Man, the State and War

by Kenneth Waltz

Buga Irina Gabriela

International Affairs and European Studies
Second year August 21st, 2013

Table of contents

Man, the State and War by Kenneth Waltz Introduction

1 !!3

Chapter 1
"he first i#age of the causes of $ar "he &irst I#age' I#plications !% !!!(

Chapter
"he second i#age of the causes of $ar "he Second I#age' I#plications ! ! !!!!!!!!!!!!) !13

Chapter !
"he third i#age of the causes of $ar "he "hird I#age' I#plications !! !! ! !! !1* 1(

Conclusions!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!1)

Bibliography

!!!20

Introduction
+istory boo,s are full of conflicts bet$een states#en, a#ong countries dissatisfied $ith their status! "he #ain sub-ects that define the ti#eline of history learnt in schools are the conflicts, na#ely, the #ost i#portant $ars and their conse.uences! "herefore, a /ery apposite .uestion is that of $hy do these terrific e0periences occur fro# the beginning of history and they continue to happen, despite the efforts of the international arena to a/oid the#! "here are nu#erous organizations, treaties and institutions that are trying to fight $ars and still, they are /ery #uch present in the li/es of #any nations! "hus, certain theories and reasons ha/e been put for$ard by scholars in the International 1elations "heories and not only! Whether they focus on the #ore prag#atic factors that lead to conflict, such as resources, territory, po$er, or the #ore abstract theories, such as the characteristics of the hu#an beha/iour, these specialists try to offer general e0planations on the causes of $ar! "he present $or, ai#s at presenting so#e of the theories put for$ard by Kenneth Waltz 1 in his lecture, Man, the State and War: A Theoretical Analysis! "he ter# chosen by the author to depict the presu#ed causes is 2i#ages3! 4y doing so, he tried to a/oid any #isunderstandings that #ight ha/e occurred by using the ter# 2le/el3 5 the i#pression that only one of the causes is /alid6 and suggested that this ter# also refers to the fact that in order to e0plain the international outco#es, so#e ele#ents #ust be left aside in order to concentrate on the core ones2! "he three images analyzed in this paper are the #an, na#ely the hu#an nature, the state6 the internal structure, #ore precisely6 and the state syste# itself! Waltz co#pares his /ie$s $ith so#e of the #ost i#portant thin,ers in politics and philosophy, such as +obbes3, Ada# S#ith%, Spinoza* , 7ontes.uieu8 and 1ousseau9! Although ha/ing presented a /ery strong $or, in the search for the #ain cause of $ar, Waltz ad#its that there is not one general cause that could lead to such a conflict, but a co#bination of factors that $ill further be indicated in the present thesis!
1-Kenneth N. Waltz (1924 - 2013)- Senior Research Scholar at the Arnold A. Saltzman nstit!te o" War and #eace St!dies. $is research in%ol%ed re"lections on the international relations theor& and the role o" n!clear 'ea(ons in the relations o" states. 2-Waltz) Kenneth (2001)) Man, the State and War: A Theoretical Analysis ) #re"ace to the 2001 edition) (. * 3-+homas $o,,es o" -almes,!r& (1.// 01129)- 3n4lish (hiloso(her) ,est 5no'n "or his 'or5 on (olitical (hiloso(h& 4- Adam Smith (1223-1290)- Scottish moral (hiloso(her and a (ioneer o" (olitical econom&

.- 6ar!ch S(inoza (1132 01122)- 7!tch (hiloso(her) considered one o" the 4reat rationalists 1- 8harles-9o!is de Secondat) 6aron de 9a 6r:de et de -ontes;!ie! (11/9- 12..) - <rench social commentator and (olitical thin5er 5no'n "or the theory of separation of powers 2- =ean-=ac;!es Ro!ssea! (1212- 12//)- >ene%an (hiloso(her) 'riter) and com(oser 'ho in"l!enced the <rench Re%ol!tion as 'ell as the o%erall de%elo(ment o" modern (olitical) sociolo4ical) and ed!cational tho!4ht.

Chapter I The first i"age of the causes of #ar

"he first chapter of the analysis is co##itted to the interpretation of the nature of people and $hether it contributes to the reasons $hy $ars start or not! What is #ore, if pro/ed to be influential, the author tries to find certain $ays to eradicate the fla$s in the hu#an nature! :arious scholars in philosophy based their $or, on the degraded nature of #en! It is said that they not only see, their interests, but it is e#bedded in their beha/iour to be selfish, aggressi/e and i#pulsi/e! Still, these characteristics #ight be changed through education and change of #orals! So#e #ight e/en suggest that a transition fro# the self6interested beha/ior to one of sacrifice and cooperation #ight put an end to this pri#ary cause of $ars(! Willia# ;a#es indicates that $ar #ight be rooted in people<s nature due to their tradition of fighting, $hich dates for centuries! "his i#pulse cannot be changed, but its practices can, by orienting the# to$ards different fields of $or,, such as constructions, #ining, or other physical -obs!) Still, the #ain point in all these theories is the fact that hu#an nature can be changed in order to achie/e $orld$ide peace! "he scholars that appro/e this first i#age can be di/ided into t$o #ain categories 5 the opti#ists 10 and the pessi#ists11! "herefore, a#ong those $ho accept this first i#age, there are people $ho belie/e that the $ars #ight end in the near future if only the right decisions and actions $ill be #ade, and people $ho are certain that $ars $ill continue to occur #any generations fro# no$! =n the other hand, there are also /arious degrees of pessi#is# and opti#is# in e/ery one of these people, as $ell as there is the possibility that one person to be opti#istic in one aspect and pessi#istic in another one concerning this theory! In all the i#ages ta,en into consideration there are scholars agreeing on the #eaning of causes and disagreeing on the solutions, if there are any /iable for the#, thus there are opti#ists and pessi#ists!

