2.classfication of Computers

COMPONENTS
OF CCT
Introduction
After completing this Chapter, the
student will be able to:
trace the evolution of computers,
describe the computer and its
devices,
list the components of a computer
system,
compare various input and output
devices,
classify various ports,
understand different storage
devices,
recall the evolution of
communication technology,
explain computer languages and
their development,
compare various types of
software and
interpret steps involved in
programming.
2
In the first chapter we were introduced to a device
that has changed the way we work, live and play.
Only once in a lifetime does a new invention come
about to touch every aspect of our lives in this
way. This incredible invention is the computer.
The electronic computer has been around for
over half a century, but its ancestors have been
around for 2000 years. However, only in the last
40 years has it changed society. From the first
wooden abacus to the latest high-speed
microprocessor, the computer has changed nearly
every aspect of our lives for the better.
Objectives
I think its fair to say that personal computers
have become the most empowering tool weve
ever created. Theyre tools of communication,
theyre tools of creativity, and they can be
shaped by their user.
Bill Gates

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Computers and Communication Technology
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2.1 HOW DOES ONE PERCEIVE THE COMPUTER?
Let us take a tour to the Computer Laboratory of our school. We may
see an assemblage like the
one shown in figure 2.1. But
then we have also seen
laptops. What differences do
we notice? Let us gather
information about devices
that look different from these
but still are computers.
Computer indeed derives
its name from its essential
function, namely, to compute.
In a rudimentary sense any
c o mp u t a t i o n r e q u i r e s
primary data and operations
performed between them. This would mean receiving data, processing
them, keeping in memory the data at different stages of operation,
having some set of data that is fundamental to all operations and
giving outcomes of operations. Hence, essentially a computer means a
system of components (i) to input data and display output i.e. Input
and Output devices; (ii) processing unit called the Central Processing
Unit (CPU) and (iii) the Memory space which can be Read Only Memory
(ROM) or Random Access Memory (RAM). One should realise that it is
not the external appearance by which a computer is understood in as
much as its functionalities.
In fact, the memory in terms of capacity (space) and speed, and the
processing capacity of the CPU (speed with which it processes)
characterise computers and distinguish them. Also the manner in which
data is presented determines a classification of computers, namely,
analogue or digital computers.
2.1.1 CLASSIFICATION OF COMPUTERS
Computers can be classified into two major types based on their way of
handling data. These are as follows:
1. Analogue Computers : They work on continuous variables like waves
of the signal, their amplitude, etc.
2. Digital Computers : They work on the principle of binary digits i.e.
0 and 1. Any value or symbol is represented through a binary value.
Figure 2.1: A Computer System
Hybrid Computers : They are a combination of good features of analogue and digital
computers. Digital counterparts convert the analogue signals to perform Robotics
and other Process control. Hybrid computers are used to control air traffic and
radar of national defence.

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Digital computers can also be classified according to their physical
structure (size) and the purpose of their use. Based on capacity, speed
and reliability they are classified into three categories:
I. Microcomputer : The term Microcomputer was introduced with
the advent of single chip large scale integrated circuit (LSIC) computer
processors. It is the smallest single user computer and its CPU is a
microprocessor. It can perform the same operations and can use the
same type of instructions as other computers. These are the most
frequently used computers, better known by the name Personal
Computers.
Types of Personal Computer
In our everyday use, the term computer refers to
digital computers, a typical example being the
common personal computer (PC). These can be
classified mainly as Desktop Computers, Laptop
Computers, Palmtop Computers, Personal Digital
Assistant (PDA), Tablet PC, etc.
Desktop Computers
Desktop computers are larger and not meant to be
portable. They usually sit in one place on a desk or
table and are plugged into a wall outlet for power.
The case (chasis) of the computer holds the CPU.
When this case lies flat on the desk then it is
generally referred to as a Desktop Model
(Figure 2.2) else when it stands vertically on the
desk in the form of a tower, it is referred to as a
Tower Model (Figure 2.3). The computer usually
has a separate monitor. A separate keyboard and
mouse allow the user to input data and commands.
The main advantage of tower models is that there
are fewer space constraints, which makes
installation of additional storage devices easier.
Laptop
This is a small, portable computer (Figure 2.4),
small enough that it can sit on the lap. Nowadays
laptop computers are also called notebook
computers.
Hand-held Computers/Palmtop
This computer is smaller than a laptop. It is so
small that it literally fits in a palm, hence, referred
to as palmtop (Figure 2.5). Because of their small
size, most palmtop computers do not include disk
Figure 2.4 : Laptop
Figure 2.3 : Tower Model
Figure 2.2 : Desktop Model

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Server
The term server actually refers to a computers function rather than to a specific
kind of computer. A server runs a network of computers. It handles the sharing of
equipment like printers and the communication between computers on the network.
For such tasks a computer would need to be somewhat more capable than a
desktop computer. It would need:
more power
larger memory
larger storage capacity and
high speed communications.
drives. Compared to full-size computers, palmtops
are severely limited, but they are practical for
certain functions such as phonebooks and
calendars. Sometimes these are also called pocket
computers.
Personal Digital Computers/Assistants
Palmtops that use a pen rather than a keyboard
for input are often called PDAs (Figure 2.6). This is
a handheld device that combines computing,
telephone fax and networking features. PDA can
function as a cellular phone, fax sender and
personal organiser. PDA was pioneered by Apple,
which introduced the Newton Message Pad in 1993.
Tablet PC
It is a notebook slate-shaped mobile computer
(Figure 2.7) which is equipped with a touchscreen
or graphics table which allows the user to operate
the computer with a digital pen or stylus or
fingertip. A wireless keyboard can be connected
to this for
extensive text
input. Other models of tablet PCs
are convertible model (screen can
rotate over the keyboard) and hybird
model where the screen is fixed on
the keyboard.
Workstation
A powerful, single user computer, a
workstation is like a personal
computer, but it has a more powerful microprocessor and in general, a
higher quality monitor used in computer aided design and other
applications requiring a high end, usually expensive, machine with
considerable calculating or graphics capability.
Figure 2.5 : Palmtop
Figure 2.6 : Presonal Digital Assistant
Figure 2.7 : Tablet PC

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Components of CCT
II. Mini Computer : It is a multiuser computer capable of supporting
up to hundreds of users simultaneously. They are usually more powerful
compared to microcomputers. Minicomputers are also known as mid
range computers as their cost and computing powers lie in the middle
range between micro and mainframe computers. Minicomputers are
used for multiusers and interactive applications.
III. Mainframe Computer : A powerful multiuser computer, the
mainframe computer, is capable of supporting many hundreds or
thousands of users simultaneously. They are capable of faster processing
and greater storage area. They are used in research organisations,
large industries, large businesses and government organisations, banks
and airline reservation where a large database is required.
Figure 2.8 : Super Computers
Super Computer
There is another category of computers, the Super Computer which is somewhat
similar to the mainframe computer. These are largest, fastest and most expensive.
They are used for massive data processing and solving very complicated problems
like weather forecasting, weapons research and development, rocketing, atomic,
nuclear and plasma physics. The processing speed of super computers lies in the
range 400-10000 million instructions per sec (MIPS). Examples of the
supercomputer are Eka which was developed by the TATA Group, Pune (India) in
November 2007. It is the first in Asia and the 8th fastest supercomputer in the
world as of June 2008 (Figure 2.8 (a)) PARAM (Figure 2.8 (b)) developed by CDAC
in Pune (India), CRAY 3 (developed by control data corporation, JAPAN), SX-3R
(25.6 GIGA Flops, NEC make) HITAC S-300 (32 GIGAFLOPS, HITACH make) etc.
HITAC S-300 is the latest and the fastest Super Computer.
(b) Param (a) Eka

