VI.

Arrhythmias:
Robert Vu, MD
Clerkship Director
Indiana University School of Medicine

Note: The correct multiple choice answer for each question is underlined.

Specific Learning Objectives:

Knowledge.
Subinterns should be able to describe and define:
1. The types of arrhythmias commonly encountered in the inpatient setting, including:
a. Premature atrial/ventricular contractions
b. Ventricular arrhythmias
c. Atrial arrhythmias
d. Supraventricular tachyarrhythmias
e. Atrioventricular blocks
f. Bradycardias
2. Distinguishing “benign” from significant arrhythmias
a. Recognition of “benign” arrhythmias such as isolated premature atrial or
ventricular contractions
b. Recognition of the significance of persistent or sustained premature atrial or
ventricular contractions and the need to test for electrolyte abnormalities
3. Describe the clinical symptoms associated with cardiac arrhythmias – palpitations,
hemodynamic instability, chest pain, shortness of breath
4. Understand the clinical scenarios which may result in various arrhythmias
a. Myocardial infarctions: any arrhythmia
b. Nodal blocking medications causing bradyarrhythmias
c. Electrolyte abnormalities resulting in various arrhythmias
d. Anti-arrhythmic medications which may result in torsades de pointes
e. Infections, thyroid disease, pulmonary disease, myocardial infarctions,
cardiomyopathy, alcohol use, valvular heart disease, pericarditis, electrolyte
abnormalities which may result in atrial fibrillation
5. The appropriate diagnostic workup for patients with arrhythmias (ECG,
echocardiogram, telemetry or Holter monitoring, electrophysiologic studies)
6. The risk associated with cardiac arrhythmias based on a patient’s history, physical
exam and ECG, determining the need for urgent treatment
7. The need for appropriate referral to cardiologist/electrophysiologist
8. Therapeutic options in treating arrhythmias
a. The need for anticoagulation in management of certain arrhythmias
b. The pharmacology and side effects of medications commonly used to
chemically cardiovert a patient in atrial fibrillation
c. Pharmacology and side effects of medications commonly used to treat
supraventricular tachycardia
9. Utility and appropriate implementation of continuous cardiac monitoring

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10. Recognize situations in which it is necessary to seek support from resident
emergently.
11. Recognize indications for transfer to higher care units (e.g. the intensive care unit).

Skills.
Subinterns should be able to:
1. Conduct a history:
a. Identify symptoms of cardiac arrhythmias
b. Collect information about comorbidities
2. Conduct a physical examination:
a. Evaluate vital signs for hemodynamic stability
b. Identify irregular and regular rhythms
c. Evaluate for signs for pulmonary edema
d. Evaluate for signs of valvular heart disease
3. Develop a management plan:
a. Interpret ECG and/or telemetry rhythm strips in diagnosing cardiac
arrhythmias
b. Develop a diagnostic plan for evaluating a patient’s arrhythmia
c. Determine appropriate medication for the rate control of tachyarrhythmias
d. Determine the appropriate management (atropine vs. pacing) for the patient
with a symptomatic bradyarrhythmias
e. Obtain appropriate consultation from supervising housestaff, faculty and
consultants
f. Communicate the patient’s history and status effectively with members of the
health care team and cross coverage team

Attitudes and professional behavior.

Subinterns should demonstrate:
1. Recognition that anxiety and fear may accompany or cause arrhythmias
2. Compassion when assessing and treating the patient with an acute arrhythmia

Case I: Hyperkalemia-induced EKG changes

A 48-year-old man presented to the emergency department complaining of severe
10/10 chest pain. He has end-stage renal disease and receives hemodialysis three
days a week. He just used cocaine about 4 hours ago. His current EKG and a
comparison tracing from two days prior are shown. Which of the following is the
most appropriate immediate treatment for him?
a) Intravenous thrombolytics
b) Emergent left heart catheterization with coronary angiography
c) Aspirin, intravenous heparin, clopidogrel, and intravenous eptifibatide
d) Calcium gluconate, intravenously