/-$irst) +he ?!a5ers in #eace and War ) ((. .21-.2. 9-=ames) @+he -oral 3;!i%alent o" War@) in -emories and St!dies) ((. 212-222) 290 10- A(timists- the scholars that consider di""ic!lties to ,e s!(er"icial and momentar& . War can ,e easil& s!((ressed) as these con"licts (ass) the& are "inite. 11- #essimists- the scholars 'ho s!((ose that realit& is "la'ed. Altho!4h 'ar mi4ht ,e (ost(oned ,& !sin4 certain methods) on the lon4 term it cannot ,e a,olished d!e to the de"ecti%e nat!re o" realit&. ( -or4entha!) @#olitics amon4 nations@) ((.2-/)

=ne of the critics to opti#is# is 1einhold >iebuhr 12, a theologian $ho argued that political realis# is only possible by considering both the .ualities and the $ea,nesses of the hu#an beha/iour! +e considered that opti#ists ha/e not ta,en into account the e/il in #en, the fact that de/elop#ent cannot be /oid of proble#s and e/ery inno/ation can be used both for good and e/il purposes! As the author highlights in his co##ents, 27an is a finite being $ith infinite aspirations, a pig#y $ho thin,s hi#self a giant 2?K! Waltz, p! 21@! +e is able to change technology according to his o$n interest, his #ind can create theories and assu#ptions through $hich he e0pects to change the $orld! "his is $hy the e/il is in his essence, the #oti/ation that dri/es #an<s actions is $hat ulti#ately pre/ails! If the #oti/ation is bad, his actions cannot be other$ise! 4esides >iebuhr, Waltz considers that there are other three $riters $orth ta,en into consideration, scholars $ho share the belief on a certain nature of #an! "hese are St! Augustine13, 4aruch Spinoza and +ans 7orgenthau 1%! St! Augustine obser/ed the inherent nature of self6preser/ation of #en! Spinoza, ho$e/er, continued the theory that people try to preser/e $hat they lo/e and destroy $hat they hate 1*! If they $ould stri/e to preser/e the#sel/es according to their reason, it $ould lead to an ideal $orld, in $hich people unite and li/e in har#ony! 4ut reality is far fro# ideal, and #en are not guided by reason at #ost ti#es, but by passions and pride! In this $ay they are dra$n into conflict and see, to be the first a#ong the others! Still, Spinoza<s theory is based on the conflict bet$een reason and passion, a conflict that for the other three scholars is not /alid, as they consider #an in his $hole pac, as being defecti/e! In the end, all four $riters agree that the political fla$s deri/e fro# an ill hu#an beha/iour! 7orgenthau suggests that the $ea,nesses seen in do#estic affairs can easily be transferred to politics and thus e0plains $ars and conflicts, Spinoza assu#es that states are natural ene#ies, not because they $ould not be peaceful, but because they #ust be on guard, as they could

beco#e at any ti#e conflictual and proble#atic, $hile >iebuhr considers that $ar has its origin in the 2hu#an psyche3 18!
126 1einhold >iebuhr?1()261)91@6 A#erican theologian, concerned $ith ethics, politics and public affairs, professor at Anion "heological Se#inary 136 St! Augustine ?3*%6 %30@ 6 Augustine of +ippo 6 Bhristian theologian $ho is considered /ery i#portant in the de/elop#ent of the Western Bhristianity and Chilosophy! 1%6 +ans ;oachi# 7orgenthau?1)0%61)(0@6 i#portant scholar in the study of international politics, especially in the international relations theory, $riter of DColitics A#ong >ationsD ?1)%(@ 1*6 Spinoza, DEthicsD, Cart I:, prop! EEE:II, note II 186 >iebuhr, D4eyond tragedyD, p! 1*(

