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History of Magnetism

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The key takeaways are the early discoveries of magnetism, important scientists who contributed to the understanding of magnetism, and applications of magnetism in devices.

The origin of magnetism comes from the orbital and spin motions of electrons in atoms.

The two main theories of magnetism are Weber's theory of aligned molecular magnets and domain theory based on electron spin.

INTRODUCTION

History of Magnetism

The term magnetism comes from a rock called lodestone. The ancient Greeks and the Chinese

know about this strange and rare stone with the power to attract iron [1]. This natural form of

magnet was then named as lodestone. The name magnet was used by the Greeks for this

lodestone, because of its property of attracting other pieces of the same material and iron as

well. It was proved later that this naturally occurring lodestone is the magnetic iron oxide or

the naturally occurring mineral called magnetite [2]. The Chinese found that when a steel

needle stroked with such a lodestone became magnetic and the needle pointed north - south

when it is suspended freely. They applied this characteristic feature of the lodestone for

navigation, fortune telling and as a guide for building. Some of the properties of magnets

were discovered earlier than 600 B. C, although it is only in the twentieth century that

physicists have begun to understand why substances behave magnetically. Thus magnetism

is one of the earliest known physical phenomena of solid materials [3, 4].

In 1263 Pierre de Maricourt a French soldier mapped the magnetic field of a lodestone with

a compass. He discovered that a magnet had two magnetic poles north and south poles. The

magnetic compass was first used for navigation in the west sometime after AD 1200. In the

13th century important investigations on magnets were made by the French scholar Petrus

Peregrinus. His discoveries stood for nearly 300 years until the English physicist and

physician to Queen Elizabeth 1 of England, William Gilbert published his book on Magmas,

Magnetic bodies and the Great Magnet of the Earth, in 1600. William Gilbert was the first to
apply scientific methods to a systematic exploration of magnetic phenomena. His greatest

contribution was the discovery that the earth itself behaves like a giant magnet [5-7]. He

distinguished clearly between electricity and magnetism. Quantitative studies of magnetism

began in the early eighteenth century. In 1750, the English geologist John Michel (1724 -

1793) invented a balance that he used in the study of magnetic forces. He showed that

attraction and repulsion of magnets decreases as the square of the distance from the poles

increases. The French physicists Charles Augustine de Coulomb (1736 - 1806) had measured

the forces between electric charges and established the inverse square law of force between

magnetic poles and also between electric charges. Thus, he verified John Michel's observation

with high precision [8].

In the late 18th and early 19th centuries the theories of electricity and magnetism were

investigated simultaneously[9]. In 1819 an important discovery was made by the Danish

physicist Hans Christian Oersted, who found that a magnetic needle could be deflected by an

electric current flowing through a wire [10]. This discovery, which showed a connection

between electricity and magnetism, was followed up by the French scientist Andre Marie

Ampere, who studied the forces between wires carrying electric currents and worked out the

mathematical relationship between the current of electricity and the strength of the magnetic

field. He also had a theory that the electric current in atoms had a magnetic field. In 1831 the

English scientist Michel Faraday discovered that moving a magnet near a wire would induce

an electric current in that wire and the inverse effect of that was found by Oersted [11, 12].

Eventually simple devices based on magnetic materials started rolling out. They slowly

percolated in to every sphere of human life. They came into being as passive energy devices
such as transformers and electric motors.

Subsequent studies of magnetism were increasingly concerned with an

understanding of the atomic and molecular origins of the magnetic properties of

matter. Pierre Curie discovered that magnets lose their magnetism above certain

temperature which became known as the Curie point [13]. In the 1900's, Edward M.

Purcell and Flix Bloch both American physicists developed a way to measure the

magnetic field of the nuclei. This discovery led to Magnetic Resonance Imaging

(MRI). In 1905, the French physicists Paul Langevin (1872- 1946) produced a theory

regarding the temperature dependence of the magnetic properties of paramagnets,

which was based on the atomic structure of matter [14]. This theory is an early

example of the description of large scale properties in terms of the properties of

electrons and atoms. Langevin's theory was subsequently expanded by the French

physicist Pierre Ernst Weiss (1865-1940), who postulated the existence of an

internal, molecular magnetic field in materials such as iron. This concept, when

combined with Langevin's theory, served to explain the properties of magnetic

system such as lodestone [15].

