Earth Science Notes

EARTH SCIENCE
Scientific Inquiry
Science assumes the natural world is:
• consistent
• predictable
Goals of science are:
• to discover patterns in nature
• to use the knowledge to predict
Hypothesis and Theory

An idea can become a:
Hypothesis
* tentative, untested explanation
Theory
* tested, confirmed, supported
Note: theories withstand examination
Scientific Method
Scientific knowledge is gained through:
1. Co-llect data & facts
2. De-velop a hypothesis
3. Co-nduct experiments
4. Re-examine the hypothesis (accept, modify, or reject)
Scientific Method = “CoDe CoRe”
Earth Science
Encompasses all sciences
that seek to understand:
* Earth
* Earth’s neighbors in space
1. Geology the study of Earth
2. Oceanography the study of the Ocean
3. Meteorology the study of the Atmosphere and Weather
4. Astronomy the study of the Universe
GEOLOGY
- The study of the Earth
the study of:
- substances that make up the Earth
- processes that shape the Earth
- Earth structures
search for fuels and minerals, study natural hazards, and work to protect Earth's environment
Subfields
- volcanology
- seismology
Predict and mitigate the effects of natural disasters
Geologists are at the forefront of the quest for natural resources
METEOROLOGY
- The study of the weather and atmosphere
- processes in the atmosphere
- changes in temperature, air pressure, humidity and winds affecting the weather
a very practical science
Broadcast meteorologists
- interpret and report weather data on television or radio
Forensic meteorologists
- determine how weather conditions contributed to accidents or caused damage to property
Climatologists
- study the large-scale weather patterns for a given region over long periods of time
OCEANOGRAPHY
- The study of the ocean and ocean currents
Study of Earth's oceans - composition, movement, organisms and processes
Oceans
- cover most of our planet
- energy source
- major influence on the weather and climate change
Oceanographers
- study currents, storms or waves
- understand and protect marine ecosystems
- work for governments, for the fishing ,shipping, or energy industries
- work to develop the ocean as a resource and protect it from human impact
ASTRONOMY
- The science that studies the universe.
Oldest among the natural sciences
Study of the celestial objects and its phenomena
Science of the constitution, relative positions, and motions of the heavenly bodies in the material
universe outside the Earth, as well as of the Earth itself in its relation to them
Study of all extraterrestrial objects and phenomena in relation to Earth
ASTROPHYSICS
Branch of astronomy which treats of the physical or chemical properties of the celestial bodies
Applies the laws of physics and chemistry to explain the birth, life and death of stars, planets,
galaxies, nebula, etc.
COSMOLOGY
The science of the universe as an ordered whole, and of the general laws which govern it
Deals with the idea of the world as a totality of all phenomena in space and time.
Seeks to understand the origin, evolution and ultimate fate of the entire Universe.
ASTROLOGY
Astrology is the study of the correlation between celestial and earthly events
Pseudoscience that studies the movements and relative positions of celestial objects to divine (to
try to predict and analyze) information about human affairs and terrestrial events
KEY CONCEPTS
Astronomy measures positions, luminosities, motions and other characteristics.
Astrophysics creates physical theories of small to medium-size structures in the universe.
Cosmology does this for the largest structures, and the universe as a whole.
THE UNIVERSE AND THE SOLAR SYSTEM

Theories on the Origin
of the Universe
* Matter existed in the beginning of time.
* Book of Genesis
The Old Testament’s Creation theory
* Hindu text Rigveda
“Brahmanda” expanded from "Bindu”
Religious Use of the ‘Gap’

1. 'God of the Gaps’ approach.
2. Even if we do figure out all of the processes behind how we got here, it still does not answer why
we are here.
* Philosophers from 5th to 3rd century BCE

- Leucippus and Democritus: Atomic universe
- Aristotle and Ptolemy: Geocentric universe
- Copernicus: Earth is not at the center; Heliocentric theory
- Bruno: Solar system is not the center of the universe
* Isaac Newton
Static, Steady-state, Infinite Universe
* Albert Einstein
Same as Newton’s theory (neither expanding nor contracting); added a cosmological
constant but rejected his own theory later on
* Rene Descartes
Cartesian vortex model of the Universe
* Edwin Hubble
Astronomer who showed that the universe was not static
Modern Theories on the Origin of the Universe

* Oscillating Universe (Albert Einstein) Big Bang and Big crunch cycle
* Steady State Theory (Hoyle, Gold and Bondi) Expands but density does not change
* Inflationary Universe (Alan Guth) Pre-Bang; Exponential cosmic inflation

* Multiverse (Andrei Linde) Inflationary Universe; One of many “Bubbles”
Big Bang Theory

* Expanding universe (13.7-15 Gya)
* Origin- infinitely tiny and dense
* Pure energy- Point of singularity
* Violent explosion- Inflation and expansion
* Fundamental Forces were formed
- Gravity
- Electromagnetic Force
- Strong and Weak Nuclear Force
* Fusion of protons and neutrons
* Hydrogen and helium atoms
* Photons escaped = Light
* Stars and galaxies from coalescence of H and He, and the aid of gravity
* Light to heavier elements were formed from the supernova
* Nebula existed
* Solar system and planets were formed
Evidence Supporting the Big Bang Theory

1. Hubble’s Law: expansion causes red shift
2. Cosmic Background Radiation
3. Primordial helium: 93% H, 7% He, & trace Li
But...
1. Cosmologists cannot follow the evidence right back to the origin of the Big Bang
2. There is observable evidence to count for 90% of the explosion (10.5bn years) – no light to be
measured from other 10%
3. The other 10% is only ‘known’ through hypothetical mathematical simulations – they are only
theoretical.
Big Bang Theory Personalities
Einstein - universe is static

Hubble - the further away the galaxy, the greater the redshift of its spectral lines
- Galaxies are getting farther as time progresses, the universe is expanding
Lemaitre - the universe was smaller yesterday than today
Gamow - High density would cause rapid expansion
- As the universe expanded, H & He cooled and condensed to form stars and galaxies
Origin of the Solar System

1. Encounter
2. Nebular
3. Protoplanet
Encounter Hypothesis
* 5 Gya
* Rogue star – passed close to sun and stripped
* Hot gases – spin in the same direction as the sun and coalesced into Planets
Nebular Hypothesis
* Solar system = large cloud of gas
* Gravity caused contraction
* Rotating disk with a concentrated center (“protosun”) to preserve momentum
* Planets begin to form within the disk
Protoplanet Hypothesis
* Based on the nebular hypothesis with knowledge on fluids and states of matter
* Interstellar cloud composed of H and He
* Cloud fragments formed dense central region of the solar nebula
* Nebula contracted and rotated faster
* It grew by accretion and evolved into the sun
* Gravitational instabilities ruptured disks into eddies
* Accretion continued and Planetissimals are formed orbiting the nebula
* These large asteroid bodies grew in size forming Planets
* The distance from the sun determined the composition of individual planets

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EARTH SCIENCE

Hypothesis and Theory

Note: theories withstand examination

THE UNIVERSE AND THE SOLAR SYSTEM

Religious Use of the ‘Gap’

* Philosophers from 5th to 3rd century BCE

Modern Theories on the Origin of the Universe

* Inflationary Universe (Alan Guth) Pre-Bang; Exponential cosmic inflation

Big Bang Theory

Evidence Supporting the Big Bang Theory

Big Bang Theory Personalities

Einstein - universe is static

Origin of the Solar System

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