to understand the theory of his ^^"~Chemical Neîfs. " A thoroughly practical treatise. We congratulate the author on the success of his endeavour
to
fill
A Practical
a void in English technical literature."Ato/we,
PRACTICAL PAPER-MAKING.
A
Manual for Paper-Makers and Owners and Managers of Paper-Mills. With Tables, Calculations, &c. By G. Clapperton, Paper-Maker. With Illustrations of Fibres frpm Micro-Photographs. Crown 8vo, cloth . . 5/0
" The author caters for the requirements of responsible mill hands, apprentices, &c,, whilst well as to veteran paperhis ^_jiual manual will be found of great service to students of technology, as .T,. '" ._ .__F_ and mill owners. The illustrations form an excellent feature." The World's Paper Trad* makers ai
......-.-
.,..,...,.
,,,._
Review.
THE ART OP PAPER-MAKING.

A
Practical Handbook of the Manufacture of Paper from Rags, Esparto, Straw, and other Fibrous Materials. Including the Manufacture of Pulp from Wood Fibre, with a Description of the Machinery and Appliances used. To which are added Details of Processes for Recovering Soda from Waste Liquors.
By Alexander Watt. With

' '
Illustrations.
Crown
Svo, cloth
7/6
"It may be regarded as the standard work on the subject. The book is full ofvaluabla Information. The Art of Paper-Making is in every respect a model of a text-book, either for a technical class, or for the private student, '/'a/**- and Printing Trades Journal.
A TREATISE ON PAPER.
For Printers and Stationers. With an Outline of Paper Manufacture Complete Tables of Sizes, and Specimens of Different Kinds of Paper. By Richard Parkinson, late of the Manchester Technical School. Demy Svo, cloth 3/6
;
CEMENTS, PASTES, GLUES, AND GUMS.

A Practical Guide to the Manufacture and Application of the various Agglutlnants required in the Building, Metal- Working, Wood- Working, and LeatherWorking Trades, and for Workshop and Office Use. With upwards of 900 . 2/0 Recipes. By H. C. Standage. Third Edition. Crown Svo, cloth "We have pleasure In speaking favourably of this volume. So far as we have had expBflence, which is notinconsiderable, this manual is ttastv/ovthy."~Aiheftaum.
THE CABINET-MAKER'S GUIDE OF

TO THE ENTIRE CONSTRUCTION
CABINET WORK.
By Including Veneering, Marquetrie, Buhlwork, Mosaic, Inlaying, &c. Richard Bitmead. Illustrated with Plans, Sections, and Working Drawings. 2/6 Small crown Svo, cloth
FRENCH POLISHING AND ENAMELLING.

A
Author of "The Cabinet-Maker's Guide."
Practical Work of Instruction. Including Numerous Recipes for making Polishes, Varnishes, Glaze-Lacquers, Revivers, &c. By Richard Bitmead, . 1/6 Small crown 8vo, doth
38
CROSBY LOCK WOOD
&
SON'S CATALOGUE.
WATCH
A
REPAIRING, CLEANING, AND ADJUSTING.
Handbook dealing with the Materials and Tools Used, and the Methods of Repairing, Cleaning, Altering, and Adjusting all kinds of English Foreign and Watches, Repeaters, Chronographs, and Marine Chronometers. By F. J. Garrard, Springer and Adjuster of Marine Chronometers and Deck Watches for the Admiralty. With over 200 Illustrations. Crown 8vo, cloth.
Practical
IJusi Publisfied.
Net 4/6
MODERN HOROLOQY,
Translated from the French of
of Horology at
IN
THEORY AND PRACTICE.

2
tion
Claudius Saunier, ex-Director of the School Macon, by Julien Tripplin, F.R.A.S., Besanpon Watch Manufacturer, and Edward Rigg, M.A., Assayer in the Royal Mint. With Seventy-eight Woodcuts and Twenty^two Coloured Copper Plates. Second Edition. Super-royal 8vo, . 2s. cloth; half-calf . IDs. " There is no horological work in the English lanâge at all to be compared to this producof M. Sauciier's for clearness and completeness. ' It is alilce good as a guide for the student and
as a reference for the experienced horologist and skilled yfoi)iaaaii."~Horological yournal. " The latest, the most complete, and the most reliable of those literary productions to which continental watchmakers are inciebted for the mechanical superiority over their English brethren in fact, the Book of Books is M. Saunier's ' Treatise,' " IVatchtnaJUr, Jeivelier, and Silversmith,
THE WATCH ADJUSTER'S MANUAL.

A
Practical Guide for the Watch and Chronometer Adjuster in Making, Springing, Timing and Adjusting for Isochronism, Positions and Temperatures. By C. E. Fritts. 370 pp., with Illustrations, 8vo, cloth . . . 16/0
THE WATCHMAKER'S HANDBOOK.

Intended as a Workshop Companion for those engaged in Watchmaking and Translated from the French of Claudius the Allied Mechanical Arts. Saunier, and enlarged by Julien Tripplin, F.R.A.S., and Edward Rigg, M.A., Assayer in the Royal Mint. Third Edition. Cr. 8vo, cloth. 9/0 " Each part is truly a treatise in itself. The arrangement is good and the language Isclear and concise. It is an admirable guide for the young watchmaker." Engineering.
.
HISTORY OF WATCHES & OTHER TIMEKEEPERS.