Cessi#ists agree $ith the opti#ists< /ie$ according to $hich $ar could be a/oided if only #en could be changed! Still, they re-ect the possibility of e/er being able to achie/e this goal! If #en $ould be co#pletely reasonable, they $ould al$ays find the best solution to e/ery proble#, by co##unicating and #a,ing co#pro#ises! =n the other hand, if they $ould be fully lo/ing, they $ould al$ays be the first to gi/e up in a conflict, or e/en before it has started! 4ut people are far fro# perfect, neither reasonable, nor caring, so conflicts $ill al$ays occur! +o$e/er, hu#an nature is #uch #ore co#ple0 than e0plained abo/e! =f course, $e can bla#e it for all the bad happenings in the $orld, such as cri#es, $ars, thefts, but there are a series of actions that can also be attributed to the sa#e nature of #an6 charity, sacrifice and help! "his #eans that the sa#e hu#an beings are capable of doing good, -ust as #uch as they are to bla#e for the bad! 4ecause there is no agree#ent on $hether people are al$ays good or bad, it #eans that the psychological factor is not enough to e0plain all the actions in the $orld, li,e Fur,hei# 19 e0plains! What is #ore, trying to assign the analysis of indi/idual beha/iour to group pheno#ena is a$fully erroneous! Also, hu#an nature could not e0plain by itself $hy $ars occur, as there are periods of peace interspersed $ith others of conflict and $ar! "a,ing into consideration another theory about hu#an nature6de/eloped by the first6i#age pessi#ists6 according to $hich it is fi0ed, and the fact that it could be the only cause of $ar, then $e could ne/er ha/e peace! 4ut, if hu#an nature is only one of the causes of $ar, then $e can try to $or, $ith the other causes in order to achie/e peace! "his is $hy political solutions are rele/ant and necessary 6 although being i#perfect, they can control anarchy and #assi/e destruction, a thought e0pressed by the pessi#ists as $ell! Fur,hei# contests this /ie$ in the sense that he disco/ered t$o tendencies displayed by the pessi#ists6 to de/elop politics $ithout content and to introduce content in theories that go
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beyond psychology! In the first case, there are criti.ues against the fact that Augustinians, though recognizing the need for institutions, fail to attribute specific tas,s and #erits, foreseeing the dangers of anarchy, but o/erloo,ing the dangers of a tyrant ruler! In the second case, the pessi#ists are too concerned $ith the pri#ary cause of conflict, $hich is hu#an nature, not paying enough attention to the fact that this is the least #anipulable of all the causes!

196 Fa/id G#ile Fur,hei#?1(*(61)19@6 &rench sociologist, the #ain founder of #odern social science and father of sociology

"he real solutions co#e only fro# the secondary causes! 7orgenthau suggests that conflict deri/es fro# the co#petition o/er scarce resources, and not necessarily fro# the e/il that is inherent in #an! "his theory indicates the battle for po$er as an instru#ent for co#peting o/er goods, but there is also the possibility that po$er $ould be a cause for conflict $ithout any reasonable e0planation, -ust because the stri/e for po$er is another inherent characteristic of hu#an nature!1( 1eaching a conclusion to this first i#age of the causes of $ar $ould #ean accepting the fact that hu#an nature is co#ple0 enough to sustain any theory! We cannot find only good or only bad traits in our beha/iour, as $ell as it is al#ost i#possible to dra$ a pattern of e/ilness or goodness in people! We cannot construct a schedule of $hen people $ill beha/e badly or other$ise! What is #ore, if changing our hu#an nature $ould sol/e the proble#, then $e should find solutions in order to suppress #en<s e/il side and to end $ars, but if $e consider that this nature is fi0ed, $e ought to loo, for other causes of conflict that #ight be sol/ed!

1(6 7orgenthau, DScientific 7anD, pp! 1)2,1)8

The $irst I"age% I"plications

Fespite the fact that the first i#age has been long debated a#ong scientists, there is an i#portant aspect of this cause that re#ained /ery little analyzed6 the psychological i#pact! E/en though this field should ha/e a say in the .uestion of the causes of $ar, the #odern beha/ioral scientists and psychologists treat it superficially and offer rather naH/e ans$ers! =ne $ay to treat the proble# of $ar $ould be if science $ould cooperate $ith politics, and the author offers t$o alternati/es for their $or,6 either to change the indi/iduals that co#pose our society, li,e pre/iously #entioned, or to change society itself, by $or,ing $ith the syste#! Still, psychologists ha/e proposed #ostly unrealistic $ays in tac,ling either of the t$o solutions and they offered their ideas $ithout trying to understand deeper the proble#! A#ong the theories put for$ard by the beha/ioral scientists $e can find four approaches that supposedly $ould lead to peace! "hese are the fact that if there $as understanding a#ong the countries, or if the social status of the citizens $ould be i#pro/ed and there $ere fe$er econo#ic frustrations, there $ould be peace! In addition, if nations had better prepared rulers or if the e0pectations of the people $ere changed, $ar $ould definitely be abolished! >e/ertheless, each of these suppositions can be criticized, as there is no solid proof to indicate that if nations $ould ,no$ their ene#ies better, they $ould stop fighting! In fact, it could be true that because they do not ,no$ each other so $ell, they tend to a/oid fighting! In so#e cases, being a$are of the di/ersity and cultural differences #ight be beneficial, but in others, it could pro/o,e #ore har# than good! 7oreo/er, ta,ing the latter approach into consideration, there are t$o proble#s that can interfere in the process of changing the $ay states operate! "he ti#e re.uired for the change and the ti#ing of these changes #ust be ta,en into account! E/ery country has its o$n pace,
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its o$n culture and there could not be a synchronized change $orld$ide! In addition to this, the .uestion of 2$ho3 $ill #a,e the changes #ust rise 5 $hether the elites, the rulers are #ore i#portant and the change should start fro# the#, or the #ass population is $hat brings the best change, ,no$ing that they constitute the #a-ority! &or all these issues, so#e scientists suggested the idea of a higher institution that should control all the go/ern#ents around the $orld! >onetheless, this approach has no strong alibi that it could $or, and this pro/es that science still has #uch #ore research to do before proposing a /iable solution to the proble# of $ar!