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Table 2.1 : Evolution of Computers
Electrical
Electronic
Component
Vacuum tubes
Transistors
Integrated
circuits (ICs)
Very large
scale
integration
(VLSI)
Ultralarge
scale
integration(ULSI)
Main Features
Bulky, slow,
unreliable,
consume more
space and
power
Less power
consumption,
smaller in size
More memory
capacity,
much smaller
in size and
weight
Development
of
microprocessor,
more speed
and reliability
Much faster
and very
powerful
Software
Machine
language and
assembly
language
High level
languages (HLLs)
like FORTRAN,
Pascal,
COBOL, etc.
General
purpose HLL,
concurrent
programming
Webbased
technologies,
very user
friendly and
sophisticated,
artificially
intelligent
software
Being
Developed
Memory and
I/O Devices
Limited core
memory,input
through punch
cards
Magnetic core
memory as
main memory,
magnetic tapes
and disks
Semiconductor
memory as
main memory,
hard disks as
secondary
Optical disks,
VCDs, DVDs,
blue ray disks
and high
capacity hard
disks
Being
Developed
Type of
Computer
Analogue
Analogue
Digital
Digital
Digital
The future is promising for the computer industry and its technology.
The speed of processors is expected to double every year and a half in
the coming years. As manufacturing techniques are further perfected,
the prices of computer systems are expected to steadily fall. However,
since the microprocessor technology will be advancing, its higher costs
will offset the drop in the price of older processors. In other words, the
price of a new computer will stay about the same from year to year, but
the capacity of the technology will steadily advance.
2.1.2 EVOLUTION OF COMPUTERS
Table 2.1 gives a glimpse of the evolution of computers.

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2.1.3 LET US KNOW THE COMPUTER
A computer is basically a device that can respond to a specific set
of instructions in a well defined manner, execute a prerecorded
list of instructions (a program) and quickly store and retrieve large
amounts of data. Since a computer is understood more by its
functions than its appearance, let us see what functions each of
the components performs.
2.1.4 ORGANISATION OF THE COMPUTER SYSTEM
A computer system (Figure 2.9) is usually defined as a combination of
hardware and software. Computer hardware is the physical equipment.
Software is the collection of programs that make the hardware do its job.
Each of the hardware and software components has undergone
refinements and modifications depending upon the limitations encountered
by the users and the endeavours to overcome these limitations to meet
new requirements and challenges. Let us therefore understand the
computer from two perspectives, namely, the general functions of its
components and the evolution these components have undergone.
Figure 2.9 : Components of a computer system
2.2 HARDWARE
In order to accomplish a particular task the computer performs a series
of jobs, namely, Input, Storage, Processing and Output, which it handles
in a very special way as follows:

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It accepts the data (input) from the user.
The computer has memory chips, which are designed to hold data
until it is needed.
It processes this data into information. The computer has an electronic
brain called the Central Processing Unit, which is responsible for
processing all data into information according to the instructions
given to the computer.
It then returns the processed information (output) to the user.
For performing each of the jobs listed above, every computer has
special parts/components, for Input Device, Storage Device, Central
Processing Unit and Output Device.
2.2.1 INPUT DEVICES
General Functions
It provides a means for the machine to communicate with its external
environment by accepting (or reading) data and the program.
1. It converts the data based on the program into computer acceptable
form through an input interface.
2. It supplies the converted instructions and data to the computer
system for further processing.
The very scope of computers is enough to understand that there is
no limit to the form and type of data that serves as an input. Sometimes
the input is in the form of text in normal language, sometimes it is a
picture, sometimes it is a voice input like a song. Selection of an
appropriate input device will improve efficiency and keep human
interaction minimal.
Types of Input Devices
On-line or Direct Data Entry Devices : These devices are under the
control of the CPU and communicate directly with the CPU, that is,
these are connected via cable to the CPU. This process of data entry
may be time consuming and may have errors but by using these devices,
we can avoid having to capture data from paper. These are also known
as Interactive Input Devices and are classified as:
(a) Keyboard
(b) Locator devices
(c) Interface or pick devices.
(a) Keyboard
The most common input device is the keyboard (Figure 2.10). The
modern keyboard generally contains 104 keys and is called the
QWERTY keyboard because of the sequence of keys in the top row,
which are similar to those of a standard typewriter. A keyboard is
used for a wide range of tasks but is well known for its capability to

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Components of CCT
enter data, which is copied from the original paper
documents (such as name and address details on
a form). Keyboards are also used for typing letters,
memos, reports and other documents using word
processing software.
(b) Locator devices
Locator devices are used to control the location
or position of the cursor on the screen and they allow us to provide
the necessary input. Generally, locator devices are good for gross
movement but not for precision work. Different locator devices are
discussed in Table 2.2.
Figure 2.10 : Keyboard
Table 2.2 : Various Locator Devices
Mouse It is a small hand-held device used to
indicate a position or movement on a
computers display screen by rolling it
over the mouse pad/flat surface. There
are different types of this device like
physical, optical and laser mouse.
Physical mouse works on the principle
of the movement of a ball, whereas
optical and laser mouse works on the
bases of light signals (i.e. have no
mechanical movement inside.)
Trackball It is a movable ball mounted on top of
a stationary base, which can be rotated
manually using a finger and it also has
two buttons like a mouse for performing
operations similar to mouse. Three
dimensional track balls are available
that allow the movement not only the
traditional left/right and forward/
backward movement but also up and
down as well.
Touch pad It is a flat touch sensitive rectangular
surface performing similar operations
as a mouse or a track ball.
Mouse, track ball and touch pad are point and click devices and are used to start
the task by positioning the pointer, selecting and dragging items/objects. They
can also be used to draw various simple/complex graphic images/pictures.
Name of Description Picture/
the Device Diagram

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(c) Interface/Pick Devices
Pick devices are used to select an object on the screen. The object may
be text or graphic. Examples of pick devices are light pens and touch
screens.
Light Pens
The light pen is a pen-like light-sensitive device that feeds a narrow
electrical pulse generated by a pointing device directed towards the
screen. It is connected by a wire to the computer terminal that detects
the signals from the screen. Light pens may be used in place of a
mouse or a keyboard, particularly for menu based applications where
an option may be selected by pointing on it. They are used for Computer
Aided Designing (CAD) and drawing purposes. Moreover, with the help
Digitising Tablet Digitising tablet is an electronic plastic
board, on which specifying a location
corresponds to a location on the
computer screen. It is considered to
be an absolute locator because it is very
precise and when a stylus (pen) is
placed in a particular position the same
signals are produced each time. It is
in this that it differs from other locator
devices. Digitisers are used by
architects and engineers in Computer
Aided Designing (CAD) for designing
buildings, cars, mechanical parts,
robots, etc. Moreover, they are used in
the Geographical Information System
for digitising of maps.
Joystick Joystick is a wired/wireless control
device which is usually used for playing
video games. These are relative locators
in which the direction of the push
determines the change of position and
the amount of deflection determines a
change of speed (see Figure).
A joystick not only indicates two
dimensional positions by moving the
ball rotationally but also three
dimensional position, where the third
dimension is indicated by the rotation
of the rod. Games software, flight
simulators, etc. often use joystick as
the input device.