Explanation to above answer: This EKG (when compared to a baseline tracing done two
days prior) showed tall, peaked, and symmetrical T waves and widened QRS duration
due to hyperkalemia. Although in the setting of severe chest pain and recent cocaine use,

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this EKG could be interpreted as an acute myocardial infarction with hyperacute T
waves preceding the ST segment elevation. However, there are no “tombstoning” of the
ST segments nor are there any significant reciprocal ST segment depression seen on this
tracing to indicate a myocardial injury pattern. Additionally, hyperkalemia should
always be suspected in a patient with end-stage renal disease who presents with
abnormal and suspicious repolarization changes on EKG. Finally, administration of
intravenous calcium gluconate will rapidly bring the hyperkalemia-induced
repolarization changes on EKG back to baseline to allow a rapid confirmation of the
suspected diagnosis.

Corollary questions to the above case #1:

a). What other diagnostic test would you need to confirm your suspicion?
Answer: serum electrolytes, focusing on serum potassium and bicarb
levels. This particular patient’s serum potassium level turned out to be 7.3.

b). Describe, in progressive stages, the EKG changes one would see with untreated,
severe hyperkalemia. Are any seen here on this tracing?
Answer:
i) Tall, peaked, symmetrical T waves (seen on this tracing), then…
ii) PR interval and QRS duration both lengthen (the latter is seen on this
tracing), then…
iii) P wave disappears (not seen), then finally…
iv) QRS further widens into “sine wave” pattern (not seen)
c). What is calcium’s mechanism of action in this particular case?
Answer: calcium protects the myocardium by antagonizing the
hyperkalemia-induced depolarization of the resting membrane potential.
d). What are some of the other useful adjunctive medical therapies for this
particular case and their mechanisms of action?
Answer:
i) Insulin & glucose (D50) via intravenous injection, or inhaled beta-2
adrenergic agonist; both therapeutic measures drive potassium into the
cells by increasing Na-K-ATPase activity.
ii) Sodium polystyrene sulfonate (Kayexalate) acts in the gut as a cation
exchange resin, taking up potassium and releasing sodium.
iii) Sodium bicarbonate raises the systemic pH and causes hydrogen ion
release from the cells in exchange for potassium movement into the cells
to maintain serum electroneutrality.
2). What should be the ultimate therapeutic management plan for this patient’s current
problem, especially if the above therapeutic measures are unsuccessful?
Answer: acute hemodialysis.

References
Slovis C. Jenkins R. ABC of clinical electrocardiography: Conditions not primarily
affecting the heart.[erratum appears in BMJ 2002 Aug 3;325(7358):259]. BMJ.
324(7349):1320-3, 2002 Jun .

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Gennari FJ. Disorders of potassium homeostasis. Hypokalemia and hyperkalemia.
Critical Care Clinics. 18(2):273-88, vi, 2002 Apr.

Salem MM. Rosa RM. Batlle DC. Extrarenal potassium tolerance in chronic renal failure:
implications for the treatment of acute hyperkalemia.[comment]. American Journal of
Kidney Diseases. 18(4):421-40, 1991 Oct.

Greenberg A. Hyperkalemia: treatment options. Seminars in Nephrology. 18(1):46-57,

Case II: Paroxysmal supraventricular tachycardia

A 22-year-old man without any known coronary artery disease presents with
palpitations and anxiety. His blood pressure is 120/72, and he appears relatively
comfortable.
3) Which of the following is the most appropriate next step in his care?
a) No therapy needed other than reassurance
b) Direct current (DC) cardioversion after adequate sedation is achieved
c) Digoxin, intravenously
d) Carotid sinus massage or Valsalva maneuvers

Corollary question to the above question # 3:

What is the rhythm to question #3 above?
Answer: Paroxysmal supraventricular tachycardia.

4). If the above therapeutic measure is unsuccessful, what is the next appropriate
management step?
Answer: adenosine, intravenously.

References
Esberger D. Jones S. Morris F. ABC of clinical electrocardiography. Junctional
tachycardias. BMJ. 324(7338):662-5, 2002 Mar 16.

