SOLIDS From earlier data we know that everything is made up matter and mater is further divided into three

categories: 1. Solid 2. Liquid 3. Gas

All these three types of matter are essential for us, but comparatively we use solids more often than liquids or gases. Thus Solids form up the most of the matter that we use and rely upon. Solids with different properties arise due to the different arrangement of atoms in the structure and are thus used for different purposes. The study here is concerned with structure of solids, structure makes a huge different in the chemistry of the properties of the substance. More precisely, the properties of a substance i.e. solids, depend upon the nature of constituent particles and the binding forces between them. The correlation between the structure and properties of solids helps us to make solids of desired purpose. Gases and liquids are called Fluids, because they have an ability to flow as, their constituent particles are free to move but in solids these constituent particles have fixed positions and they can only oscillate about their mean position (mean position just refers to the position of object at rest). As they have fixed position this explains their rigidity. The structure, arrangement, imperfections and constituent particles is what defines a solids properties. The intermolecular forces in between the atoms of solids tends to keep the atoms in contact and bonded to each other and the thermal energy that is the heat tends to keep them apart by making them move faster. Thus, at low temperatures the thermal energy is low and the bonding energy high but as the temperature increase the thermal energy overcomes the bonding energy and breaks their bonds. Some definite properties of solids are: 1. They have definite, volume and space. 2. They have strong intermolecular forces. 3. They have short intermolecular distances. 4. They are incompressible and rigid. 5. The constituent particles are having fixed positions and can only oscillate about their mean point. On the basis of arrangement of particles solids can be classified as: Amorphous and Crystalline. Crystalline solids: These are made up of a large number of small crystals; each crystal has a definite shape and characteristic. In a crystal all the atoms, or ions or molecules are arranged in a repeating order. There is a regular pattern which repeats itself over the entire crystal; to have such an arrangement is also called long range order. Examples of crystalline solids are: Diamonds, Rock Salt (NaCl), Graphite etc. because they have a definite arrangement of particles.

Structure of diamond

Structure of NaCl

Structure of graphite

Amorphous Solids: Amorph means no form, thus amorphous solids are those which have irregular arrangement. They do not have any crystals and their constituent particles are arranged in a short range order i.e. they dont repeat their pattern over the whole solid. Examples could be glass, wax etc. As these two solids are having different arrangement of particles thus they exhibit or show different properties. Crystalline solids have a sharp melting point, whereas amorphous solids could be soften over a range of temperature and moulded into various shapes. Amorphous solids have a tendency to flow like liquids but they flow really slowly. Thus they are also referred to as Pseudo solids or super cooled liquids. Also, Crystalline solids are anisotropic, anisotropic means the tendency to show different physical properties in different directions, when measured in directions crystalline solids show different values for physical properties unlike Amorphous solids which show same properties in all directions and are thus called isotropic because they have disordered pattern of arrangement everywhere but crystalline solids have a fixed pattern and when viewed from different angles, a new pattern is observed. Differences between crystalline solids and amorphous solids:

Crystalline Solids 1. Sharp melting point 2. Anisotropic in nature 3. True solids 4. Long range order arrangement of particles 5. When cut, they split into smooth surface pieces 6. E.g. Diamond, quartz, NaCl, graphite etc.

Amorphous solids 1. Gradually soften over a range of temperature 2. Isotropic in nature 3. Pseudo solids or super cooled liquids 4. Short range order arrangement of particles 5. When cut, they split into irregular surface pieces 6. E.g. wax, quartz glass, plastics etc.

Amorphous silicon is the best photovoltaic material used for conversion of sunlight into electricity.

CLASSIFICATION OF CRYSTALLINE SOLIDS The most abundant solids are crystalline solids. Most of the solids substances are crystalline in nature like iron, copper, silver, iodine, naphthalene etc. On the basis of nature of intermolecular forces, crystalline solids are further divided into four types: 1. Molecular solids 2. Ionic solids 3. Metallic solids 4. Covalent solids 1. Molecular solids: These solids have molecules as their constituent particles. They are further divided into three types. a. Non-polar molecular solids b. Polar molecular solids c. Hydrogen-bonded molecular solids. a. Non polar molecular solids: These solids have same atoms bonded to each other, and these have non polar covalent bonds and their atoms are held to each other by weak dispersion forces or London forces. These solids are soft and non-conductors of electricity. They have low melting points and are usually liquids or gases at room temperature and pressure. E.g. oxygen (O2), nitrogen (N2), chlorine (Cl2), iodine (I2) etc. b. Polar molecular solids: These solids have different atoms held together by polar covalent bonds and the molecules in such solids are held by relatively strong dipole-dipole interactions. These are also soft and non-conductors of electricity, but their melting point are comparatively high to those of non-polar molecular solids. E.g. HCl, solid NH3 etc. c. Hydrogen-bonded molecular solids: These solids contain molecules which have hydrogen bonded to nitrogen, fluorine or oxygen. Hydrogen bonding is relatively strong. They are non-conductors and soft liquids during room temperature. E.g. Hydrogen (H2O) etc. 2. Ionic solids: Ions are the constituent particles of ionic solids. They have cations and anions which have strong columbic force of attraction. Since the ions are not free to move about they are electrical insulators but due to strong forces of attraction they are hard and have high melting points. However in molten state they conduct electricity. E.g. NaCl etc. 3. Metallic solids: These are usually the metals; these have a sea of mobile electrons which are spread evenly in the crystal, they are held together as there is attraction between free electrons and the donor metal atoms. As they have free electrons they are conductors of electricity. They are highly malleable and ductile. E.g. Fe, Ag etc. 4. Covalent solids: These are also called network solids. These have atoms bonded to each other by sharing of electrons and just have strong covalent bonds. And they dont have free electrons and thus are insulators, but due to their strong bonds they have high melting points and are very hard and brittle. Except Graphite which is soft and a conductor.

Crystalline solids have a regular and repeating arrangement of constituent particles, thus to represent them diagrammatically in three dimensions in which each particle is represented as a point and the structure formed is called a crystal lattice. There are 14 different types of crystal lattices also known as Bravais lattices.