Clothing styles and popular apparel fashions are constantly in flux, and the fashion world is continuously inundated

with runway innovations and fly-by-night fads. Over the last century, fashion in the Western world in particular has experienced continual upheavals and major changes. From 1900 to 2007, popular fads have included such fashion statements as rear-enhancing bustles, short flapper dresses, wide-leg bell bottoms, and deliberately ripped jeans. These and other major fashion trends make up the fascinating history of twentieth- century womens clothing. Haute Couture Era: 1900-1920 Womens fashion in the early 1900s highlighted the silhouette of the mature, full -figured body. Low busts and curvy hips were flaunted by the dress styles of the era (Pendergast 2004). In the early years of the first decade, skirts were long and full and often contained a small train, similar to what is commonly seen in todays wedding gowns. However, as the decade drew to a close, skirts gradually grew shorter and began to reveal tantalizing glimpses of the ankle. The overall silhouette of dresses also changed slightly, moving toward a narrower, straighter line. The early 1900s also marked the flowering of the haute couture movement in Paris. Parisian designers set the fashion tone for the rest of the Western world, and their designs were highly sought after by women of the upper classes. Quite frequently, horse races served as a debut for important new fashions, as well-known designers sent models to attend these races wearing their latest creations (Pendergast 2004). From 1910 until the start of the First World War in 1914, fashion continued to move toward slimmer, narrower silhouettes that emphasized flat busts and slim hips (Pendergast 2004). Bustles and trains were removed from dresses, as fashion designers played with the length of skirts to reveal enticing new areas of skin. However, as the war began in 1914, attention and materials were drawn away from fashion design, and no significant fashion developments occurred again until peace was declared at the end of 1918. Modern Era: 1920-1940 During the 1920s, clothing styles officially entered the modern era of fashion design. During this decade, women began to liberate themselves from constricting clothes for the first time and openly embrace more comfortable styles like pants and short skirts. While popular fashions remained relatively conservative prior to 1925, short skirts, low waistlines, and revolutionary styles of the flapper era characterized the latter half of the decade (Hall 1992). Dresses were made to fit close to the body in order to emphasize youthful elegance. Hems were cut to the knee, and waistlines disappeared almost entirely. Cloche hats without rims also became a key popular clothing item during this period (Pendergast 2004). The fashion styles of the flapper era lasted throughout the 1920s and into the Flapper styles of short early 1930s before the hardships of the Great Depression forced more skirts, low waistlines, and conservative trends. During this time, skirts became longer and the natural bobbed hair characterized fashion in the late 1920s waistline became a more important part of dresses as society began to move back toward a more traditionally feminine look (Hall 1992). While some trends of the 1920s, such as cloche hats and bobbed hair, lasted slightly longer, the difficult times of the 1930s definitely called for more conservative wear. The decade of the 1930s also saw the first true distinction between day and evening styles. During the affluent era of the 1920s, women could easily wear impractical clothing during the day without worry, so long as domestic servants took care of the chores (Pendergast 2004). However, the hard times of the Depression caused many women to do more work at home themselves and necessitated more practical clothing for the daytime. Simple skirts and pared-down outfits allowed for ease of

mobility in the daytime, while new fabrics such as metallic lam became popular for more luxurious evening wear. The newly improved, synthetic fabric rayon became an important part of many designers fashions during the 1930s, and cotton also moved into more stylish clothing designs; however, silk remained the primary fabric of most fashion designers. Rationed Fashion and the New Look: 1940 1960 As Europe, and later America, entered the landscape of World War II, fashion responded to the restrained mood and economy of the war. Drabness and uniformity in clothing were embraced, and people were encouraged to make do with and mend the clothing they already had. Service uniforms were constantly seen on both men and women at all types of social functions, as the reality of the war became impossible to ignore. During the war, all types of cloth were needed for a variety of wartime purposes, and material for clothing was severely rationed. Women were issued a limited number of ration coupons to use for clothing purchases each year, and this number declined steadily as the war progressed. Due to the limited materials, fashions of the era emphasized shorter skirts than ever before and short, blocky jackets (Pendergast 2004). Buttons for any type of apparel were limited to three per clothing item. Nylon stockings were very scarce, and women were encouraged to make do with ankle socks and bare legs. During the war and its aftermath, there was rarely an adequate amount of any clothing item available, and women were forced to do the best they could and dress as femininely as possible with the available stock. By the late 1940s and early 1950s, designers had quickly grown tired of the utilitarian, minimalist clothing of the wartime era. Longings for elegance and luxury that had been suppressed during the war years began to creep out again with the New Look of fashion in the late 1940s in which clothing styles emphasized rounded shoulders, full skirts, and narrow waists (Hall 1992). The garments were often lined with luxurious, expensive fabrics, and ornate accessories became necessary items. Although critics complained about the extravagance of the clothing while rationing was still mandated, women throughout the country clamored for the revitalized femininity of the New Look. And it would prove to be popular enough to last well into the affluent decade of the 1950s. Fashion Revolution: 1960 1980 The 1960s and 1970s witnessed a youth explosion that completely revolutionized the fashion system. Prior to 1960, designers generally created styles for runways, and clothing manufacturers mass produced the designers styles for the general public. However, during the 1960s, youth throughout the Western world began to rebel against traditional clothing styles and create their own trends. Soon, fashion designers and manufacturers were madly trying to keep up with the trends and implement the youths' popular creations into clothing for the masses.
Youth of the 1960s rebelled against During the 1960s and 1970s, a huge variety of clothing became traditional styles and created their own trends popular, including bell bottoms, increasingly short miniskirts and hot pants, and blue jeans (Pendergast 2004). It was no longer shocking for women to wear pants on a daily basis, and many of the styles of the era were somewhat androgynous. By the 1970s, it was nearly impossible to tell what was in fashion and what was not, as the choices for available clothing had become very diverse. During these two decades of rapid social revolution and change, it was anything goes in terms of fashionable clothing. By the late 1970s, popular styles had turned somewhat more conservative, but the freedom of choice inspired by the two decades would live on.