Chapter II The second i"age of the causes of #ar

Ii/en the fact that the first i#age of the causes of $ar concentrated on the i#portance of the hu#an nature in this #atter, the second i#age $ould #ostly rely on the influence that the state could ha/e in this issue! E/en though the first i#age does not focus on this second theory, one does not e0clude the other, but it certainly ran,s it second! Still, it is a general fact that hu#an beha/iour is to bla#e for both good and bad actions, therefore $e #ust loo, into further causes in order to sol/e the issue of $ar, and this is $hy the state is gi/en priority in the follo$ing pages! If the internal organization of the states is the proble#, $e should loo, at ho$ this can influence $ar! =ne reason for $hich states#en start $ars is suggested by ;ean 4odin 1) $ho clai#ed that 2the best $ay of preser/ing a state, and guaranteeing it against sedition, rebellion and ci/il $ar is to ,eep the sub-ects in a#ity one $ith another, and to this end, to find an ene#y against $ho# they can #a,e co##on cause320! "herefore, go/ernors #ight use e0ternal conflict as an e0cuse to sol/e internal issues and bring the citizens together into fighting an e0ternal threat, real or not! "hese threats #ight ta,e /arious for#s, fro# econo#ic to e/en geographical ter#s! In the last fe$ decades there $ere se/eral states $hich clai#ed their 2natural boundaries3! "hey sought to enlarge their territories to the cultural or de#ographic boundaries! "he theory $as for#ulated by 4ertrand 1ussel21, $ho e0plained that the reasons put for$ard in this situation #ight see# -ustifiable for the states, as they $ould gain #ore security if they enlarge their territories to the $anted boundaries!

All the proposed theories ha/e one apparent solution in co##on6 in order to a/oid settling the issues $ith e0ternal actions, they could concentrate the#sel/es by changing the internal syste#s and thus, a/oiding $ar! =b/iously, if this approach is correct, the .uestion of $hat should be changed appears and $hat ,ind of syste# #a,es a state to be 2good3!

1)6 ;ean 4odin ?1*3061*)8@6 &rench -urist , political philosopher, #e#ber in the Carle#ent of Caris and la$ professorJ he created a theory of so/ereignty ! 206 4odin6 DSi0 4oo,s of Bo##on$ealthD, tr! "ooley, p! 18( ?4oo, :, chapter :@ 216 4ertrand Arthur Willia# 1ussel ?1(9261)90@6 4ritish logician, philosopher, historian, social critic, one of the founders of analytic philosophy

Scientists proposed /arious definitions of $hat #a,es a good state, theories /arying fro# do#estic principles to political ones, but all agree that in order to preser/e peace, all states #ust #a,e those changes! Still, the author argues that #ost of these assu#ptions turn the analysis of cause into solutions, rather than #a,ing a clear difference bet$een the t$o! "herefore, he proposes an o/er/ie$ on the liberal political thought of the nineteenth century, on their theory according to $hich internal actions #ight reflect the e0ternal ones as $ell! "he starting point of the approach concentrates on the co#parison bet$een +obbes< theory of the state, according to $hich it is co#posed of selfish citizens, focused only on preser/ing their safety, e/en by har#ing others first, this being the reason $hy a go/ern#ent is necessary6 so as to preser/e collecti/e peace6 $ith the theories of the other politicians that supported e0actly the opposite of +obbes< ideas! "hey pro#oted the idea of good #en and a natural har#ony of the society! "$o of the #ost influential ideas are those of Ada# S#ith and ;ere#y 4entha#22, $ho said that the #ar,et is self6regulatory and that #en are perfectible! Along $ith the other liberals of that century, they belie/ed that the go/ern#ent should ha/e #ini#u# influence on the econo#y, society and the life of the citizens, because 2not only are indi/iduals the source of progress in society, but they are the#sel/es constantly i#pro/ing323! "he #ain idea supported by these thin,ers is the fact that #en are selfish and their greed $ould push the# into $or,ing #ore in order to ha/e #ore fortune and in this $ay they help the others as $ell! 4ut in this theory there is also the proble# of cheating in order to increase one<s $ealth and this is $here the go/ern#ent should inter/ene6 to pro/ide -ustice for e/eryone and pre/ent illegalities!

10

"he pre/ious theory only refers to the econo#ic branch of the state, pro#oting a laissez6 faire2% econo#y, $ith al#ost no go/ern#ental inter/ention6 only to protect the property and -ustice6 but $ithout any pro/isions for une.ual co#petition, $hich could pose a serious threat to this approach! As far as the e0ternal policies are concerned, liberals adopted the sa#e position as in do#estic affairs! If there is little need for the go/ern#ent inside the country, the absence of an international authority should not be a proble# as $ell, thus co##itting a serious error, by #ini#izing the i#portance of this issue and the possibility of $ar!
226 ;ere#y 4entha# ?19%(61(32@6 4ritish philosopher, -urist and social refor#er, ,no$n as the founder of #odern utilitarianis#! 236 4entha#, DFeontologyD, ed! 4o$ring, I, 10061 2%6 Kaissez6 faire6 free #ar,et econo#y, $here the transactions bet$een pri/ate o$ners are free fro# any restrictions or tariffs, the only regulations being for the protection of the property rights!