By James F. Kendal, M.B.H. Inst. 1/6 boards ; or cloth, gilt . 2/6 The best which has yet appeared on this subject in the English language." Industries. " Open the book where you may, there is interesting matter in it concerning the Ingenious devices of the ancient or modem horologer," Saturday Keview.
"
ELECTRO-PLATINQ&ELECTRO-REFININQOPMETALS.
Being a new edition of Alexander Watt's " Electro-Deposition." Revised and Largely Rewritten by Arnold Philip, B.Sc, A.I.E.E., Principal Assistant to the Admiralty Chemist. Large Crown 8vo, cloth. . Net i 2/6 "Altogether the work can be highly recommended to every electro -plater, and is of undoubted interest to every electro-metallurgist." i'/i'rfrtca/ Review. "Eminently a book for the practical worker in electro-deposition. It contains practical descriptions of methods, processes and materials, as actually pursuea and used in the workshop."^ Engineer.
ELECTRO-METALLURQY.
"
Practically Treated. By Alexander Watt. Tenth Edition, including the most recent Processes. i2mo, cloth 3/6 From this book both amateur and artisan may learn everything necessary for the successful
Iron.
prosecution of electroplating."
JEWELLER'S ASSISTANT
A
IN
WORKINQ
IN QOLD.
Practical Treatise for Masters and Workmen, Compiled from the Experience of Thirty Years' Workshop Practice. By George E. Gee. Crown 8vo. 7/6 " This manual of technical education Is apparently destined to be a valuable auxiliary to a handicraft which Is certainly capable of great Improvement." 27t Times,
ELECTROPLATINQ.
A
"
Practical Handbook on the Deposition of Copper, Silver, Nickel, Gold, Aluminium, Brass, Platinum, &c., &c. By J. W. Ubquhart, C.E. Fourth
Edition, Revised.
"
Crown 8vo, cloth An excellent practical msa\i3\." Engineering An excellent work, giving the newest infomiation."
6/0
HorologUal Journal,
INDUSTRIAL AND USEFUL ARTS.
39
ELECTROTYPINQ.
The Reproduction and
cloth
;
by the Electro-Deposition
Multiplication of Printing Surfaces and Works of Art of Metals. By J. W. Uequhart, C.E. Crown Svo,
" The book is thoroughly practical the reader is, therefore, conducted through the leading laws of electricity, then through the metals used byelectrotypers, the apparatus, and the depositing processes, up to the final preparation of the y/otk."Art yournal.
g/O
QOLDSMITH'S HANDBOOK.
By George E. Gee, Jeweller, &c. "A good, sound educator," HoroLofricat
Fifth Edition,
izmo, cloth
3/0
youmal,
SILVERSMITH'S HANDBOOK.
By George E. Gee, Jeweller, &c. Third Editionj with numerous lUustratioDS. i2mo, cloth 3/0 " The chief merit of the work is its practical character. . The workers in the trade will speedily discover its merits when they sit down to study it." Ens^lish Mechanic. *+* The above two works together, strongly half-bound, price 7s.
. .
5HEET METAL WORKER'5 INSTRUCTOR.

Comprising a Selection of Geometrical Problems and Practical Rules fox Describing the Various Patterns Required by Zinc, Sheet-Iron, Copper, and Tin-Plate Workers. By Reuben Henry Warn, Practical Tin-Plate Worker. New Edition, Revised and greatly Enlarged by Joseph G. Horner, A.M.I.M.E. Crown Svo, 254 pp., with 430 Illustrations, cloth 7/6
. .
SAVOURIES AND SWEETS

Suitable for Luncheons and Dinners. By Miss M. L. Allen (Mrs. A. Macaire), Author of " Breakfast Dishes," &c. Twenty-ninth Edition.. F'cap
Svo,
sewed
...
I/O
BREAKFAST DISHES
For Every Morningof Three Month-:. Author of " Savouries and Sweets," &c. sewed
By
Miss Allen (Mrs A. Macaire), Twenty-second Edition. F'cap Z\ o,
1/0
BREAD & BISCUIT BAKER'S & SUGAR-BOILER'S

A53ISTANT.
Including a large variety of Modern Recipes. With Remarks on Bread-m^ng. By Robert Wells. Third Edition. Crown Svo
.
the Art of
-1/0
"A large number of wrinldes for the ordinary cook,
cis
well as the baker."
Saturday Revirw,
PASTRYCOOK & CONFECTIONER'S QUIDE.

For Hotels, Restaurants, and the Trade in general, adapted also for Family Use. By R.Wells, Author of "The Bread and BiscuitBaker" " We cannot speak too highly of this really excellent work. In these days of keen competition our readers cannot do better than purchase this book." Bakers' Times.
.
.1/6
ORNAMENTAL CONFECTIONERY.
Guide for Bakers, Confectioners and Pastrycooks ; including a variety of Modem Recipes, and Remarks on Decorative and Coloured Work. With 129 . 6/0 Original Designs. By Robert Wells. Crown Svo, cloth " A valuable work, practical, and should be in the hands of every baker and confectioner. The Illustrative designs are worth treble the amount charged for the work." ,fiaA'j' Times.
. .
MODERN FLOUR CONFECTIONER.