ACC/AHA/ESC guidelines for the management of patients with supraventricular

arrhythmias--executive summary. Journal of the American College of Cardiology.
42(8):1493-531, 2003 Oct 15.

Case III: Atrial arrhythmias

A) A 70-year-old man with long-standing hypertension presented with symptoms of
congestive heart failure including dyspnea on exertion, orthopnea, paroxysmal
nocturnal dyspnea, and dependent edema. These symptoms have progressively
worsened over the past 3 weeks. He has had no chest pain/discomfort, palpitations,
cough, or fever/chills. He never smoked. A recent cholesterol level was 158, and he
has no known history of diabetes or coronary artery disease.

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5. What is the rhythm?
a) Sinus tachycardia
b) Multifocal atrial tachycardia (MAT)
c) Atrial flutter with 3:1 AV conduction
d) Atrial flutter with 2:1 AV conduction
e) Atrial fibrillation with rapid ventricular response

6. For the patient above, which of the following is the most likely cause of his congestive
heart failure?
a) Viral cardiomyopathy
b) Tachycardia-induced cardiomyopathy
c) Toxin-mediated cardiomyopathy (e.g., alcohol/cocaine/adriamycin)
d) Ischemic cardiomyopathy

B) This electrocardiogram was obtained from a 68-year-old man who presented

with dyspnea and palpitations. He has a long history of hypertension and mild
congestive heart failure (LV systolic dysfunction). His current blood pressure is
150/90. Physical examination reveals no JVD, an irregularly irregular cardiac
rhythm with no audible third heart sound, and clear lungs.
7. All of the following are appropriate management options for this rhythm EXCEPT:
a) Digoxin
b) Diltiazem
c) Verapamil
d) Nifedipine
e) Metoprolol

Explanation to above answer: This EKG shows atrial fibrillation with rapid ventricular
response in a patient who is hemodynamically stable and is not in overt CHF. All of the
listed medications effectively block AV nodal conduction to control heart rate except
nifedipine.

C) This rhythm strip was obtained from a 71-year-old man with COPD who
presented with severe dyspnea and palpitations. Physical examination revealed
labored breathing with bilateral expiratory wheezing and tachycardia.
Which of the following is the most appropriate therapy?
a) Beta blockade
b) Adenosine, intravenously
c) Beta-2 adrenergic agonist, inhaled
d) Direct current (DC) cardioversion
e) Heparin, intravenously

Explanation to above answer: The rhythm in this case is multifocal atrial tachycardia
(MAT). Therapy should be directed towards any underlying condition that may
predispose to MAT such as lung or cardiac disease, hypokalemia, and hypomagnesemia.
In this particular patient’s case, his COPD precipitated the MAT and therapy should be
directed at reversing his acute airways obstruction. Heart rate control with either

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verapamil or beta-blockers should only be considered when the rapid ventricular
response worsens myocardial ischemia, heart failure, or oxygenation.

Corollary question to above case #8:

a). If the rate was less than 100 bpm, what is the rhythm then called?
Answer: wandering atrial pacemaker

References:
Goodacre S. Irons R. ABC of clinical electrocardiography: Atrial arrhythmias.[erratum
appears in BMJ 2002 Apr 27;324(7344):1002]. BMJ. 324(7337):594-7, 2002 Mar 9.

ACC/AHA/ESC guidelines for the management of patients with supraventricular

arrhythmias--executive summary. Journal of the American College of Cardiology.
42(8):1493-531, 2003 Oct 15.

Snow V. et al. Management of Newly Detected Atrial Fibrillation: A Clinical Practice

Guideline from the American Academy of Family Physicians and the American College
of Physicians. Ann Intern Med. 139(12):1009-1017.

McNamara R. et al. Management of Atrial Fibrillation: Review of the Evidence for the
Role of Pharmacologic Therapy, Electrical Cardioversion, and Echocardiography. Ann
Intern Med. 139(12):1018-1033.

