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1 8 Chassis
The chassis of a motor vehicle includes: Wheel suspension Steering Suspension Brakes Wheels and tyres They are responsible for the dynamics of vehicular operation and for the road safety of the vehicle. Roll centre (instantaneous centre, Fig. 2). This is the point (W) on an imaginary perpendicular to the centre of the axle, about which the vehicle body rotates due to the action of lateral forces FS. The roll centre of a vehicle axle is located in the centre of the vehicle when viewed from the front. Its height depends on the wheel suspension.

18.1 Dynamics of vehicular operation

The dynamics of vehicular operation deal with the action of the forces affecting the vehicle while it is being driven and the resulting movements of the vehicle. The movements occur about the longitudinal axis, transversal axis and vertical axis (Fig. 1).
Rear-wheel drive Vertical axis (yaw axis)

W Fs

Fig. 2: Roll centre

Transversal axis

FS FA

FB

Roll axis. This is formed by connecting the roll centres of front axle WF and rear axle WR (Fig. 3). It usually slopes down towards the front of the vehicle, since the roll centre is lower at the front wheel suspensions than at the rear. The closer the centre of gravity S lies to the roll axis, the less the vehicle tilts when cornering.
WR WF S

FN FS FB FA FN
Longitudinal axis

FB FS FN

FB FS

FN

FB FA FS FN

Braking force Motive force Lateral force Vertical force

Fig. 3: Roll axis

Fig. 1: Forces and axes on the vehicle

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A distinction can be made between: Forces acting along the longitudinal axis: motive force, braking force, friction force Forces acting along the transversal axis: centrifugal force, wind force, lateral force Forces acting along the vertical axis: wheel load, forces created by jolts from a rough road surface The movements resulting from all forces acting together express themselves in the drivability of the vehicle. Factors influencing the drivability are: The location of the centre of gravity, roll centre, roll axis, driving axis The type of drive and the mounting location of the power plant The wheel suspension and the wheel positions The suspension and the oscillation damping The wheel control systems, such as ABS, TCS, ESP

Axis of symmetry. This runs in vehicle longitudinal direction through the centre of the front and rear axles (Fig. 4).
Axis of symmetry

Driving axis

Wheel offset

Fig. 4: Axis of symmetry, driving axis

Geometrical driving axis. This is formed by the position of the rear wheels and is the bisector of the toein angle of the rear wheels (Fig. 4). The wheel offset is the angle by which the two rear wheels are offset against each other towards the front (+) or towards the rear () for example (Fig. 4).

Height

18 Chassis Wheel-slip angle. If a vehicle is hit by a lateral interference factor while it is in motion (e.g. wind force, centrifugal force), lateral forces FS act in the tyre contact patches of all four tyres. If the steering is corrected, the direction of travel of the wheels changes, they run at an angle to the original direction of travel by an angle of (Fig. 1). Wheel-slip angle is the angle between the wheel plane and the actual direction of wheel motion. Oversteer (Fig. 3). The wheel-slip angles of the rear wheels R are greater than those of the front wheels F. The vehicle wants to steer a smaller radius of bend than that corresponding to the lock on the front wheels and the vehicle starts to break away at the rear. Neutral drivability. The wheel-slip angle of the front and rear wheels is the same. The vehicle drifts evenly on all the wheels. Vehicles with front wheel drive tend to understeer rear engines and rear-wheel drive tend to oversteer all-wheel drive tends towards neutral drivability The aim is for neutral or slightly understeered drivability (with the exception of sports vehicles).
F > R
F

415

Wheel-slip angle
a

Direction of wheel motion

Wheel plane Direction of travel Centre of gravity Wheel angle

R > F

Vehicle longitudinal axis To centre of curve/bend Attitude angle

F
R

FS

FS

Fig. 1: Wheel-slip angle and attitude angle

Attitude angle. This relates to the whole vehicle (Fig. 1). The attitude angle is the angle between the direction of travel (direction of motion of the vehicle) and the vehicle longitudinal axis.

Fig. 2: Understeer

Fig. 3: Oversteer

Self-steering effect
To assess drivability, standard driving manoeuvres are performed, e.g. steady-state turn, and the selfsteering effect of a motor vehicle is determined. Up to the cornering limit speed, the adhesion between tyres and road surface is adequate for establishing the lateral forces required. If the corner is taken at a higher speed, lateral slip occurs at the front or rear wheels or at all wheels. A distinction is drawn between: Understeer (Fig. 2). Wheel-slip angles F of the front wheels are greater than those of the rear wheels R. The vehicle wants to steer a larger radius of bend than that corresponding to the lock on the front wheels and drifts outwards over the front wheels.

Yawing is the rotational motion of the vehicle about its vertical axis (yaw axis) (Fig. 1, Page 414). The yaw velocity is measured by yaw sensors on vehicles with ESP . Rolling is the tipping movement about the roll axis (Fig. 3, Page 414). Pitching is the rotational motion of a vehicle about its transversal axis (Fig. 1, Page 414). REVIEW QUESTIONS
1 What are the 3 spatial axes of a vehicle and what are the movements about them called? 2 What is meant by roll centre (instantaneous centre)? 3 How is the roll axis of a vehicle formed? 4 What is the wheel-slip angle? 5 Explain the terms understeer, oversteer and neutral drivability.

18

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18 Chassis

18.2 Basics principles of steering

The main steering components in the motor vehicle are (Fig. 1): Steering wheel Steering spindle Steering gear Tie rod Tie-rod arm
Tie-rod arm Steering wheel

connection of the kingpins. Ackermann steering is used on all dual-track motor vehicles. When the wheels are turned about the steering axis, the standing area remains almost the same size.

Behaviour of the wheels when cornering

In order for the wheels to be able to roll faultlessly when cornering, each steered wheel must be turned to an angle appropriate to the radius of bend. A greater wheel angle is required for a small radius bend than for a larger one. Since on dual-track vehicles, the wheels on the inside of a curve follow a smaller radius of bend than those on the outside of a curve, they must be turned to a greater angle than the wheels on the outside of a curve. The different steering locks are achieved by the steering trapezoid. Ackermann principle. The wheels must be turned such that the projected centre lines of the steering knuckle of the wheels on the inside and the outside of the bend meet the projected centre line of the rear axle. The circular trajectories covered by the front and rear wheels then have a common centre point (Fig. 3).
d Toe difference a, b Wheel angle

Tie rod

Steering spindle

Tie-rod end

Steering gear

Tie rod

Fig. 1: Main steering components

Functions: Turning (swivelling) the front wheels. Enabling different steering angles. Strengthening (gearing up) the torque generated manually at the steering wheel. Designs: Swinging beam steering Ackermann steering

Steering knuckle

Wheelbase

18.2.1 Swinging beam steering

When the wheels of the steering axle are turned, they are pivoted about a common rotational axis (steering axis). The tendency to tilt increases due to the reduction in the size of the standing area. Swinging beam steering is used on twin-axle trailers. It offers good manoeuvrability.
Steering axle Steering axle

Fig. 3: Ackermann steering, toe-difference angle

Steering trapezoid
This is formed by the tie rod, the two tie-rod arms and the line through the two steering axles (Fig. 4) when the front wheels are set to the straight-ahead position. The steering trapezoid allows the front wheels to turn at different angles, the inside wheel being turned further than the outside wheel.
Steering trapezoid Steering axle

18

Standing area

Fig. 2: Swinging beam steering, Ackermann steering

18.2.2 Ackermann steering

Each wheel is pivoted about its own axis, the steering axis. It is formed by the connection of the upper and lower mounting points of the wheel suspension (Fig. 2, Page 418) or by the longitudinal
Tie-rod arm Tie rod Steering knuckle

Fig. 4: Steering trapezoid

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417
Toe-in
The toe is the difference in length l2 l1 between the front of the two wheels and the rear of the two wheels when set straight ahead. The toe-in is measured at the hub height from rim flange to rim flange and may be given as the toe-in angle (for both wheels) either in millimetres or in degrees (). A distinction is drawn between: Toe-in Zero toe Toe-out Toe-in (l2 l1) > 0 (Fig. 4) This is used with rear-wheel drive and positive kingpin offset. The wheels are pivoted outwards by the rolling resistance at the front. Zero toe (l2 l1) = 0 Toe-out (l2 l1) < 0 (Fig. 5) This is used with front-wheel drive and positive kingpin offset. The wheels are turned inwards by the motive force acting on the tyre contact patch.
e 2 l1
Tie-rod arm Tie rod

18.2.3 Steering linkage

Functions: Transfer of the steering movement produced by the steering gear to the front wheels. Guidance of the wheels in a particular toe-in angle.

Main components
Tie rod(s), tie-rod joint, tie-rod arm, possibly intermediate lever and steering rod. Rigid front axle. Recirculating-ball steering gear is usually used as the steering gear on commercial vehicles. The movement is transferred by the steering-gear pitman arm via the steering rod to the intermediate lever and track arm (tie-rod arm). The latter is connected to the one-piece tie rod and the track arm of the other side of the axle by a tie-rod linkage (Fig. 1).
Connection for steering spindle Recirculating-ball steering gear Pitman arm Steering rod Reversing lever

e 2

e 2 l1

e 2

Fig. 1: Rigid axle with single-piece tie rod

l2

l2

18.3 Wheel adjustment

Wheelbase
The wheelbase is the distance between the centre of the front wheels and the centre of the rear wheels (Fig. 2).

Fig. 4: Toe-in

Fig. 5: Toe-out

Toe, camber, kingpin inclination, kingpin offset and castor are determined such that the following objectives are attained: Small and favourable self-steering effect Good straight-running stability Low tyre wear Compensation for play in the wheel location Little or no tendency of the wheels to wobble

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EUROPE

Toe-difference angle
Fig. 2: Wheelbase Fig. 3: Track width

Track width
The track width is the distance between the wheels on one axle, from the centre of one tyre to the centre of the other, measured when straight (Fig. 3). Wheelbase times track width gives the wheel contact area.

The toe-difference angle is the angle by which the wheel on the inside of the bend is turned beyond the angle turned by the wheel on the outside of the bend (Fig. 3, Page 416). The toe-difference angle is determined at a steering angle of 20 on the wheel on the inside of a bend. It is needed when checking the steering trapezoid for faults, e.g. if the track arms or tie rods are deformed.

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To optimise a vehicle's handling characteristics in respect of the self-steering effect, straight-running stability, directional stability and of the tendency of the wheels to wobble, the various wheel settings, such as camber, kingpin inclination, kingpin offset, castor and toe-in, are co-ordinated. The aim of this is the least possible tyre wear.

18 Chassis The kingpin inclination is given in degrees and minutes. Kingpin inclinations of 5 to 10 are usual. Kingpin inclination and camber together form an angle, the size of which remains the same during compression and rebound. If the kingpin inclination becomes smaller , the camber angle becomes larger and vice-versa. With positive kingpin offset, the kingpin inclination causes the vehicle to be raised at the front when the wheels are turned. The weight of the vehicle creates a torque, which causes the wheels to return automatically to the straight-ahead driving position.
d
g

Camber
Camber is the angle of the wheel plane in relation to a vertical line at the wheel contact point at right angles to the vehicle longitudinal axis (Fig. 1). Camber angle is given in degrees and minutes. A distinction can be made between: Positive camber Negative camber Positive camber. The wheel plane tilts outward at the top. Positive camber produces a cone effect. The wheel thereby tends to turn (pivot) outward. The greater the positive camber, the lower the lateral force when cornering. Negative camber. The wheel plane is tilted inward at the top. The cone effect causes the wheel to tend to turn inwards. Negative camber improves the lateral guidance when cornering, however it produces increased tyre wear on the inside of the tread. Most vehicles have a camber of 60 to + 30 at the steered front wheels when the wheels are in the straight-ahead position. Deviations of 30 are permitted. Generally, a negative camber of 30 to 2 is used at the rear wheels.

Steering axis

Steering axis

R0

Fig. 2: Kingpin inclination

Fig. 3: Positive kingpin offset

Kingpin offset
The kingpin offset R0 is the lever arm on which the frictional forces which occur between the tyres and the road act (Fig. 3). It is measured between the centre of the tyre contact patch and the intersection of the extended steering axis with the road surface. The kingpin inclination and camber together influence the kingpin offset. A distinction can be made between: Positive kingpin offset Zero kingpin offset Negative kingpin offset Positive kingpin offset (Fig. 3)

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Positive Negative

Fig. 1: Positive and negative camber

Kingpin inclination
The kingpin inclination is the angle of the steering axis or kingpin at right angles to the vehicle longitudinal axis in relation to the vertical from the road surface (Fig. 2). The steering axis runs through the upper and lower wheel suspension points, for example.

The extended steering axis intersects with the road surface beyond the centre of the tyre contact patch towards the inside of the tyre. If a braking force acts on the tyre, the wheel pivots outward. If the grip of the wheels is different, the wheel with better grip is pivoted further outward and the vehicle pulls to one side. The aim is a small kingpin offset, to keep the effect of outside forces on the steering to a minimum.

18 Chassis Negative kingpin offset The extended steering axis intersects with the road surface beyond the centre of the tyre contact patch towards the outside of the tyre (Fig. 1). Castor Castor is the result of the steering axis or kingpin being angled along the vehicle longitudinal axis so that it is not perpendicular to the road surface (Fig. 4).

419

Steering axis

Negative castor angle rearward rake

Steering axis

Positive castor angle Steering point Steering axis

Negative R0 < 0

R0 = 0

Zero 0

Direction of travel

Fig. 1: Negative kingpin offset

Fig. 2: Zero kingpin offset

Steering point (+) na

Castor offset

Negative kingpin offset is enabled by using dished wheels and floating-calliper disc brakes, for example. The braking forces acting on a wheel produce a torque which pivots the wheel inwards at the front, since the pivot is located on the outer side of the wheel. If differing adhesion characteristics occur, e.g. during braking (one wheel on a dry road surface, the other on an icy one, or in the event of a puncture), the wheel with the greater grip is pivoted inward more. This creates an automatic countersteer, which counteracts the tendency of a vehicle to pull towards the side of the more heavily braked wheel (Fig. 3).
Moment from one-sided braking force M Wheel contact points MWheel One-sided braking force Countersteer moment Pivot Vertical axis R0

na () in mm

Fig. 4: Castor

Castor is usually expressed as an angle in degrees and minutes. Castor may also be given as a distance na in mm. Positive castor. The wheel contact point is behind the steering axis intersection with the road surface. The wheels are pulled by positive castor. This is used with rear-wheel drive and helps to stabilise the steered wheels. If the castor angle is positive, the wheel on the inside of a bend is lowered and the wheel on the outside of a bend is raised when the wheels are turned. This gives a steering aligning torque after cornering. A negative camber is also produced on the wheel on the outside of a bend. Negative castor. The wheel contact point is in front of the steering axis intersection with the road surface. On vehicles with front-wheel drive, zero castor or small negative castor can be used. This causes a reduction in the return forces and prevents the wheels from being turned back to the straightahead position too quickly after cornering. Castor, kingpin inclination and kingpin offset jointly influence the return forces on the turned wheels. They have a stabilising effect on the steering.

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Negative kingpin offset

Fig. 3: Effect of negative kingpin offset

Zero kingpin offset The extended steering axis intersects with the road surface exactly in the centre of the tyre contact patch (Fig. 2). Characteristics: Low action on the steering by interference factors while driving. The wheel moves when the steering lock is applied while the vehicle is stationary.

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18 Chassis

18.4 Computerised axle alignment

For computer axle alignment, the wheel position dimensions of the motor vehicle are electronically detected and processed by a computer using measurement software. The measurement is made, e.g. by 8 pickups (Fig. 1), which relay the signals to the computer. The computer processes the data received into digital display values which are output on the display screen or on the computer. The individual measured variables can be given to an accuracy of 5 to 10. Measurement process Position the vehicle on a horizontal surface, e.g. a measuring platform. Check the tyre wear profile, tyre and rim size, tyre pressure, condition of the tie-rod joints, wheel bearings and steering pins. Position the front wheels on rotating underplates, the rear wheels on sliding underplates. Compress the vehicle springs. Secure the angle sensor to the wheels using clamping fixtures. Establish communication between the angle sensor and the computer. Enter the vehicle data into the computer. Run rim run-out compensation, if necessary, by turning the angle sensor. Perform the measuring process for the individual wheel setting values and adjust if necessary. After adjustment work, perform a reference dimension check.

The geometrical driving axis is automatically used by the system as the reference axis for computer axle alignment. The geometrical driving axis is formed by the position of the rear wheels (Fig. 1).
Display screen
Single wheel toe, front axle

Computer Keyboard Remote control

+003

Printer

Pickup
+ +

Pickup

2 4

Rotating underplate

Rotating underplate

Axis of symmetry

Geometrical driving axes

Pickup
+

Pickup
+

5 7
+

Sliding underplate
+

6 8

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Print out the result report.

Fig. 1: Computer axle alignment

REVIEW QUESTIONS
1 What functions does the steering have? 2 Describe the trajectory of the front wheels on a vehicle with Ackermann steering when cornering. 3 What makes up the steering trapezoid? 4 What functions does the steering trapezoid have? 5 What functions does the steering linkage have? 6 Explain the terms toe-in and camber. 7 What does the term toe-difference angle mean? 8 Where is the steering axis of a wheel? 9 Which different wheel settings are there? 10 What do positive and negative camber mean? 11 Explain the term kingpin inclination. 12 What effect does kingpin inclination have on the vehicle when the front wheels are turned? 13 Explain the term kingpin offset. 14 What effect does negative kingpin offset have on the front wheels under braking with a one-sided braking force? 15 How is the toe-difference angle measured? 16 Describe an alignment process.

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18.5 Steering gear

Functions: Conversion of the rotary motion of the steering wheel into displacement of the rack and/or moving the pitman arm. Amplification (gearing up) of the torque generated by hand at the steering wheel. The transmission ratio in the steering gear must be designed such that the maximum force at the steering wheel, e.g. 200 N for vehicle category M3, is not exceeded. The transmission ratio is up to i = 19 on passenger cars, up to around i = 36 on commercial vehicles. Nowadays, rack-and-pinion steering gear (Fig. 1) is used on almost all passenger cars, whereas commercial vehicles generally use recirculating-ball steering gear.
d1 d2 P2 Middle range direct Outer range indirect

P1

Outer range indirect

Fig. 2: Variable transmission ratio on mechanical rackand-pinion steering gear

Rack-and-pinion steering gear (mechanical)

Structure. A pinion fitted in the steering-gear housing sits on the steering spindle and engages with the rack by way of helical teeth. The rack is guided in bushes and continuously pressed against the pinion by a thrust member and disc springs to eliminate play (Fig. 1).

Advantages of the variable transmission ratio: More direct steering for fast straight-ahead driving. Low amount of effort required for large steering angles, e.g. when manoeuvring into a parking space.

18.6 Steering systems

A distinction is drawn between steering gear with hydraulic assistance, e.g. rack-and-pinion steering and recirculating-ball power steering, electro-hydraulic assistance (servo effect), e.g. Servotronic and active steering, and electrical assistance, e.g. Servolectric and active steering.

Rubber bellows Pinion Connection, steering spindle

18.6.1 Hydraulic rack-and-pinion steering

Structure (Fig. 1, Page 422). This consists of: Mechanical rack-and-pinion steering gear Hydraulic working cylinders with working plungers Rotary slide as control valve Oil pump, pressure-limiting valve, oil reservoir The rack is driven by the pinion, the drive applied to the tie rods is designed on both ends as a side output. The housing for the rack constitutes the working cylinder, which is divided into two working chambers by a plunger. Rotary slide valves (Fig. 1, Page 422) or rotating plunger valves are used as control valves. The torsion bar is connected by 2 pins on one end with the control bushing and the drive pinion, at the other end it has a rigid connection to the steering spindle and the rotary slide valve. The rotary slide valve is composed of the rotating slide and the control bushing. They have control grooves on their lateral surfaces. The grooves on the control bushing open into housing flutes which lead to the two ram chambers, to the vane pump and to the oil reservoir.

Tie rod

Rack

Thrust member

Fig. 1: Mechanical rack-and-pinion steering gear

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Operating principle. When the steering wheel is turned, the rack is displaced axially by the rotary motion of the pinion and pivots the wheels via the tie rods, tie-rod arms and steering knuckles. Rack-and-pinion steering gear features direct transmission ratio, easy return and flat design. Constant transmission ratio. The tooth pitch is the same over the whole rack. Variable transmission ratio. On mechanical steering gear without hydraulic assistance, the transmission ratio is designed such that the steering in the range of smaller deflections (central range) has a more direct effect than with larger deflections in the outer range (Fig. 2).

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Axial groove Inlet slot Return flow Port Supply Control bushing Radial grooves Rotary slide Drive pinion Pin Torsion bar Control bushing Rotary slide Torsion bar

18 Chassis
Oil reservoir Oil pump

Pin

Working plunger

Working cylinder

Rack

Fig. 1: Hydraulic rack-and-pinion steering with rotary slide valve steering right

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Operating principle. When the steering wheel is turned, the steering force applied manually is transferred via the torsion bar to the drive pinion. At the same time, the torsion bar is stressed in proportion to the counterforce and twisted slightly. This causes the rotary slide to turn in relation to the control bushing surrounding it. This changes the positions of the control grooves in relation to one another. The inlet slots for the pressure oil supply are opened. The pressure oil coming from the oil pump flows through the inlet slots into the lower radial groove of the control bushing and is channelled into the relevant ram chamber. The fluid pressure acts on either the right-hand or the left-hand side of the working plunger and generates the hydraulic assisting force here. It acts in addition to the steering force transferred mechanically from the pinion to the rack. If the steering wheel is not turned any further, the torsion bar and rotary slide valve return to the neutral position. The ports to the ram chambers are closed, the ports for the return flow are opened. The oil flows from the oil pump via the control valve back to the supply reservoir.