Containing a large Collection of Recipes for Cheap Cakes, Biscuits, &c. With remarks on the Ingredients Used in their Manufacture. By R. Wells. 1/0 " The work is of a decidedly practical character, and in every recipe regard is had to economical woildng."iVcf/A British Daily Mail.
RUBBER HAND STAMPS

And
Ph.D.
the Manipulation of Rubber. A Practical Treatise on the Manufacture of Indiarubber ifand Stamps, Small Articles of Indiarubber, The Hektograph, Special Inks, Cements, and Allied Subjects. By T. O'Conor Sloane, A.M.,
With numerous
Illustrations.
Square Svo,
cloth.
6/0
40
CROSBY LOCK WOOD
& SONS
CATALOGUE.
HANDYB00K8 FOR HANDICRAFTS.

BY PAUL N. HASLUCK.
Editor of "
Work " (New Series), Author of " Lathe Work,"

Crown
8vo, 144 pp., price
is.
" Milling Machines," &c.
each.
rS" These Handvbooks have
the several Handicrafts, on the actual Practice 0/ Students, and Amateurs ih Workshop, and are intended to convey in plain language Technical Knowledge of the several Crafts. In describing the processes employed, and the manipu-
been written to supply information for
Workmbn,
lation of material, workshop terms are used ; workshop practice is fully explained ; and the text is freely illustrated with" drawings of modern tools, appliances, and processes.
METAL TURNER'S HANDYBOOK.

A
"
Practical
Manual
for
Workers
at the Foot-Lathe.
With 100
Illustrations.
1/0
The book
will
be of service
alike to the
amateur and the artisan turner.
It
displays
thorough knowledge of the suh}eci."Scatsfnan.
WOOD TURNER'S HANDYBOOK.

A
Practical
Manual
for
Workers
at the Lathe.
With over 100
Illustrations.
" recommend the book to young turners and amateurs. A multitude of hitherto sought in vain for a manual of this special industry." Mechanical IVorld.
We
workmen have
1/0
WATCH JOBBER'S HANDYBOOK.

Practical Manual on Cleaning, Repairing, and Adjusting. With upwards of 100 Illustrations I/O " We strongly advise all young persons connected with the watch trade to acquire and study this Inexpensive work." CUrkenwell Ckroniclt.
PATTERN MAKER'S HANDYBOOK.

A
"
Practical
Manual on
if
the
Construction of Patterns for Founders.

Knowledgt.
With
upwards of 100
A most valuable,
Illustrations not indispensable manual for the pattern maker."
1/0
MECHANICS WORKSHOP HANDYBOOK.

" very clever and useful book, which should oe found in every certainly find a place in all technical schools." Sahtrday Review.
A Practical Manual on Mechanical Manipulation, embracing Information on various Handicraft Processes. With Useful Notes and Miscellaneous Memoranda. Comprising about 200 Subjects I/O
A
workshop
;
and
It
should
MODEL ENGINEER'S HANDYBOOK.

A Practical Manual on the Construction of Model Steam upwards of 100 Illustrations. " Mr. Hasluck has produced a very good little book." Builder,
Engines.
With
i/O
CLOCK JOBBER'S HANDYBOOK.

A
"
Practical
Manual on Cleaning, Repairing, and Adjusting.
With upwards of
100 Illustrations
It is
of inestimable service to those
commencing the txiA^." Coventry Standard.
I/O
CABINET WORKER'S HANDYBOOK.

A Practical Manual on the Tools, Materials, Appliances, and Processes employed in Cabinet Work. With upwards of 100 Illustrations -1/0 "Mr. Hasluck's thorough-going little Handybook is amongst the most practical guides we have seen for beginners in cabinet-work." Saturday Review.
.
WOODWORKER'S HANDYBOOK.
to do it, and to others." Ettffineering. writes admirably, and gives complete Instructions."ê-. " Mr. Hasluck combines the experience of a practical teacher with the manipiilatlTe skUl and sdentific knowledge of processes of the trained mechanician, and the manuals are marvels of what can be produced at a popuXax ptic^."Schoolmaster. "Helpful to workmen of all ages and degrees of experience." Daily ChronitU. " Concise, clear, and practtcaL"Saturday Review.
Embracing Information on the Tools, Materials, Appliances Employed in Woodworking. With 104 Illustrations " Written by a man who knows, not only how work ought to be done, but
convey
his
and Processes how

"I/O
how
to
knowledge
"Mr. Hasluck
COMMERCE, COUNTING-HOUSE WORK, TABLES,
S*c.
41
COMMERCE, COUNTING-HOUSE WORK,

TABLES, ETC.
LE550N5
By
IN
COMMERCE.
.
Professor R. Gambaro, of the Royal High Commerciat School at Genoa. Edited and Revised by James Gault, Professor of Commerce and Commercial Law in King's College, London. Fourth Edition. Crown 8vo, cloth 3/6 " The publishers of this work have rendered considerable service to the cause of commercial
education by the opportune production of this volume. . The work is peculiarly acceptable to English readers and an admirable addition to existing class books. In a phrase, we think the work attains its object in furnishing a brief account of those laws and customs of British trade with which the commercial man interested therein should be iam^vax." Chamber e/Com-merce journal. " An invaluable guide in the hands of those who are preparing for a commercial career, and, Id fact, the information it contains on matters of business should be impressed on every one."
. .
CounUng- House.
THE FOREIQN COMMERCIAL CORRESPONDENT.