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Components of CCT
of a light pen, engineers, architects or fashion designers can draw and
edit the designs directly on the screen, though for editing a drawing
keyboard may be used to select colours, lines with varying thickness,
cropping or enlarging the drawings. It is also used to read bar codes
from products that are available in big departmental stores.
Touch Screens
Touch screens are monitors on which the user makes selections by
touching the screen, rather than moving a cursor to the location with
external locator devices.
Touch screens are often used in situations where users are likely
to have a low level of competence in using computer keyboards. Touch
screens are sometimes used in restaurants, building societies and
travel information systems.
Source Data Entry Devices : We have observed that in grocery stores, the
clerks merely wave the product over a laser scanner/barcode reader, which
automatically enters the product code and retrieves the corresponding price
of the product automatically. The earlier practice was to enter the code/
product name by using a keyboard (a time consuming process). The laser
scanner/barcode reader comes under Source Data Entry Devices category,
which increases the efficiency of a user. These devices help us in entering
the data directly from the source, without any human intervention.
The devices used in this category are:
(a) Video digitiser
(b) Digital camera
(c) Scanning devices
(d) Voice input
(e) Remote control
(f) Magnetic stripe reader
(g) Sound sensor microphone
(h) MIDI instrument.
Source Data Entry Devices
(a) Video Digitiser
A video digitiser captures television pictures from devices such as a
TV set, video camera or video recorder and converts them into a digital
format that a computer can use for display, storage or general
manipulation. A video digitiser is an ideal tool for capturing images
from real-life scenes to incorporate into computer work. It is used to
convert still or moving images into a digital format required for
computerised presentation. Taking video pictures or frames from video
files is known as frame grabbing.
A video digitiser may be required for video conferencing. (If a digital
video camera is used there will be no need for a video digitiser.) It can
also be used to make television advertisements and pop videos, etc.

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Advantages
Video digitisers allow us to capture real-life images which are often
more appropriate than drawings.
Captured images can then be transferred to paper.
Disadvantages
A fast computer with a large memory capacity is required to cope
with the large amount of data involved.
(b) Digital Camera
A digital camera (Figure 2.11) stores images (digital pictures) in the
memory and does not use celluloid films as in the case of ordinary
cameras. Each digital picture is made up of thousands of tiny dots,
called pixels (picture elements), and the camera
stores data about the colour of each dot. The
picture quality is determined by the number of
dots representi ng a speci f i c pi cture. The
resolution of the image is expressed in Dots Per
Inch (DPI) defines. Higher the DPI, better the
resolution . Most cameras allow the user to choose
the resolution needed for a picture. Once the
photograph is stored in the camera it can be
transferred to a computer where it can be edited,
pri nted or more permanentl y stored. Some
cameras store images on a floppy disk or memory
card so that they can be easily transferred. Other cameras are
connected to the computer with a lead (cable) and special software
is used to transfer the image.
Advantages
There is no developing cost, no film is needed and we can insert
images directly into a document on the computer.
You can edit, enlarge or enhance the images.
An image can be saved with multiple shots and the best one can be
saved. That is, there is no wastage like a miss-shot in ordinary
cameras.
Disadvantages
Digital cameras are generally more expensive than ordinary cameras.
When the memory is full they can be connected to a computer to
download the stored images (or the images can be deleted from
memory) before they are used again. This is not as convenient as
simply changing a film.
Figure 2.11 : Digital Camera
(Some digital cameras overcome this problem by using floppy disks or other storage
devices to store images before they are transferred, but floppy disks cannot hold
many images and other devices are expensive).

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(c) Scanning Devices
(i) Scanner
A scanner is a device which can capture still images
or even text, to be stored and used on a computer.
The scanner throws a light beam onto the paper
and measures the amount of light reflected back by
each part of the page. Like a digital camera, the
page is split into tiny pixels (dots) and a number
representing the colour of each dot is sent to the
computer. Scanner software usually allows the user
to choose between high and low resolution. Very
high quality images take up a lot of memory.
Most scanners need to place the paper on a
glass plate inside them for scanning similar to a
photocopier machine. These are called flatbed
scanners (Figure 2.12) and typically use a charge
coupled device (CCD) as a image senser. This
usually come in A4 size or larger (such as A3), but
there are also some small hand-held ones (Figure
2.13) often used to read text such as bar codes.
Another type of scanners used to capture the
highest resolution from an image are called drum
scanners (Figure 2.14). These scanners spin the
film around on a drum while a fixed laser or other
beam of light looks at the art as it spins. The beam
is then picked up by a very sensitive vacuum tube
called a photomultiplier tube (PMT). This big single,
fixed tube is much more sensitive to light than
any of the tiny pixels on CCD and therefore can
see a broader range of light from white to black.
At also sees it without the noise of a CCD. Drum scanners are good
because the image is picked up by a much more sensitive PMT.
Advantages
Any image can be converted from paper into digital format and
later enhanced and used in other computer documents.
Disadvantages
Images take up a lot of memory space, but it is possible to reduce
the size of the data file by reducing the resolution (number of dots
per inch) or by using different ways of storing the data i.e., different
file formats.
Whether to go for a flatbed or a drum scanner depends upon the
objectives of our scanning. Table 2.3 gives the comparison of flatbed
and drum scanners.
Figure 2.12 : A flatbed scanner
Figure 2.13 : A hand held scanner
Figure 2.14 : A drum scanner

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Table 2.3 : Flatbed Scanners Vs. Drum Scanners
Flatbed Scanners
Line-at-a-time scanners
High end flatbeds scan at resolution
range from about 1500 to 5400 dpi
Illuminate the original with a whole line
of light at a time that lights up a long
thin strip of the original
Reasonable cost
Smaller in size
Drum Scanners
Flying-spot scanner
Good drum scanners can resolve 8,000
to 11,000 dpi optically
Illuminate the original with a tiny spot
of light, which effectively flies across
the original
Expensive
Very large size
Hand-held digital cameras and camcorders are field scanners because they scan
a whole 2-dimensional field at once.
(ii) Optical Mark Readers (OMR)
Optical Mark Readers are able to detect marks on paper. A pre-printed
document is prepared for users to select certain areas to put a line or
a mark. A document like this is scanned using reflected light to detect
dark shadows.
Universities and educational institutes often use preprinted
enrolment forms where students have to enter a mark with a medium
or soft pencil. Multiple choice questions in entrance examination papers
often require a candidate to make a mark to indicate the answer. The
student will pencil a line through the option of their choice.
Questionnaires and surveys may also use this technique.
Advantages
Simply selecting and marking a choice in the right location on an
OMR form is easier than typing writing in data.
Documents can be checked evaluated very quickly by scanning
them with only a few chances of error (only 23% with modern
OMR machines).
Disadvantages
Careful handling of forms is needed. Badly damaged, creased or
folded forms may be rejected.
They can only be used when the data to be input can be selected by
marking with lines. Because every option must be catered for, the
forms are sometimes not very easy for the user to understand. This
may introduce errors.