Kiberals de#onstrated that peace is in the interest of e/eryone, not only because it brings har#ony, but also because it is #ore econo#ically efficient! "hey thought that go/ern#ents #a,e $ars only to increase their control o/er the population and this is $hy de#ocracy is the best solution for e/eryone6 the people should ha/e the po$er to decide! E/en though their belief in the public opinion as being the ruler of the states is rather utopian, these thin,ers reached another /alid conclusion6 that the states ha/e reached the point $here they are capable of sol/ing their proble#s peacefully, $ithout turning to $ar! In order to change the states, the liberals separated the#sel/es into t$o approaches6 the noninter/entionists and the #essianic inter/entionists! "he first branch pro#oted e/olution instead of re/olution, progress through education and they $ere against any inter/ention of one state in the affairs of another! "hey also thought that free states lead to peace, but there $as not created a #ethod through $hich all the states could be free and no agent that could grant the freedo# for all states! "he second category pro#otes the idea that states should interfere in the affairs of the others in order to #a,e the $hole $orld de#ocratic! "hey present $ar as a solution for peace, in order to ha/e $orld$ide har#ony, so#e states should ta,e the place of agents and #a,e $ar in order to achie/e this goal! "herefore, $hile the noninter/entionists base their theory on the natural course of history, bearing in #ind that the po$er of #en is li#ited, the inter/entionists settle upon the idea that certain states should ta,e action and beco#e the -udges of $hich are the 2good3 states and $hich are not! Ki,e A!;!C! "aylor 2* $rote, 24is#arc,28 fought Lnecessary< $ars and ,illed thousandsJ the idealists of the t$entieth century fight L-ust< $ars and ,ill #illions!329
11

Ioing bac, to the proposal of creating a higher institution that should control the international affairs, $e ha/e to ta,e into consideration the fact that the liberals #ade it in parallel $ith the internal institutions! 4ecause they regarded it only as an agent of -ustice, $hich should settle the conflicts, they ha/e not ta,en into account the fact that on internal basis there are also institutions $hich #a,e sure that the pro/isions are put in practice and such an international institution $ould ha/e no po$er $ithout ha/ing so#ething to bac, its decisions!

2*6 Alan ;ohn Cerci/ale "aylor?1)0861))0@6 4ritish historian, specialized in 1)th and 20th6 century European diplo#acy 286 =tto /an 4is#arc, ?1(1*61()(@6 Ier#an states#an $ho do#inated the European affairs in the 1)th century until his dis#issal by the E#peror Wilhel# II 296 A!;!C "aylor6 D1u#ours of WarD

What is #ore, all the abo/e theories focus only on the actors 5 either #en or states6, but they pay little if no attention to the relations bet$een the#! "here is a high possibility that not only the sub-ects should be changed, but also the $ay they relate to each other! "herefore, the .uestion still re#ains $hich are the 2good3 states and, $hether if there $as an agree#ent on the characteristics of such a state, should it also #ean that there $ould be no $arsM If $e loo, at the propositions #ade by liberals, the author suggests that $e should first pay attention to $hat are states #ade of 5 societies6 and the fact that societies are #ade by citizens and /ice /ersa, #en are also defined by the society they li/e in! Ioing further to international relations, there should be an interest in the states, but also in their actions, the ele#ents that 2#a,e up the substance of international relations32(!

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2(6 Waltz, 27an, the State and War' A "heoretical Analysis3, pp! 122

The Second I"age% I"plications

When trying to obser/e ho$ the second i#age beha/es in practice, the author #a,es a co#parison bet$een the socialist regi#es in Europe and the liberal thought pre/iously described! Still, no #atter $hat doctrine the rulers apply, the starting point of this chapter is an obser/ation that helps us understand better ho$ the state syste#s $or,! "he #ilitary organization of the state is influenced not only by politics, but also by other e0tra6political factors, such as geography, and in turn, influences the internal political structure! =n the other hand, the internal political structure also influences the #ilitary organization of the state, so the syste# is interdependent! 7o/ing on, the 7ar0ist2) regi#e caught the attention of the author in order to e0plain better the second i#age, representing its 2fullest de/elop#ent3 30! According to this doctrine, the capitalist regi#e creates t$o antagonist classes, the bourgeoisie and the proletarians, but only the first one controls the go/ern#ent, thus creating a class struggle! War is only the e0ternal pheno#ena of the internal class struggle $hich relates it to the capitalist states! 4y turning to socialis#, the capitalist states $ould be abolished and therefore, $ar $ould no longer e0ist! Socialis# e0ter#inates the idea of state and $ith no #ore countries to fight against each other, there $ould be no $ar! "his theory supports the idea of a proletarian re/olution $hich $ould lead to a united, nonpolitical, free association! "hough in theory the ideas see#ed clear, once the &irst World War 31 occurred, the socialists turned to their national interests and supported their countries rather than the international

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alliance that they pre/iously for#ed! &or fear of being defeated, all the socialists accepted the $ar, thin,ing that they held a defensi/e position! In order for the socialist doctrine to further e0ist, read-ust#ent $as co#pulsory, and it ca#e fro# t$o distinct directions! "he first one $as the solution of Kenin 32, $ho transfor#ed the leadership that $as for#erly only for guidance, in a strong leadership that $ould e/en force the #asses to$ards the supposed 2co##on interest3!