After Weiss theory, magnetic properties were explored in greater detail by Danish

physicist Niel's Bohr. His theory of atomic structure, for example, provided an

understanding of the periodic table and showed quantitatively why magnetism occurs

in the so called transition elements, such as iron and the rare earths or in compounds

containing these elements[16]. The American physicists Samuel Abraham


Goldsmith (1902 - 1978) and George E. Uhlenbeck (1900 - 1988) showed that the

electron itself has a spin and behaves like a small bar magnet [17]. At the atomic

leve1, magnetism is measured in terms of magnetic moments. A moment being

analogous to a unit of angular momentum in mechanics, except that electric charge

is substituted for mass.The German physicist Werner Heisenberg gave a detailed

explanation for Weiss's molecular field in 1927, on the basis of the newly developed

quantum mechanics. In the 1960's and 1970's scientists developed superconducting

magnets. Only when the magne is cooled to absolute zero these magnets can

degenerate magnetic fields up to 200000 gauss [18, 19].

When a substance is placed in a magnetic field H, it develops a certain amount of

magnetization. The magnetization I, defined as magnetic moment per unit volume

[20] and is given by

I = H, …..1.1

Where,  is known as magnetic susceptibility, for isotropic materials, I and H are in

the same direction, i. e, ‘’ is scalar. For anisotropic materials, I and H are not

necessarily in the same direction, and ‘’ is a tensor [20]. The magnetic induction B

defined as

B = H + 4I = µH …..1.2

Where, µ is called the permeability of the material [21]. It can be seen that

µ= 1 + 4   …1.3

The magnetization arises from the spin and the orbital motion of the electrons in the
material. The orbital motion of an electron about the nucleus gives rise to a magnetic

moment µL which is related to the orbital angular momentum ML by the expression

[22],

µL = - ML …1.4

Both vectors are perpendicular to the plane of the orbit. The spin magnetic moment

µS is given by [23].

µS = . 2. MS …1.5

In general, an atom would have a number of electrons and its total angular momentum

arises from a combination of the individual orbital and spin angular momentum. The

magnetic moment µ is related to the total angular momentum MJ by the

relationship[24].

µ= . g Mj …1.6

where,

g = 1+

The factor g is called the Lande g factor [25] and its value is l when s = 0 and 2
when L = 0. The magnitude or Mj is √j(j+1)ħ and its possible orientations are
such that the components in an arbitrary direction (called z direction are mjħ, where
mj= J, J-1, …………….-J).

Correspondingly, the allowed values of the components of the magnetic moment


[26] are
µZ = .g.mjħ

…1.7 µz= -mJ.g.µB

where, µB=

Magnetism

Magnetic phenomena have been known and exploited for many centuries. The earliest

experiences with the magnetism involved Magnetite, the only material that occurs naturally

in a magnetic state. This mineral was also known as Lodestone, after its property of aligning

itself in certain directions if allowed to rotate freely, thus being able to indicate the positions

of North and South, and to some extent also latitude. The other well known property of

Lodestone is that two pieces of it can attract or even repel each other [27].

After the production of iron from its ores had become possible, it was realized that magnetite

could also attract iron. There are many magnetic materials known today, and it is therefore

useful first of all to give a very important rule for what is called magnetic material.

If two objects attract each other and also repel each other (depending on their relative

orientations) then those objects might be called magnets. There are also other objects that

are attracted to, but not repelled by magnets, and are not attracted or repelled by each other.

Such objects are said to consist of magnetic materials [28].

1.1 Origin of Magnetism


The macroscopic magnetic properties of materials are consequence of magnetic moments

associated with individual electrons. Each electron in an atom has magnetic moments that

originate from two sources. One is related to its orbital motion around the nucleus; being a

moving charge and electron may be considered to be a small current


loop, generating a very small magnetic field, and having a magnetic moment along its axis

of rotation. Each electron may also be thought of as spinning around an axis the other

magnetic moment originates from this electron spin, which is directed around the spin axis.

Spin magnetic moments may be only in an “up” direction or in antiparallel “down” direction.

Thus each electron in an atom can be thought of as being a small permanent magnet having

orbital spin magnetic moments in each individual atom, orbital moments of some electron

pairs cancel each other; this also holds for spin moments. For example, the spin moment of

one electron with spin up will cancel the one with spin down [29]. The net magnetic moment,

then, for an atom is the sum of magnetic moments of each constituent electron, including

both orbital and spin contributions, and taking into account moment calculations for an atom

having completely filled electron shells or subshells, when all electrons are considered, there

is total cancellation of both total and spin moments. Thus, materials are composed of atoms

having completely filled electron shells are not capable of being permanently magnetized.

This category includes the inert gases (Ar, Ne, He etc) as well as some ionic materials [30]

(Fig. 1.1).