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(iii) Optical Character Readers (OCR)
Optical Character Readers (OCR) are devices that can detect patterns
of marks which are in character format (numbers, letters, punctuation
and some special characters like , @, etc.). Only printed characters
can be recognised because it is not easy to cater for different styles of
handwriting. The characters are converted by a scanner from picture
format into coded characters that the computer can work with. This is
normally in ASCII format (American Standard Code for Information
Interchange). OCR software can be purchased separately for use with
a standard A4 scanner. OCR is often used to scan text for use in a
word processor.
Advantages
When a computerised document has not been saved and only printed
text is available, it is possible to use OCR to scan in the text for
later editing and re-arrangement.
Disadvantages
Some characters cannot easily be interpreted and errors occur
during conversion. This is especially true if there are a lot of
diagrams and characters laid out in a way the software cannot
interpret.
(iv) Magnetic Ink Character Recognition (MICR)
Characters which have been printed using magnetised ink can be recognised
using a Magnetic Ink Character Reader device. This type of data collection
has limited use and it is mainly restricted to banking systems because of
the expensive equipment involved. Cheques are pre-printed with some
code and account number. When a cheque has been written the data
input clerk also has to mark the cheque amount in magnetic ink.
MICR is used for Bank cheque processing.
Advantages
Fast processing of large volumes of data.
It is a fairly secure method of data collection as the shape of the
characters cannot be changed without expensive equipment.
This method of input is very reliable as the number of errors
generated during the reading of documents is negligible.
Disadvantages
MICR is expensive to use because special equipment is needed to
create the characters as well as to read them.
(v) BarCode Readers
Bar-codes (Figure 2.15) are a series of thick and thin vertical lines
grouped together. Bar-code readers (Figure 2.16) are the devices used

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to input data from such sets of Bar codes. The
reader uses a laser beam to read the series of
thick and thin lines which represent the barcode
number. Al most every product we see on
supermarket shelves has a barcode. The barcode
i s 13 di gi ts l ong and there are f our mai n
divisions. The first part of the barcode (two digits)
represents the country, the second part
represents the manufacturers code (five digits),
the third part represents the produce code (five
digits) and there is a final digit, which represents
the check digit. This last digit is a calculated
digit to ensure that the barcode is read properly.
If there is an error, the reader usually beeps and
the operator must key in all the digits manually.
When the barcode is read, it locates the correct
product on the inventory file, stored on the
computers disc. The price is read from the file
and a sale is registered, producing a record on
the customers receipt. The number filed in the
inventory file is reduced by one.
Bar codes are used on library tickets, airport
baggage labels, books, supermarket products,
clothes and on many other retail items. Barcode readers are used in
most situations where there is an Electronic Point of Sale terminal
(EPOS terminal), for example: department stores, supermarkets.
Advantages
Fast and accurate data entry.
It is possible to store all the details about the country of origin and
manufacturer as well as the product code itself. These are recorded
in a standard format within the barcode.
Disadvantages
If the barcode is damaged the barcode reader cannot read it. It is
then time consuming to enter all the separate digits using a keypad.
(d) Voice input
We can now input data by simply talking into a microphone and using
special software to recogni se the voice. Users should be trained in
the software regarding correct pronunciation of the words before the
speech can be interpreted and transferred to the computer. Some
computer systems can respond to voice commands and can carry out
tasks because the spoken word is interpreted by the software and
converted to instructions. These can be used for inputting text to
word processing software, controlling devices such as electronically
controlled doors and machines.
Figure 2.16 : Bar code reader
Figure 2.15 : Bar code

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Components of CCT
Advantages
Voice input is extremely useful for those users unable to use
keyboards or mouse.
Disadvantages
The system must be able to recognise the voice of each user. Teaching
the software can be tedious and time consuming.
Speech recognition software is still not very accurate.
(e) Remote Control
Remote control devices are used for transmitting data when the user
is at some distance from the processor. Devices such as video recorders
can accept data which is programmed into the system from a remote
handset. Special keys for certain tasks or selections are usually found
on the handset. An infrared sensor on the main processing unit picks
up the signals when keys are pressed. It is used to enter data from a
distance.
Advantages
The device provides the user with the convenience of inputting and
working, away from the processing unit.
Disadvantages
Small remote devices can easily be misplaced.
The unit and remote need to be quite near to each other and should
have no other objects between them which may interfere with the
signals sent.
(f) Magnetic Stripe Reader
Magnetic stripes are the dark-looking stripe that may be seen on
the back of many plastic cards, for example, bank cards. The magnetic
stripe holds data about the owner of the card, a bank card will
contain details such as the bank account number (the card owners
individual account number) and sort code (the code that identifies
the branch of the bank where the account is held).
The device (Figure 2.17) reads the data on the
magnetic stripe and money can be taken from
the correct account to pay the bill. The money is
taken from the bank account, not from the card.
Data on a magnetic stripe does not change and
there is no balance recorded on the card. It may
be noted that the card does not contain details of
the credit limit. Magnetic stripe readers are often
seen at supermarkets and in many different types
of shops, in fact anywhere where there is a point
of sale (somewhere we pay for our purchases).
Figure 2.17 : Magnetic stripe reader
and debit card

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When the data is read electronically, the point of sale is called EPOS
(Electronic Point of Sale).
Advantages
The card can be read many times without damaging the stripe.
The data is not visible to people because a machine is needed to
read the data (although with debit cards the bank details are
actually displayed on the card as well).
Putting magnetic stripes onto cards is not expensive so the cards
are quite cheap to produce.
The data from the stripe is read very quickly and more conveniently.
Disadvantages
Magnetic stripes may get damaged or the magnetic stripe reader
could break down.
The biggest disadvantage of magnetic stripes is that ordinary
equipment can read but not change the data. That is why Smart
Cards are gaining more popularity. These cards contain a small chip
(or tiny processor with some memory) instead of a magnetic stripe.
The data on the chip may then be changed as the smart card is used.
(g) Sound Sensor Microphone
A sound sensor, which is a microphone (Figure 2.18), is a device that
detects sound and inputs it to the computer, and then
the sound which is analogue in nature is converted
into digital format.
The person using the computer speaks into the
microphone. Speech recognition software on the
computer converts what the person has said into
text. The text is displayed on the screen and can be
saved as a word-processed file. Speech recognition
is getting more reliable though it is necessary to
spend some time teaching the system to recognise
the user speech. Remember, it still does not always
make accurate conversions to text.
Some users record special sounds, both voice
and music, from any source. These sounds may be
used in computerised presentations, for example, multimedia teaching
software.
Advantages
People with a range of disabilities can be benefited from the use of
microphones and speech recognition, for example, those who cannot
use a keyboard. They can create word-processed documents by
speaking instead of typing. Moreover, many devices in the home
can now be controlled by voice.
Figure 2.18 : A sound sensor
microphone