At low driving speeds, the full assisting force of the hydraulic rack-and-pinion steering takes effect. The hydraulic assisting force is reduced as driving speed increases. Structure (Fig. 2). Servotronic consists of: Electronic speedometer ECU Hydraulic rack-and-pinion steering Oil reservoir Electro-hydraulic converter Oil pump

Oil reservoir

Pressure-oil pump Speedometer

+

ECU

--

Hydraulic rack-andElectrohydraulic converter pinion steering

18.6.2 Servotronic electro-hydraulic power steering

Servotronic is an electronically controlled rackand-pinion steering system in which the hydraulic assisting forces are influenced by the driving speed.

Fig. 2: Servotronic with hydraulic rack-and-pinion steering

Operating principle. At speeds below 20 km/h the solenoid valve controlled by the ECU remains closed. As the speed increases, the solenoid valve is gradually opened.

18 Chassis Steering right at low speed. If the steering spindle is turned clockwise, right valve plunger (6) is pushed down by the torsion bar and the lever fitted to it. The pressure oil flows into ram chamber (12), acts on the working plunger, thereby assisting the steering force. At the same time, the oil flows through open nonreturn valve (8) into chambers (4) and (5). Steering right at high speed. The solenoid valve is fully open. The pressure oil flows from ram chamber (12) via open non-return valve (8), throttle (10) and the open solenoid valve to the return flow. As a result of the oil flowing in through non-return valve (8) and the throttle effect of throttle (10), the pressure in chamber (4) is greater than in chamber (5). This pushes the lever of plunger (6) upwards and produces a reaction torque on the torsion bar and steering spindle. The steering power assistance thus decreases, the driver must apply more steering force to the steering wheel, the steering is more direct.
Torsion bar 7 Pressure oil 6

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sured via a speed sensor. The two signals are fed to the ECU. The ECU calculates the torque required and its force-transfer direction using stored program maps and sends the relevant output signals to the electric motor. The latter generates an assisting torque which is transformed by a worm-gear pair and transmitted via the steering spindle to the rack-and-pinion steering gear.
ECU Torque sensor

Worm-gear pair

Speedometer Electric motor Rack Pinion ECU Torque sensor

Lever Speedometer

Rack-and-pinion steering gear

Fig. 2: Servolectric electric power steering

4
km/h

18.6.4 Active steering

Active steering allows a steering movement to be made without any driver input.

11

10

Plunger rod Working plunger

Solenoid 12 valve

ECU

Fig. 1: Servotronic hydraulic system steering right and v < 20 km/h

This system primarily consists of: Hydraulic rack-and-pinion steering Electric motor Planetary gearbox ECU Sensors REVIEW QUESTIONS
1 Name the functions of a steering gear. 2 What is a variable transmission ratio on a rackand-pinion steering gear? 3 What are the different types of steering systems? 4 How is a hydraulic rack-and-pinion steering unit constructed? 5 Describe the operating principle of hydraulic rackand-pinion steering. 6 How is Servotronic electro-hydraulic power steering constructed? 7 How is Servotronic electro-hydraulic power steering distinguished from Servolectric electric power steering?

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18.6.3 Electric power steering (Servolectric)

With Servolectric (Fig. 2), the assisting force is generated by an electronically controlled electric motor. The electric motor is only switched on when required. Operating principle. The steering torque applied by the driver is measured via a torsion rod with a torque sensor and in addition the speed is mea-

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18 Chassis

18.7 Wheel suspension

Wheel suspensions have the task of forming a connection between the vehicle body and the wheels. They must absorb high static forces (load) and dynamic forces (motive, braking and lateral forces). The wheel geometry should change little or in the desired manner when the springs on the axles are compressed, to achieve a high degree of driving safety and comfort with low tyre wear. A distinction is drawn between rigid axles independent suspension semi-rigid axles

The use of several trailing arms can reduce diving under braking and rear squatting under acceleration. Rigid axle with separate drive (De Dion axle). To reduce the large unsprung masses of the driven axle, the final-drive unit is separated from the axle and is fitted to the bodywork. Power is transmitted via propeller shafts, each having two homokinetic joints with additional length compensation. The rigid rear-axle tube twisted into a U-shape can be laterally guided by: Two transverse struts (Fig. 2) A Watt linkage A Panhard rod
Rear-axle tube Body mounting

Rigid axles
The two wheels are connected to each other by a rigid axle and sprung against the body. On rigid axles, there is no change in the toe-in or camber during the compression and rebound of a wheel, which reduces tyre friction. When the vehicle is driven over an obstacle on one side, the whole axle is tilted and the camber of the wheels is changed. Rigid axle with integrated drive. The axle is usually designed as housing for the final-drive unit with differential and the axle shafts. Since the housing is generally made from cast steel, this results in relatively large unsprung masses, which reduce driving smoothness and driving safety. On commercial vehicles, it is easiest to secure to the frame or to the body using the leaf springs. In addition to the suspension, these can also take over wheel guidance in a longitudinal or lateral direction. When helical springs or air springs are used trailing arms transfer the wheel forces in a longitudinal direction. transverse struts (panhard rod) transfer the lateral forces (Fig. 1).
Upper trailing arm Panhard rod

Final drive Transverse strut Transverse strut

Fig. 2: De Dion axle

Rigid axle as a steering axle. This usually consists of quenched forging with a I-shaped cross section. To ensure that the engine has sufficient room, the axle is bent downward (Fig. 3). As a mounting for the steering knuckle, a stub stub axle or a fork fork axle is forged on (Fig. 4).

Stub axle

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Leaf spring

Front axle

Fig. 3: Rigid axle as a steering axle

Lower trailing arm Stub Fork

Fig. 1: Rigid axle with integrated drive

Fig. 4: Stub axle, fork axle

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Wheel suspension on double-wishbone axles. Two control arms, one on top of the other are each connected via a ball joint to the steering knuckle. Camber and toe changes can be controlled during operation by the length of the individual suspension arms. Control arms are usually of the wishbone type, to increase rigidity in the direction of travel. They are secured to the chassis by two bearings. Wheel suspension on unequal-length control arms (trapezium shape, Fig. 2). The upper control arm is always shorter than the lower one. This results in a negative camber and little toe change during compression and rebound, which improves stability when cornering. Wheel suspension on equal-length control arms (parallelogram shape). The camber does not change during compression and rebound, however there is a toe change.
Subframe

Semi-rigid axles
On semi-rigid axles, the wheels are fixed rigidly to each other by axle supports. The wheels can move independently of each other to a certain extent due to the elasticity of the axle supports. On vehicles with front-wheel drive, the use of semirigid axles is preferred, the rear axle can be of simple design so that the unsprung masses remain light. A semi-rigid axle acts like a rigid axle if both wheels are compressed at the same time and like independent wheel suspension if compressed at different times. Torsion-beam axle. The rear wheels are suspended from the trailing arms, which are welded to a cross-member made of spring steel (Fig. 1). The cross-member itself is screwed on to the body with rubber-metal bearings. If both wheels compress to the same extent, e.g. under load, the whole axle housing is pivoted evenly in the rubber-metal bearings. If only one wheel spring is compressed, the cross-member becomes twisted in itself and acts like an anti-roll bar. Only small toe and camber changes occur.

Anti-roll bar Triangular control arm

Trailing arm

Fig. 2: Wheel suspension on double-wishbone axles

Bearing block Cross-member

Fig. 1: Torsion-beam axle

Independent suspension
Independent suspension allows the mass of the unsprung parts to be kept small. The compression and rebound of a wheel has no influence on the other wheels. The following are used for the front-wheel suspension: Double-wishbone axles Multiple suspension arms McPherson suspension strut with control arm The rear wheels are predominantly suspended on: Trailing arms Semi-trailing arms Multiple suspension arms

Wheel suspension with suspension strut and control arm (McPherson axle). The McPherson axle (Fig. 3) developed from the double wishbone axle. The upper control arm was replaced by a vibration-damper pipe, to which a steering knuckle is attached. The plunger rod of the damper is secured to the vehicle body in an elastic rubber bearing. There is a helical spring between this attachment point and the spring seat on the damper pipe. Due to the large braking, acceleration and lateral forces, the plunger rod and plunger rod guide are
McPherson suspension strut

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Anti-roll bar

Control arm

Fig. 3: McPherson axle

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of a particularly sturdy design. The rubber bearing must absorb large axial forces and allow large angles of twist at the steering axles. The wheel housing is strengthened at the upper attachment point. Wheel suspension on trailing arms. This is particularly suitable for vehicles with front-wheel drive, since the boot floor between the rear wheels can be lower. If the suspension rotational axis is lying horizontal, the track width, toe-in and camber do not change during compression and rebound. Subframe (Fig. 1). To keep noises and vibrations away from the body more adequately, suspension arms are not attached directly to the body, but are attached to a subframe. This consists of 2 retainer arms which are connected to a horizontal tube. It is bolted to the body at 4 rubber bearings, with the front rubber bearings designed as hydro mounts. The two trailing arms are attached to the subframe by taper roller bearings. To minimise toe changes caused by the lateral forces created during cornering, the trailing arm has a tension bolt. These two together form a four-bar linkage.
Subframe Anti-roll bar Hydro mount Four-bar linkage

18 Chassis The toe and camber changes during compression and rebound are dependent on the inclined position and slope of the semi-trailing arm. If angles and are increased, the wheels adopt greater negative camber during compression, which increases the lateral force when cornering. With this type of wheel suspension, the drive shafts change length during compression and rebound, which necessitates 2 slip joints on each side each with length compensation.
Anti-roll bar Miniblock spring

Subframe

Semi-trailing arm

Fig. 3: Rear-wheel suspension on semi-trailing arms

Tension bolt Tension bolt Trailing arm

Multiple suspension arm axles. All existing wheel suspensions permit undesirable steering movements while the vehicle is in motion due to the elastic suspension mounting on the body, subframe or wheel carrier. Steering movements occur when forces act on the wheel and move it out of the direction of travel by a steering angle towards toe-in or toe-out. This can cause the vehicle to change course significantly, e.g. if there is a crosswind. Type and effect of forces on the wheels:

Fig. 1: Wheel suspension on trailing arm

18

Wheel suspension on semi-trailing arms. Semitrailing link axles (Fig. 2 and Fig. 3) consist of two wishbones, on which the rotational axis of the two mounting bearings runs diagonally to the transversal axis of the vehicle ( = 10 to 20) and horizontally or slightly tilted towards the centre of the vehicle ().

Top view

View from rear

Fig. 2: Tilt angle on semi-trailing arms

Motive forces act in the centre of the wheel along the longitudinal axis of the vehicle and turn the wheel in the toe-in direction. Braking forces act in the centre of the tyre contact area along the longitudinal axis of the vehicle and turn the wheel in the toe-out direction. Lateral forces act just behind the centre of the tyre contact area at right angles to the vehicle longitudinal axis. When cornering, the wheel on the outside of a bend is steered into the toe-out direction, which reduces cornering safety. When cornering sharply, the tread of the tyre is deformed by the rolling movement of the body and by the lateral force which reduces the tyre's reserves of adhesion. Vertical forces act in the direction of the vehicle vertical axis. These occur if the road surface is uneven or if the vehicle is loaded and cause small toe and camber changes.

18 Chassis Elastic steering faults. Fig. 1 shows the steering angle created by the motive force. While the rear rod control arm is tensioned and elongates slightly due to the elastic suspension, the front rod control arm is placed under pressure, leading to a slight contraction. The wheel is turned out of the direction of travel.
Direction of travel Steering angle Front rod control arm Compression

427
The intersection point of the suspension-arm centre line lies outside the wheel midplane, so that the wheel, for example by the action of motive forces, steers exactly as far outwards (M2) as is steered inwards by the elastic fault (M1). Kinematics of the multilink rear suspension. The critical factors for drivability are primarily the toe-in and camber changes, since the self-steering effect of the vehicle is determined by these. If there are changes in the toe angle, a lateral force is created which disrupts the straight-running stability. In Fig. 3 it is possible to see that the toe-angle change during compression or rebound is almost zero. Camber changes in the middle zone of the corner (straight-ahead travel) should be as small as possible, in order not to create large lateral forces. A negative camber arises from compression during cornering, which improves lateral guidance.
80 mm 60 40 20 0.8 0.6 0.4 0.2 20 Toe-out 40 60 80 Toe-angle change Compression 0.2 0.4 () 0.8 Toe-in Rebound 4 2 80 mm 60 40 20 20 40 Negative 60 80 Camber change Positive 2 () 4

a
Motive force
a

a = Movement in resilient bearing a Tension Resilient bearing

Rear rod control arm

Fig.1: Generation of a steering angle

Multilink rear suspension. This compensates for elastic steering faults. It was developed from the twin-control-arm axle with anti-roll bar. The suspension arms which were originally rigidly coupled were broken down into 5 individual beam suspension arms, which lie in exactly fixed position in relation to each other in space and guide the wheel (Fig. 2).

Fig. 3: Changes in toe angle and camber

Roll centre (instantaneous centre). This is the point about which the body, connected to the chassis by springs, tilts under the action of a lateral force. Instantaneous means that this point is only located in this position for a moment. The higher the roll centre, the less distance to the centre of gravity of the vehicle, i.e. the lever arm on which the centrifugal force acts becomes smaller, the lateral tilt is reduced. However, the greater toe-width changes are a disadvantage as they cause uneven straight-running stability. The connecting line through the roll centres of the front and rear axles gives the roll axis. Its distance to the centre of gravity determines the lateral tilt of the body.

M1 M2 Wheel axis

18

Fig. 2: Multilink rear suspension

REVIEW QUESTIONS
1 What are the advantages and disadvantages of rigid axles? 2 What is a semi-rigid axle? 3 Name the most important types of independent suspension. 4 What advantage does the wheel suspension on a double-wishbone axle have? 5 What is an elastic steering fault? 6 What is a subframe? 9 7 8 How is a McPherson axle constructed? Which forces act on the wheel when the vehicle is in motion and how does it react to them? What are semi-trailing arms?

10 How is a multilink rear suspension constructed and what advantages does it have? 11 What is the roll centre? 12 How does a high roll centre affect the tilt of the body?

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18 Chassis

18.8 Suspension
18.8.1 Function of the suspension
Due to the unevenness of a road surface, the wheels of a vehicle must perform movements up and down in addition to their rotational motion. When the vehicle is being driven fast, these movements occur within a very short space of time, generating accelerations and decelerations perpendicular to the road surface which are a multiple of acceleration due to gravity. This causes significant, impulsive forces to act on the vehicle, which are greater if the inertia is greater. The suspension works together with the damping to absorb jolts from the road and to convert them into vibrations. Suspension and damping are decisive for driving smoothness. The vibration of the body moderates the uncomfortable impacts which could cause injury to the occupants and fragile loads are protected. driving safety. If the road surface is very uneven, contact with the surface may be lost; if wheels are up in the air, they cannot transmit any forces, e.g. motive forces, braking forces. cornering ability. When the vehicle is cornering at high speeds, the low wheel grip on the wheels on the inside of a bend causes a reduction in the lateral force. To prevent the vehicle sliding out of a bend, the suspension must have shock absorbers and an anti-roll bar to ensure constant grip of the wheels. The springs are fitted between the wheel suspension and the body. The action of the springs is supported by the tyres. An additional suspension, which is only of benefit to the occupants, however, is the seat suspension (Fig. 1).

18.8.2 Operating principle of the suspension

Due to the suspension, the motor vehicle becomes a vibratory structure with its own vibration frequency defined by the vehicle weight and by the spring (body-vibration frequency). In addition to the jolts from rough road surface, other forces also act on the vehicle (motive forces, braking forces, centrifugal forces). Movements and vibrations can thus occur along the 3 spatial axes (Fig. 2).
Long it udin al axis
Motive force

Vertical axis is Transversal ax

Jerkin g

Drifting

Pitching Lateral force Braking force Skidding Yawing Lifting Lowering Tilting Rolling Wobbling

Fig. 2: Types of vibration acting on the motor vehicle

Vibrations
If the wheel of a motor vehicle travels over an obstacle, both the body and the wheel start to vibrate. The upwards movement of the wheel causes the helical spring to be compressed, the spring force accelerates the body upwards. The spring force generated when the spring expands slows the body down again, the upper reversing point is reached. The body is accelerated downwards by the weight, beyond the rest position. The spring is compressed (tightened), the resulting spring force slows the movement of the body down to the lower reversing point. The travel from the upper to the lower reversing point of a vibration is known as the amplitude of oscillation. This motion sequence is repeated until the kinetic energy is converted into heat by spring and air friction (Fig. 3).

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Fig. 1: Suspension in a passenger car

Lateral suspension. In addition to the vertical jolts from rough road surface, slight lateral jolts also occur. The suspension must therefore also be effective in this direction. In addition, lateral suspension can be provided in part by the tyres and by the rubber bearings, which serve to secure and guide the wheel suspension components.

Amplitude of oscillation

0 Time

Fig. 3: Damped vibration

18 Chassis Resonance. The vibration is pitched if the body is jolted at the frequency of natural oscillation, e.g. when driving over rough roads, where the obstacles are equal distances apart one after the other (Fig. 1).

429

2,500 N 2,000 F 1,500 1,000 500

Amplitude of oscillation

0 0 t F

0.05

0.10

0.15 m 0.20 s

Fig. 3: Progressive spring characteristic Fig. 1: Pitched vibration

Frequency. This is the number of vibrations per second. Since a body does not vibrate very quickly, the number of vibrations is also given per minute (vibration frequency, body-vibration frequency). A large mass and soft springs result in a low frequency (vibration frequency) and a large spring travel. Spring rate. This indicates the properties of the spring (hard, soft). To check or compare springs, a load is applied to them and the resulting compression is measured. The ratio of force F to travel l is referred to as the spring rate c in N/m. Spring characteristics. If the spring rate is the same over the whole range of spring (constant), as for a normal helical spring, for example, the spring has a linear characteristic (Fig. 2).
2,500 N 2,000 F 1,500 1,000 500 F

the wheel suspension). These different masses are connected (coupled) to one another by the springs. This causes feedback to one another, so that the two masses vibrate in different frequency ranges independently of each other (Fig. 4). If a vibration damper (shock absorber) is fitted between the two masses, the amplitude of oscillation becomes smaller, the vibration dies out more quickly.

Sprung mass

Unsprung mass

Fig. 4: Motion sequence when driving over an uneven road surface

Ha rd c

c Soft

00 = 7,5

N/m

0 0

0.05

0.10

0.15 m 0.20 s

If a vehicle is driven over a hump at high speed, the body initially remains balanced due to the large mass. The wheel, with its small mass in relation to the body, is accelerated upwards very rapidly, and in doing so it compresses the spring. Only the force corresponding to this spring travel is acting on the body. On the other side of the hump, the wheel is accelerated downwards by the preloaded spring. Only the load relief of the spring corresponding to the bump acts on the body. If the force from the wheel is greater than the initial tension of the spring, the wheel loses adhesion on the road surface for a short time, as the initial spring tension is insufficient to move the wheel downwards quickly enough. To achieve good driving safety and the best possible comfort, the unsprung mass should be as small as possible.

=2 5,0 0

0N /m

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Fig. 2: Linear spring characteristics

If the spring rate increases as the range of spring increases, e.g. with multi-leaf springs or conical helical springs, the characteristic is plotted as a curve. The spring has a progressive characteristic (Fig. 3).

Sprung masses, unsprung masses

On motor vehicles, a distinction is drawn between sprung masses (body with load) and unsprung masses (wheels with drum or disc brakes, parts of

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Body vibration frequencies
These can be determined by the vibration at the front or rear of the vehicle. A complete vibration consists of the spring compression and rebound process. The number of vibrations per minute then gives the body-vibration frequency. Vibration dampers do not control the vibration frequency, the amplitude of oscillation is downrated by the greater resistance. In contrast, the mass plays a large part. The heavier the vehicle or the larger the payload, the lower the vibration frequencies become. Soft suspension: 60 vibrations per minute or lower can cause nausea. This can be rectified by stronger damping. Hard suspension: 90 vibrations per minute or lower jar the spine. Hard springs are often required for high payloads on the rear axle, however, whereby a more moderate driving smoothness when unladen is achieved. This applies particularly to small vehicles, which must be equipped with sustainable, i.e. hard, springs due to the unfavourable ratio of net weight to maximum load.

18 Chassis Helical springs with a progressive characteristic must be fitted to allow a greater payload and adequate comfort when the vehicle is unladen. This can be achieved with the following: Different sizes of the internal diameter, e.g. taper shape, barrel shape, waist shape Different wire diameters (Fig. 1)

Normal spring Barrel shape Taper shape Waist shape

Different wire diameter at either end

Barrel shape with different wire diameter

Fig. 1: Types of helical springs

18.8.3 Types of springs

18.8.3.1 Steel springs
Most motor vehicles are fitted with steel springs. These may be: Leaf springs Helical springs Torsion-bar springs Anti-roll bars The spring effect is caused by the elastic deformation of spring steel (e.g. chrome-vanadium spring steel) up to the limit of elasticity. The spring characteristic is linear, but the design of the spring can cause it to be progressive. Leaf springs These have a minor role in passenger cars. However, in heavy vehicles, they are the most commonly used type of spring (see Chapter Commercial vehicle technology). Helical springs These are primarily used as compression springs in passenger cars. Advantages: Low weight, low space requirements Disadvantages: Almost no damping, no transmission of wheel forces (longitudinal and transverse forces). Helical springs usually have a linear spring characteristic. Soft helical springs differ from hard helical springs in that they have a: Smaller wire diameter Larger spring internal diameter More loosely wound coil

The barrel-shaped miniblock spring has the advantage over the cylindrical helical spring that the spring coils cannot touch when the spring is compressed while the vehicle is in motion because each coil lies inside the larger ones forming a spiral (Fig. 2). This means that the spring can be shorter without sacrificing a long spring range for a high load-carrying capacity. The miniblock spring incorporates all the options for a progressive spring.