Case IV: Drug-induced QT prolongation with resultant torsades de pointes

All of the following medications could most likely be responsible for the marked
prolongation of the QT interval in this 48 year-old woman EXCEPT:
a) Azithromycin
b) Amiodarone
c) Itraconazole
d) Calcium
e) Amitriptyline

This rhythm strip is taken from the patient in question #10 above. What is the most
appropriate next management step?
a) Amiodarone, intravenously
b) Lidocaine, intravenously
c) Precordial thump
d) No therapy required. This represents artifact.
e) Magnesium, intravenously

Arrhythmias
Teacher guide
 References:
Al-Khatib SM. LaPointe NM. Kramer JM. Califf RM. What clinicians should know
about the QT interval.[comment][erratum appears in JAMA. 2003 Sep 10;290(10):1318].
JAMA. 289(16):2120-7, 2003 Apr 23-30.

El-Sherif N. Turitto G. Torsade de pointes. Current Opinion in Cardiology. 18(1):6-13,

2003 Jan.

Roden DM. A practical approach to torsade de pointes. Clinical Cardiology. 20(3):285-

90, 1997 Mar.

Roden, Dan M.Drug-Induced Prolongation of the QT Interval N Engl J Med 2004

350: 1013-1022

Case V: Atrioventricular blocks

A 66-year-old woman presents to the emergency department with an orbital blow
out fracture following a syncopal episode on her stairs at home. This is her 3rd
syncopal episode in the last two weeks. This electrocardiogram was obtained.
What is the underlying rhythm?
a) Sinus bradycardia with 1st degree atrioventricular block and occasional premature
atrial complexes
b) Sinus bradycardia with 2nd degree atrioventricular block, Mobitz type I
(Wenckebach)
c) Sinus bradycardia with 2nd degree atrioventricular block, Mobitz type II
d) Third-degree atrioventricular block (complete heart block with AV dissociation)
e) Junctional rhythm

Corollary question to above case # 12:

a). What is the most appropriate next management step?
Answer: pacemaker insertion

A 58-year-old male veteran with a long history of tobacco use as well as

hypertension that has been difficult to control. He is now on diltiazem, metoprolol,
and hydrochlorothiazide with improvement in his blood pressure which was
measured as 144/78 today in your clinic. On cardiac auscultation, you hear dropped
beats periodically and so you obtain this electrocardiogram.
What is the rhythm?
a) Sinus bradycardia with non-conducted PAC’s
b) Sinus bradycardia with 2nd degree atrioventricular block, Mobitz type I
(Wenckebach)
c) Sinus bradycardia with 2nd degree atrioventricular block, Mobitz type II
d) Third-degree atrioventricular block (complete heart block with AV dissociation)
e) Sinus bradycardia with sinus arrhythmia

Arrhythmias
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What’s the most appropriate next step in the treatment of this patient in question #14?
a) Avoid caffeine and other stimulants
b) Refer to electrophysiologist to urgently place a pacemaker
c) Reduce the dose of his diltiazem and/or metoprolol
d) No treatment necessary; this is sinus arrhythmia which is a normal variant

A 60-year-old man presents to your office complaining of feeling excessively

fatigued, worsening dyspnea on exertion, and lightheadedness over the past several
days. He has a long-standing history of severe ischemic cardiomyopathy. His blood
pressure today is 100/60 and has bibasilar crackles on lung auscultation. You
obtained this electrocardiogram.
Which of the following is the best treatment for his symptoms?
a) Dual chamber permanent pacemaker
b) Carvedilol 3.125mg po bid after euvolemic state has been achieved
c) Increase in furosemide dose to achieve euvolemia
d) Increase ACE inhibitor dose
e) Decrease ACE inhibitor dose

Explanation to above answer: The rhythm for question #16 above is complete heart
block with obvious AV dissociation and therefore requires permanent pacemaker
implantation.

References:
Mangrum JM. DiMarco JP. The evaluation and management of bradycardia. New
England Journal of Medicine. 342(10):703-9, 2000 Mar 9.