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Components of CCT
Recording our own sounds means that we can add spoken messages
or music to our own presentations or even e-mails.
Disadvantages
There should be no background noise while recording, otherwise
sound may become distorted. Cutting down the background noise
is sometimes difficult and the sound recorded using a microphone
is often not very good.
Sound sampling (converting the analogue sound to digital format
using software) often produces very large data files.
(h) MIDI (Musical Instrument Digital Interface) Instrument
It is a serial interface standard that allows
connections of music synthesisers, musical
instruments and computers.There are a
variety of musical instruments such as
keyboards, guitars and drums, which send
and receive electronic messages. If a musical
keyboard is connected to a computer using a
MIDI instrument (Figure 2.19), the musical
information such as pitch is converted to digital
data which can then be stored on the computer.
The music industry uses MIDI to input
music directly into a computer so that it can
be edited and developed, often by mixing it with other sounds which
are input from a microphone. Some programs allow its user to enter a
tune from a musical instrument, then convert this into written music,
which can even be printed out.
Advantages
Once the tune has been played on the musical instrument, all the
details are held on the computer. These details may then be changed.
It is possible to speed up the tune, slow it down or even make it
sound like a completely different instrument.
The data stored is very compact and takes up about 1/20th of the
space taken up by even the lowest quality recorded sound samples.
Disadvantages
A musician is required to play the instrument to acquire the input,
so some musical knowledge is required.
To take advantage of the digitally recorded sound, knowledge of
software and music is required to edit recorded tunes.
2.2.2 MEMORY OR STORAGE DEVICES
Memory is required in a computer to store programs and the data
processed by programs.
Figure 2.19 : Musical Instrument
Digital Interface

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Computer memory is made up of a large number of cells. Each cell is
capable of storing one bit of information in the form of binary numbers.
Memory System
Memory in a computer system is required for the storage and subsequent
retrieval of instruction and data. A computer system uses a variety of
devices for storing instructions and data required for its operations.
Normally, the information to be stored on a computer is classified in
two basic categories data and instructions.
Although a memory system is a very simple system, it exhibits a
wide range of technology. But unfortunately, faster memory is more
costly. On the other hand, memories with smaller cost have very high
access time. This is the time taken by the CPU to access a location in
memory. This results in slower operation of the CPU. Thus, the cost
versus access time has led to a hierarchy of memory where we
supplement fast memories with larger, cheaper and slower memories.
Therefore, memory system may have different types, costs,
organisations, technologies and performances. (Figure 2.20)
Computer Memory Hierarchy
Figure 2.20 : The Memory Hierarchy
Types of Memory
A memory system can be considered to consist of three types of
memories. These are as follows:

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Components of CCT
1. Internal processor memories
2. Primary memory or main memory
3. Secondary or auxiliary memory
Any storage unit of a computer may have the following characteristics:
Storage capacity is the amount of information/data a storage unit
can hold. Accessing the data to/from these memories may be fast or slow.
The speed and availability of inexpensive memory has had enormous
impact on computer technology. The high speed memory devices are
more expensive and occupy less space in comparison to the slow speed
memory devices.
Internal Processor Memories
These consist of the small set of high-speed registers and high speed
buffer memory (cache) which are internal to a processor and are used
as temporary locations where actual processing is done.
Register is a small amount of storage available on the CPU whose
contents can be accessed more quickly than storage available elsewhere.
Processor registers are at the top of the memory hierarchy and provide
the fastest way for a CPU to access data.
The important registers, within the CPU are:
Program Counter (PC). A program counter keeps track of the next instruction to be
executed.
Instruction Register (IR) is a register which holds instruction to be decoded by the
control unit.
Memory Address Register (MAR), is a register which points to the memory location
which the CPU plans to access, either for reading or for writing.
MBR (memory buffer register) which is also referred to as memory data register
(MDR) is used for storage data either coming to the CPU or data being transferred
by the CPU.
Acculmular (ACC) is a general purpose register used for storing variables, temporary
results and results produced by arithmetic logic unit of the CPU.
Besides these, a processor can have many other registers. But these are the most
basic and most essential registers necessary for any CPU.
Cache Memory
Cache memory is a small high speed buffer memory used to hold
instructions temporarily during processing.
The CPU of a computer system commonly uses cache memory
(Figure 2.21) where it holds or buffers the contents of the main memory

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because the CPU runs much faster than the main memory. Thus to
reduce the waiting time of the CPU the cache is used. Cache memory
reduces traditional system bottlenecks because system RAM is much
slower than CPU. This prevents the processor from having to wait for a
program and data from slower main memory.
A cache typically operates by retaining copies of blocks of storage,
each containing recently used information. This memory (or caches) is
usually transparent or invisible to the processor.
Figure 2.21 : Cache memory
Cache is a collection of data duplicating
original values stored elsewhere or
computed earlier, where the original data is
expensive to fetch (owing to longer access
time) or to compute, compared to the cost of
reading the cache. In other words, a cache
is a temporary storage area where frequently
accessed data can be stored for rapid
access. Once the data is stored in the cache,
future use can be made by accessing the
cached copy rather than refetching or
recomputing the original data, so that the
average access time is reduced.
Figure : CPU memory cache
Primary Memory
It is a large memory which is fast but not as fast as an internal processor
register. The processor directly accesses this memory. It is mainly
based on integrated circuit.
The primary memory or the main memory is part of the main
computer system. The processor or the CPU directly stores and retrieves
information from it. This memory is accessed by the CPU, in a random
fashion. That means any location of this memory can be accessed by the
CPU to either read information from it, or store information in it. The
primary memory itself is implemented by two types of memory
technologies. The first is called Random Access Memory (RAM) and the
other is read only memory (ROM). A more appropriate name for RAM is

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Components of CCT
RWM (read write memory), the CPU can write and read information
from any primary memory location implemented using RAM. The other
part of primary memory is implemented using ROM which stands for
Read Only Memory.
There are two types of built-in memory, permanent and temporary,
known as ROM and RAM, respectively, details of each given below:
Read Only Memory (ROM)
As we know, in the computer terminology, read means transferring
data instruction from an input source to the computers, main memory
(or CPU) and write is transferring data/instruction from computers
main memory to an output device. Therefore, read only means data/
instruction can be retrieved from the ROM chip but cannot be modified.
Types of ROM
Basically, there are two types of ROM, namely, manufacturer
programmed and user-programmed.
ManufacturerProgrammed Read Only Memory
Manufacturer-programmed ROM is one in which data is stored in it
permanently by the manufacturer of the ROM. For example, a computer
manufacturer may store the system boot program permanently in the
ROM chip used on the motherboard.
UserProgrammed Read Only Memory
User-programmed ROM is one in which the user can load and store
read-only programs and data. Such a ROM is commonly known as
PROM (programmable read-only memory), because, a user can program
it. PROM (programmable read-only memory) is a memory chip on
which we can store a program. But once the PROM has been used, we
cannot wipe it clean and use it to store something else. Like ROMs,
PROMs are non-volatile.
Other kinds of user-programmed ROM are EPROM and EEPROM.
Both of these are special types of PROM. EPROM (erasable
programmable read-only memory) can be erased by exposing it to
ultraviolet light while EEPROM (electrically erasable programmable
read-only memory) can be erased by exposing it to an electrical charge.
Flash EEPROM memory works much faster than traditional EEPROMs because instead
of erasing one byte at a time, it erases a block or the entire chip, and then rewrites it.
The electrons in the cells of a Flash-memory chip can be returned to normal (1) by
the application of an electric field, a higher-voltage charge.
Random Access Memory (RAM)
RAM chips are meant for primary storage. They hold temporarily
(a) software/program instructions and (b) data before and after processing.