18

Fig. 2: Miniblock spring

Helical springs cannot transfer wheel guidance forces. They are therefore only used in axle designs in which the motive, braking and lateral forces are transferred by other elements (control arm, trailing arm, McPherson-suspension strut). Vibration dampers are nowadays only rarely used inside the helical spring (Fig. 2) because fitting and removal are very time consuming.

18 Chassis Torsion-bar spring A torsion-bar spring is a rod made of spring steel (Fig. 1) which is caused to twist by a lever on which the wheel is mounted.
Torsion bar Frame

431
This counteracts the excessive rolling action (leaning to one side) of the body when the vehicle is cornering. The anti-roll bar has no effect if both wheels are compressed at the same time.

18.8.3.2 Rubber spring

Natural and synthetic rubber are very elastic and have high internal damping characteristics. Many different types of rubber springs are manufactured (Fig. 3) but are not actually used as vehicle springs. The high internal damping and elasticity of the rubber is used to intercept high-frequency vibrations and as noise insulation. To this end, the actual vehicle springs or mountings, e.g. the control arm, are mounted in rubber cushions. This also improves the transverse suspension.
Natural rubber Working chamber Bearing spring Perforated plate Compensating chamber a

Support tube Spring strut (lever)

Fig. 1: Torsion-bar suspension

Torsion bars are mostly round rods, square bars and packages of flat bars. They may be arranged longitudinally or transversely. A longitudinal arrangement allows greater length and therefore a greater torsion angle. These springs are softer and have a longer travel. Torsion bars cannot be subjected to bending. They are therefore often fitted in a tube which provides support against bending and which also provides protection. The heads are usually interlocked. This toothed interlocking allows the initial tension to be changed and to be adjusted evenly on all wheels. Anti-roll bar This is a suspension element which helps to improve the roadholding. U-shape torsion bars are usually used (Fig. 2).
Triangular control arm

Fig. 3: Rubber spring

Fig. 4: Hydro mount

Shockabsorber strut

Hydraulically damped elastomer mountings (hydro mount, Fig. 4) are used instead of simple rubber springs to prevent vibrations of various frequencies from being transferred from the engine to the body. These consist of an elastic bearing spring made from natural rubber, which forms the mechanical connection between the engine and the body, and a hydraulic section, which consists of a working chamber and a compensating chamber and which is filled with hydraulic fluid. A perforated plate between the two chambers impedes the flow of fluid into the compensating chamber and damps any vibrations that have been transferred here (see also Chapter Mechanical Engine Components and Engine suspension).

18

Helical spring

18.8.3.3 Gas-filled spring

Anti-roll bar

A gas-filled spring exploits the elastic properties of an enclosed volume of gas (air or nitrogen) for the purposes of suspension. Air spring These are the most commonly used, but they require a pressure generating system and are therefore primarily used in buses and commercial vehicles which already have one of these for the brakes (see Chapter Commercial vehicle technology). The air spring has a progressive characteristic and has the advantage that the travel of the spring can

Fig. 2: Anti-roll bar

The centre section of the anti-roll bar is able to rotate in its mounting on the body and the two links are attached to the wheel suspension, e.g. control arms, via rubber elements. When a wheel is lifted (compression), the twisting action of the anti-roll bar also raises the other wheel and lowers it when the wheel is lowered.

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be adjusted to the load by altering the air pressure. The height of the load area or entrance can also be set or maintained using level control. On passenger cars, the body can be raised and lowered according to the speed of the vehicle. The angle of the body when cornering can be considerably reduced by control interventions. To prevent pressure loss, the enclosed volume of air is sealed in fixed rubber bellows. This may be roll bellows or a gaiter seal (Fig. 1).

18 Chassis The valves between the working cylinder and the spring ball throttle the flow of fluid in both directions and act like a vibration damper.
Gas Gas chamber Diaphragm Diaphragm Pressureoil port Oil Oil chamber

Valves Cylinder Plunger Plunger rod

Fig. 3: Hydro-pneumatic suspension elements

Fig. 1: Roll bellows and gaiter seal

Air only has a low level of internal damping. This means that vibration dampers must also be fitted or a suspension strut used which consists of a combination of rubber bellows and a gas-pressure shock absorber. Air springs cannot transfer wheel forces and they are therefore fitted between suspension arms or axles, e.g. torsion-beam rear axles (Fig. 2), and the body.
Roll bellows Trailing arm

All the suspension elements are interconnected by a network of lines. The hydraulic cylinder plunger rod is fixed to the trailing arm or the wheel-suspension control arm. Level control. The ground clearance of the body can be adjusted, e.g. for travelling over rough ground or for changing a wheel, using a manually operated level-control valve. The level can be controlled automatically for all load conditions by a linkage which is fixed to the trailing arm and which acts on the ride-height controller plunger (Fig. 4). If the vehicle is more heavily laden, the rear sinks and the plunger rod in the cylinder moves in. At the same time, the plunger in the ride-height controller is moved by the trailing arm and linkage, thereby allowing the pressure oil to flow in. The plunger rod in the cylinder moves out until the old level is reached and the flow of fluid into the rideheight controller is shut off. The increase in load causes an increase in the hydraulic pressure in the cylinder and a simultaneous pressure increase in the nitrogen. The springs become harder and, because the vibration frequency of the body also increases, the suspension characteristics become more uncomfortable. Fitting a third spring ball per axle increases the volume of gas and therefore the volume of the spring; this improves the comfort characteristics of the chassis when driving in a straight line.
Return flow Ride-height controller G Pressureoil supply Unloaded Trailing arm h

Cross-member

Fig. 2: Torsion-beam rear axle with roll bellows

18

Hydro-pneumatic spring In principle, a hydro-pneumatic spring (Fig. 3) is a gas-filled spring combined with a working cylinder. It has the effect of both suspension and a shock absorber. A constant volume of gas (usually nitrogen) in a spring ball is compressed to a greater or lesser extent by pumping in or releasing hydraulic fluid. The gas and fluid are separated by a diaphragm. Gas and fluid are pressurised equally. The pressure is generated by a high-pressure pump and is approximately 180 bar. Depending on the space available, the spring ball may be on the side next to the working cylinder or it may be completely separate from it.

Loaded

Fig. 4: Hydro-pneumatic suspension

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433
anti-roll bars are twisted, they act as additional torsion-bar springs and the suspension becomes generally harder and more uncomfortable. Structure. On a hydractive chassis, the front spring cylinders are mounted vertically and attached to the anti-roll bar via coupling rods, the rear spring cylinders are mounted horizontally. Depending on the hydraulic pressure supplied in the spring cylinders, additional forces may act on the anti-roll bar and cause the spring action to be too hard. There is a third spring ball and a height sensor between the spring cylinders on each axle. Spring movements cause the anti-roll bar to twist, which the height sensor reports to the ECU as a change of body attitude. All the spring cylinders and spring balls are interconnected via the hydraulic block. Hydraulic block. This consists of the hydraulic pump with electric motor, 4 solenoid valves and the ECU. The spring balls are supplied with hydraulic fluid by the hydraulic pump. The operating pressure of the system is between 80 bar and 140 bar. Two solenoid valves on both the front and rear axle control the supply and return flow of the hydraulic fluid. This means that the front end of the vehicle can be raised or lowered independently of the rear end and vice versa. Operating principle of the hydractive chassis. By selecting the Comfort or Sport drive program, the driver can choose between a soft or hard suspension setting.
Rear spring cylinder

Hydractive chassis
Structure. Additional components connect the hydropneumatic suspension system to a chassis which is able to ... reduce the lateral roll of the body when cornering. counteract diving of the front of the vehicle under braking and squatting of the rear of the vehicle under acceleration. change the ride comfort between soft and hard, regardless of whether comfort or sports tuning is selected. The following additional components are required (Fig. 1): 2 anti-roll bars, each with 2 spring cylinders, for the front and rear axles A centre spring ball with hardness controller for both the front and rear axle Hydraulic block Height sensors for the front and rear axle Steering angle, accelerator-pedal and brake-pedal sensors Problematic driving situations can occur when the vehicle corners or swerves suddenly. The angle of the body means that the load on the wheels on the inside of the bend is reduced so that smaller forces are transferred to the road surface. This can result in the vehicle breaking away at the rear or rolling. The cornering speed and the distance of the rolling axis from the vehicle's centre of gravity determine the lateral roll of the body. The angle can be reduced by fitting anti-roll bars. If the wheels are compressed to a differing extent, the
Steering-angle sensor Front spring cylinder with coupling rods

Front ride-height sensor

18

Rear ride-height sensor Rear centre spring ball with hardness controller Hydraulic block ECU Accelerator-pedal and brake-pedal sensors Front centre spring ball with hardness controller Hydraulic lines Electric cables

Fig. 1: Hydractive chassis components and system

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Depending on the driving conditions and driving style (e.g. rapid cornering), the ECU may also make the suspension hard in the Comfort drive program. Comfort drive program. The three spring balls on each axle are interconnected. When the suspension is compressed, the spring-cylinder plunger rod moves in and pushes out the hydraulic oil, which can flow into the spring balls, press against the diaphragms and compress the nitrogen cushion. The 3rd spring ball provides an additional gas cushion which allows a softer spring action (Fig. 1).
Centre spring ball Hardness controller Spring cylinder Spring ball

18 Chassis The suspension becomes harder and the tilt angle of the body is reduced. If this measure were not in place, the body would dive towards the wheels on the outside of the bend and the hydraulic fluid would flow into the suspension elements on the other side. To counteract the squatting of the rear of the vehicle under acceleration, the ECU uses information from the accelerator pedal sensor to disconnect the centre spring ball on the rear axle.
Centre spring ball

To right spring cylinder

Spring ball Supply reservoir

To left spring cylinder Return flow Electrics

Valve spool Solenoid valve Return flow

Supply from hydraulic block

Fig. 2: Hardness controller in sports setting

Hydraulic block

18.8.4 Vibration dampers

Vibration dampers (shock absorbers) allow vibrations from body and wheels to subside more quickly and therefore increase safety and driving comfort. These are fitted between the wheel suspension and the body. Vibrations of the wheels and body have different frequencies. A good damper must be set up so that it is effective for the two different vibrations. Nowadays, hydraulic vibration dampers are almost exclusively used. These consist of a plunger which moves in a cylinder, pushing fluid through small holes or valves (throttle points). Rebound. The wheel moves downwards and pulls the vibration damper apart telescopically (telescopic shock absorber). Compression. The wheel moves upwards. As it does so, the vibration damper is pushed back together. By changing the flow resistance for the fluid as the plunger moves backwards and forwards, it is possible to adjust the vehicle characteristics. Kinetic energy is converted into thermal energy by vibration dampers.

Fig. 1: Hydractive chassis in comfort setting

Sport drive program. If the hardness controller solenoid valve on the centre spring ball is activated by the ECU, the flow to these spring cylinders is blocked. This means that only the volume of gas in two spring cylinders is available and the suspension becomes harder.

18

Function of the hardness controller in the Sport drive program (Fig. 2). The solenoid valve is supplied with power, the return flow to the hydraulic fluid reservoir is opened, the bottom of the valve spool is at zero pressure. Because the top is still subject to the pressure of the suspension, the valve spool is pushed downwards, thereby breaking the connection between the suspension elements and from the suspension elements to the spring ball. Processes during cornering, acceleration, braking. When the vehicle corners, the ECU receives information about the speed and angle of the steering wheel from the steering-angle sensor. To counteract any rolling movement by the body, the solenoid valve is supplied with power and the connection to the spring balls is established.

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435
18.8.4.2 Single-tube gas-pressure shock absorber
The single-tube gas-pressure shock absorber (Fig. 2) behaves exactly the same as the twin-tube vibration damper on the upwards and downwards strokes. However, a special compensating chamber is not required to compensate for the plunger rod volume and so there is no outer tube. Compensation is achieved with a gas cushion of nitrogen which is usually separated from the oil chamber by a moveable plunger. The gas cushion, which is at a pressure of 20 bar to 30 bar, is squeezed and further compressed by the oil forced out by the plunger rod when the working plunger moves down. The gas cushion and oil are always pressurised, which prevents the oil from foaming and causing a reduction in the damping effect.

18.8.4.1 Twin-tube vibration damper

Hydraulic vibration dampers basically consist of a cylinder in which a plunger with plunger rod can move up and down. In a twin-tube vibration damper (Fig. 1), the plunger rod and protective tube are fixed to the body and the cylinder is fixed to the wheel suspension.
Rubber bearing Plunger rod Protective tube Seal Air chamber Working chamber Outer tube Inner tube Compensating chamber Plate valves Plunger Base valve Cylinder

Gas cushion

Working plunger Oil chamber Separating plunger Compensating chamber Gas cushion Base valve

Fig. 1: Twin-tube vibration damper

The cylinder consists of an inner and an outer tube. The inner tube contains the working chamber in which the plunger moves. This is completely filled with oil. Between the inner and the outer tube, there is the compensating chamber. This is only partially filled with oil and is designed to take the oil which is pushed out of the working chamber when the plunger rod moves in. Valves are fitted in the plunger and the working chamber which throttle the oil flow at differing rates. During the rebound stage, damping is stronger. As the plunger moves upwards, the oil has to be pressed through fine openings in the plate valves in the plunger. At the same time, oil is sucked back out of the compensating chamber through the base valve. Installation only with the plunger rod at the top, as otherwise air would be drawn out of the compensating chamber, which would cause the oil to foam and the damping to fail.

Fig. 2: Single-tube gas-pressure shock absorber

Fig. 3: Twin-tube gas-pressure shock absorber

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Single-tube gas-pressure shock absorbers with a separating plunger can be fitted in any location. For versions with an impact plate, the plunger rod must always be at the bottom.

18.8.4.3 Twin-tube gas-pressure shock absorber

The twin-tube gas-pressure shock absorber (Fig. 3) has a similar structure to the twin-tube vibration damper. A ring-shaped compensating chamber contains nitrogen at an initial pressure of 3 bar to 8 bar. This prevents the formation of gas bubbles when the vibration damper moves quickly. The damping forces are improved in nearly all vibration ranges.

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Twin-tube gas-pressure shock absorber with variable damping In the past, it was practically impossible to adjust a shock absorber to the different load conditions of a vehicle. Vehicles with heavy loads (e.g. heavy goods vehicles with trailers) require strong damping, but this results in unpleasant shaking and bouncing when the vehicle is unladen and driven on rough roads. One or more grooves in the cylinder wall of a twintube gas-pressure shock absorber (Fig. 1) can provide the desired variable damping characteristics. Light load. The working plunger moves in the area between the two grooves. The oil can flow through both the plunger valves and the grooves. This additional bypass reduces the damping force, thereby increasing comfort. Heavy load. The working plunger moves underneath the area with the grooves where there is no additional throughflow cross-section. There are maximum damping forces. The number and length of the grooves, as well as their height offset, allow the damping forces to be adjusted not only to the load, but also to all the suspension systems used.

18 Chassis closed curves. The damping force increases because plunger speed in the damper increases if the crankshaft drive is rotating at a constant speed.
Damping force Rebound 4,000 N 3,000 2,000

20

10

10 mm 20 1,000 Plunger travel

Compression

Fig. 2: Test graph of a gas-pressure shock absorber

Fitting valves with various throughflow cross-sections in the plunger results in varying damping forces in the rebound and compression stages. The ratio of the damping forces in the compression stage to those in the rebound stage is between 2 and 5. Vibration damper fitted. All the dampers on one axle are tested on a shock tester at the same time. The wheels rest on a plate and are each caused to vibrate by an electric motor via an eccentric element and a compression spring. Once the motor is switched off, the vibration is allowed to continue through its entire frequency range until it comes to a standstill and a measuring instrument records this on a disc (Fig. 3). The greatest amplitude is displayed at the resonance point. This indicates the damping capabilities of the damper concerned. If the measured resonance amplitude is greater than or equal to the limit value given, the damper is faulty. A disc graph can be used to show the damper vibrations on one side of the vehicle.

Gas cushion Groove (bypass) Reduced damping, partial load

Closed

18

Strong damping, full load

Fig. 1:Twin-tube gas-pressure shock absorber with variable damping

Limit value Actual value

42 MM 35 MM

42 MM 49 MM

18.8.4.4 Test graphs

Vibration damper removed. In order to obtain the characteristic curves of a vibration damper, the damper must be tensioned in a testing device. The damper is moved by a cranked drive. The damping forces as shown by the plunger travel are measured and plotted on a graph. A constant rebound and compression results in closed curves (Fig. 2). An increase in the radius of the crankshaft on the testing device also increases the rebound and compression of the damper, resulting in further
35 m m

49 m

Rear

No

Yes REPLACEMENT

No

Yes

Front

Fig. 3: Vibration patterns of 2 dampers

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Sensor cable, induction signal

18.8.4.5 Vibration dampers in the compound suspension system

Suspension strut The combination of a vibration damper in a reinforced construction with a spring, usually a helical spring, is known as a suspension strut. Suspension struts can also be used as wheel suspension if they have an additional steering knuckle (Fig. 1). Vibration-damper cartridges are used so that the entire suspension strut does not have to be replaced if the vibration damper is faulty. If there is a reduction in damping forces, the cartridge can be changed by opening a threaded connection at the top of the container tube.
Helical spring

Air line Air bell Sensor coil Roll bellows Gas-pressure vibration damper Vehicle loaded Vehicle unloaded

Fig. 2: Air-spring damper

Vibration damper

Threaded connection Vibration-damper cartridge Steering knuckle

The air spring, which is attached via the gas-pressure shock absorber, consists of an air bell and roll bellows. If the load increases, the shock-absorber tube sinks further into the sensor coil integrated in the air bell and generates an induction voltage which is forwarded to the ECU as a signal. The ECU allows air to flow in via the compressor until the specified vehicle height is reached. The pressure in the suspension air bag is between 5 and 11 bar, depending on the load. Hydro-pneumatic level control system. The system consists of: Suspension struts and spring-type actuators (Fig. 3) Compressed-oil system with radial-piston pump and oil reservoir Control device with level controller and actuation linkage The spring-type actuators work like a hydro-pneumatic auxiliary spring. If the rear of the vehicle has squatted, the spring element is supplied with pressure oil via the level-control valve until the normal level is reached. The oil is then returned to the container by the pump at nearly zero pressure.
Gas cushion Spring-type actuator Diaphragm Connection for high-pressure oil pump

Stroke

Control arm

Fig. 1: Suspension strut

Vibration dampers with a level control system The suspension in a passenger car is usually designed so that the optimum roadholding is achieved when the vehicle has an average load. If the vehicle is fully laden, the rear of the vehicle squats significantly, the ground clearance and spring range are reduced and roadholding is impaired. This often also results in uncontrolled steering characteristics, cross wind sensitivity and glare for oncoming traffic when driving at night. Driving comfort deteriorates because the increased load changes the vibration frequency of steel springs. A constant natural frequency of 1 Hertz (corresponds to a vibration frequency of 60) in all load conditions is only possible with a levelcontrolled gas spring. This allows the height of the vehicle to be automatically maintained, even when towing a trailer. A distinction is made between pneumatic and hydro-pneumatic systems. Pneumatic level control system. The system consists of a compressor, an ECU and two air-spring dampers, each with an induction sensor. The airspring dampers consist of a combination of singletube gas-pressure shock absorber with air springs (Fig. 2). These bear the entire axle load.

18

Oil Body

Suspension strut Wheel suspension

Fig. 3: Suspension strut with spring-type actuator

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18 Chassis

18.8.5 Active Body Control (ABC)

Active Body Control (ABC) is an electro-hydraulic active chassis system which, in addition to its suspension and damping functions, enables automatic level control while the vehicle is in motion. This maintains the vehicle body at practically the same level at the front and rear axles when the vehicle brakes, accelerates, drives over uneven road surfaces and bends. Structure Each wheel is mounted to a suspension strut consisting of a vibration damper and a helical spring. The plunger is a dynamically adjustable hydraulic cylinder which is able to generate forces which counteract wheel or body movements. To do this, the plunger moves the base of the helical spring and changes the tension. This reduces body movements in the direction of the 3 vehicle axles.
Pulsation damper (52a) Front suspension strut (40) Front bleed screw (56) Oil cooler (9) Valve unit, pressure supply (52) Rear bleed screw (57) Rear suspension strut (41)

Hydraulic cylinder (plunger)

Helical spring

Vibration damper

Fig. 1: Suspension strut with plunger

Rear suspension strut (41)

Pressure accumulator, rear axle (4)

Radial-piston pump (1) Valve unit ABC, front axle (Y36/1) Pressure accumulator, front axle (14)

Oil reser- Front suspenvoir (2) sion strut (40) Front bleed screw (56)

Pressure accumulator, return (53)

Valve unit ABC, rear axle (Y36/2)

Rear bleed screw (57)

18

Fig. 2: Active Body Control (layout) Legend for the ABC diagrams a b c d 1 2 2a 9 4 14 40 41 52 52a 52b Suction line Operating pressure Control pressure Return line Radial-piston pump Oil reservoir Oil filter Oil cooler Pressure accumulator, rear axle Pressure accumulator, front axle Front suspension strut Rear suspension strut Valve unit, pressure supply Pulsation damper Pressure-limiting valve 53 56 57 F1 F2 N51/2 N10/6 B4/5 B22/1 B22/4 B22/5 B22/6 B22/7 B22/8 B22/9 B22/10 B40/1 Pressure accumulator, return Front bleed screw Rear bleed screw Fuse 1 Fuse 2 ABC ECU SAM ECU ABC pressure sensor Plunger travel sensor, rear left Plunger travel sensor, front left Plunger travel sensor, front right Plunger travel sensor, rear right Level sensor, rear left Level sensor, front left Level sensor, front right Level sensor, rear right ABC oil temperature sensor B24/12 B24/14 B24/3 B24/4 B24/6 Y36/1 y1 y2 y3 y4 y36/2 y1 y2 y3 y4 y86/1 Lateral-acceleration sensor Longitudinal-acceleration sensor Body acceleration sensor, front left Body acceleration sensor, front right Body acceleration sensor, rear Valve unit ABC, front axle Suspension strut control valve, front left Suspension strut check valve, front left Suspension strut control valve, front right Suspension strut check valve, front right Valve unit ABC, rear axle Suspension strut control valve, rear left Suspension strut check valve, rear left Suspension strut control valve, rear right Suspension strut check valve, rear right ABC vacuum valve

18 Chassis
40 B22/5 52 56 2 2a y3 9
U T

439
41 B22/6 Y36/2 4 B4/5
P U

Y36/1 y4

52b 53

57

14

y4 y3 y1 y2

B40/1

y1 y2

52a

Y86/1

56

a b B22/4 40 c d

57

B22/1 41

Fig. 1: ABC hydraulic-circuit diagram

30 15 F1 F2 B4/5 B22/5 B22/9 B22/4 B22/8 B24/4 B24/3 B40/1 B24/6 B24/12 B24/14 B22/1 B22/7 B22/6 B22/10

48 21

46

36 38 10 42 41 19 20 44 40 8 37 16 15 30 18 17 34

39 27

ECU plug 2
23 5 29 7 31 1 25 3

N51/2
35 11

26

29

10

12

27

23

25

17

18 14 20 21 4 2 5 3 6 16 19

ECU plug 1
26 11 24 9 30 15 28 13 1

Plug 3
H L

CAN SAM
N10/6 y2 y4 y1 y3 y86/1 y2 y4 y1 y3

CAN C

Y36/1

Y36/2

Diagnosis

31

18
Fig. 2: ABC schematic diagram

Task and function of the sensors

Pressure sensor B4/5 reports the hydraulic pressure to the ECU via pin 36, pin 37 plug 2. This is regulated to 180 to 200 bar by the vacuum valve y86/1. Oil temperature sensor B40/1 measures the hydraulic-oil temperature in the return flow pin 26, pin 2 (plug 2). Travel sensors in the hydraulic cylinder (plunger) B22/6; B22/1; B22/4; B22/5 transmit the actual position of the positioning cylinder in the suspension

strut to the ECU pin 20; pin 17 (plug 1), pin 18, pin 16 (plug 2). Level sensors B22/7, B22/10, B22/8, B22/9 detect the level of the vehicle body using the relevant control arm pin 2; pin 5 (plug 1), pin 20; pin 42 (plug 2). Body acceleration sensors B24/3, B24/4, B24/6 measure the vertical acceleration of the vehicle body. They consist of electronic vibration modules which send their signals to the ECU via pin 6, pin 8 (plug 2), pin 29 (plug 1). They are required to be able to record the lifting movements of the body.