Implantation of Cardiac Pacemakers and Antiarrhythmia Devices: ACC/AHA/NASPE

2002 Guideline Update for (Circulation 2002; 106:2145-61)

Case VI: Ventricular tachycardia

A 67-year-old woman has known coronary artery disease with a prior myocardial
infarction. She presented with chest pain, dyspnea, and palpitations. She is in mild
discomfort. Her blood pressure is 115/60.
What is this rhythm?
a) Ventricular tachycardia
b) Pre-excited supraventricular tachycardia (such as one with WPW may have)
c) Supraventricular tachycardia with aberrancy
d) None of the above

In the above patient’s case (question #17), what is the most appropriate next step in
management?
a) Amiodarone, intravenously
b) Lidocaine, intravenously

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Teacher guide
 c) Adenosine, intravenously
d) Direct current (DC) cardioversion

Corollary question to above case # 17:

a). What would be the most appropriate management step if this patient’s blood pressure
was 80/40?
Answer: Direct current (DC) cardioversion, since this patient is now
hemodynamically unstable.

References:
Edhouse J. Morris F. ABC of clinical electrocardiography: Broad complex tachycardia-
Part I
BMJ. 324(7339):719-722, 2002 Mar 23.

Edhouse J. Morris F. ABC of clinical electrocardiography: Broad complex tachycardia-

Part II. BMJ. 324(7340):776-9, 2002 Mar 30.

Implantation of Cardiac Pacemakers and Antiarrhythmia Devices: ACC/AHA/NASPE

2002 Guideline Update for (Circulation 2002; 106:2145-61)

Prystowsky EN. Primary and secondary prevention of sudden cardiac death: the role of
the implantable cardioverter defibrillator. Reviews in Cardiovascular Medicine.
2(4):197-205, 2001 Fall.

Rajawat YS. et al. Interactions of antiarrhythmic drugs and implantable devices in

controlling ventricular tachycardia and fibrillation. Current Cardiology Reports.
4(5):434-40, 2002 Sep.

Case VII: Acute ST-elevation myocardial infarction

A 41-year-old man presented to the emergency department with severe chest pain,
dyspnea, nausea, and diaphoresis—these symptoms began 2 hours ago while he was
eating dinner. His past medical history is unremarkable. You obtain the following
electrocardiogram.
In addition to aspirin and intravenous heparin, what is the most appropriate next step in
management?
a) Administer intravenous glycoprotein IIb/IIIa inhibitor (such as eptifibatide)
with heart catheterization planned for the morning or sooner if you cannot get
him pain-free in 60-90 minutes
b) Administer intravenous thrombolytic therapy such as with tenectaplase
c) Administer clopidogrel (Plavix) (indicated as a Class I pharmacotherapeutic
by the ACC/AHA guidelines for management of acute coronary syndromes)
and intravenous nitroglycerin, followed by admission to the coronary care

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Teacher guide
 unit. This is electrocardiogram shows a left bundle branch block which
precludes electrocardiographic diagnosis of acute myocardial injury
d) Insert a transvenous pacemaker immediately for 3rd degree atrioventricular
block (complete heart block with AV dissociation)

Explanation to above answer: This tracing demonstrates an acute inferior wall ST-
elevation myocardial infarction with reciprocal ST segment depression; this condition
requires immediate reperfusion therapy. The patient has an unremarkable past medical
history and did not have any contraindications to thrombolytic therapy. Administering a
glycoprotein IIb/IIIa inhibitor and waiting 60-90 minutes for pain to resolve is not
appropriate.

References:
Morris F. Brady WJ. ABC of clinical electrocardiography: Acute myocardial infarction-
Part I. BMJ. 324(7341):831-4, 2002 Apr 6.

Edhouse J. Brady WJ. Morris F. ABC of clinical electrocardiography: Acute myocardial

infarction-Part II. BMJ. 324(7343):963-6, 2002 Apr 20.