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Random Access means that any location can be referenced in the
same time and in the same manner, as it is independent of the address
or location in the memory. It is a volatile memory. It holds data and
instructions, during their execution. The additional RAM chip can be
plugged into the special socket on the motherboard known as Single
In-Line Memory Module (SIMM). Random Access Memory capacity
ranges from 16 MB to 4 GB on personal computers.
Types of RAM
RAM chips are of two types, namely, static RAM (SRAM) and dynamic
RAM (DRAM).
Static RAM (SRAM)
The SRAM can store data as long as power is applied, without the need
for periodically rewriting the data into memory. Contents (memory cell)
of this RAM will stay in a given state (store a bit) indefinitely, provided
that power to the memory circuit is not interrupted. The main
applications of SRAM are in areas where only small amounts of memory
are needed or where high speed is required.
Advantage
SRAM can provide very high speed.
Disadvantage
SRAM is costly and has low power packing density.
Dynamic RAM (DRAM)
This memory stores data as charges on capacitors. With Dynamic RAM,
the stored data will gradually disappear because of capacitor discharge,
so that it is necessary to periodically refresh the data (i.e. recharge
the capacitors). In the process of refreshing, the information is read
from the memory cell and written back in the same position. Typically,
each memory cell of a DRAM must be refreshed at least every 2 to 10
millisecond or its data will be lost.
Advantage
It has high capacity and power consumption is low.
Disadvantage
The need for refreshing of dynamic RAM because some external
refreshing circuits is required.
Complementary Metal Oxide Semiconductor Memory (CMOS)
Besides RAM and ROM there is a third type of primary memory or storage called as
CMOS. It is used to store the system configuration, date, time and other important
data. When a computer is switched on, BIOS matches the information of CMOS with
the peripheral devices and displays error in case there is any mismatch.

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Components of CCT
RAM
Random Access Memory
It holds information temporarily.
Information is lost when power supply
is switched off.
Known as volatile memory.
Holds operating system and application
programs which are currently in use.
Types of RAMs are Dynamic RAM and
Static RAM.
ROM
Read Only Memory
It stores information permanently.
Information is not lost even if the
computer is switched off.
Known as non-volatile memory.
Holds system software such as Boot
Loader.
Types of ROMs are PROM, EPROM
EEPROM.
Table 2.4 : Comparison between ROM and RAM
Secondary or Auxiliary Memory
Auxiliary memory is much larger in size than main memory but is
slower than the latter. It normally stores system programs and data
files. These cannot be accessed directly by the processor.
Secondary or auxiliary memory, also known as secondary storage,
is the memory that supplements the main storage. This is a long-term,
non-volatile memory. The term non-volatile means it stores and retains
the programs and data even after the computer is switched off. Unlike
RAM which looses the contents when the computer is turned off and
ROM to which it is not possible to add anything new, auxiliary storage
device allows a computer to record information semi-permanently. This
is to ensure that this information can be read later by the same computer
or by another computer. Auxiliary storage devices are also useful in
transferring data or programs from one computer to another. They also
function as backup devices which allows backup of the valuable
information that we are working on. So, even if by some accident our
computer crashes and the data in it is in unrecoverable mode, we can
restore it from your backups. The most common types of auxiliary storage
devices are floppy disks, hard disks, magnetic tapes and magnetic disks.
Sequential and Random Auxiliary Storage Devices
Based on the type of data access, sequential and random, auxiliary storage devices
can be classified as sequential access media and random media.
In case of sequential access media, data stored in media can only be read in sequence.
To get to a particular point on media, we have to go through all the preceding points.
Magnetic tapes are examples of sequential access media.
In contrast, disks are random access media, also called direct access media, because a
disk drive can access any point at random without passing through intervening points.
Other examples of direct access media are magnetic disks, optical disks, etc.

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Floppy Disk
Floppy disk (often called floppies or diskettes) is a soft magnetic disk.
It is called floppy because it flops if we wave it (atleast the 5 inch
variety does). The data on the floppy disk is organised in terms of
tracks and sectors. Unlike most of the hard disks, floppy disks are
portable because these can be removed from a disk drive. Disk drives
for floppy disks are called floppy drives. Floppy disks are slower to
access than hard disks and have less storage capacity but are less
expensive and are portable.
There are two basic sizes of a floppy, namely 5 inch and 3 inch.
5 inch : This is the common size floppy for PCs made before 1987.
This type of floppy is generally capable of storing between l00K and
1.2MB of data. The most common sizes are 360K and 1.2MB.
3 inch : Floppy (Figure 2.22) is something of a misnomer for these
disks as they are encased in a rigid envelope. Despite their small size,
these floppies have a large storage capacity than their cousins from
400K to 1.4MB of data. The common sizes for PCs are 720K (double
density) and 1.44MB (high density).
Figure 2.22 : Floppy
Optical Disk
An optical disc is an electronic data storage medium that can be written
to and read using a low-powered laser beam. Optical disk can store
much more data, i.e. upto 6 GB. There are three basic types of optical
disks namely, CDROM, WORM and Erasable.
CD-ROM : Like audio CDs, CD-ROMs come with data already encoded

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Components of CCT
onto them. The data is permanent and can be read any number of
times but CD-ROMs cannot be modified (Figure 2.23).
WORM : This term stands for Write Once, Read Many with a WORM
disk drive. One can write data only once onto a WORM disk. After that,
the disk behaves just like a CD-ROM.
Figure 2.23 : Optical disks
Erasable : Optical disks that can be erased and loaded with new data
are just like magnetic disks. These are often referred to as EO (Erasable
Optical) disks.
Hard Disk
Hard disk is a magnetic disk (Figure 2.24) on
which computer data can be stored. Hard disks
hold more data and are faster than floppy disks.
A single hard disk usually consists of several
platters. Each platter requires two read/write
heads, one for each side. All the read/write
heads are attached to a single access arm so
that they cannot move independently. Each
platter has the same number of tracks. A track
location that cuts across all platters is called
a cylinder. For example, a typical 84 MB hard
disk for a PC might have two platters (four
sides) and 1,053 cylinders.
Magnetic Tape
Magnetic tape (Figure 2.25) is a magnetically
coated strip of plastic on which data can be
Figure 2.24 : Hard disk
Laserdisc
CD Mini-CD

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Secondary Storage
It is auxiliary memory which works
under the control of CPU.
Relatively less expensive than primary
memory.
Storage Capacity is in GB and TB.
Retrieval and processing is comparatively
slower.
Based on magnetic or optical technology.
Primary Storage
It is the main memory as part of the
CPU.
It is most expensive.
Storage capacity is generally in MB or GB.
Retrieval and processing is very fast.
Based on semi conductor technology.
Table 2.5: Primary Storage vs. Secondary Storage
Figure 2.25 : Magnetic tape
encoded. Tapes for computers are similar to the tapes used to store
music. Some personal computers, in fact, enable one to use normal
cassette tapes. Tapes are considerably cheaper than storing data on
disks but accessing data from tapes is much slower than accessing
data from disks. Tapes also have large storage capacities, ranging from
a few hundred KB to several GB. These are generally used only for
long-term storage and backup.
2.2.3 CENTRAL PROCESSING UNIT
The central processing unit is one of the two most important components
of the microcomputer. It is the electronic brain of the computer. In
addition to processing data, it controls the functions of all the other
components.
The Central Processing Unit (CPU) or the Central Processor carries
out a variety of essential data manipulation (including arithmetic/
logical calculations, comparisons, sorting, etc.) and controlling tasks
in the computer. CPU consists of Arithmetic Logic Unit (ALU) and Control
Unit (CU).