440
Lateral and longitudinal acceleration sensors B24/12, B24/14 determine the lateral and longitudinal dynamics of the vehicle pin 27, pin 25 (plug 1) and are required to compensate for rolling and pitching movements. Signal acquisition and actuation module SAM activates the ECU via pin 23 (plug 2) via the remote control, door contact switch or luggage compartment lighting. The ECU checks the vehicle level in order to lower it to the preselected level if necessary. ABC ECU N51/2 compares stored and preselected program maps (sport/comfort) in order to control the actuators using incoming sensor signals and information that is transmitted from other systems via the CAN bus.

18 Chassis Cornering. When the vehicle is corning, the lateralacceleration sensor B24/12 registers centrifugal forces. The relevant signal is transferred to the ECU via pin 27 plug 1. The ECU uses the speed of the front right and front left wheels from the CAN C to determine whether it is a left-hand or right-hand bend. If it is a left-hand bend, the ECU N51/2 actuates control valves y3 via pin 3, pin 27 (plug 2) and pin 28, pin 13 (plug 1), so that the plunger moves out and the side of the vehicle on the outside of the bend is raised. At the same time, the control valves y1 are switched via pin 1, pin 25 (plug 2) and pin 30, pin 15 (plug 1) so that the load on the plunger on the side of the vehicle on the inside of the bend is relieved. The side of the vehicle on the inside of the bend is lowered. The level sensors B22/22/7 ... 22/10 are used to compare the actual level with the target level. Acceleration. When the vehicle accelerates, the longitudinal-acceleration sensor B24/14 registers acceleration forces on the longitudinal axis of the vehicle. The signal is transferred to the ECU at pin 25 plug 1 which actuates the control valves so that the vehicle body sinks at the front axle and is raised at the rear axle. Braking. When the vehicle brakes, the ECU receives information that a braking procedure has been commenced from the closed brake-light switch via the CAN C. The longitudinal-acceleration sensor supplies the ECU with information about the deceleration rate via pin 25 plug 1. The ECU actuates the control valves so that the vehicle body is raised at the front axle and lowered at the rear axle. Driving straight ahead. When the vehicle is driving straight ahead, the ECU receives information about the vehicle speed via the CAN C. The ECU actuates the control valves to automatically lower the vehicle according to the preselected program map. If the driver wishes, the vehicle can be raised by 25 or 50 mm (by pressing the level switch (CAN C)). Vertical vibrations. If the vehicle vibrates in the direction of the vertical axis due to an uneven road surface, these movements are transferred to the ECU from the body acceleration sensors B24/3, B24/4, B24/6 via pin 6, pin 8 (plug 2) and pin 29 (plug 1). The level sensors B22/7, B22/8, B22/9 pin 42, B22/10 report the amplitude via pin 20 plug 2 and pin 2, pin 5 (plug 1). The ECU actuates the control valves according to the preselected program map (sport/comfort) so that the body vibrations are damped and evened out.

Task and function of the actuators

The vacuum valve y86/1 regulates the quantity of oil sucked in by the oil pump so that an oil pressure of 180 to 200 bar can be established and maintained in the ABC system. When it is not energised, the valve is closed in order to maintain the pressure in the system. Control valves y1, y3. The positioning cylinders are moved when the control valves are actuated. This causes the body to sink or rise at the corresponding wheel. The downforce of the wheels may be briefly increased by this. Check valves y2, y4 are closed when the engine is off, the vehicle is stationary and if faults occur to prevent pressure loss. This also prevents the positioning cylinders from being pulled apart if the wheel is changed or the vehicle is placed on a lifting platform, for example.

18
Control procedures
Starting the engine. When the vehicle door is opened, the ABC ECU is activated by the signal acquisition and actuation module pin 23 (plug 2). The level sensors B22/7 ... 22/10 are used to compare the actual level with the target level. If the actual level is higher than the target level, the control valves y1, y3 are actuated and the vehicle is lowered to the target level. The ECU is powered with battery + via pin 48 and with battery via pin 21 in order to carry out this control procedure. Once the ignition has been switched on, there is an additional power supply via pin 46 plug 2.

18 Chassis

441
wheel disc or the wheel spider (Fig. 2). The cross section of the rim may be symmetrical or asymmetrical.
a Bead seat Rim flange Valve hole a = Rim width

18.9 Wheels and tyres

18.9.1 Wheels
Requirements on the wheels Low weight Large diameter for large brake discs High dimensional stability and elasticity Good heat dissipation properties (frictional heat) Easy replacement of tyres and wheels in the event of damage Structure of the wheel The wheel consists of the rim and the wheel disc with a centre hole and bolt holes. Instead of a wheel disc, there may be a wheel spider, or the rim may be connected to the hub by steel spokes. The wheel is secured to the flange of the wheel hub (Fig. 1), which pivots about the kingpin, with wheel nuts or wheel bolts. The brake drum or brake disc is also bolted to the wheel-hub flange. If the bearing is open, a hub cover protects the bearing and is also the mounting location for the grease reservoir.

Rim well

D = Rim diameter

Fig. 2: Single-piece symmetrical drop-centre rim

Hump rim. If tubeless radial-ply tyres are used, drop-centre rims which have a continual raised section = hump (H) on the bead seat near to the rim well (Fig. 3). If this raised section is not rounded, it is known as a flat hump (FH). Both types are designed to prevent the tyre bead from being pushed from the bead seat into the rim well by the large lateral forces which occur when the vehicle is cornering at speed. The air escapes suddenly on tubeless tyres, which could result in a serious accident.
Hump Flat hump

Wheel bolt Wheel hub McPherson suspension strut

Rim well

Kingpin

Drive shaft Control arm Lower supporting joint Steering knuckle Disc wheel

Hubcap

Fig. 3: Asymmetrical hump rim

Brake disc

Fig. 1: Passenger-car wheel with bolted wheel hub

Rims There are rims which are fixed to the wheel disc and those which can be removed. We also make a distinction between single-piece rims (drop-centre rims) and multi-piece rims, which are used on commercial vehicles (see Chapter Commercial vehicle technology). Drop-centre rims. Single-piece drop-centre rims are used almost exclusively on passenger vehicles. They are a single-piece cast or forged out of light alloy and are riveted, welded or bolted to the

Dimensions and designations on rims This data is standardised. The rim designation is stamped on each wheel by the manufacturer. It basically consists of two dimensions: the rim width a in inches and the rim diameter D in inches. The two dimensions are separated by an x on drop-centre rims. Code letters after the rim width indicate the shape of the rim flange, code letters after the rim diameter indicate the type of rim. Example: 61/2 J 6 1/2 J x 15 H RO 35

18

Rim width in inches Code letter for the dimensions of the rim flange x Single-piece rim (drop-centre rim) 15 Rim diameter in inches H A hump on the outer bead seat RO 35 Offset 35 mm

442
Other rim designations: H2 Hump on both sides FH Flat hump on the outer bead seat FH2 Flat hump on both sides CH Combination hump: Flat hump on the outer bead seat and hump on the inner bead seat EH Extended hump SDC Semi-drop-centre rim TD Special rim with reduced a reduced flange height to improve the ride comfort of the tyre. A groove in the bead seat accommodates the tyre bead so that the bead cannot jump out if the tyre is depressurised. The rim width and diameter are given in mm. Offset This is the measurement from the centre of the rim to the inner contact face (wheel-mounting plane) of the disc wheel (Fig. 1). Selecting a wheel with a different rim offset may change the track width. Note about changing the rim: If the track width changes, other geometrical dimensions, such as the kingpin offset and camber, will also change. Positive offset. The inner contact face is moved to the outer section of the wheel in relation to the centre of the rim. Negative offset. The inner contact face is moved to the inner section of the wheel. Using rims with a negative offset increases the track width of a motor vehicle.
RO RO

18 Chassis

18.9.2 Tyres
Requirements on the tyres To support the weight of the vehicle To absorb and damping jolts from the road To transfer drive, braking and lateral forces Low rolling resistance (low friction and heat development) Adequate service life Quiet and low-vibration rolling Structure The tyres include the inner tube and valve, the tyre itself and the rim band. The latter is now only used on mopeds and motorcycles with wire-spoked wheels to protect the inner tube from being damaged by the nipple heads of the wire spokes. The inner tube must correspond to the tyre size. In this type of tyre, the inner tube must always be replaced at the same time as the tyre. The tyre (Fig. 2) consists of: Carcass Protector with tread Bracing layer (on radial-ply tyres) Side wall Beads with inserted wire-spoked cores Airtight rubber layer
Tread Protector

Bracing layer Airtight rubber layer Carcass Bead core Side wall Bead

18
Positive offset

Inner contact face Negative offset

Inner contact face

Hump Rim flange Bead seat

Valve

Fig. 1: Rim offset

Fig. 2: Structure of a tyre

Types of wheels Disc wheels are pressed out of steel sheet or cast or forged out of light alloy, e.g. GK-AlSi 10 Mg. Benefits of wheels made from light alloy: Low weight (small unsprung mass) More effective brake ventilation and heat dissipation Lightweight wheels made from newly developed steels, e.g. DP 600 or HR 60, can have thinner walls and have become up to 40 % lighter compared to previous steel wheels made from RSt 37.

Carcass. This is constructed of rubberised cord fibres made from nylon, rayon, steel, polyester or aramid. The fibres are laid on top of each other in layers, either radially at right angles to the direction of travel or diagonally in a point towards the running direction. The fibres are wound around two steel rings (bead cores) and are fixed in place by vulcanisation. Protector. This consists of several layers of fabric and rubber cushions. It damps impacts and protects the carcass.

18 Chassis Bracing layer. This consists of several layers of steel wires, textile fibres or aramid fibres embedded in rubber. The bracing layer lies over the carcass and is made in such a way that the wires or fibres cross. In high-speed tyres, the bracing layer may be folded (Fig. 1 ), thereby increasing the stability.
Folded aramid bracing layer

443
However, these numerical values do not correspond to the actual dimensions of the tyre. Exact values must therefore be taken from the standard table. All measurements apply to tyres that are inflated to the standard pressure and unladen (Fig. 2). Aspect ratio. In order to distinguish between different tyre types, e.g. balloon tyres and low-crosssection tyres, the ratio of the tyre height H to tyre width W is established. This is given as a percentage in tyre designations. On modern tyres, the width is greater than the height. If the height of the tyre is 80 % of the width, for example, the ratio height to width = 0.8 : 1. As the percentage is used in the tyre designation, these would be known as 80s tyres. Effective radius. A vertical tyre under load has a smaller radius (distance from the centre of the wheel to the road surface) than an unladen tyre. This is known as static radius rstat (Fig. 3). When the vehicle is in motion, the compression of the tyres is eliminated by the centrifugal force and the radius increases again. This is known as dynamic radius rdyn.

Carcass, 2-ply rayon

Bead wrapping Bead apex Airtight rubber layer Bead core

Fig. 1: Arrangement of the carcass and bracing layer in a tyre

Tread. This has grooves. The longitudinally grooved tread provides the tyre with cornering stability and the cross-groove tread transfers motive forces. The arrangement of the tread has a considerable impact on aquaplaning, rolling resistance and the noise characteristics of the tyres. If the road is wet, a wedge of water can form between the tyres and the road surface at high speeds. This eliminates the road-surface adhesion and renders the vehicle unsteerable. The grooves in the tread must be of a certain shape and depth to dissipate the water quickly. The minimum tread depth of 1.6 mm prescribed by law is not sufficient to prevent aquaplaning in many cases. Side wall. Lower side walls increase the rigidity of the tyre, which improves steering precision but reduces ride comfort. Bead. This has the task of keeping the tyre firmly in place on the rim so that braking, motive and lateral forces can be transferred to the road. It is therefore made to be particularly rigid using cables made from steel wire (bead core). On tubeless tyres, it has the additional task of sealing the tyre onto the rim. Dimensions and designations on the tyre Tyre size. This is given as 2 measurements: tyre width in inches or mm and rim diameter in inches or mm.

Load

rstat

18
W

Compression

Fig. 2: Tyre measurements

Fig. 3: Tyre under load

Dynamic rolling circumference Udyn. This describes the distance that the tyre covers with one revolution at a speed of 60 km/h when it is bearing the load specified in the standard and inflated to the specified air pressure. The accuracy of the speedometer reading depends on the rolling circumference. The static radius and the dynamic rolling circumference are given in tyre tables.

444
Tyre speed category. This classifies tyres for passenger vehicles and motorcycles according to their maximum permissible speed. Each maximum permissible speed is given a code letter, a selection of which is shown in Table 1. Table 1: Speed categories
Maximum tyre speed in km/h Speed symbol Maximum tyre speed in km/h Speed symbol

18 Chassis 335 / 30 ZR 18 (102 W) This tyre has a dual designation for the speed. The part in brackets means that the tyre has a maximum speed of 270 km/h (W) at a load index of 102. If the vehicle is approved for greater speeds, the vehicle manufacturer must issue an approval which sets out the permissible load-bearing capacity and speed. Note: the tyre load-bearing capacity of these tyres is reduced by 5 % every 10 km/h above 240 km/h. Tyre designations (Fig. 1). In accordance with ECE regulation no. 20 (ECE = Economic Commission for Europe), the information listed in Fig. 1 must be used for a tyre designation. The full tyre designation must be taken from the motor vehicle technology book of tables.
Code letter for permissible top speed (210 km/h) Code number for tyre load-bearing capacity (615 kg) Rim diameter in inches Code letter for radial-ply tyre Height-to-width ratio in % Tyre width in mm

160 180 190 210

Q S T H

240 270 300 over 240

V W Y ZR

Tyre load-bearing capacity (Table 2). This is shown by the load index (LI). This is a code number and indicates the maximum load-bearing capacity of the tyre at the standard pressure. For some tyres for commercial vehicles, the PR designation (ply rating) is also given. 8 PR means that, due to the rigidity of its carcass, a tyre can bear the same load as a tyre with 8 layers of cotton cord even though it has fewer layers. The tyre load-bearing capacity depends on the tyre type, maximum speed, tyre pressure and camber. These must be determined from the vehicle. Tyres with the designation Reinforced or Extra Load have a reinforced carcass. This means that they can bear greater loads at a greater air pressure. The load index is higher on these tyres. Table 2:Tyre load-bearing capacity LI (selection)
Tyre size LI 135/80 R 13 185/70 R 14 195/65 R 15 205/50 R 16 70 88 91 87 kg 335 560 615 545 bar 2.4 2.5 2.5 2.5 Reinforced (Extra Load) LI kg bar 74 92 95 91 375 630 690 615 2.8 2.9 2.9 2.9

Fig. 1: ECE tyre designation

18

Tyre type We distinguish between balloon tyres, super lowpressure tyres, low-cross-section tyres, super lowcross-section tyres, 70, 60, 50, 40, 35 tyres, etc., according to the aspect ratio of the tyres (Fig. 2). The ratio of tyre height to tyre width varies between the individual shapes, which results in different handling characteristics. They vary from an almost round profile (balloon) to an ever flatter and wider cross-section. Wider treads and lower side walls result in better driving safety, which is very important as the speed increases.
Tyre width Tyre height Super lowcross-section tyre

Examples of tyre designations 195 / 60 R 15 88 H R = radial-ply tyre 195 = nominal tyre width 195 mm; 60 = aspect ratio 60 %; 15 = rim diameter 15 88 = load capacity 560 kg H = maximum speed 210 km/h.

195

65

R1 5

91

70s tyre

50s tyre

Fig. 2: Tyre cross-sections (selection)

18 Chassis Balloon tyres (height to width = 0.98 : 1) e.g. 4.50-16, have good suspension characteristics but poor cornering stability due to the large tyre height. Super low-pressure tyres (height to width = 0.95 : 1) e.g. 5.60-15, are distinguished from balloon tyres by their wider shape and smaller inner diameter (up to 15"). Low-cross-section tyres (height to width = 0.88 : 1) e.g. 6.00-14, have a width in 1/2" gradations. They may also be marked with the letter L (low). Super low-cross-section tyres (height to width ~ 0.82) e.g. 165 R 13, were manufactured as crossply tyres and, from 1964, as radial-ply tyres (80s tyres). 70s tyre (height to width = 0.70 : 1) have a height that is 70 % of the width. This is what gives the tyres their designation. They have the advantage of increased road grip and vehicle stability. The high lateral forces allow greater cornering speeds. 50s tyres (height to width = 0.5 : 1) e.g. 225/50 R 16, have a height that is only 50 % of the width. The rim diameter is increased since the rolling circumference of the tyre remains constant, compared to 195/65 R 15 tyres. Advantages: Larger and higher performance brake discs with better ventilation can be fitted. Not sensitive to lateral deformation as the crosssection is low and flat. High lateral stability when steering into bends; occurrence of large lateral forces even at small wheel-slip angles, allowing high cornering speeds. Increased resistance to lateral twisting. More precise response to steering movements. Disadvantages: Poorer aquaplaning characteristics Lower internal suspension, loss of comfort Greater steering effort required Tyre contact patch (tyre contact area, positive tread) As the tyre width increases, so does the contact patch of the tyre on the ground (Fig. 1). A larger contact area increases the friction force so that the tyre grip is increased under fast cornering and under braking. Coulomb's law, which states that the friction force depends only on the normal force (vertical load) and the friction coefficient, only applies to tyres to a limited extent. When rubber-elastic materials rub against coarse surfaces (roads), the size of the surfaces rubbing against each other due to the indentations is significant.
Super low-pressure tyre 70s tyre

445

Fig. 1: Tyre contact patches

Negative tread. This is made up of lateral, longitudinal and diagonal grooves between the individual tread bars. If the tyre contact patch is large, the proportion of negative volume must be increased in relation to the tyre contact patch to prevent the tyre aquaplaning due to increased water absorption. The effectiveness of the tyre for winter driving is also increased by the higher ground pressure. Air-pumping effect. Deformation of the tyre contact patch while the vehicle is in motion can create enclosed cavities, depending on the layout of the negative tread, which can abruptly fill with air and then empty again. This results in considerable driving noise. Tyre construction A distinction is made between crossply tyres and radial-ply tyres according to the carcass structure. Crossply tyres. The fabric plies are laid diagonally on top of each other so that the cord fibres form a point (cord angle) of 26 to 40 along the direction of travel (Fig. 2). The smaller the cord angle, the harder the tyres, the better the lateral stability and the greater the possible cornering speeds. Crossply tyres are primarily used on motorcycles (see Chapter Motorcycle technology).

18

8 3 35

34 30

Normal tyre

"S" tyre

Fig. 2: Cord angle on crossply tyres

446
Radial-ply tyres (Figs. 1 and 2). All the cord threads on the carcass are situated next to each other and are arranged radially, i.e. at 90 to the direction of travel. A belt made of several layers of fabric or steel cord or aramid at an angle of approximately 20 to the direction of travel is fitted between the carcass and the tread of the tyre, so that the tread becomes only very slightly deformed when the vehicle moves away. Fig. 1 shows 2 criss-cross steel cord and 2 circumferential nylon belts at 0. The nylon bracing layers at 0 enable the tyre to withstand higher speeds.
0 nylon cover (2-ply) (0 bracing layer)

18 Chassis If the tyre is filled with nitrogen instead of air, it will last longer, because nitrogen molecules are larger than air molecules. The rubber valve fitted in the rim must also be perfectly sealed. Tubeless tyres bear the inscription Tubeless or sI . The benefits of tubeless tyres: Less heat build-up because there is no friction between tyre and tube. Lighter weight and easier to assemble. Wheel-slip angle If a moving vehicle is affected by disruptive forces (wind force, centrifugal force), a wheel-slip angle appears and the lateral forces at work in the tyre contact areas counterbalance these disruptive forces. The angle between the actual direction of motion and the rim plane (following the line of the rim) is called the wheel-slip angle (Fig. 3). A tyre can only transmit lateral force if it runs at an angle to the direction of travel.