2)6 Karl +einrich 7ar0?1(1(61((3@6 Ier#an philosopher, econo#ist, historian and re/olutionary socialist! 306 Waltz, 27an, the State and War' A "heoretical Analysis3, pp! 12* 316 "he &irst World War ?1)1%61)1(@ $as a global scale $ar centered in Europe, fought bet$een the Allies ?Anited Kingdo#, &rance and the 1ussian E#pire@ and the Bentral Co$ers ?Ier#any and Austria6+ungary@ and other countries that gradually -oined the t$o alliances! 326 :ladi#ir Ilyich Kenin ?1(9061)2%@ 6 1ussian co##unist re/olutionary and politicianJ the leader of the 1ussian &ederation and then Cre#ier of the So/iet Anion!

"he second proposal ca#e fro# the re/isionists< side! "hey transfor#ed the re/olutionary ideas into e/olutionary ones, based on social and econo#ic i#pro/e#ent! "hey accepted the state as for# of go/ern#ent and supported the idea of separate progress of each state! "herefore, they put their faith into the nationality principle as being the basis of peace! In conclusion, after the &irst World War, the re/isionists used the sa#e principle as the nineteenth6century liberals6 that in order to ha/e peace, the internal syste# of the states #ust change! "he difference bet$een the t$o ideals is the fact that the liberals $anted the state to be changed according to liberal con/ictions, $hile the re/isionists pro#oted the socialist ideas!

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Chapter III The third i"age of the causes of #ar

If the first t$o i#ages reflected the hu#an nature and the state as possible causes of $ar, the third i#age goes to the ne0t le/el and introduces the international syste# as a possible cause! "here are #any so/ereign states and no set of rules that all should follo$, nor an international agent to control their actions! "herefore, each country decides for itself ho$ to react to the others and ho$ to beha/e in relation to the other states, #any ti#es, their attitude leading to conflicts ,further sol/ed by the #eans of $ars! If the status of the international en/iron#ent is anarchy, then e/ery state has the right to use force $hen it considers necessary in order to achie/e its ob-ecti/es, or if it thin,s that the $ar is #ore effecti/e than the tran.uility offered by peace! >e/ertheless, $e cannot spea, of a proper cause of $ar $ithout ta,ing into consideration all the three i#ages, but if there is #ore e#phasis on one of the ele#ents, the others #ight be distorted! When referring to the first i#age, educating the people and the rulers of the state #ight pa/e the $ay to a better situation! Bo#bining it $ith the second i#age, in $hich states $ould use their #oney for less ar#a#ent and #ilitary e.uip#ent and in/est it in the $elfare of the nation, it $ould lead to interdependence bet$een the#! =nce a state pro/ides #ore $eaponry for itself, the others tend to do the sa#e for fear of being attac,ed, so, if the rule $or,s the other $ay around, then $e reach the third i#age, $ith #ore peace and security for each country because they depend on each other!
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In order to assess the international relations, the author appeals to the ideas of ;ean ;ac.ues 1ousseau, co#paring the# to the first and the second i#age thin,ers, Spinoza and Kant33! Spinoza thought that the cause of conflict lies in the /icious nature of #en, as passion displaces reason! 7o/ing these ideas to the le/el of states, they also act $ithout reason, only dri/en by their passion, thus creating conflicts that are usually sol/ed in $ars! Kant, on the other hand, offered a #ore co#ple0 e0planation! +e belie/ed that #en are dri/en both by i#pulse and by reason, but the first one tends to o/erco#e the latter and this is $here state appears, as a necessary constraint in order for the people to ha/e a chance to beha/e #orally! Bo#paring #en $ith states, Kant thin,s that they are ali,e 5 #en in their state of
336 I##anuel Kant ?192%6 1(0%@6 Ier#an philosopher $hose $or, included se/eral conditions through $hich $ars #ight end, including a $orld of republics and international organization!