Fig.1.1: Origin of Magnetism


1.2 Theory of Magnetism

Magnetism, the power of attracting iron by a material, is known to mankind for centuries

before Christ. The oldest magnetic material or simply magnet, so called magnetite (Fe3O4)

is a mineral was initially found in the district of Magnesia of the modern Turkey. The

word magnet is a Greek word and known from the name of district. Almost everyone is

familiar with what a magnetic material can do but very few know how a magnet works. The

magnetic properties of materials are entirely due to the motion of electrons of the atoms. To

understand this phenomenon one must first grasp the inextricable connections that exist

between magnetism and electricity. A simple electromagnet can be produced by wrapping

copper wire into the form of a coil and connecting the wire to a battery. A magnetic field is

created in the coil but it remains there only while electricity flows through the wire. The

field created by the magnet is associated with the motions and interactions of its electrons,

the minute charged particles which orbit the nucleus of each atom. Electricity is the

movement of electrons, whether in a wire or in an atom, so each atom represents a tiny

permanent magnet in its own right. The circulating electron produces its own orbital

magnetic moment, measured in Bohr magnetrons (μB), and there is also a spin magnetic

moment associated with it due to the electron itself spinning, like the earth, on its own

axis (illustrated in fig.1.1) [31]. In most materials there are resultant magnetic moments,

due to the electrons being grouped in pairs causing the magnetic moment to be cancelled by

its neighbour. In a certain magnetic material the magnetic moments of a large proportion of

the electrons align, producing an unfilled magnetic field. The field produced in the material

(or by an electromagnet) has a direction of flow and any magnet will experience a force

trying to

align it with an externally applied field, just like a compass needle [32].
Fig. 1.2 (a, b): Origin of magnetism-(a) orbital magnetic moment

(b) Spin magnetic moment

These forces are used to drive electric motors, produce sounds in a speaker system, control

the voice coil in a CD player, etc. The interactions between magnetism and electricity are

therefore an essential aspect of many devices we use every day. The magnetic moments of

the electrons are so oriented that they cancel one another out and the atom as a whole has

no net magnetic moment. This leads to diamagnetism and the cancellation of magnetic

moment is only partial and the atom is left with a net magnetic moment and the atom is called

a magnetic atom. This leads to Paramagnetism, Ferromagnetism, Ferrimagnetism and

Antiferromagnetism [33].

1.4.1 Weber's Theory

A popular theory of magnetism considers the molecular alignment of the material. This is

known as Weber's theory. This theory assumes that all magnetic substances are composed

of tiny molecular magnets. Any unmagnetized material has the magnetic forces of its

molecular magnets neutralized by adjacent molecular magnets, thereby eliminating any

magnetic effect. A magnetized material will have most of its molecular magnets lined up so

that the north pole of each molecule points in one direction and the South Pole faces the

opposite direction. A material with its molecules thus aligned will


then have one effective North Pole, and one effective South Pole. When a steel bar is stroked

several times in the same direction by a magnet, the magnetic force from the north pole of

the magnet causes the molecules to align themselves[34].

1.4.2 Domain Theory

A more modern theory of magnetism is based on the electron spin principle. From the study

of atomic structure it is known that all matter is composed of vast quantities of atoms, each

atom containing one or more orbital electrons. The electrons are considered to orbit in

various shells and sub shells depending upon their distance from the nucleus. The structure

of the atom has previously been compared to the solar system, wherein the electrons orbiting

the nucleus correspond to the planets orbiting the sun. Along with its orbital motion about

the sun, each planet also revolves on its axis. It is believed that the electron also revolves on

its axis as it orbits the nucleus of an atom [35].

An atom with an atomic number of 26, such as iron (Fe), has 26 protons in the nucleus and

26 revolving electrons orbiting its nucleus. If 13 electrons are spinning in a clockwise

direction and 13 electrons are spinning in a counterclockwise direction, the opposing

magnetic fields will be neutralized. When more than 13 electrons spin in either direction, the

atom is magnetized. Fe has a structure of (1s22s22p63s23p6)3d64s2 with a net moment of 4

mb, In minerals, the transition elements are in a variety of oxidation states. Fe commonly

occurs as Fe2+ and Fe3+. When losing electrons to form ions, transition metals lose the 4s

electrons first, so we have for example, Fe3+ with a structure of (1s22s22p63s23p6)3d5, or 5

mb. Similarly Fe2+ has 4 mb and Ti4+ has no unpaired spins. Iron is the main magnetic species

in geological materials, but Mn2+ (5 mb) and Cr3+ (3 mb) occur in trace amounts. The

elements with the most unpaired spins are the transition

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Study And Survey on Magnetism and Their Related Phenomena
INTRODUCTION

Elements which are responsible for most of the paramagnetic behavior observed in rocks [36].

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