20 steel bracing layer Carcass, 2-ply rayon

Fig. 1: Structure of a radial-ply tyre

Wheel-slip angle

Direction of motion
a a

The side walls of radial-ply tyres compress, the deformation is mainly limited to the flexing zone. At lower speeds, radial-ply tyres run firmer than diagonal tyres, thanks to the reinforcement belt. At greater and higher speeds, the springiness of the soft carcass comes into play, meaning that the radial-ply tyre operates more quietly than the diagonal tyre. In addition, the bracing layer produces good lateral stability and thus high lateral forces. Tubeless tyres (Fig. 2). An airtight rubber layer made of butyl prevents the air from escaping. Nevertheless, pressure is lost through diffusion of air molecules over time. The tyre pressure must therefore be checked regularly.

Tyre contact area Adhesion area

Rim plane

0 1 FS 2 3 4

FS

Sliding area

Fig. 3: Wheel-slip angle

18
Negative tread Bracing layers Side wall Inner rubber layer Tread

The lateral force in the tyre builds up through the deformation of the tyre contact area, when cornering, for example. As soon as a wheel-slip angle forms, the tyre tread moves further and further away from the line along which it normally lies when in contact with the road surface, in the centre of the tyre (Fig. 3). This creates a deformation in the tyre. The further away the tread moves from the centre line, the greater the deformation. The sum of these application forces is the lateral force, which takes effect at the centre of gravity of the deformed tyre contact area. If the wheel-slip angle continues to increase, a sliding friction occurs in the rear section of the tyre and the application force is alleviated. However, the lateral force continues to increase because the adhesion area is still larger than the sliding area. If the wheel-slip angle still continues to increase, the sliding area becomes larger than the adhesion area and the lateral force is alleviated.

Positive tread Carcass Flexing zone Side wall zone

Bead zone Bead core Bead

Fig. 2: Tubeless radial-ply tyre

18 Chassis When cornering, the wheel load on the outer cornering wheels of an axle is increased, whereas the wheel load on the inner cornering wheels is decreased. The higher the wheel load becomes, the greater the build up of lateral force in the tyre. Strong lateral forces must also be built up in wide tyres in the event of high wheel loads and lateral acceleration, thus increasing safety when cornering, whereas with super low-cross-section tyres, such as 165/80 R 13 tyres, the lateral force is actually decreased (Fig. 1).
7,000 N 6,000 5,000 Lateral force FS 4,000 3,000 2,000 1,000 1,000 3,000 Wheel-slip angle a = 5 5,000 7,000 N 9,000 185/70 R13 165/80 R13

447
Due to the high risk of aquaplaning, at high speeds in particular, and due to the increased braking distance on wet roads if tyres have low tread depths (Table 1), it is advisable to change the tyre if the tread wear indicators are in contact with the road surface. Table 1: Braking distance when braking from 100 km/h to 60 km/h
Tread depth (mm) 7 5
195/60 R14

Braking distance in m (wet road surface) 20 40 60 80

3 2 1.6

Wheel force F

Wheel balancing The mass of a wheel when turning is never evenly distributed. In the areas where the mass is greater, an imbalance appears, in other words, centrifugal forces develop which increase more, the greater the mass and the higher the engine speed (Fig. 3).
700 N 600 Centrifugal force FC 500 400 300 25g 200 100 0 50 100 Driving speed v 150 km/h 200 100g

Fig. 1: Lateral force build-up for radial-ply tyres

Winter tyres (M+S tyres). In contrast to the coarse studded tyre treads that were previously used, today's tyre treads have small tyre tread grooves with many fine fins. The fine fins give the tyre a better grip on snowy or slippery road surfaces in winter. To keep the rubber on the tread surface elastic at lower temperatures starting from 7 C, silicic acid (silica) or natural rubber is added. This has the following benefits: Better adhesion between tyre and lining Lower rolling resistance Good service life of tyre tread (less internal heat formation) Winter tyres with a tread depth of less than 4 mm are no longer sufficiently winter-proof. Tread wear indicators (Fig. 2). These are elevations in the tread-groove base. If the tread wears down to the legally prescribed minimum tread depth of 1.6 mm, the height of the tread wear indicators will be level with the tread. The position of these indicators in the tyre tread is marked with the letters TWI (tread wear indicator) or with a triangle, on the tyre wall.
1 .6 mm Tread wear indicator TWI Tyre tread

50g

Fig. 3: Centrifugal forces on a tyre with designation 195/65 R 15

18

Static imbalance. If, for example, rubber is worn on a section of the tread as a result of locking brakes, this produces a centrifugal force in the section opposite, which can cause the wheel to bounce off the road surface at higher engine speeds. This fault can be viewed by spinning the wheel. To ensure that the wheel remains stationary in each position when spinning, the sum of all the moments of inertia around the wheel rotational axis must equal 0. M 1 = M2 G1 r1 = G2 r2

Tread-groove base

Fig. 2: Tread wear indicator

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A balancing mass m2 with weight force G2 must be fixed on the rim opposite the heaviest section of the wheel. This mass must be large enough to make the existing torque M2 correspond with the torque M1. The wheel is then statically balanced (Fig. 1).
Wheel axis M2

18 Chassis If a wheel is out-of-round despite being balanced, a radial tyre runout could be the problem. If the radial tyre runout protrudes by more than 1 mm from the tread surface, attempts must be made to reduce the radial tyre runout by turning the tyre on its rim (matching).

18.9.3 Run-flat systems

Run-flat systems can either aggravate or prevent critical driving situations caused by a sudden air loss in the tyre, particularly at higher speeds. It is normally possible to reach the closest workshop without having to change the tyre. Run-flat systems are wheel/tyre systems with limp-home characteristics. A distinction can be made between 2 possible applications: Systems which can be used with conventional rims. Systems composed of special rims and corresponding tyres. The use of compressed-air monitoring systems is a requirement for both systems. The driver must know about the pressure loss in the tyre in order to adjust the speed and continue driving.

m2 m1 r1 G1 G2

M1

r2 M1 = M2 G1 r 1 = G 2 r 2

Fig. 1: Balancing (static)

Dynamic imbalance. A wheel's imbalance weight m1 is seldom at the same level as its balance weight m2 affixed to the rim. The wheel is statically balanced, but at higher engine speeds, the centrifugal forces m1 and m2 produce a torque in line with the axle and cause the wheel to wobble. In this case, the wheel has a dynamic imbalance. If the imbalance weight m1 is level with the wheelmounting plane, then only the torque MC2 (Fig. 2) will take effect.
Wheel axis Wheel-mounting plane

Systems with conventional rims

Conti Support Ring (CSR). A light metal ring with flexible mounting is fitted on the rim (Fig. 4). When air is lost, the tyre is supported against the ring without touching the inside of the tyre walls and causing irreparable damage to the tyre through friction-induced heat. It is possible to drive on for approximately 200 km at reduced speed. The additional weight per wheel is about 5 kg. Tyres with a height/width ratio of > 60 are suitable, otherwise they cannot be fitted. Self-Supporting Run-Flat Tyres (SSR, DSST*). The side walls of these tyres are reinforced with rubber (Fig. 5). At zero pressure, the tyre can still be supported on its bead, so that the bead does not slide down into the rim well. It is possible to drive on for approximately 200 km at a speed of 80 km/h. This side wall reinforcement can also reduce comfort due to the increased transmission of bumps in the road surface.
Metal ring Normal tyre DSST tyre

FC2 rC2 m1 FC1 m2 rC1 = 0 MC1 = 0

MC2

MC2 = FC2 rC2

Fig. 2: Dynamic imbalance

18

Attaching a second balance weight m3 to the inside of the rim can cause the existing torque MC3 to balance the torque MC2, the wheel is then dynamically balanced. (Fig. 3). The size and position of the balance weights m2 and m3 are determined on balancers.
Wheel axis FC3 m3 rC3 Inner side of rim FC1 m1 rC2 MC2 = MC3 FC2 rC2 = FC3 rC3 m2 MC3 Wheelmounting plane FC2 MC2

Fig. 4: CSR system

* DSST Dunlop Self Supporting Technology

Fig. 5: DSST system

Fig. 3: Balancing (dynamic)

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449

Systems with special rims and tyres

PAX system. The PAX system is composed of a special rim with a flexible insert and the corresponding tyre with vertical anchorage on the rim (Fig. 1).

18.9.4 Compressed-air monitoring systems

Compressed-air monitoring systems are designed both to recognise the air loss in the tyre and also to warn the driver. The following types of compressed-air monitoring systems are used in motor vehicles: Indirect measuring systems Direct measuring systems Indirect measuring systems When pressure is lost, the tyre's rolling circumference, which increases the engine speed in relation to the other tyres, is reduced. The engine speeds are determined via the ABS or ESP sensors. However, the driver is not warned until there is a difference in air pressure of more than 30 % between the tyres. Direct measuring systems The pressure is measured directly by sensors in the tyre. The following functions are fulfilled: Continued monitoring of tyre pressure whilst driving and when the vehicle is stationary. The driver is given early warning in the event of a pressure loss, reduced pressure and flat tyre. Automatic individual wheel recognition and wheel positioning. Diagnostic procedure for systems and components in the workshop. The system is composed of: 1 tyre-pressure sensor per wheel Antennae for tyre pressure monitoring Instrument panel with display ECU for tyre-pressure monitoring Function-selector switches
Antenna Tyre-pressure sensor

Flexible insert Rim edge protector

Hump

Mounting groove

Rim

Fig. 1: PAX system

Rim. The rim is very flat and has one small mounting groove in place of the rim well. Rim flanges are not supplied, both humps are on the outside of the rim. Rim diameters for large brake discs can be achieved due to the flat shape of the rim. Tyre. The tyre has shorter side walls, which increase its rigidity. Lateral forces can cause less deformation to the tyre contact patch, thus improving the road adhesion and reducing the rolling resistance. The tyre bead is in a groove outside on the humps. All the forces working on the tyres produce a tensile strength in the carcass, meaning that the bead is always pressed into the groove (Fig. 2). This vertical anchorage ensures that the bead cannot slip out of the rim, even when the tyre is at zero pressure.
Tensile strength in carcass Outer hump Bead core Inner stop

Fig. 2: Vertical anchorage of the tyre bead

18

Flexible insert. The insert is an elastomer ring which is pushed onto the rim. Thanks to its high loadbearing capacity it supports the tyre when pressure is lost, meaning that at a speed of 80 km/h, approximately 200 km more can still be covered. Size designations for PAX systems 205/650 R 440 A 205 650 R 440 A Tyre width in mm Outside diameter of the tyre in mm Radial structure Average rim seat diameter in mm Asymmetrical seat

Metal valve

Fig. 3: Tyre-pressure sensor and antenna

Tyre-pressure sensor. This sensor is bolted to the metal valve (Fig. 3) and can be reused when changing the tyres or wheel rims. In addition, a temperature sensor, transmitting antenna, measuring and control electronics as well as a battery with a service life of approximately 7 years are integrated. Since the filling pressures are altered by temperature influ-

450
ences, the pressures and temperatures recorded in the ECU are set to a standard temperature of 20 C. To avoid damaging the sensor irreparably when changing a tyre, the tyre must be pressed down on the side opposite the valve. ECU. The ECU obtains the following information from the transmitting antenna: Individual identification number (ID code), used for individual wheel recognition. Current inflation pressure and current temperature. Condition of the lithium battery. The ECU evaluates the signals transmitted by the antenna for the tyre pressure monitoring and imparts the information for the driver on the display screen, according to the importance of this information. If wheels are changed on the vehicle, for example, from the front axle to the rear axle and vice versa, the ECU must be recoded with the new pressures. Individual wheel recognition. The sensors belonging to the vehicle are recognised by the ECU and stored. The sensors are recognised when the vehicle is being driven, to avoid interference from sensors on cars parked nearby. WORKSHOP NOTES Secure the motor vehicle against rolling away before removing the wheels. Only use wheel rims which are relevant for the tyre you are using (vehicle documents). Check the rims for cracks and remove traces of rust. Tighten the wheel nuts to the specified torque in a diagonal pattern. Note the specified air pressure to avoid loss of operating life.

18 Chassis System messages, top priority (Fig. 1). These messages are intended for when driving safety is no longer guaranteed. They are displayed to the driver if, for example: signal threshold 2 is undershot (0.4 bar below the stored setpoint tyre pressure of 2.3 bar). signal threshold 3 is undershot (minimum pressure limit value, 1.7 bar in the diagram). a pressure loss is greater than 0.2 bar/minute. System messages, second priority (Fig. 1). They are displayed to the driver if, for example: signal threshold 1 is undershot (0.2 bar below the stored setpoint tyre pressure of 2.3 bar). the difference in pressure on the wheels of one axle is 0.4 bar. the system is switched off or has a fault.

bar 2 Compression

1 ACTUAL 5 tyre pressure

SETPOINT tyre pressure Signal threshold 1 Signal threshold 2 Signal threshold 3 Case 2 Rapid pressure loss > 0.2 bar/min in example 0.4 bar/min Case 1 Rapid (sudden) pressure loss

2.3 bar 2.1 bar 1.9 bar 1.7 bar

8 Time

10

12

14

Fig. 1: Diagram of system messages

Using a mixture of diagonal- and radial-ply tyres is not permitted for passenger cars. Only use tyres of the same type and with the same tread on one and the same axle. Label the wheels after removing them and store them in a room that is cool, dry and dark. Do not stand wheels up and do not pile more than 4 tyres on top of each other.

18

REVIEW QUESTIONS
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 From which components is a wheel constructed? Which types of rim are there? Why are rims with humps used? What are the benefits of using wheels made of light-metal alloys? From which components are tyres made? What does dynamic rolling circumference of a tyre mean? What are the advantages and disadvantages of a 50 series tyre? How are radial-ply tyres designed? What is a tyre-contact area? 11 What is a tread wear indicator and how is its position on the tyre indicated? 12 What is the wheel-slip angle? 13 Why do wheels need to be balanced? 14 What does dynamic imbalance mean? 15 How can a radial-tyre runout be removed? 16 What are run-flat systems? 17 How is the PAX system designed? 18 What are the tasks of compressed-air monitoring systems and where should they be fitted? 19 What are the benefits of direct-measuring compressed-air monitoring systems in relation to indirect-measuring systems?

10 Explain the tyre designation 195/65 R 15 86 T M + S.

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451

18.10 Brakes
Brakes are used in a vehicle for deceleration, for bringing the motor vehicle to a halt and for securing it against rolling away. When a vehicle is braked, the kinetic energy is converted into heat.

Structure

Muscular energy Energy supply Hydraulic energy Pneumatic energy

Brake systems
Service brake system. This system enables the speed to be reduced, if necessary, until the vehicle is stationary. The vehicle must stay firmly in lane during this process. The service brake is operated continuously with the foot (foot brake) and impacts on all the wheels. Auxiliary brake system. This system must fulfil the functions of the service brake system when it is malfunctioning, possibly to less effect. It does not have to be an independent third brake, for the intact circuit of a dual-circuit service brake system or a graduated parking brake system is sufficient. Parking brake system. Its function is to secure a stopping or parked vehicle from rolling away, including on a sloping road surface. Its components must be able to work mechanically for reasons of safety. In passenger cars, it is normally operated in stages by a coupling lever (handbrake) or a pedal via linkage and control cables. It works on the wheels of one axle only. Continuous brake system. Its function is to keep the speed of the vehicle to a prescribed value when driving downhill (third brake). It is a requirement for motor busses whose weight is mgvwr > 5.5t and other vehicles with a weight of mgvwr > 9t. Antilock-braking system (ABS), also anti-skip system. The ABS measures the wheel slip automatically during braking, regulates the braking pressure and thus prevents the brakes from locking. The ABS is a legal requirement on vehicles weighing mgvwr > 3.5 t. Structure of a brake system (Fig. 1) A brake system consists of: Energy supply equipment Control equipment Transmission equipment Possible supplementary equipment for trailer vehicles, for example, trailer control equipment Parking brake Service brake Possibly also brake pressure control, such as an ABS, for example Wheel brake on the front axle and rear axle
Service brake Transmission equipment

Control equipment

Brake pedal - master cylinder Brake pedal - brake booster, master cylinder Brake pedal - service-brake valve Brake pedal - electr. potentiometer Lever for parking brake Engine-brake actuation

Transmission media (mechanical, hydraulic, pneumatic, electropneumatic) Brake lines Brake hoses Valves (relay valve, overloadprotection valve, solenoid valve)

Supplementary equipment for trailer vehicles

Parking brake

18
Brakingforce control, e.g. ABS

Wheel brake

Front brakes Rear brakes

Fig. 1: Structure of a brake system

452
Legal requirements (extracts)
The legal requirements for brakes on motor vehicles are set out in the German National Road Traffic Licensing Regulations (StVZO), in EC directives and the ECE regulations. Table 1: Motor-vehicle classifications (extracts)
L M Motorcycles and three-wheelers M1 M2 M2 N N1 N2 N3 O Passenger car with up to 9 seats including driver's seat Motor bus with > 9 seats and up to 5 t gross weight Motor bus with > 9 seats and up to 5 t gross weight Heavy goods vehicle up to 3.5t gross weight Heavy goods vehicle > 3.5 t and up to 12 t gross weight Heavy goods vehicle > 12 t gross weight

18 Chassis

Inspection of motor vehicles and trailers

( 29 StVZO) Owners of vehicles and trailers must establish within specified intervals and at their own cost whether the motor vehicles comply with the regulations. A distinction can be made here between: General inspections GI: to check the vehicle's roadworthiness in accordance with 29 StVZO (appendix VIII). Safety inspections SI: the chassis and suspension components are subjected to a comprehensive visual, operation and function check (e.g. brakes, steering, tyres). Table 2:Type and time interval of inspections (extracts)
Class of vehicle L M1 M1 Passenger transportation (e.g. taxi, hire car) M2, M3 in the 1st year in the 2nd and 3rd year from the 4th year N1 N2, N3 O to 750 kg O > 750 kg to 3.5 t O > 3.5 t to 10 t O > 10 t Time interval Month GI SI 24 24 (36) 12 12 12 12 24 12 24 (36) 24 12 12 6 3 6 6

Trailer and semi-trailer

Specified brake systems ( 41 StVZO)

Motor vehicles from classes M and N must have two separate brake systems (service brake systems, parking brake systems) or a brake system with two separate control units. Each control unit must be able to function if the other fails. One of the brake systems must function mechanically and be able to secure the vehicle against rolling away (parking brake system). If more than two wheels can be braked, the same brake areas and mechanical transmission equipment can be used. Motor vehicles from classes M2/3 and N2/3 and with a maximum speed of more than 60 km/h determined by the model must be fitted with an ABS system.

Values in ( ) are those for the initial inspection after the vehicle was first registered.

18

Continuous braking action (Directive on Approximation of European Community Laws RREG 71/320 EC) Motor vehicles from class M3 with a permissible total weight from 5.5 t (except for city buses) and vehicles from class N2.3 with a permissible total weight of more than 9 t must have a continuous braking action (continuous brake) for long downhill gradients. The braking action must be designed such that it limits a fully-laden vehicle that is being driven on a gradient of 7 % for a distance of 6 km to a speed of 30 km/h. Stop lamps ( 53 StVZO)
The service-brake operation must be made visible by two red stop lamps to the rear on class L (vmax > 50 km/h), M, N and O motor vehicles. Since 18. 3. 93 class M1 vehicles have been allowed to have a third stop lamp in the centre at the rear. This third stop lamp is a legal requirement on all vehicles whose first registration was after 1. 1. 2000.

Minimum braking 29 StVZO (GI guide line) (Table 3). The minimum braking rate can be calculated from the measured values determined on the brake dynamometers. Formula: z= Sum of the wheel brake forces 100 % Vehicle weight force

Table 3: Minimum braking z in %

Class of vehicle M1 Passenger car M2, M3 Motor bus N1 Heavy goods vehicle, with gross weight up to 3.5 t N2, N3 Heavy goods vehicle > gross weight 3.5 t Service Parking brake system brake system 50 50 50 45 16 16 16 16

Types of brake system according to energy supply

Muscular energy braking. The braking force is applied by the driver and enhanced by the mechanical and hydraulic transmission ratio.

18 Chassis Assisted braking (power-assisted brake). In addition to muscular-energy braking, the braking force is also enhanced by other energy sources (vacuum pressure, hydraulic-accumulator pressure, compressed air) Externally-powered brake (compressed-air brake). The driver controls the braking force. The braking energy (compressed air) is not generated by the driver. Overrun brake. When the tractor vehicle is braked, the trailer comes closer due to its inactive state (overrun). The braking energy is generated on the trailer wheel brake via the towbars. cantly as a result of alcohol consumption, drug consumption and also tiredness. Braking time t. The sum of the response, threshold and delay times is known as the braking time t. Response time tAn. This is generated by the clearance in the brake system, e.g. pedal idle travel, clearances. Threshold time tSw. The pressure in the brake system is increased during the threshold time and the desired braking deceleration is achieved. Delay period tV. The braking deceleration remains constant until the vehicle comes to a halt.

453

Types of energy transmission

Mechanical transmission through pedal, lever, towbar and control cables, for example, when applying the parking brake in a car or the overrun brake when towing a trailer. Hydraulic transmission caused by fluid pressure in the brake line, e.g. in a passenger-car service brake. Pneumatic transmission caused by compressed air in the brake line, e.g. in commercial vehicles. Electrical transmission caused by electrical leads, for example, or the magnetic field in an electric retarder, for commercial-vehicle continuous brake systems.