Being Aids to Commercial Correspondence in Five Languages English, French, German, Italian, and Spanish. By Conrad E. Baker. Third Edition, Carefully Revised Throughout. Crown Svo, cloth 4/6 " Whoever wishes to correspond in all the languages menUoned b^ Mr. Baker cannot do better than study this work, the materials of which are excellent and conveniently arranged. They
. .
reliable.
specimen letters, but what are far more useful short passages, sentences, or phrases expressing the same general idea in various forms." Atfunau^M. " A careful examination has convinced us that it is unusually complete, well arranged and The book is a thoroughly good one." Sckoolj?taster,
consist not of entire
FACTORY ACCOUNTS:
A Handbook
their
PRINCIPLES & PRACTICE.

;
Demy Svo, cloth . 7/6 " A very interesting description of the requirements of Factory Accounts. . The principle of zisslmilating the Factory Accounts to the general commercial books is one which we thoroughly agree with." Accouniants' journal. " Characterised by extreme thoroughness. There are few owners of factories who would not derive great beneiit from the perusal of this most admirable work." LocalGovemvnent Chronicle,
. .
for Accountants and Manufacturers, with Appendices on the Nomenclature of Machine Details ; the Income Tax Acts ; the Rating of Factories ; Fire and Boiler Insurance the Factory and Workshop Acts, &c., including also a Glossary of Terms and a large number of Specimen Rulings. By Emile Garcke and J. M. Fells. Fifth Edition, Revised and Enlarged.
MODERN METROLOGY.
A
Manual of the Metrical Units and Systems of the present Century. With By Lowis D. A. an Appendix containing a proposfed English System. Jackson, A. M. Inst. C. E., Author of "Aid to Survey Practice," &c. Large
crown Svo, cloth
1
2/6
and
"We
mecisures. "
recommend the work

Nature.
to all interested in the practical reform of our weights
A SER1E5 OF METRIC TABLES.

In which the British Standard Measures and Weights are compared with chose of the Metric System at present in Use on the Continent. By C. H. Dowling, 10/6 C.E. Svo, cloth "Mr. Dowling's Tables are well put together as a ready reckoner for the conversion of ode
into the othej."~-
A thenauni.
IRON AND
396 pp.
METAL TRADES' COMPANION.

9/0
For Expeditiously Ascertaining the Value of any Goods bought or sold hy Weight, from i5. per cwt. to 112s, per cwt., and from one-farthing per pound to one shilling per pound. By Thomas Downie. Strongly bound in leather,
be Although specially adapted to the Iron and metal trades, every other business in which merchandise is bought and sold by weight." arf/TOa> News,
'*
^Building News, "A most useful set of tables, nothing like them before kjXsX.gA." the tables will found useful in
42
CROSBY LOCKWOOD
SON'S CATALOGUE.
NUMBER, WEIGHT, AND FRACTIONAL CALCULATOR.

cwt.,
Containing upwards of 250,cx>o Separate Calculations, showing at a Glance the Value at 422 Different Rates, ranging from r^th of a Penn^ to 20s. each, or per and 20 per ton, of any number of articles consecutively, from i to 470. Any number of cwts., qrs., and lbs., from x cwt. to 470 cwts. Any number of By William Chadwick, tons, cwts., qrs., and lbs., from i to 1,000 tons. Public Accountant. Third Edition, Revised and Improved. Bvo, strongly
bound
*'
18/0
easy of reference for any answer or any number of answers as a dictionary. Foi estiinates the book must prove mvaluable to all who have any considerable quantity of calculations involving price and measure in any combination to do." Engineer. "The most perfect work of the kind yet prepared." Glasgow Herald.
It Is as
making up accounts or
THE WEIGHT CALCULATOR.

Being a Series of Tables upon a New and Comprehensive Plan, exhibiting at one Reference the exact Value of any Weight from i lb. to 15 tons, at 300 Progressive Rates, from \d. to i68s. per cwt., and containing 186,000 Direct Answers, which, with their Combinations, consisting of a single addition (mostly to be performed at sight), will afford an aggregate of 10,266,000 Answers the wnole being calculated and designed to ensure correctness and promote despatch. By Henry Harbeh, Accountant. Sixth Edition, carefully Corrected. Royal 8vo, strongly half-hound. [Just Published. 1 6s. *' A practical and useful work of reference for men of business generally." Ironntongêr,
;
" or priceless value Shield Independent,
to business
men.
It is a
necessary book in
clII
mercantile offices."
THE DISCOUNT QUIDE.