nature are neither good, nor constrained by rules, and so are the countries as $ell! In order to reduce the conflicts and the possibility of turning to $ar, he offers the solution of de/eloping the states to the point $here they $ill /oluntarily obey the sa#e rules! Kast but not least, 1ousseau conde#ns both /isions in the sense that he considers the bad nature of #en as a fiction constructed fro# i#agining that the /ices that they ac.uired in society $ere gi/en by their nature! 4efore ha/ing to li/e in a society, people ,ne$ little about ha/ing pride or en/y, as they $ould attac, only in ti#es of hunger! 7ontes.uieu agrees $ith 1ousseau<s point of /ie$ and adds that 2As soon as #an enters into a state of society he loses the sense of his $ea,nessJ e.uality ceases, and then co##ences the state of $ar33% 4ut, if at first there $as no need for people to for# a co##unity, then $hy did they end up in doing soM 1ousseau belie/es that they $ere forced because of the increasing nu#ber of population and natural occurrences that led to the necessity of cooperation! E/en though in theory, cooperation is beneficial for all the parties, in fact, it is ris,y! Although all agree on a co##on ob-ecti/e, there is ne/er the assurance that they can rely on one another! When one party decides that it is not in their best interest to continue the cooperation, it #ay at any ti#e lea/e, thus creating conflict and lea/ing the others $ith a possible failure! Still, if se/eral people agree on a set of rules and cooperate, their co#petiti/e po$er is #uch stronger than the others $ho are by the#sel/es, thus forcing the# to follo$ the pattern, being unable to fight against the unity of the group! "he group gro$s and then appears the di/ision of labor and #ore #aterial gains for e/erybody fro# the society, but there are also /arious changes inside e/ery indi/idual once the group passes through different stages!
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1ousseau also describes states as being si#ilar to #en in their state of nature, but defines it as the status in $hich they act $ithout ha/ing an upper authority to control the#! Still, there is a big difference bet$een states and indi/iduals in that a country is a collecti/e unit of indi/iduals! "herefore, in order for the state to be regarded as one single unit, there #ust be unity a#ong its #e#bers, unity that pre/ails only $hen the rulers ta,e decisions according to the general $ill of the nation!

3%6 7ontes.uieu, D"he spirit of the Ka$sD, tr! >ugent, 4oo, I, Bhapter III

"his condition is #andatory and achie/ed through the #eans of patriotis# and nationalis#, only $hen the citizens are loyal to their country! A good state can be recognized by its decisions6 $hen the so/ereign ta,es a decision and the population agrees to be the best on the long runJ but $hen the citizens are against that decision and they ha/e no po$er to change it, it #eans that the state has a proble#! "he $ill of one state #ay be according to the general desire of the population, but it #ight be against the general interest of the other states! "his #eans, that although the general good is achie/ed in ter#s of internal affairs, $hen the state relates to the international arena, its goals #ight be against the others! E/en though a country #ight thin, that its decisions ser/e the interest of the other fello$ states, it is still its particular goals that are pursued, and $ithout an upper authority, there is nothing to control it or the other nations fro# fighting against $hat they disli,e! As a conclusion, 1ousseau suggests that the best solution $ould be a federal go/ern#ent that should unite the states and #a,e the# e.ual in a syste# held together by the rule of Ka$! "his #eans that there $ould be har#ony a#ong the participants, but there $ould also be certain constraints that all the #e#bers $ould ha/e to face, a situation $hich is unli,ely all the countries $ould appro/e!

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The Third I"age & I"plications

In order to understand better ho$ the international affairs ha/e an influence on the e0istence of $ars, the author tries to e0plain ho$ states beha/e in the international arena! =nly because they engage in $ars or not, that does not label the# as being good or e/il, neither does the fact that they agree or disagree in certain #atters! Waltz turns to 1ousseau<s con/iction that the only thing that leads to $ar is the absence of a higher authority and tries to #a,e further co##ents on this theory! States are in per#anent see,ing for security and therefore, they $ould do anything to pre/ent any alteration of it! In these conditions, they ha/e to decide upon a proper e0ternal policy so as to achie/e their goal! In this $ay, the author suggests that $ithout ha/ing a choice, the states find the#sel/es ta,ing part in a ga#e $here, li,e ;ohn 7cFonald 3* clai#s, 2E/erybody<s strategy depends on e/erybody else338! Whene/er there are #ore than t$o parties in/ol/ed, all the participants ha/e to pay attention to others< strategy and act accordingly! What is #ore, if one #e#ber see#s to ha/e a considerable ad/antage, the other participants #ay for# a coalition to surpass hi#! "his cooperation bet$een t$o or #ore players is nonetheless an act of $ill and cannot be achie/ed auto#atically! Adding to this approach the theory of balance6of6po$er 39, $e can obser/e that bet$een the eighteenth and nineteenth century, the states had the ability to shift fro# one alliance to other if they $ished so! Starting $ith the &irst World War, this $as less possible, but co#petition in the internal de/elop#ent of their industries and ar#a#ents beca#e #ore i#portant!

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>o$adays, another approach pre/ails, and that is 2Ceace re.uires anticipating $hat it is that te#pts an aggressor and letting hi# ,no$ in ad/ance that, if he does not e0ercise self6control, he #ay face a hard fight, perhaps a losing fight!33( In conclusion, there is no guarantee that a state $ill be peaceful or belligerent at a certain #o#ent in ti#e, as its #ost i#portant goal #ay or not be to li/e in peace $ith its neighbouring countries! In order to preser/e peace, a state #ay disar#, co#pro#ise or, on the contrary, focus on its #ilitary po$er!