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Components of CCT
Memory Unit Table
1 Bit (Binary digit) 0 or 1
1 Byte 8 Bits
1 Kilo Byte (KB) 2
10
Byte or 1024 Byte
1 Mega Byte (MB) 1024 Kilo Byte
1 Giga Byte (GB) 1024 Mega Byte
1 Tera Byte (TB) 1024 Giga Byte
1 Peta Byte (PB) 1024 Tera Byte
Every microprocessor contains a system clock. The speed at which
the processor executes instructions is known as Clock Speed and it is
measured in Megahertz (MHz).
Megahertz (MHz): a measure of frequency equivalent to 1 million
cycles per second.
Gigahertz (GHz): a billion cycles per second.
Where mega means millions and Hertz means cycles. Therefore 550 MHz
processor performs 550 million cycles per second. Generally, clock speed
determines the system performance. Technology advances for higher clock speed.
The latest generation of processors operates in gigahertz (GHz) i.e. a billion
cycles per second.
A computer performs its operation in a fraction of a second. The increasing speeds
given below are:
Millisecond = 10
3
second
Microsecond = 10
6
second
Nanosecond = 10
9
second
Picosecond = 10
12
second
Arithmetic Logic Unit
The Arithmetic Logic Unit carries out as the name suggests Arithmetic
and Logical operations on the data made available to it. Basic Arithmetic
functions which an ALU can carry out are addition and subtraction.
More powerful CPUs can support additional mathematical operations
like multiplication and division. The logical operation which it can
carry out are greater than, equal to, less than and comparison between
two numbers. Besides these operations some processors also support
operations which check if particular bits are on or off.

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Control Unit
The Control Unit can be thought of as the brain of the CPU itself. It
controls the computer based on the instructions it decodes, how other
parts of the CPU and in turn, the rest of the computer systems should
work in order that the instruction gets executed in a correct manner.
Register
The register is a special, high-speed storage area within the CPU. All
data must be represented in a register before it can be processed. For
example, if two numbers are to be multiplied, both numbers must be
in registers, and the result is also placed in a register. (The register
can contain the address of a memory location where data is stored
rather than the actual data itself.)
2.2.4 OUTPUT DEVICE
The output devices of the computer are used to display results in
electronic or paper medium.
Common output devices which produce output that is easily
understood are Printers and Monitors.
The results generated by the output devices may be of two types:
Hardcopy Output : Such outputs are non-electronic version/permanent,
and thus may be used at later date as and when they are required. They
are usually on paper and are generally used to produce reports. The
devices which are used to produce hardcopy output are printers, graph
plotters, computer output microfilm, etc.
Softcopy Output : Such outputs are electronic, thus they are available
either on screen or may be stored digitally on some storage device. The
softcopy may be directly seen on screen or may be stored on hard disk/
CD/ DVD for further use.
Other output devices used for specific purposes are Projector, Sound card, Speakers
and Video card.
Printers
A printer is an output device that prints characters, images and symbols
on paper. On the basis of the printing technique used, printers may be
classified as impact or non-impact printers.
Impact printers are like typewriters, as they use some sort of striking/
hammering action to press carbon or fabric ribbon against paper to
create a character or a pattern. These devices are noisy and are not
capable of producing high resolution graphics. The most common impact
printers are character printers (e.g. daisy wheel, dot matrix) and line
printers (e.g. chain printers, drum printers). Among impact printers,

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line printers print one line at a time, so, these printers are extremely
fast. Impact printers are ideal to be used for carbon copies.
Dot-matrix Printers
The print head of Dot-matrix printers (Figure 2.26) uses small pins,
which strike on the paper to create a character or image. They are
more economical than most of other types of
printers, with lowest running cost. These printers
are not used much now-a-days. However, at places
where invoices and delivery notes are produced
with a copy and the quality is not important, these
are still used.
Advantages
The main advantage of dot-matrix printers now
is the ability to produce carbon copies. They
provide a cheap, reliable method of getting
multiple copies of a printout.
The other advantage is the low cost of printouts. It has low
maintenance and running costs.
Disadvantages
Dot-matrix printers are noisy, slow and produce a lower quality
output.
Non-impact printers overcome the limitations of impact printers. They
form characters or images without making print heads strike the paper.
They use thermal, electrostatic, chemical or inkjet technology to produce
printed output. They are fast and quiet in operation. The most common
non-impact printers are inkjet printers and laser printers. These
printers can come in two categories, one produces output with only one
colour (i.e. black colour) and the other one produces output in multicolour.
Daybyday, with advancement in the field of printing technology,
the quality and speed of these printers are going up and prices are
coming down. Colour printers are increasingly being used in homes
and offices alike.
Inkjet Printers
Inkjet printers (Figure 2.27) use liquid ink technology. These printers
are available in comparatively lower prices and are capable of producing
reasonably good quality prints. The running cost of these printers is
very high and so are not preferred by those seeking large volumes of
prints. These printers are relatively noiseless during printing operation.
Advantages
Inkjet printers are relatively inexpensive to buy, especially if colour
is needed.
Figure 2.26 : Dot-Matrix Printer

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Figure 2.27 : Ink-Jet Printer
Figure 2.28 : Laser Printer
Inkjet printers are also lighter in weight
than other pri nters and some are smal l
enough to be carried around in a portable
carry case.
Disadvantages
Inkjet printers are slower than laser printers.
If left unused for long periods of time the
cartridges can easily dry out.
Colour cartridges are expensive in comparison.
Laser Printers (NonImpact Printer)
Laser printers produce high quality paper prints
at a high speed (with an average speed as 6 to 12
pages per minute). They are almost noiseless and
use dry magnetic ink technology.
Advantages
Laser printers are noiseless, high speed and high
quality printers.
Laser printers are comparatively economic for
large number of printouts.
Disadvantage
Initial costs of laser printers are comparatively
high.
Size of laser printers is comparatively bigger.
Repair cost and cartridges of these printers are
generally expensive.
Plotter
A plotter (also known as a graph plotter) is an
output device, which produces high quality
diagrams on paper. Colour pens are used to draw
lines on the paper which is placed in the plotter.
Some plotters have a flat area (plotter base) to put
the paper on. These are known as flatbed plotters
(Figure 2.29). There is another type of plotters, the
Figure 2.29 : Flatbed Plotter
Figure 2.30 : Roller Plotter
roller plotter which uses a large roll of paper
mounted on a roller (Figure 2.30). Usually a plotter
is capable of producing prints on very large size paper sheets but have
a speed slower than printers. Graph plotters are used for drawing
building plans, graphs and three-dimensional drawings. They are often
used by architects and engineers designing machines, bridges, etc.