Comprising several Series of Tables for the Use of Merchants, Manufacturers, Ironmongers, and Others, by which maybe ascertained the Exact Profit arising from any mode of using Discounts, either in the Purchase or Sale of Goods, and the method of either Altering a Rate of Discount, or Advancing a Price, so as to produce, by one operation, a sum that will realise any required Profit ^ter allowing one or more Discounts to which are added Tables of Profit or Advance from i^ to 90 per cent.. Tables of Discount from i^ to 98I per cent., and Tables of Commission, &c., from g to 10 per cent. By Henry Harben,
:
Accountant. New Edition, Corrected. Demy 8vo, half-bound . 6s. " A book such as this can only be appreciated by business men, to whom the saving of time means saving of money. The work must prove of great value to merchants, manufacturers, and general traders."^WA^rA Trade youmal.
TABLES OF WAGES.
One
At 54, 52, 50 and i8 Hours per Week. Showing the Amounts of Wages from quarter of an nour to Sixty-four hours, in each case at Rates of Wages advancing by One Shilling from 4s. to 55s. per week. By Thos. Garbutt, Accountant. Square crown 8vo, half-.bound 6/0
IRON-PLATE WEIGHT TABLES.

For Iron Shipbuilders, Engineers, and Iron Merchants. Containing the Calculated Weights of upwards of 150,000 different sizes of Iron Plates from I foot by 6 in. by ^ in. to 10 feet by 5 feet by i in. Worked out on the Baas of 40 lbs. to the square foot of Iron of x inch in thickness. By H. Burlinson and W. H. Simpson. 4to, half-bound 6b.
AGRICULTURE, FARMING, GARDENING,
O'C.
43
AGRICULTURE, FARMING,
GARDENING, ETC.
THE COMPLETE ORAZIER AND FARMER'S AND
CATTLE BRBEDBR'S ASSISTANT. A Compendium of Husbandry. Originally Written
by William Youatt.
Fourteenth Edition, entirely Re-written, considerably Enlarged, and brought to Present Requirements, by William Fream, LL.D., Assistant Commissioner, Royal Commission on Agriculture, Author of " The Elements of Agriculture," &c. Royal Svo, 1,100 pp., 450 Illustrations, handsomely bound.
up
BOOK
I.
ment OF Cattle. BOOK II. ON THE ECONOMY AND MANAGEMENT OF THE Dairy. BOOK III. .On the BREEDING, REARING, AND Management of Horses. Book IV. On the breeding. Rearing, AND Fattening of sheep. Book v. on the breeding, rearing, AND Fattening of swine. Book VI. on the Diseases of Live
Stock.
**
REARING,
On the Varieties, Breeding, Fattening and Manage-
1 11s. 6d. book VII. On the Breeding, Rearing, AND Management of Poultry. BOOK VIII. ON Farm offices and
IMPLEMENTS OF HUSBANDRY.
BOOK IX, ON THE CULTURE AND MANAGEMENT OF Grass Lands. Book x. On the cultivation and application of grasses, pulse and Book
xi. On manures and their Application to Grass Land and Crops, Book xii. Monthly calendars of farmwork.
ROOTS,
Dr,
Fream
Is
to
be congratulated on the success^l attempt he has made to give us a worjf
which
that
it
The
New
will at once become the standard classic of the farm practice of the country. believe will be found that it has no compeer among the many works at present in existence. . , . illustrations are admirable, while the frontispiece, which represents the well-known bull, Year's Gift, bred by the Queen, is a work of art. " 1 he Tifnes.
We
"The book must be recognised as occupjring the proud position of the most exhaustive work of reference in the English language on the subject with which it deals." Athenecum., " The most comprehensive guide to modem farm practice that exists in the English language to-day. . . The book is one that ought to be on every farm and in the library of every land owner." Mark Lane Express. "In point of exhaustiveness and accuracy the work will certainly hold a pre-eminent and unique position among books defiling with scientific agricultural practice. It is, in fact, an agricultural library of itself," North British Agricultttrist.
FARM
"A
Britain,
LIVE 5T0CK OF GREAT BRITAIN.
By Robert Wallace, F.L.S., F.R.S.E.. &c., Professor of Agriculture and Rural Economy in the University of Edinburgh. Third Edition, thoroughly With over 12a Phototypes of Prize Revised and considerably Enlarged. . 1 2/6 Stock. Demy Svo, 384 pp., with 79 Plates and Maps, cloth.
.
recdly
and one which
complete work on the history, breeds, and management of the farm stock of Great is likely to find its way to the shelves of every country gentleman's library." Live Stock of Great Britain' Is a production to be proud of, and its Issue not the which its author has rendered to agricultural science." 5*jA Farmer^
Thi
Times.
"The 'Farm
least of the services
NOTE-BOOK OF AQRICULTURAL FACTS & FIGURES

FOR FARMERS AND FARM STUDENTS.
Fellow of the Highland and Agriculttural Society, Author of " Elements of Farming." Sixth Edition, Re- written. Revised, Fcap. Svo, 480 pp., leather, gilt edges 6/0 and greatly Enlarged. Contents. Surveying and Levelling. weights and MEASURES. Machinery and Buildings. labour. operations. draining. embanking. Geological luemoranda. soils. manures. cropping. crops. rotations. weeds. FEEDING. dairying. LIVE STOCK. HORSES. CATTLE. SHEEP.-PiGS.POULTRY.FORESTRY. HO RTI CU LTURE M I SCE LL ANE O U S " No farmer, and certainly no agricultural student, ought to be without this multum-in-parvo
By Primrose McConnell, B.Sc,
manual of all subjects connected with the farm."yVtf'iA5rrtjA-êWcw//rir^. j "This little pocket-book contains a large amount of useful information upon all kinds 01 agricultural subjects. Something of the kind has long been wanted." ârA Lane Expfcss, " The amount of Information It cantadns is most surprising ; the arrangement of the matter is so methodical although so compressedas to be Intelligible to everyone who takesaglance through Its pages. They teem witlWnformation."iârw and Home.
THE ELEMENTS OF AQRICULTURAL QEOLOQY.