Braking distance
The braking distance is dependent on the driving speed. Under normal conditions, doubling the speed will increase the braking distance by four times. Further factors which influence the braking distance are: Road conditions, e.g. dry, wet, icy Tyre condition, e.g. tread depth, tyre pressure The condition of the brakes, e.g. worn, stiff, damaged, corroded The condition of the brake pads, e.g. wet, glazed over, oily The brake type, e.g. drum or disc brake, compressed-air brake, SBC The weight of the vehicle, weight distribution, e.g. when towing a trailer The condition of the shock absorbers

18.10.1 Braking
Braking duration
During braking, the braking action does not take effect until an obstacle has been recognised. The total duration (stopping time tA) of a braking procedure is determined by the reaction time tR and the braking time t (Fig. 1).
70 m Distance driven s 50 III II sR sH 40 30 20 10 0 t An tR I 1 tSw 2 3 t tv s 4 IV s 10 m s2 7 6 5 4 3 2 1 0 Braking deceleration a V

18.10.2 Hydraulic brake

Structure
The hydraulic-brake system (Fig. 2) consists of the brake pedal, tandem master cylinder with brake booster, wiring system (possibly with brake-pressure reducer), brake cylinder with wheel brakes.
Brake line Brake booster Wheel-brake cylinder Brake shoe Brake circuit 2 Brake pedal Drum brake RA (Simplex)

18

tA Time t I : Detection of danger II : Start of braking by driver III : Start of braking action

IV : Full braking action V : Vehicle stopped

FA

Disc brake Tandem master cylinder Brake circuit 1 Brakepressure Brake reducer cylinder

Fig. 1: Braking

Reaction time tR. This is the time needed by the driver between recognising a hazard and operating the brake pedal (reaction). The reaction time depends very much on the physical and mental condition of the driver. It can be lengthened signifi-

Brake disc

Brake calliper

Return spring

Brake drum

Fig. 2: Hydraulic-brake system

454
Wheel brakes. Normally, all wheels have disc brakes, older and smaller vehicles have drum brakes on the rear wheels. For reasons of safety, a dual-circuit brake system with tandem master cylinder is a requirement. If a brake circuit fails, it is still possible to brake the vehicle using the other brake circuit. Table 1: Brake-circuit configurations
Abbreviation Design II (TT)
1 2

18 Chassis

Remark Use Front/rear axle configuration. Each circuit drives one axle. For rear-wheel drive with ABS. (black-white) Diagonal configuration. Each circuit drives one front wheel and the rear wheel diagonally opposite. All-wheel drive and front drive with ABS and negative kingpin offset. One brake circuit drives the front and rear axle, the other drives the front axle only. Seldom used. (4-2) Each brake circuit drives the front axle and one rear wheel (triangle). Seldom used. Each brake circuit drives the front and rear axle. Seldom used.

Operating principle
The operating principle of the hydraulic brake is based on Pascal's law: The pressure on fluid which is enclosed on all sides acts evenly on all sides. The force with which the brake pedal presses on the plunger in the master cylinder generates the fluid pressure. The fluid pressure takes effect through the brake lines and generates the application forces (contact pressures). The hydraulic power transmission normally involves a transmission of force (Fig. 1). The forces interact like the plunger surfaces, in other words, the strongest force is created on the largest surface. The plunger travels, on the other hand, behave in the opposite way to the forces. So, an actuating force of 1,000 N with a plunger travel of 8 mm on the master cylinder on the four wheel-brake cylinders, for example, produces a total force of 4,000 N and a corresponding plunger travel of 2 mm. The work performed (W = F s) is therefore the same on the master cylinder and the wheel-brake cylinders.
Master cylinder F1 = 1,000 N 1,000 N s Wheel-brake cylinder F2 = 4,000 N 1,000 N 1,000 N 1,000 N

HI (HT)
1 2

LL
1 2

HH
1 2

Vehicles with ABS control systems normally use the II (black-white) and X (criss-cross) brake-circuit configurations.

18.10.4. Master cylinder

Only tandem master cylinders are used, because the law requires that two separate brake circuits are used. This cylinder is operated by the brake pedal via the brake booster.

Its tasks are:

To achieve a rapid pressure build-up in each brake circuit. To achieve a rapid pressure reduction so that the brakes are rapidly released. To balance the volume of the brake fluid during a temperature change and when the clearance is increased because the brake pad is worn.

18

Fig. 1: Diagram of a hydraulic brake

The hydraulic brake can work at high pressures of up to about 180 bar. This explains the small dimensions of the hydraulic construction components. The hydraulic brake remains maintenance-free for a longer period of time. Since brake fluid is almost impossible to compress and the clearances are small, only small quantities of brake fluid are moved. The pressure increase is very fast and the brakes respond quickly.

4 s

Structure
The tandem master cylinder (Fig. 1, Page 455) contains two plungers arranged one behind the other the push-rod plunger and the intermediate plunger, which is stored in fluid. The plungers form two separate pressure chambers in one housing. Both plungers are designed as double plungers, meaning that there is a ring-shaped castor chamber between the front and rear sealing section of each plunger. This chamber is always filled with brake fluid via the snifter bore. The primary cup seal is located at the front of each plunger and seals the pressure chamber.

18.10.3 Brake-circuit configuration

Hydraulic service brake systems are split into 2 circuits. This means that a sufficient braking action is still produced if one circuit fails. There are 5 designs (Table 1).

18 Chassis
Contact plate Expansion tank Primary cup seal Cylinder housing Plunger spring Intermediate plunger Float Balancing port Snifter bore Push-rod plunger

455
If the balancing port is closed because the pushrod plunger is in the wrong rest position or due to contamination, it will not be possible to balance the brake fluid. The fluid expands due to heat, which then increases or automatically triggers the braking action. Brake actuation. When the vehicle is braked, the primary cup seal (Fig. 3) on the push-rod plunger travels over the balancing port and seals the pressure chamber. The filler shim thus prevents the balancing port from pressing in to the filler bores and from becoming damaged. The intermediate plunger is now somewhat displaced by the brake fluid. The stop pin releases the valve pin and the central valve is closed. Pressure builds up in both brake circuits. Advantages of the central valve The primary cup seal has a longer service life because the sealing lip cannot be damaged by the balancing port. In ABS systems, the primary cup seal would be pressed into the balancing port by pressurepeak reverse movements in an ABS control system and would thus be damaged.
Primary cup seal Snifter bore Balancing port Snifter bore

Circ. 2 Central valve Valve pin Stop pin

Circ. 1 Separating cup seal Plunger spring

Plastic bushing Secondary cup seal Primary cup seal

Longitudinal slot in piston

Fig. 1: Tandem master cylinder

The push-rod plunger is sealed at the rear by the secondary cup seal. The separating cup seals the intermediate plunger against the push rod circuit. The intermediate plunger has a slot into which a central bore hole runs at the front. The central valve rests in this bore hole. A stop pin which leads goes through the slot on the intermediate plunger keeps the plunger in the cylinder and forms the front and rear stop. Central valve. This is used on vehicles with ABS systems and assumes the function of the balancing port. There are also tandem master cylinders which have a central valve on both plungers.
Plunger spring Valve spring Primary cup seal Plunger spring

Support ring

Filler shim

Filler bore

Fig. 3: Brake position

Central valve

Valve seal

Stop pin

Primary cup seal

Fig. 2: Rest position

Operating principle
Rest position. The plunger springs press the plungers against their stop. The primary cup seal on the push-rod plunger releases the balancing port and the intermediate plunger is placed at the front of the stop pin. This means that the central valve (Fig. 2) is opened by the valve pin which fits into it and assumes the function of the balancing port. Both pressure chambers are now linked to the expansion tank. The volume of the brake fluid can be balanced during a temperature change, for example.

Releasing the brake. The plunger is pushed back up by the fluid pressure and the plunger springs. The primary cup seal on the push-rod plunger folds down, the filler shim lifts up and the brake fluid flows from the castor chamber through the filler bores into the expanding pressure chamber (Fig. 4). The intermediate plunger returns to its original position. The pressure chambers are linked to the expansion tank by the central valve and the balancing port. The pressure falls and the brakes are released.
Push-rod plunger

18

Folded filler shim

Fig. 4: Release position

456
Failure of circuit 1 (Fig. 1) The push-rod plunger is pushed up to the stop on the intermediate plunger. The actuating force now acts directly on the plunger for intact circuit 2, where it generates braking pressure. Failure of circuit 2 (Fig. 1) The intermediate plunger is pushed forwards by the fluid pressure in circuit 1 until it meets the stop. It seals the intact circuit 1 to the non-tight circuit 2. The pressure now builds up in circuit 1.

18 Chassis Tandem master cylinder with riveted plunger spring The screw-riveted compression spring keeps the intermediate plunger and the push-rod plunger the same distance apart when they are in the rest position (Fig. 3). This causes the pressure to build up evenly in both brake circuits when the brake is actuated. If the braking pressure is increased, the intermediate plunger is no longer moved by the plunger springs but by the brake-fluid pressure.
Balancing port Snifter bore Riveted Push-rod plunger plunger spring

Circ. 2

Circ. 1 Brake position, circuit 1 leaking

Circ. 2

Circ. 1 Brake position, circuit 2 leaking Intermediate plunger Intermediate-plunger spring Connecting screw Stop sleeve

Fig. 1: Failure of a brake circuit

18

Tiered tandem master cylinder (Fig. 2) This master cylinder was developed for II systems (TT, black-white) with front axle/rear axle brake-circuit split. The cylinder diameters are graduated, meaning that the diameter of the intermediate plunger, which works on the rear axle brake circuit, is smaller than the diameter of the push-rod plunger. In intact brake circuits, the same pressure is created in both circuits when the vehicle is braked. The larger push-rod plunger diameter in the front axle brake circuit pushes back a greater volume of fluid when the vehicle is braked, causing the brakes to respond faster. If the front axle brake circuit fails, the push-rod plunger is pushed onto the intermediate plunger when the vehicle is braked and the plunger's plunging force now acts directly on the intermediate plunger. The pedal travel is lengthened and a higher pressure is created in the rear axle brake circuit due to the smaller diameter of the intermediate plunger without the pedal force being increased. If the front axle circuit fails, a sufficient braking action is still achieved with the rear axle brakes.
Central valve Stop pin Balancing port Push-rod plunger

Fig. 3:Tandem-brake master cylinder with riveted plunger spring

18.10.5 Drum brake

Nowadays, drum brakes (Fig. 4) are predominantly used as brakes for rear wheels of passenger cars or in commercial vehicles.

Structure and operating principle

The brake drum fits snugly on the wheel hub. The brake shoes and the components which generate the application force are found on the brake anchor plate. The brake anchor plate is fixed to the wheel suspension. When braking occurs, the brake shoes and their pads are pressed against the brake drum by the clamping fixture, thus generating the friction required. The application force can be created hydraulically by the wheel-brake cylinder (service brake) or mechanically by the control cable and the tension lever, expander lever or brake shoe expander (parking brake).
Brake drum Return springs Brake shoe Brake anchor plate

Holding spring Intermediate Valve pin plunger Longitudinal Primary slot in plunger cup seal Plastic bushing Wheel-brake cylinder Expander lever

Fig. 2: Tiered tandem master cylinder with central valve

Fig. 4: Parts of the drum brake

18 Chassis Features: Self-reinforcement Dirt-proof design Parking brake easier to use Long idle time of brake pads Pad replacement and maintenance is costly and time-consuming Poor heat dissipation Tendency towards fading Designs According to the actuation methods and brake-shoe supports, it is possible to distinguish between: Simplex brakes Duo-servo brakes Simplex brake (Fig. 2). This brake has one overrun and one trailing brake shoe. To tension the brake shoes, a double-acting wheel-brake cylinder, brake shoe expander, S cam, expanding wedge or expander lever can be used. Each brake shoe has a fixed pivot or fulcrum point, such as a support bearing. Simplex brakes have the same effect when driving forwards as they do when reversing but have only reduced self-reinforcement (Fig. 1). The pad wear on the overrun brake shoe is greater. A parking brake is easy to use. Duo-servo brake (Fig. 3). The self-reinforcement of the overrun brake shoe is used to press down the second overrun brake shoe. The support bearing is floating. The support is provided by the double-acting wheel-brake cylinder. The braking action is the same when driving forwards or reversing. It is often used as a parking brake in cup washers (Fig. 6). A control-cable-actuated brake-shoe expander is then used in place of a wheel-brake cylinder. Self-reinforcement (Fig. 4). The friction creates torque which pulls the overrun brake shoe into the drum and strengthens the braking effect. This reinforcement is expressed by the brake coefficient C (Fig. 1). The pressing force on the trailing brake shoe is then reduced.
5 4 Brake coefficient C 3 2 1 0 Disc brake 0.2 0.4 Friction coefficient 0.6 Brake lining Brake cable Backplate Duo-servo brake Simplex brake Expander

457
Fading. This is an abatement of the braking effect caused by overheating, e.g. during long braking. The friction coefficient in the pad decreases at high temperatures or high sliding speeds. The brake drum can also become deformed to a conical shape, because the heat supply to the wheel hub is more efficiently carried off. The brake area then becomes smaller.

Fixed Double-acting support wheel-brake cylinder bearing

Floating support bearing

Fig. 2: Simplex brake

Overrun brake shoe

Fig. 3: Duo-servo brake

Return spring Readjustment caps

M
Direction of brake-drum rotation Trailing brake shoe

Control cable

Tensioning lever

Fig. 4: Self-reinforcement of the drum brake

Fig. 5: Clamping fixture for parking brake

Clamping fixtures
These are intended to tension or expand the brake shoes and press them onto the brake drum. Wheel-brake cylinders are normally used with hydraulic brakes (Fig. 1, Page 458). With mechanically operated parking brakes, a tensioning lever (Fig. 5) or a brake-shoe expander (Fig. 6) is used.
Backplate Expander

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Fig. 1: Brake coefficient C

Fig. 6: Parking brake integrated into the cup washer

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Wheel-brake cylinder
In the double-acting wheel-brake cylinder (Fig. 1), the pressure generated in the master cylinder acts on the plungers and generates an application force. The plungers are sealed by rubber sleeves. Dust caps prevent dirt from entering. On the back of the wheel-brake cylinder are threaded bore holes which fasten it to the brake anchor plate and the brake line connection. A bleeder valve is screwed in at the highest point.
Pressure element Plunger Dust cap

18 Chassis REVIEW QUESTIONS

1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 What are brakes for? Which types of brake systems can be distinguished according to their method of use? Explain the structure of a hydraulic brake system. Which brake systems are specified in vehicle classes M and N? How can brake systems be distinguished according to their mode of operation? What are the functions of the master cylinder? How does the primary cup seal work? What are the functions of the central valve? How does the tandem master cylinder work when one of the brake circuits fails?

10 What is the advantage of tiered master cylinders? 11 Which brake-circuit configurations are there? 12 What are the features of drum brakes?
Grooved-ring sleeve

13 List the distinguishing features of different types of drum brakes. 14 What does fading mean?

Fig. 1: Double-acting wheel-brake cylinder

Brake drum (Fig. 4, Page 456)

Features: High wear resistance Inherent stability Good heat conductivity Substances: Cast iron with flake graphite Malleable cast iron Cast iron with nodular graphite Cast steel Combined casting of light alloy and cast iron The brake drum must run centrally and free from runout. The brake area is finely spun or ground.

18.10.6 Disc brake

Disc brakes are designed as a fixed-calliper or floating-calliper brake (Fig. 1). The brake plungers are located in the brake calliper. They press the pads against the brake disc when the vehicle is braked.
Brake pads Floating calliper

Brake fluid
Plunger Brake disc Brake anchor plate Fixed-calliper brake Plunger Bracket

Floating-calliper brake

Brake shoes (Fig. 4, Page 456)

18

Brake shoes maintain their rigidity due to a T-section and are cast from a light metal alloy or welded from pressed steel. At one end they have a bearing surface for the mostly slotted pressure pins on the wheel-brake cylinder. A bolt is fitted at the other end, or the end of the shoe is flush with the fixed support bearing. The shoes can therefore be centred in the drum. They fit better and the pad wear is more even.

Fig. 2: Disc brakes

Features:
No self-reinforcement due to the even brake areas. This requires greater downforces and therefore brake cylinders whose diameters (40 mm to 50 mm) are larger than the diameters of the wheel-brake cylinders in the drum brake and additional brake boosters are required. Good metering of the braking force, because the absence of self-reinforcement and the minor changes in friction coefficient ensure that hardly any fluctuations occur in the braking. Efficient cooling. Low tendency towards fading. Higher brake-pad wear due to the high downforces.

Adjusting components
The clearance between the brake pad and the brake drum is increased by the brake pad wear. This also increases the pedal idle travel. The brakes must therefore be adjusted on a regular basis, either by hand or using an automatic adjusting component.

18 Chassis Easy maintenance and pad replacement. Automatic adjustment of clearance. More heat generated by the brake fluid, because the pads fit tightly on the brake plungers. Danger of vapour bubbles. Good automatic cleaning due to centrifugal force. Tendency of vapour-bubble formation because the brake plungers fit tightly against the brake pad. The parking brake requires great effort. When the vehicle is braked, the brake-cylinder plungers press against the brake pads. The brake pads are then pushed against the brake disc on both sides.
Sealing ring

459

Designs
Fixed-calliper disc brake. Two- and four-cylinder fixed-calliper disc brakes are normally used (Fig. 1).
Fixed calliper Protective cap Sealing ring Locking pin Brake lining Expander spring (cruciform spring)

Plunger

Brake position

Release position

Fig. 2: Plunger reset

Plunger reset (Fig. 2)

A rectangular rubber sealing ring used to seal the plunger is located in a groove in the brake cylinder. The inner diameter of the sealing ring is somewhat smaller than the plunger diameter. It therefore encompasses the plunger with its pretension. The braking movement of the plunger deforms the sealing ring elastically due to its static friction and the plunger stroke. When the pressure drops in the brake fluid, the sealing ring returns to its starting shape or position. This also removes the plunger from the clearance of about 0.15 mm and releases the brake disc. This is only possible with complete pressure reduction in the wire system and ease of movement of the plunger and pads. Expander spring. It fits the brake pads onto the plungers and thus prevents the pads from knocking and chattering.

Plunger Backplate

2-cylinder Internal ventilation Fixed calliper Expander spring

Plunger

Floating-calliper disc brake (Fig. 1, Page 460)

4-cylinder Brake disc with holes

18

Fig. 1: Fixed-calliper disc brake

The fixed brake-cylinder backplate (fixed calliper) is bolted onto the wheel suspension. This backplate grips the brake disc like pliers. It consists of one two-piece housing. Each housing section contains brake cylinders which are situated opposite each other in pairs. They contain the brake plungers with sealing ring, protective cap and clamping ring. The brake cylinders are linked by channels. The bleeder valve sits on top of the housing.

This consists of two main components, the bracket and the housing or floating calliper and has the following features: Low weight Small size Good heat dissipation Large pad surfaces Takes up less space. Reduced tendency towards vapour-bubble formation, as only one or two of the brake cylinders are on the bracket side. Maintenance-free housing versions, therefore not sensitive to dirt and corrosion.

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Bracket. The bracket is fixed to the wheel suspension. The housing is fitted within the bracket. Floating-calliper disc brakes with various guides are used, such as: Guide teeth Guide pins Guide pins and guide teeth combined Guide pins with retractable floating calliper
Brake pads Housing Locking pin

18 Chassis pushes the housing in the opposite direction. The plunger in the housing now also presses the outer brake pad against the brake disc once the additional clearance has been overcome. Both brake pads are pushed against the brake disc with the same amount of force. The guide teeth support the inner pad directly, the outer pad is supported against the housing by the peripheral force. If guide pins are used, both brake pads are supported on the housing. When the brake is released, the return forces of the sealing ring restore the clearance, with the support of the expander spring.
Gaiter seal Brake lining Bracket

Expander spring Bracket Bracket with guide teeth Housing Expander spring

Cover plate

Housing (calliper)

Fastening screw

Guide pin

Fig. 2: Floating-calliper disc brake with guide pins

Brake disc (Fig. 1, Page 459)

Guide spring Locking pin Brake pads

Fig. 1: Floating-calliper disc brake with guide teeth

The brake disc is normally disc-shaped and is made of cast iron, malleable cast iron or cast steel. In racing cars, this disc can also be made of composite materials reinforced with carbon fibres or ceramic carbon. Internally ventilated brake discs. These discs are used when the brakes are subject to a very great load. They contain radially mounted air ducts which are designed such that a fan effect is produced during revolutions. This produces a more efficient cooling effect. Sometimes, the brake area even also contains bore holes and possibly also oval-shaped grooves. This ensures that water is drained away more rapidly if the brake is applied when the discs are wet. The brakes respond evenly and the risk of fading is low. At the same time, the bore holes also bring about a reduction in weight.

Floating-calliper disc brake with guide teeth

(Fig. 1) Bracket. The bracket has two teeth on each side. Housing. The housing is kept in the bracket by the guide teeth which fit into its semicircular grooves, thus enabling it to slide back and forth. Guide spring. The guide spring presses the housing onto the bracket teeth to prevent clattering noises from occurring.

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Floating-calliper disc brake with guide pins

(Fig. 2) This brake has two guide pins bolted onto the housing on the cylinder side of the bracket. The bracket has two bore holes which contain sliding inserts made of Teflon, for example. The housing is kept in these bore holes by the guide pins and can slide back and forth. Braking. The plunger in the housing presses the inner brake pad against the brake disc once the clearance has been overcome. The reaction force

18.10.7 Brake pads

The friction material uses the braking force to generate considerable friction with the brake disc or brake drum. This then converts the kinetic energy generated by the vehicle into heat. With drum brakes, the brake pad is riveted or adhered to the brake shoe. On disc brakes, the pad is adhered to the steel brake-pad backplate.