3*6 ;ohn 7cFonald ?1(1*61()1@6 "he first Cri#e 7inister of Banada 386 7cFonald, DStrategy in Co,er, 4usiness and WarD, p *2 396 4alance6of6po$er theory6 the idea that in ter#s of security, no state is strong enough to do#inate the others! =ther$ise, it #ight attac, the $ea,er states, i#pelling the# to #a,e a defensi/e coalition! 3(6 ;ohn &oster Fulles6 addressing the A#erican Kegion Bon/ention, St Kouis

Conclusions
In the last chapter of his thesis, Waltz tries to correlate the three i#ages in a $ay in $hich they could for# a syste# of causes or at least lead us to$ards a solution for $ars! Still, no co##on ans$er could be found $hilst co#bining all the three i#ages pro/ed to be rather difficult! A first atte#pt to sol/e this issue is attributed to Woodro$ Wilson 3) $ho agreed that each state<s policy depends on the others<! Still, he hoped for all the states to reach such an internal status that there $ould be a constant peace! :arious liberals and re/isionists add that if there $ere only social de#ocracies, the $orld $ould be a peaceful en/iron#ent! Still, this /ie$ needs further consideration, in the sense that if $e add the fact that the #ain interest of all countries $ould be self6preser/ation, this approach $ould be true! >e/ertheless, this is rather a utopian /ie$! Another theory is based on 1ousseau<s idea of a $orld go/ern#ent! "his $ould pro/e to be helpful in abolishing international $ars, but there is another proble# not ta,en into account yet! An ineffecti/e institution could not pre/ent ci/il $ars fro# happening, so there is still serious doubt about the practicability of this solution! In 27an, the State and War3, Waltz proposes a co#ple0 analysis of /arious thin,ers and offering .uite a dense in.uiry in his suppositions! Although he uses a $ide /ariety of references, there is a scarce focus on his conte#porary thin,ers in order to support or criticize his /ie$s!
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Still, the author has a re#ar,able atte#pt in connecting his /ie$s to practical analysis and chose three core factors of the causes of $ar! 4y centering his ideas on these i#ages, he not only challenges his readers to study the# deeper, but he also lays the foundation to further analysis! =n the other hand, by only ta,ing the three i#ages into consideration, he fails to refer to other causes that #ight be as /iable as these! So#e of the e0a#ples #ight be the transnational organizations, ethnicities or e/en religion! "his thesis is definitely a precious read for anyone interested in $orld affairs, but also for those ,een on a better understanding of the insights that the causes of $ar #ight hold!

3)6 "ho#as Woodro$ Wilson? 1(*86 1)2%@6 the 2(th Cresident of the Anited States

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1! 2! 3! %! *! 8! 9! (! )! 10! 4entha#, ;ere#y6 DFeontologyD, Edited by ;ohn 4o$ring, 2 /olu#es, Kondon' Kong#an, 1ees, =r#e, 4ro$ne, Ireen and Kong#an, 1(3% 4odin, ;ean6D Si0 4oo,s of the Bo##on$ealthD, abridged and translated by 7!;!"ooley, =0ford' 4asil 4lac,$ell, no date +irst, 7argaret E!6 D"he Nua,ers in Ceace and WarD, Kondon' "he S$arth#ore Cress, 1)23 ;a#es, Willia#6 D7e#ories and StudiesD, >e$ Oor,' Kong#ans, Ireen and Bo!, 1)12 7cFonald, ;ohn6DStrategy in Co,er, 4usiness and WarD, >e$ Oor,' W!W! >orton P Bo!, 1)*0 7ar0, Karl6 DBapitalD, translated by Sa#uel 7oore and Ed$ard A/eling , 3 /olu#es, Bhicago' Bharles +! Kerr P Bo!, 1)0)61)10, :olu#e I 7ontes.uieu, Bharles Kouis de Secondat, 4aron de la 4rede et de!, D"he Spirit of the Ka$sD, translated by "ho#as >ugent, >e$ Oor,' +afner Cublishing Bo!, 1)%) 7orgenthau, +ans ;!6 DScientific 7an /s! Co$er ColiticsD, Bhicago' Ani/ersity of Bhicago Cress, 1)%8 >iebuhr, 1einhold6 D4eyond "ragedyD, >e$ Oor,' Bharles ScribnerQs Sons, 1)3( 1ousseau, ;ean6;ac.ues6 D"he Colitical Writings of ;ean ;ac.ues 1ousseauD, edited by B!E!:aughan, 2 /olu#es, Ba#bridge' Ani/ersity Cress, 1)1* 6 D"he Social Bontract and FiscoursesD, translated by I!F!+ Bole, E/ery#anQs Kibrary Edition, >e$ Oor,' E!C! Futton and Bo!, 1)*0 Spinoza, 4enedict6 D"he Bhief Wor,s of 4enedict de SpinozaD, translated by 1!+!7!El$es, 2 /olu#es, >e$ Oor,' Fo/er Cublications, 1)*1

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12! 13!

"aylor, A!;!C6 D1u#ours of WarD, Kondon' +a#ish +a#ilton, 1)*2 Waltz, Kenneth6 D7an, the State and War' A "heoretical AnalysisD, >e$ Oor,' Bolu#bia Ani/ersity Cress, 2001

(rticles
1%! DAddress to the A#erican Kegion Bon/ention, St! KouisD , found in The New York Times, Septe#ber 3, 1)*3, page % ?Speech offered by ;ohn &oster Fulles@

Websites%
1*! Acade#ia!edu ' http'RR$$$!acade#ia!eduR1%188*9RASBriticis#SofSWaltzsS7anStheSStateSandSWarS

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