A Scientific Aid to Practical Farming. By Primrose McConnell.
"Note-Bookof Agricultural Facts and
Figures," &c.
Author
cloth.
ot
Royal Svo,
Net
21/0
wittl,
" On every page the work bears the impress of a masterly knowledge of the subject dealt and we have nothing but unstinted praise to oSei."Field.
44
CROSBY LOCKWOOD
A Hand^ Volume
SON'S CATALOGUE.
BRITISH DAIRYING.
on the Work of the Dairy- Farm. For the Use of Technical Instruction Classes, Students in Agricultural Colleges and the Working Dairy* Fanner. By Prof. J. P. Sheldon. With Illustrations. Second Edition, Revised. Crown Svo, cloth 2/6 " Confidently recommended as a useful text-book on dairy tanDing."Âgricultural Gamtttt. "Probably the best half-crown manual on dairy work that has yet been produced." North
British A^riatltitrist. "It IS thesoundestHttle work
we have yet seen on
the subject. "7"Ai Times.
MILK, CHEESE,
A
tion.
AND BUTTER.
Practical Handbook on their Properties and the Processes of their ProducIncluding a Chapter on Cream and the Methods of its Separation from Milk. By John Oliver, late Principal of the Western Dairy Institute, Berkeley. With Coloured Plates and 200 Illustrations. Crown Svo, cloth.
7/6
" An exhaustive and masterly production. It may be cordially recommended to all students and practitioners of dairy science. ^(wW British Agriculturist. " We recommend this very comprehensive and carefully-written book to dairy-farmers and
students of dairying. Gatette.
It Is a distinct acquisition to
the library of the agriculturist."j4THi/A*ra/
SYSTEMATIC SMALL FARMING.

Or, The Lessons of Farm. Being an Introduction to Modern Farm Practice for Small Farmers. By R. Scott Burn, Author of " Outlines of Modern Farming," &c. Crown Svo, cloth 6/0 " This is the completest book of its class we have seen, and one which every amateur fennev read with pleasure, and accept as a guide." Field.
My
will
OUTLINES OF MODERN FARMINQ. By R. Scott Burn. Soils, Manures, and Crops Farming and Farming Economy Cattle^ Sheep, and Horses Management of Dairy, Pigs, and
Poultry Utilisation of Town-Sewage,
Irrigation, &c. Vol., 1,250 PP-i half-bound, profusely Illustrated
Sixth Edition.
In One 1 2/0
FARM ENGINEERING, The COMPLETE TEXT-BOOK of.

Comprising Draining and Embanking Irrigation and Water Supply ; Farm Roads, Fences and Gates ; Farm Buildings ; Barn Implements and Machines; Field Implements and Machines Agricultural Surveying, &c. By Professor John Scott. In One Vol., 1,150 pp., half-bound, with over 600 Illustrations.
j ;
12/0
" Written with great care, as well as with knowledge and ability. The author has done his work well; we have found him a very trustworthy guide wherever we have tested his statements. The volume will be of great value to agricultural students." A/ay* Lane Express,
THE FIELD5 OF GREAT BRITAIN.

Text-Book of Agriculture. Adapted to the Syllabus of the Science and Art Department. For Elementary and Advanced Students. By Hugh Clements (Board of Trade). Second Edition, Revised, with Additions. iSmo, cloth 2/6 " It Is a long time since we have seen a book which has pleased us more, or which contains
such a vast and useful fund of \iaov/\e6.^c."Educational Times.
TABLE5
and MEMORANDA for FARMERS, ORAZ1ER5, AGRICULTURAL 5TUDENT5, 5URVBV0R5, LAND AQBNTS,
AUCTIONEERS, New System
less
&c.
of
. .
Farm Book-keepmg. By Sidney Francis. Fifth 272 pp., waistcoat-pocket size, limp leather . than i oz., and occupylngno more space than a match-box. It contains amass of facts and calculations which has never before, in such handy form, been obtainable. Every operation on the farm is dealt with. The work may be taken as thoroughly accurate, the whole of the tables having been revised by Dr. Fream. We cordially recommend it."BelCs Weekly
Edition.
With a
-1/6
" Weighing
'
Messenger.
THE
Part
PRACTICAL LE5S0N5 FOR FARMERS.

I.
ROTHAMSTED EXPERIMENTS AND THEIR

Stock.
Part
II.
Chops.
will
By
C. J. R. Tipper.
Crown
Svo, cloth.
"We have no
3/6
doubt that the book
be welcomed by a large
class of farmers
and others
interested tn agriculture. "^^Sftanrfarrf.
AGRICULTURE, FARMING, GARDENING,
S-c.
45
FERTILISERS AND FEEDING STUFFS.