18 Chassis Electric contacts can be incorporated into disc brake pads for a wear indicator. Requirements of the friction lining: Very stable at high temperatures, considerable mechanical strength and long operating life. Constantly high coefficient of friction even at high temperatures and sliding speeds. Not sensitive to water and dirt. No glazing at high thermal load, good heat conduction. Brake lining materials. Brake linings contain, for example: Metals such as steel wool and copper powder. Filler materials such as iron oxide, barite, mica powder and aluminium oxide. Anti-friction agents such as coke dust, antimony sulphide and graphite. Organic substances such as resin filler material, aramid fibres and binding resin. Brake pads have a friction coefficient of approximately = 0.4. They are heat-resistant to approximately 800 C.

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18.10.8 Diagnosis and maintenance of the hydraulic brake system

Visual check. Monitoring of the brake-fluid level in the expansion tank; looking for damp, dark patches on the brake cylinders and connection points and for corrosion on the brake lines/state of the brake hoses (chafe marks, bubbles, animal bites). Functional test. This includes checking the pedal travel by activating the service brake system. If the pedal travel slowly increases, this may be a result of a leaking primary cup seal or a leaking central valve. If the pedal travel is too great or it is only possible to build up the pressure by pumping, the cause could be air bubbles or the clearance being too great. Leak tests (Fig.1). A pressure-tester tool and a pedal holder are required. Before the tests, the brake system and the pressure tester tool filled with brake fluid must be bled. Low-pressure test. The low/high-pressure manometer combination of the pressure-tester tool is connected to the bleeder valve on a wheel brake and the pedal holder used to apply a pressure of between 2 bar and 5 bar. This pressure should be maintained for 5 minutes. The entire system should be left untouched for this time. If the pressure falls, there is a leak.
Combination pressuretester tool

High-pressure test. Using the pedal holder, the braking pressure is set to a value of between 50 bar and 100 bar. Within 10 minutes, this set pressure may drop by a maximum of 10 %. If there is a larger pressure drop, this means there is a leak. Filling and bleeding the brake system (Fig. 2). This work can be carried out by one person with filler and bleeder apparatus. A bleeder pipe and a transparent bleeder hose with collector are the tools required. For vehicles with ABS, observe the brake bleeding instructions.
Filler and bleeder apparatus Bleeder bottle Filling pressure Safety valve Operating pressure Pressure regulator Filler hose Shutoff cock

Brake cylinder

Wheel-brake cylinder

18

Tandem master cylinder

Fig. 2: Bleeding with apparatus

High-pressure manometer Low-pressure Vacuum-pressure manometer manometer

Front brake circuit

Rear brake circuit

Tandem master cylinder

Fig. 1: Leak test

Connect the filler and bleeder apparatus to the bleeder pipe on the expansion tank and attach the bleeder hose with collector to a bleeder valve. Now open the shutoff cock on the filler hose of the equipment and then open the bleeder valve, until new, clear brake fluid flows out without bubbles. Then close the bleeder valve. Repeat the process for all bleeder valves. Finally, close the shutoff cock. Before removing the bleeder pipe, open a bleeder valve briefly and release the pressure.

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Work on the wheel brakes
Brake drums and brake discs. During a brake check, you must check these for ridges, out-of-roundness and knock. Brake discs with lateral runout that is too great must be replaced. The disc-brake pads, sliding calliper and floating calliper must move smoothly. Brake drums and brake discs that are out-of-round or have ridges must be skimmed or turned down. Observe the maximum skimming measurement or the minimum disc thickness, the brake discs and/or brake drums may need replacing. Brake drums or brake discs with cracks and/or damaged brake callipers must be replaced. Brake pads. The thickness and oiling must be checked and the pads must be replaced if necessary.

18 Chassis

Brake test
The brake tests are mainly carried out on brake dynamometers. The following are measured for each wheel: Braking force Rolling resistance Fluctuation of the braking force, e.g. in the case of an out-of-round drum Occurrence of incipient lock Dynamic brake analyser (Fig. 1). This has two identical sets of rollers so that the brakes for both wheels on an axle can be tested at the same time. These each drive one braked wheel during the test. The drive rollers on one side are driven together. The third roller is a sensor roller. It automatically WORKSHOP NOTES Check the fluid level in the expansion tank during each check. On disc brakes, the sunken fluid level can be a sign of considerable lining wear. The thickness of the drum brake linings can be checked using inspection holes.
Fig. 1: Dynamic brake analyser

activates the dynamometer and the locking protection. The braking force (peripheral force) of every wheel is measured. The braking factor z is mainly determined as a percentage (see Page 452). The brake-force differential (for the service brake system) of an axle must not be greater than 25 %. Special test instructions must be observed for motor vehicles with permanent all-wheel drive and variable engine torque distribution. Renew the brake fluid in accordance with company regulations, e.g. yearly. Do not use drained brake fluid; store it in marked containers and have it disposed of by a disposal or reprocessing company. Keep greases and oils away from the brake components. Only use the specified brake fluid to refill. Only use brake cleaner, possibly alcohol (methylated spirits) for cleaning.

18

To check the brake drum, remove it; clean the brake of wear debris. Vacuum off the wear debris, do not blow it out. The brake pads must be replaced on the brakes of one axle at the same time. REVIEW QUESTIONS
1 What are the features of disc brakes? 2 How is a fixed-calliper disc brake constructed? 3 How is the clearance set for disc brakes? 4 What are the different types of floating-calliper disc brakes, as distinguished by the calliper guide? 5 How is the braking factor determined?

6 7 8 9

Describe the braking procedure for the floatingcalliper disc brake. What requirements are made of brake pads? What inspections are carried out on the hydraulic brake? How is the hydraulic brake filled and bled?

10 What measurements can be taken on the dynamic brake analyser?

18 Chassis

463
valve is closed. The reaction shim is squeezed by the valve plunger and the outside air valve is opened. The pressure difference which arises in the working chamber compared to the vacuum chamber has the effect of a boosting force on the working plunger. This is pushed forwards with the timing case and push rod until the reaction force from the master cylinder is equal. When the push rod is still, the reaction shim expands again and presses on the valve plunger. This closes the outside air valve. The booster force on the working plunger and push rod remains constant.

18.10.9 Power-assisted brake

To create the assistance (power-assistance), a vacuum pressure or hydraulic brake booster is connected to the master cylinder of the hydraulic brake.

Vacuum brake booster

For motor vehicles with a spark-ignition engine, the vacuum pressure can generally be taken from the induction pipe. The small pressure difference between the air pressure and the intake manifold pressure of approximately 0.8 bar requires the working plunger to have large surfaces, so that the plunger rod force can be increased fourfold, for example. For diesel engines, the pressure difference is generated by a vacuum pump driven by the engine.
Vacuum Plunger return spring connection Roller diaphragm

Working plunger Vacuum valve (open) To nonreturn valve Push rod Reaction shim Valve plunger Vacuum chamber Working-pressure chamber Rest position Vacuum pressure Air pressure Filter Vacuum pressure Compression spring Outside air valve (closed) Poppet valve Reduced air pressure Air pressure Plunger rod Brake pedal

Fig. 2: Partially braked position

Fig. 1: Vacuum brake booster

Structure (Fig. 1). The master cylinder is usually flange-mounted to the reinforcement housing. The working plunger divides the housing into a vacuum chamber and working chamber. The working chamber is connected alternately via a vacuum pressure and outside air valve with the outside air or with the vacuum chamber. The double valve is actuated by the brake pedal via the plunger rod. This plunger rod presses on the master cylinder push rod via valve plungers and the rubber reaction shim. The working plunger and its boosting force also presses on the push rod.

Full braking (Fig. 3). At full pedal force, the reaction shim is constantly being squeezed by the plunger rod and the counterforce from the push rod, whereby the outside air valve is constantly open. The pressure difference (p = 0.8 bar) between the two chambers is the largest possible and the largest booster force is therefore exerted on the working plunger and push rod.

18

Operating principle
Release position (Fig. 1). The outside air valve is closed, the working chamber is connected via the open vacuum valve to the vacuum chamber. Both sides of the working plunger have the same pressure of approximately pabs = 0.2 bar. Partially braked position (Fig. 2). During braking, the push rod is moved forwards and the vacuum

Vacuum pressure

Air pressure

Fig. 3: Fully braked position

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Hydraulic brake booster (Fig. 2)
The system (Fig. 1) consists of the high-pressure oil pump for the power steering, the hydraulic accumulator, the pressure-regulated oil-flow controller and the hydraulic brake booster with tandem master cylinder and the oil supply reservoir.
Supply reservoir Hydraulic booster Oil-flow controller

18 Chassis

Pneumatic brake booster

Pneumatic brake boosters (Fig. 3) can be fitted to vehicles with a combined compressed-air/hydraulic brake system. With an operating pressure of approximately 7 bar, great booster forces can be achieved on small vehicles.
Partially braked position Supply e.g. 7 bar Inlet valve Outlet valve Working plunger

Tandem master cylinder Hydraulic accumulator High-pressure oil pump Power-steering gear Filter Ventilation Air pressure Valve tappet Working chamber e.g. 3 bar

Fig. 3: Pneumatic brake booster

Fig. 1: Hydraulic brake-booster system

Operating principle
The high-pressure oil pump delivers oil to the hydraulic accumulator. The oil compresses the nitrogen inside it using a diaphragm and charges the accumulator with a pressure of up to 150 bar. The brake booster and the hydraulic-accumulator pressure-oil chamber are connected via an electric line. Brake position. By applying the brake, the control plunger (Fig. 2) of the brake booster is moved. It closes the return passage and opens the inlet passage. The working chamber is supplied with pressure oil and assists the working plunger. The moving working plunger closes the inlet passage thus enabling a variable boost depending on the pedal force. Release position. When the pedal force is released, the control plunger closes the inlet passage and opens the return passage. The hydraulic fluid can flow back to the supply reservoir. The resetting spring pushes the working plunger into its original position. If the engine fails, there is still pressure oil for approximately 10 brake applications.
Release position From Return Inlet hydraulic accumulator passage passage Working chamber

Function. When the brakes are applied, the valve tappet is moved by the plunger rod. The valve tappet comes into contact with the valve plate and therefore closes the outlet valve. Simultaneously, the valve plate is raised and the inlet valve therefore opens. The supply pressure surges into the working chamber and has the effect of a booster force on the working plunger. The moving working plunger closes the inlet valve again. This results in a variable booster force which is directly related to the pedal force. When the pedal force is released, the valve tappet closes the inlet valve and opens the outlet valve. The pressure in the working chamber is discharged and the working plunger is moved back to its original position by the resetting spring.

18.10.10 Braking-force distribution

The axle load displacement that occurs during braking depends on the level of braking deceleration, the load, the load distribution on the vehicle and the height of its centre of gravity. If the brakes are applied when the vehicle is being driven in a straight line, the front wheels are under load and the rear wheels are relieved. If the brakes are applied when the vehicle is cornering, the wheels on the outside of the bend are subjected to an additional load. The brakes are usually designed in such a way to provide optimum effect at medium deceleration and medium load. When braking sharply, however, the rear wheels may lock and the vehicle could skid. Brake-pressure reducers reduce this danger and are used on vehicles without ABS. Brake-pressure reducer (Fig. 1, Page 465). This controls the braking pressure of the rear wheels in the brake line. They are braked with only slightly increased pressure as of a certain changeover pressure.

18

To supply reservoir

Push rod To master cylinder Working plunger Control plunger

Fig. 2: Hydraulic brake booster

18 Chassis Pressure characteristic in the brake system without braking-pressure control. The blue line shows the routing of the braking pressures during actual braking. The same braking pressure is exerted on the front and rear axles until the changeover point (e.g. 40 bar). After the changeover point, further increase of braking pressure on the rear axle is reduced. The rear axle is prevented from locking. Optimum braking is when the braking pressure on the rear axle increases further at the start of braking than it does on the front axle. This is shown in Fig. 1 for a laden and an unladen vehicle. When the vehicle is laden, the wheel contact forces are greater and therefore enable stronger braking forces, generated by the higher braking pressures in the wheel brake cylinders.
RA To rear axle Blow valve Stepped plunger MC From master cylinder Plunger spring Braking pressure RA Unreduced pressure Changeover point
Ideally loaded
oaded lly unl Idea

465
Brake cables. These are steel cables which are routed over rollers in pipes or flexible metal hoses (Bowden cables). To reduce friction and protect against icing and corrosion, these are coated with plastic. Tensioning bolts are attached to adjust the brake cables. Brake compensator (Fig. 3). This is required so that the same forces are exerted on the wheels of one axle.
Compensating lever Brake cable, front Brake cable, rear

Clamp Rubber grommet Bracket Adjusting screw Tension spring

Spring hook

Fig. 3: Brake compensator

Reduced pressure Braking pressure FA

Fig. 1: Brake-pressure reducer

Load-sensitive brake-pressure reducer (Fig. 2). This has the same effect as the normal brake-pressure reducer, but after the changeover point, the braking pressure during braking is controlled according to the load and axle-load shift. The braking pressure within the control range is always adjusted to the ideal pressure with the loadsensitive shift of the changeover pressure.
Ring surface Housing Stepped plunger Valve "open" MC RA To rear axle Rest position Changeover point loaded d
Id e
ly al

Overrun brake (Fig. 4). This is used for trailers. When the tractor vehicle is braked, the trailer runs onto the tractor vehicle. The shear force of the trailer causes the pull rod to be pushed against a compression spring. The movement caused is created by a reversing lever and a control cable on an expander which creates an application force on the brake.
Towing Handbrake Reversing lever attachment lever Wheel Drum brake Brake cables

Braking pressure RA

e ad lo

ded nloa lly u Idea

Control range

Pull rod with gaiter seal

Tear-off Compensating cable element Expander

Fig. 4: Overrun brake

Changeover point unloaded Braking pressure FA

REVIEW QUESTIONS
1 What types of brake booster are used in hydraulic brakes? 2 What pressure difference is used in the vacuum brake booster? 3 How does the vacuum brake booster work in emergency braking? 4 What are the components that make up a hydraulic brake-booster system? 5 What is understood by dynamic axle-load displacement when braking? 6 What are the basic types of brake-pressure reducer used? 7 How does the brake-pressure reducer work?

18

Fig. 2: Load-sensitive brake-pressure reducer

18.10.11 Mechanically operated brake

Mechanically operated brakes are often only still used as the parking brake in vehicles with a hydraulic service-brake system and as the service brake in light motorcycles and single-axle trailers. The efficiency of the mechanical load transmission is low (according to the maintenance status, only ~ 50 %). In winter, load transmission components may freeze together in wet weather or frost.

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18 Chassis

18.10.12 Basics of the electronic chassis control systems

Electronic control systems should guarantee safe control of a motor vehicle during braking, accelerating and steering. The following control systems are used: ABS (Antilock-Braking System), prevents wheel locking during braking. BAS (Brake Assistant), detects emergency situations and brings about shorter braking distances. SBC (Sensotronic Brake control), reduces braking distances and increases the directional stability when braking in bends. TCS or ASC (Acceleration Skid Control), ELSD (Electronic Limited-Slip Differential), prevents wheel spinning when pulling away and accelerating. VDC (Vehicle Dynamics Controller such as ESP or DSC), prevents the vehicle from skidding. Every vehicle movement or change in movement can only be achieved by forces on the wheels. These are: Peripheral force as motive or braking force. This acts on the longitudinal direction of the tyre. Lateral force, e.g. caused by steering or external interferences such as crosswind. Normal force caused by vehicle weight. This acts at right angles to the road surface. The strength of these forces depends on the road surface, tyre condition/type and weather influences. The possible load transmission between the tyres and road surface is determined by the friction force. Optimum transmission of the loads can only occur as a result of static friction between the tyres and road surface. The electronic control systems utilise the static friction optimally. The peripheral force is transferred via static friction as a motive (FA) or braking force (FB) to the road surface. Its size is equal to the normal force FN multiplied by the coefficient of friction H (Ice = 0.1 to Dry = 0.9).
FA, B Motive force, braking force Normal force Coefficient of friction

Kamm's friction circle

F Resmax = F N

Greatest transmissible peripheral force F U

Greatest transmissible lateral force F S

Greatest transmissible force on tyre F Res

Normal force F N (tyre load)

Fig. 1: Forces on the wheel, Kamm's friction circle

Kamm's friction circle (Fig. 1). The largest force transferable onto the road (Fmax = FN H) is shown as a circle. For a stable driving condition, the resulting FRes of peripheral force FU and lateral force FS must lie within the circle and therefore be smaller than Fmax. If the peripheral force FU reaches its maximum as a result of spinning or locked wheels, no lateral force FS can be transferred. The vehicle can then no longer be steered. If when cornering at maximum cornering speed the lateral force FS is at its maximum, the vehicle cannot be braked or accelerated, as it would otherwise break away at the rear. Slip (Fig. 2). While a tyre rolls, elastic deformations and sliding occur. If, for example, a braked wheel with a rolling circumference of 2 m covers a distance of only 1.8 m during a turn, the travel difference between the tyre circumference and braking distance is 0.2 m. This corresponds to a slip of 10 %. If a wheel locks or spins when it is being driven, there is a slip of 100 %. A slip-free transmission of force between the tyres and the road surface is not possible, because the tyre is not interlocked with the road surface and always slides a little when driving or braking.
Vehicle speed Slip 0.2 m = 10 % Road surface Braking force Travel in 1 rotation = 1.8 m Rolling circumference = 2 m Braked wheel Tyre circumference

18

FA, B = H FN

FN

The coefficient of friction H (grip value) is determined by: Material pairing, tyres and road surface Occurring weather influences

Fig. 2: Slip on the braked wheel

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467
ABS systems have the following features: Lateral forces and directional stability remain the same, whereas the risk of skidding is reduced. Vehicle is still steerable and obstacles can thus be avoided. An optimum braking distance can be achieved on normal road conditions (no gravel, snow). Flat spots on tyres are prevented as the wheels do not lock. Antilock-braking systems. They can be differentiated between according to the number of control channels or sensors, and according to the type of control in 4-channel system with 4 sensors and X (diagonal) or II (black-white, TT) brake-circuit configuration. Each wheel is controlled individually. 3-channel system with 3 or 4 sensors and X (diagonal) brake-circuit configuration. The front wheels are controlled individually and the rear wheels always together. Individual Control (IC). The greatest possible braking pressure for each wheel is adjusted here. This means that the braking force is at its maximum. Because the wheels of an axle can be braked with varying forces, e.g. due to a road surface that is icy on one side, there is vehicle torque on the vertical axis (yaw moment). Select-Low Control (SLC). With SLC, the wheel determines the common braking pressure of an axle with the low road-surface adhesion. The yaw moment when braking on road surfaces with varying roadsurface adhesion is lower, because the braking forces on the rear wheels are approximately the same. The front wheels are generally controlled individually and the rear wheels are often controlled according to the Select-Low principle.

Relationship of forces on the wheel and slip

The relationship between motive force, braking force, lateral force and slip when driving straight ahead is shown in simplified form in Fig. 1. Even at low-slip values, the braking force increases steeply to its highest level. It then falls again a little when the slip values increase further. The routing and highest value of the motive/braking force curve depend on the friction coefficient of the tyre on the road surface. The highest value lies between 8 % and 35 % slip. The first area of the curve is called the stable area because the wheel remains stable for driving and steerable. This is where the wheel has the best force transmission. Electronic control systems therefore work in this control range. For large slip values, the lateral force decreases significantly, the vehicle can no longer be steered and the driving characteristics become unstable. The control systems in the vehicle make sure that the stable area is kept to.
Stable Motive or braking force & lateral force Unstable
Motive or brakin g force

ABS operating range

Lateral force 0 8 35 50 % 100

Slip

Fig. 1: Forces on the wheel subject to slip

18.10.13 Antilock-braking system (ABS)

Antilock-braking systems (ABS), also known as anti-skip system (ABV), are used in hydraulic brake systems and air-brake systems for brake-pressure control. During braking, ABS systems control the braking pressure of a wheel according to its grip on the road surface in order to prevent wheel locking. Only moving wheels can be steered and can transfer lateral forces.

Operating principle
The brakes are mainly applied when there is low slip. The ABS does not therefore take effect. The ABS closed-loop control circuit (Table 1, Page 468) is only activated and wheel locking prevented during sharp braking and when there is significant slip. The ABS control range lies between 8 % ... 35 % slip. Below approximately 6 km/h, ABS is generally deactivated so that the vehicle comes to a stop. There is a toothed pulse ring around each wheel which creates alternating voltage by induction in a speed sensor. The frequency of the alternating voltage is a measurement for the wheel speed. The ECU can therefore determine the acceleration or deceleration for each wheel.

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Structure
An ABS consists of the following components: Wheel sensors with pulse rings ECU Hydraulic modulator with solenoid valves The solenoid valves are selected by the ECU in three control phases; pressure build-up, pressure holding and pressure reduction. They prevent the wheels from locking.

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Table 1: ABS closed-loop control circuit
Solenoid valve Brake cylinder Control parameter Pulse ring Reference Master parameter cylinder Hydraulic modulator Sensor Pulse ring Tandem master cylinder ABS electronics ABS hydraulics

18 Chassis

Brake calliper

ECU Final drive Warning lamp Brake pedal Brake disc

Closed-loop ECU control parameter Control Check Monitor Compute Warn Tyre Closed-loop control path Sensor Controller Road surface (interference factor)

Brake system

Fig 1: ABS with return in a closed circuit (illustration)

Closed-loop control path Interference factor Controller Closed-loop control parameter Reference parameter Control parameter

Friction pairing of tyres and road surface, wheel contact force (wheel load) Road conditions, state of brakes, weight distribution of vehicle, tyre condition (air pressure, tyre tread) In ABS ECU (comparison of setpoint/ actual values) Rotational speed or change in speed of wheel Braking pressure specified by pedal force Braking pressure in brake cylinder

Wheel sensors (Fig. 2). These are on every wheel. For each sensor there is one pulse ring around the wheel. Inductive speed sensors or Hall-effect sensor are used.
Sensor

Coil

Pulse ring

Fig. 2: Inductive wheel sensor (speed sensor)

Pressure build-up. The pressure created in the master cylinder is transferred to the wheel-brake cylinder. Pressure holding. If a wheel tends to lock during braking and exceeds a predefined slip, this is detected by the ECU. It switches the solenoid valve of the wheel to pressure holding. The connection master cylinder wheel-brake cylinder is interrupted. The braking pressure remains the same. Pressure reduction. If the slip and therefore the incipient lock continue to increase, the switch to pressure reduction is made. A connection from the wheelbrake cylinder via the return pump to the master cylinder is therefore made. The slip is reduced. If the slip falls below a particular threshold, then the ECU switches the solenoid valve back to the pressure build-up. The control cycle is repeated (4 10 times per second) as long as the brake is applied.