Acute Myocardial Infarction: ACC/AHA 1999 Guideline Update for the Management of
Patients with (Circulation 1999; 100: 1016-30)

Case IIX: Acute pericarditis

A 68-year-old man who underwent surgical resection for esophageal cancer and
now presents with severe chest pain. He appears acutely ill. His heart rate is
132/minute and blood pressure is 90/70. He has prominent elevation of his jugular
venous pressure and is severely dyspneic and orthopneic.
Which of the following is indicated next?
a) Tenectaplase (intravenous thrombolytic therapy), aspirin, and intravenous
heparin
b) Enoxaparin in combination with eptifibatide prior to going emergently to the
heart catheterization lab
c) Aspirin, clopidogrel (Plavix), intravenous heparin, and eptifibatide prior to
going emergently to the heart catheterization lab
d) Aspirin, intravenous heparin, abciximab (Reopro) prior to going emergently to
the cardiac catheterization lab
e) None of the above

Explanation to above answer: This particular patient had purulent pericarditis from his
esophageal cancer resection. Any thrombolytic, anticoagulant, or anti-platelet therapy
that can increase risk of bleeding (and therefore hemorrhagic tamponade) is strictly
contraindicated.

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Note the typical EKG features: depressed PR segment (or more generally, PR segment
deviations opposite to P wave polarity), diffuse ST segment elevation, and sinus
tachycardia.

References:
Maisch B. Ristic AD. Practical aspects of the management of pericardial disease. Heart
(British Cardiac Society). 89(9):1096-103, 2003 Sep.

Aikat S. Ghaffari S. A review of pericardial diseases: clinical, ECG and hemodynamic

features and management. Cleveland Clinic Journal of Medicine. 67(12):903-14, 2000
Dec.

Case IX: Acute pulmonary thromboembolus with right ventricular strain

pattern on EKG
A 31-year-old woman with fibromyalgia developed sudden onset of chest pain which
awakened her from sleep. She also developed concomitant dyspnea and appears
very anxious when you meet her 45 minutes later in the emergency department. She
is a non-smoker and does not take birth control pills. Of note, she severely sprained
her ankle about 2 weeks ago and has been using crutches. Her heart rate is as
shown, and her blood pressure is 80/60.
What is the most likely diagnosis?
e) Acute ST-elevation myocardial infarction
f) Acute pulmonary thromboembolism
g) Acute non-ST-elevation myocardial infarction
h) Cardiac tamponade from pericarditis
i) Anxiety/panic attack

Corollary questions to above case #22:

a). What causes the classic S1, Q3, T3 pattern seen on EKG of a patient who presents with
an acute pulmonary thromboembolus?
Answer: If the thromboembolus is large and causes obstruction of the pulmonary
artery, then acute right ventricular dilation will likely result which, in turn, causes a
rightward shift of the QRS axis—manisfesting as the S1, Q3, T3 pattern seen on EKG.
b). If the thromboembolus is only a small one that occludes more distally in the pulmonary
arterial tree (i.e., segmental or even subsegmental branch), what is a more common EKG
finding in these cases?
Answer: Sinus tachycardia, or even a normal EKG.

References:
Harrigan RA. Jones K. ABC of clinical electrocardiography. Conditions affecting the
right side of the heart. BMJ. 324(7347):1201-4, 2002 May 18.

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Teacher guide
 General References:
Implantation of Cardiac Pacemakers and Antiarrhythmia Devices: ACC/AHA/NASPE
2002 Guideline Update for (Circulation 2002; 106:2145-61)

ACC/AHA/ESC guidelines for the management of patients with supraventricular

arrhythmias--executive summary. Journal of the American College of Cardiology.
42(8):1493-531, 2003 Oct 15.

Edhouse J. Thakur RK. Khalil JM. ABC of clinical electrocardiography. Conditions

affecting the left side of the heart. BMJ. 324(7348):1264-7, 2002 May 25.

Harrigan RA. Jones K. ABC of clinical electrocardiography. Conditions affecting the

right side of the heart. BMJ. 324(7347):1201-4, 2002 May 18.

Channer K. Morris F. ABC of clinical electrocardiography: Myocardial ischaemia. BMJ.

324(7344):1023-6, 2002 Apr 27.

Edhouse J. Morris F. ABC of clinical electrocardiography: Broad complex tachycardia-

Part I
BMJ. 324(7339):719-722, 2002 Mar 23.

Edhouse J. Morris F. ABC of clinical electrocardiography: Broad complex tachycardia-

Part II. BMJ. 324(7340):776-9, 2002 Mar 30.

Arrhythmias
Teacher guide