Their Properties and Uses.
D.Sc.-(Lond.). With the Text of the Fertilisers and Feeding Act of 1893, The Regulations and Forms of the Board of Agriculture, and Notes on the Act by A. J. David, B.A., LL.M. Fourth Edition, Revised.
Stuffs
Bernard DvER,
A Handbook
for
the Practical Farmer.
By
Crown
"This
8vo, cloth.
[Just Publisked,
it
1/0
little
book
is
precisely what
Farmer.' Dr. Dyer has done fanners ôod service Infonnation in so intelligible a ioxm,"The Times.
professes to be^^'A Handbook for the Practical in placing at their disposal so much useful
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A
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46
CROSBY LOCKWOOD
SON'S CATALOGUE.
AUCTIONEERING, VALUING, LAND

SURVEYING, ESTATE AGENCY, ETC.
INWOOD'5 TABLES FOR PURCHASING ESTATES
AND FOR THE VALUATION OP PROPERTIES,
Including Advowsons, Assurance Policies, Copyholds, Deferred Annuities, Freeholds, Ground Rents, Immediate Annuities, Leaseholds, Life Interests, Mortgages, Perpetuities, Renewals of Leases, Reversions, Sinking Funds, &c., &c. 2^th Edition, Revised and Extended by William Schooling, F.R.A.S., with Logarithms of Natural Numbers and Thoman's Logarithmic Interest and Annuity Tables. 360 pp., Demy 8vo, cloth. i/usi Published. Net 8/0 '* Those Interested In the purchase and sale of estates, and in the adjustment of compensation cases, as well as in transactions in annuities, life insurances, &c,, will nnd the present edition of
eminent service."
Engineering. "This valuable book has been considerably enlarged and improved by the labours o( Mr. Schooling, and is now very complete indeed." Ecanomist. " Altogether this edition will prove of extreme value' to many classes of professional men in saving them many long and tedious calculations." Investors' Review.
THE APPRAISER, AUCTIONEER, BROKER, HOUSE

AND ESTATE AGENT AND VALUER'5 POCKET ASSISTANT.
;
For the Valuation for Purchase, Sale, or Renewal of Leases, Annuities, and Reversions, and of Property generally with Prices for Inventories, &c. By John Wheeler, Valuer, &c. Sixth Edition, Re-written and greatly Extended by C. NoRRis. Royal 32mo, cloth 6/0
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AUCTIONEERS: THEIR DUTIES AND LIABILITIES.

Manual of Instruction and Counsel for the Young Auctioneer. By Squibbs, Auctioneer. Second Edition, Revised. Demy 8vo, cloth "The work is one of general excellent character, and gives much Information
pendious and satisfactory form."
Robert
.
12/8
In a
com-
Builder. " May be recommended as giving a great deal of Information on the law relating to youmal. auctioneers, in a very readable form.
Law
THE AGRICULTURAL VALUER'S ASSISTANT.

A Practical Handbook on the Valuation of Landed Estates ; including Example of a Detailed Report on Management and Realisation; Forms of Valuations of Tenant Right ; Lists of Local Agricultural Customs ; Scales of Compensation under the Agricultural Holdings Act, and a Brief Treatise on By Tom Bright, AgriculCompensation under the Lands Clauses Acts, &c. Author of "The Agricultural Surveyor and Estate Agent's tural Valuer. Handbook." Fourth Edition, Revised, with Appendix containing a Digest of the Agricultural Holdings Acts, 1883 and 1900. Crown 8vo, cloth . Net 6/0
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POLE PLANTATIONS AND UNDERW00D5.

A
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8vo, cloth foresters and cigents it will be a welcome 2SA."North British Agriculturist. " Well calculated to assist the valuer in the discharge of his duties, and of undoubted Interest and use both to surveyors and auctioneers in preparing valuations of all kinds."ATtcnf Heralds
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"To valuers,
AUCTIONEERING, VALUING, LAND SURVEYING,

HANDBOOK.
&-c,
47
AGRICULTURAL SURVEYOR AND ESTATE AGENT'S

Practical Rules, Formulae, Tables, and Data. A Comprehensive Manual Use of Surveyors, Agents, Landowners, and others interested in the Equipment, the Management, or the Valuation of Landed Estates. By Tom Bright, Agricultural Surveyor and Valuer, Author of "The Agricultural Valuer's Assistant," &c. With Illustrations. li"cap. "Svo, Leather.
Qf
for the
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whom
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Scotstnan.
"An
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THE LAND IMPROVER'S POCKET-BOOK.

Comprising Formulae, Tables, and Memoranda required in any Computation relating to the Permanent Improvement of Landed Property. By John Ewart, Surveyor. Second Edition, Revised. Royal 32mo, oblong, leather 4/0
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Being the above
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Two Works bound together.
Leather
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Popular and Practical Guide to the Purchase, Tenancy, and Compulsory Sale of Houses and Land, including Dilapidations and Fixtures : with Examples of all kinds of Valuations, Information on Building and on the right use of Decorative Art. By E. L. Tarbuck, Architect and Surveyor. Sixth Edition. i2mo, cloth 6/0 "The advice is thorouehly practical."/.aw Journal.
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,
A well-written and thoughtful y/otk."Lanti Agents' Record.
LAW AND
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HANDBOOK FOR SOLICITORS AND ENGINEERS

Engaged in Promoting Private Acts of Parliament and Provisional Orders for the Authorisation of Railways, Tramways, Gas and Water Works, &c. By L. L. Macassey, of the Middle Temple, Barrister-at-Law, M.I.C.E.
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CONCILIATION & ARBITRATION in LABOUR DISPUTES.