Present Era: 1980 2007

While high fashion had greatly declined during the free-for-all of the 1960s and 1970s, the 1980s saw a definite rise in the popularity of designer styles. Wealthy people across the country flocked to New York boutiques and Paris fashion shows to purchase directly from designers lines, while mass producers replicated the high fashions for the general public. Power and money dominated the styles of the 1980s, with women donning expensive business suits and dresses during the day and extravagant designer gowns in the evening (Pendergast 2004). While not everybody could afford the expensive designer clothing, some top fashion designers such as Calvin Klein and Ralph Lauren also produced ready-to-wear lines to appeal to less-affluent customers. During the 1980s, clothing was a sign of power, and the top designers reigned supreme with their fashionable apparel. But by the 1990s, women had begun to reject the moneyed, designer styles of the 1980s and opt for more comfortable, casual clothing. Flannel shirts and ripped jeans inspired by the grunge movement in rock and roll became popular, while the rising hip-hop movement brought baggy pants into fashion (Pendergast 2004). Whatever its expression, comfort remained the key factor in clothing choice for most women in the 1990s and 2000s. Even standards for work relaxed somewhat, and casual dresses and pants became popular workplace attire. Today, while expensive designer clothing is still sought after by some women, casual, comfortable clothing styles at reasonable prices are the popular choice at the start of the new century. But one never knows what new trendy or outrageous style will emerge next on the fashion scene.

Manufacturing Systems Manufacturing systems have changed from craft production, to mass production, to lean production. Manufacturing companies must be reactive to the business and market conditions to stay competitive. Many companies are being challenged to develop new manufacturing systems (Womack, Jones, & Roos, 1990). Companies that do not change lose market share and go out of business. The movement to change to mass production was promoted by many entrepreneurs, such as Eli Whitney, Isaac Singer, and Samuel Colt. They elaborated aspects of mass production for a single product; however, Henry Ford and Alfred Sloan developed the foundation for the overall system of mass production, from producing parts to selling products (Mori, 1996; Womack et al., 1990). With the change from unit production to mass production, the unit cost of production decreased and productivity increased dramatically. As a result, many people could afford automobiles and many other consumer products (Hounshell, 1984). Since the 1920s, the mass production system has been improved and has expanded around the world. The mass production manufacturing paradigm was the mainstream manufacturing system until the Toyota 28 production system was introduced to several major industries. The Toyota production system is a more flexible system that eliminates waste, although it is based on mass production. The basic idea of the system was developed in the 1930s by Kiichiro Toyoda based on a specific market situation in Japan (Fujimoto, 1998). Today, many industries have improved manufacturing systems by using electronic network technologies, such as Electronic Data Interchange (EDI), computer-integrated manufacturing (CIM), and flexible manufacturing technology (FMT) (Brown & Inman,1993; Chase & Aquilano). Also, manufacturers have adopted improved systems, such as QR, mass customization, and supply chain management. As a result, productivity within factories and quality of products have increased dramatically. For many manufacturers, the communication distance among their partners has also decreased (Chase & Aquilano, 1995). With new systems, companies can respond to their customers demands more quickly and with more flexibility. Some manufacturing

companies have become more services-oriented (Chase & Erikson, 1988; Goldhar et al., 1991; Levitt, 1972). Traditional factories have become services factories (Chase et al., 1988). These new factories produce not only tangible products, but also intangible products. The newly developed manufacturing systems have returned to some aspects of craft production (Chase et al.; Womack et al.,1990). The automobile industry has been the leader in developing many production systems, and is still a major industry in the world. Also, this industry has many related industries including electronics, oil, fiber, steel, finance, and other services industries. Changes in manufacturing in the automobile industry have influenced manufacturing in the fashion industry (e.g., bundle system, modular system, QR). For this reason, how and why the production system has changed are discussed by reviewing the automobile industry in the following section. The Ford, General Motors (GM), and Toyota companies did not start their manufacturing systems at the same point. Leaders at these companies had learned other systems and used the information to improve their existing systems through long-term experimentation. Until the mass production system became mainstream, craft production systems were the major manufacturing system since the Industrial Revolution in the late 1800s. In the 19th century in the United States, Eli Whitney, Isaac Singer, Samuel Colt 29 and other inventors improved production efficiency. Hounshell (1984) refers to their production as the American system of manufacturers (p. 1). New technologies, mechanization, and standardization were integrated into the new production systems. Finally, Henry Ford integrated the entire system of mass production. Called Fordism, the result was the car for the masses (Hounshell, 1984; Womack et al.,1990). This system has been refined to be lean production or the Toyota System. Craft

References Hall, Lee. 1992. Common Threads: A Parade of American Clothing. Boston: Little, Brown. Pendergast, Sara. 2004. Fashion, Costume and Culture: Clothing, Headwear, Body Decorations, and Footwear through the Ages. Detroit: UXL.