ECU. This processes the incoming signals from the sensors, determines the necessary settings for the solenoid valves and adjusts these accordingly. The function of the ABS system is constantly monitored by self-diagnosis. Warning lamp. Upon starting, this signals the operational readiness of the ABS. It lights up should the ABS control system fail. The vehicle can still be braked fully. Hydraulic modulator with return pump. This contains solenoid valves for control, an accumulator for brake fluid for each brake circuit and an electrically-driven return pump. The pump is activated via a relay and always runs during the ABS control system.
ECU Sensor
M

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Winding

ABS with return in a closed circuit.

During pressure reduction, brake fluid is taken in by a pressure accumulator. At the same time, the return pump pumps it back to the respective master-cylinder brake circuit. Structure (Fig. 1). This ABS has the following components in addition to the usual brake system: Wheel sensors ECU Hydraulic modulator Warning lamp

Electric motor Return pump Solenoid valve Pulse ring Pressure accumulator

Pressure build-up

Fig. 3: 3/3 solenoid valve - operating principle

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469
ABS with return in an open circuit and 2/2 solenoid valves (Fig. 2)
During a control action, the excess brake fluid flows back into the expansion tank at zero pressure. The hydraulic pump is selected by the ECU using the position of the pedal-travel sensor. It pumps the missing volume of brake fluid out of the expansion tank at high pressure back into the respective brake circuit and therefore brings the brake pedal to its basic position. The pump is then deactivated. Structure The system is composed of: ECU Wheel sensors Actuating unit Hydraulic unit Warning lamp ECU. This processes the sensor signals and passes them on as control signals to the solenoid valves. The signals from the travel sensor control the hydraulic pump in the ABS control system. Faults and malfunctions are detected by the ECU, ABS is switched off and the ABS warning lamp is switched on.
FR
Non-return valve Hydraulic pump Electr. motor IV

Operating principle with 3/3 solenoid valves

(Fig. 3, Page 468). For braking-pressure modulation in the ABS control system, the ECU triggers a 3/3 solenoid valve in the hydraulic modulator for each channel. In accordance with the three control phases, the master cylinder is connected as follows: To the wheel brake cylinder for pressure build-up No connection for pressure holding To the return pump for pressure reduction

Operating principle with 2/2 solenoid valves

(Fig. 1) In this system, the hydraulic modulator is equipped with smaller, lighter and faster switching 2/2 solenoid valves. Each control channel now requires an inlet valve and an outlet valve. The ECU switches the solenoid valves in the control phases as follows: Pressure build-up. Inlet valve (IV) open, outlet valve (OV) closed. Pressure holding. Both valves closed. Pressure reduction. Inlet valve closed and outlet valve open. The running return pump pumps the excess brake fluid from the accumulator back into the relevant brake circuit.
Tandem master cylinder Expansion tank Vacuum brake booster

RR

FR

RR
IV

Brake circuit 1 IV

Brake pedal IV OV Supply reservoir

Vacuum brake booster Brake pedal

OV

Brake circuit 2 OV Damper OV

Pedal-travel sensor ABS tandem master cylinder IV Inlet valve (IV)

IV

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OV

M
Return pump Accumulator

Outlet valve (OV) OV

Inlet valve (IV) Outlet valve (OV) Non-return valve

FL

RL

Fig. 2: ABS with open circuit (hydraulic circuit)

FL

RL

Wheel sensors. These are on every wheel and transmit the wheel speed. Actuating unit. This consists of a vacuum brake booster, which has an integrated pedal-travel sensor, and the ABS tandem master cylinder with ex-

Fig. 1: ABS with closed circuit and 2/2 solenoid valves (hydraulic circuit)

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pansion tank. The pedal-travel sensor reports the position of the brake pedal to the ECU. Hydraulic unit. As the engine-pump unit, it includes a dual circuit electrically-driven hydraulic pump and the valve block. This has two 2/2 solenoid valves for each closed-loop control circuit. An inlet valve (IV) and an outlet valve (OV) with a parallel selected non-return valve.

18 Chassis the cathode of the diode. The warning lamp goes out. The solenoid valves are now at the positive. Should the ECU detect a risk of locking in the valve relay, pin 28 is returned to earth. The motor relay switches on the return pump. The valve relay can now be switched to the control phases by connecting to earth at pin 35 or 37 in the control phases. WORKSHOP NOTES

Operating principle of the ECU

If the ECU detects an incipient lock, e.g. on the front left wheel, then the inlet valve closes and the outlet valve opens. The brake fluid now flows at zero pressure back into the expansion tank. When switching to pressure build-up, the outlet valve closes and the inlet valve opens. The brake fluid missing from the brake cylinder will be added by the master cylinder plunger. The master cylinder plunger and the brake pedal move slightly as a result. The travel sensor informs the ECU. This switches the hydraulic pump on. It pumps fluid back until the original pedal position has been reached again.

Check of the electrical system

This can be carried out using a voltage or resistance measuring device, a test diode or special test equipment. Before disconnecting the ECU, the ignition must be switched off. 1. Inspection. Power supply ECU: Ignition on; between pin 1 and earth, U > 10 V. 2. Valve relay function: Pin 27 at earth, ignition on; senses the switching of the relay, or between pin 32 and earth, U > 10 V. Electric circuit control winding: ignition off , resistance measuring device between pin 1 and 27, R 80 . 3. Speed sensor VR resistance: Ignition off between pin 11 and 21, R = 750 1.6 k. Function: turn wheel, between pin 11 and 21 e.g. at 1 rotation of wheel/second U > 30 mV alternating voltage. 4. Motor relay function: Ignition on , pin 28 at earth, senses the tripping function, or between pin 14 and earth, U > 10 V, return pump runs (noise).

Electrical circuit of an ABS

The schematic diagram (Fig. 1) shows a 4-channel ABS with return in a closed circuit with eight 2/2 solenoid valves and 4 sensors. When the ignition switch is switched on, the control winding in the electronic protection relay is supplied with the voltage from terminal 15, the ECU switches and connects to terminal 30 (positive) via pin 1 (plug-in connection on the ECU). At the same time, the warning lamp lights up because it is connected to terminal 15 to the positive and via terminal L1 to the valve relay and via the diode to earth. The ECU now checks the ABS for faults. If everything is OK, it connects across pin 27 and returns the control winding in the valve relay to earth. The valve relay switches. Pin 32 on the ECU receives positive from terminal 30, as does
30 15

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14 28

Plug-in connection ECU 25

27 29 32 36 2 38 18 37 35 39 19 10 5 Protected

4 11 21 7

3 24 25

15

Warning lamp Brake-light switch 30 15 87 30 85 86 87 87 86 85 L1 FL RL FR

2 1 6 5 4 3 8 7

X2

X3

X4

X5

RR

Solenoid valves Electronic Motor relay protection M Electr. motor (return pump) relay 31 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 n Valve relay Hydraulic modulator n n n

G1
D+/61 FL FR RL RR Plug-in Speed connections to ECU sensor

9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 23 24 25 26 27 28 29 30 31 32

Fig. 1: Schematic diagram for a 4-channel ABS

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471
REVIEW QUESTIONS
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 Which electronic chassis control systems are used? Which forces take effect on the vehicle wheel? What is understood by slip? What is the slip range in which the vehicle remains steerable and stable? What are the tasks of an ABS? Name the components of an ABS. Name and explain the terms of the ABS closedloop control circuit. Name the control phases for ABS. What are the essential differences of the hydraulic-ABS concepts?

18.10.14 Brake assistant (BAS)

The brake assistant immediately makes sure in the case of panic braking that there is maximum brake boosting effect, which means that the braking distance is considerably reduced. Many drivers brake quickly in critical situations but do not depress the brake pedal enough. The braking distance is therefore longer which can lead to collisions. Structure The brake assistant (Fig. 1) consists of the following components: BAS ECU Solenoid Travel/pedal sensor Release switch

10 How does the brake assistant work?

18.10.15 Traction-control system (TCS)

Travel sensor Diaphragm disc Solenoid To brake master cylinder

The TCS system prevents the drive wheels spinning when pulling away and accelerating. This stabilises the vehicle in the longitudinal direction, the cornering stability is maintained and the vehicle is prevented from breaking away at the powered axle. The TCS is an enhancement of ABS. Both systems use common sensors and actuators and often have a common ECU where the data exchange is usually carried out via a CAN bus. When the vehicle is being driven with snow chains, the TCS can be deactivated. A distinction can be made between: TCS systems with engine intervention. TCS systems with brake intervention, otherwise known as ELSD Electronic Limited-Slip Differential. TCS systems with engine and brake intervention.
Brake master cylinder ABS low-pressure accumulator Control line Suction valves Hydraulic pump P Delivery valve Hydraulic changeover valve Inlet valve IV ABS/ ELSD ECU

Solenoid coil Release switch Working chamber ECU Vacuum chamber

Fig. 1: Brake assistant

Operating principle
The movement of the pedal causes a change in resistance in the pedal sensor. This is reported to the BAS ECU. If the ECU detects that the pedal is suddenly applied, for example during panic braking, then the solenoid is activated. This vents the working chamber of the brake booster to create the full force of the booster. The result is emergency braking. The ABS prevents the wheels from locking. The solenoid is only switched off via the release switch once the brake is released and the brake pedal has returned to its initial position. For data exchange, the BAS ECU is connected via the CAN bus to the ECUs for other electronic chassis control systems, e.g. ABS, TCS, ESP . If the ECU detects faults, the brake assistant is switched off. The failure is displayed with a yellow warning lamp.

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ABS outlet valve

Check valve CV Pressurelimiting valve Speed sensor, drive wheel, right Wheel brake

ELSD pressure build-up ELSD pressure holding

Induction ELSD pressure reduction

Fig. 2: TCS/ELSD brake circuit of a wheel

Advantages Improvement of traction when pulling away or accelerating.

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Increase of driving safety at high motive forces. Automatic adjustment of engine torque to the grip ratios. Driver information about reaching dynamic limits.

18 Chassis The system works with engine or brake intervention, according to the driving situation. The block diagram Fig. 1 shows the collaboration of engine and brake intervention for preventing unreliable wheel slip when pulling away (TCS operation/ELSD operation) or in overrun mode (EDTC operation). Structure (Fig. 2). ABS/TCS EDTC ECU ABS/TCS hydraulic unit Electronic accelerator pedal with ECU Setpoint generator, servo-motor and throttle valve
Engine control circuit Throttle valve
M Servo-motor
ETC

TCS with brake intervention/ electronic limited-slip differential ELSD

An electro-hydraulic system is used as a starting-off aid. The lock effect is created as a result of brake intervention on the spinning wheel in order to achieve better traction. Structure (Fig. 2, Page 471) Hydraulic system. This is composed of a hydraulic pump with suction and delivery valves, inlet and outlet valves, a hydraulic changeover valve and a check valve with pressure limiter. Electrical system. This is composed of ABS/TCS (ELSD) ECU and wheel-speed sensors. Operating principle Pressure build-up. If a driven wheel spins, this is detected by the ECU with a speed sensor. It activates the hydraulic pump and the check valve. The check valve (CV) closes and the pressure generated by hydraulic pump P brakes the spinning wheel. Pressure holding. The inlet valve (IV) is closed. Pressure reduction. If the wheel has stopped spinning, then the inlet and check valves are opened and the pressure is relieved to the expansion tank via the master cylinder.

Emergency drive unit Setpoint generator Accelerator pedal TCS ON/OFF (snow-chain switch) Brake unit with brake-light switch

Electronics Electronics Hydraulics

ABS

ABS TCS TCS EDTC

Pump FA Speed sensor RA Pressure accumulator Brake control circuit

Fig. 2: TCS-system overview

TCS with engine and brake intervention

Braking torque Closed-control loop Drive torque Closed-control loop Electronic accelerator pedal/EDTC controls Engine intervention reduces Speed differential, wheel slip

Operating principle (Fig. 1, Page 473) All wheel speeds are entered and processed in the ABS/TCS ECU. If one or both wheels tend to spin, then TCS control is activated. Control when pulling away If a wheel is threatening to spin, then the braking torque control overrides because it is important to have as much traction as possible. If, for example, the rear right wheel (RR) starts to spin, then pump P1 is activated via the ECU. The intake solenoid valve Y15 is opened, the changeover valve Y5 and solenoid valve Y10 on the rear left wheel (RL) are closed. The pump-interior pressure therefore brakes the wheel (RR). With the solenoid valves Y12 and Y13 in the hydraulic unit, the braking torque can be controlled through pressure buildup, pressure reduction and pressure holding. Control when driving If, for example, both wheels are threatening to spin, then the drive-torque control overrides to gain optimum traction. The throttle-valve position is returned with a servo-motor and the moment of ignition delayed, whereby the drive torque is reduced.

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ABS monitors

TCS controls

Brake intervention

Brake intervention v < 40 km/ h Maximum possible traction

Intervention in engine management v > 40 km/h Optimal directional stability

Fig. 1: TCS block diagram

18 Chassis With a networked data bus, the systems control the brake intervention depending on the wheel speed, braking pressure, yaw rate, steering angle, lateral acceleration and defined program maps.
To FA circuit

473

Pressure accumulator RA circuit Changeover valve Y5 Pressure build-up RR Induction Pressure holding Pressure reduction Solenoid valve Y10 Y11 Y13 Y12

Intake solenoid valve Y15 P1

Steering-wheelangle sensor

2 pressure sensors on tandem master cylinder

Yaw-rate sensor

Wheel-speed sensor

Damper

GMR

M
Pump

ABS
Hydraulic control unit with integrated controller

ESP

Engine management

V AB
Lateral-acceleration sensor

T C S

RL

RR

Fig. 2: Components of the ESP system

Fig. 1: Hydraulic circuit diagram of a brake circuit

If the wheels spin despite this, the braking torque control is activated by feeding braking pressure from pump P1 via solenoid valves Y10 and Y12 to the rear wheels until the wheels stop spinning. The directional stability is increased. Overrun If slip occurs during sudden deceleration caused by the braking effect of the engine on the drive wheels, the ECU detects this and activates the engine-drag torque control (EDTC). By activating the servo-motor, the throttle valve is moved to such an extent and the engine speed therefore increased that there is no longer slip on the drive wheels. TCS warning lamp. This informs the driver in the case of TCS closed-loop control and if the system fails.

Operating principle The signals from the sensors, e.g. wheel speed, steering movement and lateral acceleration are recorded by the ECU as actual values and compared with stored setpoint values. If the actual values deviate from the desired and actual course (setpoint value), then one wheel is braked specifically so that the vehicle remains stable. The ESP system decides which wheel is braked and how sharply. whether the engine torque is downrated. Understeer. If the vehicle tends to understeer when cornering or during a swerve to avoid an obstacle (Fig. 3), then it would be pushed straight ahead by the front axle. The ESP system controls uses a presupply pump (Fig. 1, Page 474) to control the braking pressure of the rear wheel in the inside of the bend. The yaw moment created as a result twists the vehicle on the vertical axis and counteracts the understeering. Oversteer. If the vehicle tends to oversteer (Fig. 3), then the front wheel on the outside of the bend, for example, is braked by the system, therefore stabilising the vehicle.

E S P
ABS: + ABV: + TCS: + GMR: = ESP:

Antilock Braking System Automatic regulation of braking-force distribution Traction Control System Automatic regulation of yaw moment Electronic Stability Program

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18.10.16 Electronic Stability Program ESP , VDC

Through the specific braking of individual wheels, the vehicle can be stabilised laterally and longitudinally. This therefore prevents the vehicle turning on a vertical axis. In the Electronic Stability Program (ESP) (Fig. 2), the following systems work together: Antilock-braking system (ABS) Automatic braking-force distribution (ABV) Traction-control system (TCS) with engine-drag torque control (EDTC) Automatic regulation of yaw moment (GMR).

Vehicle understeers

Vehicle oversteers

Fig. 3: Understeering and oversteering vehicle

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Hydraulic circuit diagram (Fig. 1)
The brake circuit of a wheel is shown here. Pressure build-up If ESP intervenes in the control, P1 draws in the brake fluid from the supply reservoir and supplies it to pump P2. This guarantees that the system quickly builds up braking pressure in the brake circuit even at low temperatures. The return pump P2 works in the same way, increasing the braking pressure further until the wheel is braked. The high-pressure switching valve Y1 and the inlet valve Y2 are therefore opened. The outlet valve Y3 is closed and the switching valve Y4 is blocked. Pressure holding In this control phase, the high-pressure switching valve Y1 and the inlet valve Y2 are closed. The braking pressure remains constant. Pressure reduction In this phase, the outlet valve Y3 and the switching valve Y4 are opened. The brake fluid is returned through the return pump back to the master cylinder.
Presupply pump High-pressure switching valve Y1 Exhaust valve Y3 Pressure build-up Pressure reduction Pressure holding Brake pliers P2 Return pump Switching valve Inlet valve Y2 Actuating unit Hydraulic control unit with SBC ECU

18 Chassis
Speed sensor

Yaw-angle sensor

ECU box with ESP ECU

Fig. 2: Components of the SBC system

P1 Master cylinder

Unlike a conventional brake system, where all wheels are first subjected to a high braking pressure as quickly as possible and then a pressure control is carried out, with SBC the braking pressure of the individual wheels is controlled individually. Sensors determine the current driving situation and the ECU calculates the optimum braking pressure from this for each wheel. In this way, it is possible to brake the left-hand wheels more sharply which are subjected to heavier loads during a right-hand bend, for example. When braking in bends, this results in an optimum braking factor and stable driving characteristics. In addition to the functions of a conventional hydraulic brake system, SBC can, for example, adopt the following functions: Holding the vehicle on an incline (hill-starting). Applying the footbrake and handbrake until the discs and drums are dry in wet conditions. Softstop to prevent diving under braking. Filling the lines when rapid deceleration is detected, therefore faster pressure build-up during an emergency braking manoeuvre. Automatic adaptive speed and distance control (ACC).
.

Y4

Fig. 1: ESP-system hydraulic circuit diagram

18 18.10.17 Sensotronic Brake Control (SBC)

The Sensotronic Brake Control SBC (or EHB) is a Brake by Wire system. This means that the driver's wish to brake is transmitted via an electrical wire. The system incorporates the functions of ABS, TCS, BAS and ESP .

The system does not need a brake booster. In the case of an electronics failure, restricted braking can take place via an emergency hydraulic connection.

Function
Fig. 1, Page 475, shows the structure of the SBC hydraulics. The driver operates the brake pedal, therefore generating a braking pressure in both brake circuits in the master cylinder. The pressure is recorded by pressure sensor b1. SBC normal braking The ECU closes the hydraulic connection to the front axle by supplying both isolating valves y1, y2.

Structure
The SBC system (Fig. 2) essentially consists of the hydraulic unit with pressure accumulator, actuating unit, ECU and speed and yaw-angle sensors.

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Return line 1 Suction line S9/1 2 MC2 MC1 b1 Pressure sensor y1 Isolating valves y2 M m1 B37/1 Braking pressure SBC Admission pressure 3 Hydraulic pump Pressure accumulator b2 Pressure sensor

475

y7

y6

y8

y9

y11

y10

y12

y13

b3 7 FL 5b y3 Balance valve Media isolator 8 FR

b4

b5 y4 Balance valve

b6 Pressure sensor RR 6a

RL 6b

5a

Fig. 1: SBC hydraulic circuit diagram, normal braking

The brake system pressure supply is now provided by the pressure accumulator 3. The storage pressure is generated by the electrically driven hydraulic pump m1 and measured by the pressure sensor b2. This can be up to 150 bar. Should the storage pressure sink below a particular value, then the hydraulic pump is reactivated. The ECU calculates the optimum braking pressure for each wheel and adjusts it accordingly using inlet valves y6, y8, y10, y12 and outlet valves y7, y9, y11, y13. Pressure sensors b3, b4, b5, b6 report the actual values of the individual wheel brake cylinders to the ECU. Balance valves y3, y4 balance the pressure for the wheels of one axle during a brake application. They are activated and closed during braking when cornering and in the Electronic Stability Program. It is now possible to regulate the brake pressure individually for each wheel. The two media isolators 7, 8, prevent nitrogen from entering master cylinder 1 from a leaking pressure accumulator 3. Emergency-braking manoeuvre if SBC fails The two isolating valves y1, y2 are not energised and therefore remain open (Fig. 2). The braking pressure generated by the driver in the master cylinder is directed to the brake cylinder at the front axle. The rear axle is unbraked. Because there is no brake booster, the braking effect is low. The vehicle speed is therefore restricted by the engine ECU to a maximum of 90 km/h.

Return line

1 Suction line

B37/1

S9/1

MC2

MC1

Braking pressure, emergency braking = admission pressure b1

y1 Isolating valves

y2

y7 7 b3 FL 5b

y6

y8 8 y3 Media isolator

y9 b4 5a FR

Balance valve

Fig 2: SBC hydraulic circuit diagram, emergency braking manoeuvre

REVIEW QUESTIONS
1 What is understood by a traction-control system? 2 What are the advantages of traction-control systems? 3 What are the components in the TCS system required for the braking-torque control loop? 4 Describe the function of the TCS system with engine and brake intervention. 5 What are the advantages of an Electronic Stability Program? 6 How does the ESP/VDC system work if the vehicle is oversteered? 7 What are the extra functions of SBC in addition to a hydraulic brake system? 8 Explain the function of SBC.

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