A
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and Abroad.
doth
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Present Position of the Crown Svo, aoo pp.,

.
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48
CROSBY LOCK WOOD
&
SON'S CATALOGUE.
EVERY MAN'S OWN LAWYER.

A Handy-Book of the Principles of Law and Equity. With a Concise By A Barrister. Forty-first Edition, careDictionary of Legal Terms. and comprising New Acts of Parliament, including the Mofor Employment Car Act, 1903; of Children Act, 1003; Pistols Act, 1003 ; Poof Prisoners' Defence Act, 1903 ; Education Acts of 1902 and 1903 ; Housing of Working Classes Act, the 1Q03, &c. Judicial Decisions pronounced duri ig the year have also been duly noted. Crown 8vo, 800 pp., strongly bound in cloth. Just Published. 6/8
fully Revised,
** This
Standard Work of Reference forms a Complete Epitome of the Laws of England, comprising {,atnongsi other tnatter);
THE RIGHTS AND WRONGS OF INDIVIDUALS

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0/ this work is to enable those who consttlt it to kelp themselves to the law : and thereby to dispense, as/ar as possible, with professional assistance and advice. There are many wrongs and grievances which persons subntit to from ti-me to time through not knowing k<rw to apply for redress ; and many persons have as great a dread of a ~ or where ' a lion's ^'j den. With "' lawyer's office as of this book at hand it is believed that many a SlX-ANDElGHTPENCE fnay be saved ; many a wrong redressed ; -many a right reclaimed ; many a law suit avoided ; ana many an evil abated. The work has established itself cu the standard legal adviser of all classes, and has also fttade a reputation for itself as a useful book of referen^for lawyers residing at a distance front law libraries, who are glad to have at hand a work
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of information given in the volume is simply wonderful. The continued popularity of the work shows that it fulfils a useful purpose." Law youmal. " As a book of reference this volume is without a TivB\."Pall Mall Gazette. "No Englishman ought to be without this "hooV.."Engineer. " Ought to be in every business establishment and in all libraries." Sheffield Post. " The Concise Dictionary adds considerably to its y^yx^." Westminster Gazette. " It is a complete code of EngUsh Law written In plain language, which all can understand. be In the bands of every business {man, and all who wish to abolish lawyers' bills." Should , . .
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"
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CIVIL ENGINEERING
ê\ja
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PAGE
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PAQC 6
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....
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INDUSTRIAL AND USEFUL ARTS.
9
10
12
MECHANICAL ENGINEERING
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. . .
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Pioneer Kngineering:
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Iron Bridges of Moderate Span:

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.... ....
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on.
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of E:ngineePiD[ Drawing.
Fuels: Solid, Liquid, and Gaseous.

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....
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...
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*,(.*
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to
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Their Construction, Adjustment, Testing, and Use concisely Explained, By J. F. Heathek, M.A., of the Royal Military Academy, Woolwich. Fifteenth Edition, Revised, with Additions, by A. T. Walmislev,
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CORNELL

ornell University Library

3 1924 031 298 148

Cornell University Library

Cornell University Library.

There are no known copyright

the United States on the use of the

FOR ADVANCED STUDENTS.

SURVEYING AS PRACTISED BY CIVIL ENGINEERS AND SURVEYORS.

Works for Construction

CROSBY LOCKWOOD & SON.

STUDENTS PREPARING FOR EXAMINATIONS OR FOR SURVEY WORK IN THE COLONIES

USILL, Assoc. -M.Tnst.C.E.

(ElQhtk I)itm, thoroitghlg |RebiiSeii anii Sniargeb

AUTHOR OF "THE RECLAMATION OF LAKD FKOM TIDAL WATEBS,"

WITH FOUR LITHOGRAPHIC PLA TES

AND THREE-HUNDRED-AND-SIXTY ILLUSTRATIONS

CROSBY LOCKWOOD AND SON

STATIONEES' HALL COURT, LUDGATE HILL

PRINTED BY WILLIAM CLOWES AND SONS, LIMITED

LONDON AND BECCLES.

Public, I take the

opportunity of saying a few words in explanation of

experience during several years past in delivering

courses of lectures on Surveying and kindred subjects, and

preparing gentlemen for the Colonies, has shown

however excellent and comprehensive many existing

be, they are in

points not sufficiently

nor in others sufficiently concise to enable the

with readiness the subjects of which they

different character seems, therefore, to

In the present work

have endeavoured to make each

the chapters follow in

have also considered

better to explain the various

instruments required in Surveying and their adjustment,

follow then with a chapter devoted to a

explain the modus operandi of Theodolite Surveying, Traversing,

Surveying, Levelling, Contouring, Settingb

out Curves, Office Work, and the Computation of

for valuable information

and James Holden,

indebted for the surveys of

bledon Park and Cardiff.

revision of the mathematical portions of the

passed through the press.

GEO. WM. USILL.

Publishers a suitable occasion for supplying some deficiencies,

been revised throughout, the original text being as

portions have been

but even somewhat ahead of

already deserved reputation.

The volume having

a reference to students preparing for practice

a chapter has been added containing the latest regulations