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Impact Printers
Work like typewriter and use striking/
hammering action.
Print in black or single colour.
Are noisy.
High resolution graphics cannot be
produced.
Examples: Dot Matrix Printer,
Character Printer and Line Printer.
Non-Impact Printers
They use thermal, electrostatic
chemical and inkjet technologies.
Produce single colour/multicolour
output.
Almost noiseless.
High resolution graphics can be
produced.
Examples: Inkjet, Laser Printer,
Plotters, etc.
Table 2.6: Comparison between Impact printers and Non-Impact printers
Control Devices (Lights, Buzzers, Robotic Arms, Motors)
Many other devices may be connected to the
computer to produce output. For example, lights
may be connected to a computer which will respond
to electrical signals that tell them to switch on
and off. Buzzers may also be used for sound as the
computer sends an electrical signal to switch them
on and off.
Also, a computer can control all sorts of devices
which are operated by motors. Robotic arms are
an example of a device which has its movements
controlled by the computer. When an output device
moves something it is called an actuator.
Control devices like traffic lights, buzzers and motors are used
when the computer is controlling a situation such as regulating
traffic lights or assembling cars.
Softcopy Output : Display Devices
Terminals
Terminal is a display device that may be used for entering data online
from a remote location and for retrieving data. Depending upon the
processing capability, terminals may be classified as intelligent or
dumb terminals.
Intelligent Terminal refers to a terminal with its own memory processor
and a firmware that can perform certain functions independently. They
are usually personal computers, having their own local data processing
capability, data storage and input/ouput capability. For a PC to be a
terminal, a communication adapter (may be a modem) is essential. If
terminals are communicating to one or several hosts and peers, then a
Figure 2.31 : Control Devices (Robots)

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network program is also needed. There are two types of intelligent
terminals, namely, General purpose and Job-oriented. The PC is an
example of General Purpose Terminal. Typical General Purpose application
of terminal is the Internet connection. This is the most pervasive terminal
application and comes with modem and browser software. Job-oriented
terminals are designed and developed for specific tasks. Typical job-
oriented application of terminal includes airline reservation system
terminal, a fast forward terminal ATM and a terminal for monitoring of
a hospital patient. In such terminals hardware and software are
customised to fit the application.
Dumb terminals are meant to enter the data and to receive output
from the main computer, as they cannot process data on their own.
These terminals are connected to the main computer through a
communication link.
Video Display System
Video Display System provides a visual link between the user and the
computer. The videos subsystem of a PC consists of two main components:
(a) Monitor and
(b) Video adapter (also called video card or graphic adapter)
A monitor is a display device which can produce text
and graphic as output. A monitor may use different display
technologies like a Cathode Ray Tube (CRT) and Liquid
Crystal Display (LCD). CRT contains a vacuum tube which
is used for display on screen in a computer. LCD is a
technology in which molecules of a liquid crystal line up
in such a manner that it creates images on the screen by
blocking or transmitting light on the screen.
Audio Response Unit
As a voice recognition system allows the user to talk to a
computer, a voice response system permits a computer to
talk back to the user. Many organisations use audio-
response systems to respond to human inquiries that are
transmitted over telephone lines to the central computer.
Voice output is useful for people who are partially sighted.
The computer can read word processed documents and
communicate by sound output from the computer. Voice
output is also useful for those who are physically
handicapped and cannot speak. By typing on a keyboard
they are able to communicate using the spoken word.
Directory enquiries at Telecom Services use voice output to
tell the caller the number that the computer system has
found. Voice output is also used in multimedia presentations
and provides a valuable means of communication.
Figure 2.32 : Visual display
unit - CRT
Figure 2.33 : Visual display
unit - LCD

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Advantages
The user cannot see the result on the computer screen, but can
know the result even when they are located far away from it, or
when they are visually handicapped.
Disadvantages
The quality of voice output is getting better but it still sounds like a
set of small sounds strung together and is therefore obviously
electronic and rather unnatural.
Sound files used for voice output occupy a large amount of memory.
2.2.5 COMPUTER PORTS
The input/output device is a
piece of hardware that can
be used for both providing
data to a computer and for
receiving information from it.
But how does the computer
communicate with these
external devices? There are
input/output interfaces
called ports (Figure 2.34).
A computer port is a
connecting socket, outside the system into which different types of
cables are plugged. I/O ports are the interfaces through which
computers communicate with external devices such as printers,
modems, joysticks and terminals. Physically, they are distinguished
by their external shape, numbers and shape of contact pins/points.
Different interfaces and ports have different communication speeds
and bandwidths to carry data to and from the CPU. Some such
commonly used ports are explained below.
Parallel Port : A parallel port transmits 8 bits of a byte of data in
parallel as it contains eight or more data lines for control of I/O devices.
It is commonly used to connect the printer to a computer. It is used for
transmitting fast data over short distances because interference among
multiple signals limits the cable to relatively short distances.
Serial Port : A serial port transmits one bit of a byte at a time as a
single stream of bits. It is meant for transmitting slow data over long
distances. Communication over a phone system is an example of serial
communication. A serial port connects a variety of devices such as
modems, scanners, barcode readers and device control circuits.
PS/2 Port : It is one of the serial port connectors used to plug mouse
and keyboards into a personal computer. It consists of six pins in a
small and round shaped socket.
Figure 2.34 : Computer system showing verious ports

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Universal Serial Bus (USB) Port : USB port is the most popular port
used to connect up to 127 peripheral devices such as digital camera,
speaker, scanner, printer, plotter, modem, joystick, pen drive, etc. USB
permits Plug and Play i.e. it allows us to install device drivers as and
when the devices are plugged on.
Small Computer System Interface (SCSI) Port : SCSI port allows data
transmission in a daisy chain to up to 7 devices at a speed (32 bits at
a time) much higher than serial and parallel ports. The devices that
may be connected to SCSI ports are hard-disk drives, CD-ROM drives,
scanners, backup units, network adapters etc. In daisy chain several
devices are connected in series. If data has to reach the seventh device
then it needs to go through, all the six devices first.
Figure 2.35 : Different types of ports
Fire Wire (IEEE 1394) Port : Fire Wire port is a relatively a new
technology for high speed data communication. The need of this arose
due to large audio and video data movement from multimedia devices.
The devices connected via Fire Wire Port are Video Camera, External
Hard Disk Drives, External CD/DVD Drives. Microsoft has developed
device drivers to support IEEE1394 in all the versions after Windows
95. Linux also supports this port. It is extremely fast with Data Transfer
Rate up to 400 Mb/sec.
2.2.6 COMPUTER EQUIPMENT MAINTENANCE
Computer maintenance entails a four-fold attack against deterioration
of hardware, security threats, software bugs and performance
degradation. Each can seem overwhelming or insignificant but,
PS2 Connector
Serial Connector
USB Device/Connector
Parallel Connector
LAN Connector
Ports

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considering the importance of computer systems operations, the cost
and time are trivial compared to the hassle of getting a system up and
running after a crash.
In fact, we should upgrade the computer every three years or so,
but we will have to transfer all the data and software from the original
computer, whereas a hard-drive swap is a transparent upgrade.
Preventive Maintenance
It is important to maintain computer equipment and consumables.
Routine or preventive maintenance ensures that the computer
equipment will remain in good working order. Examples of preventive
maintenance of computer equipment are the cleaning of the keyboard,
monitor and mouse. There are a few important DOs and DONTs which,
if adhered to, can save a lot of maintenance and repair cost. This is
known as preventtive maintenance. The basic preventive maintenance
features are given in Appendix 2.1.
2.3 COMMUNICATION TECHNOLOGY
Letters and telegrams have been the modes of communication for a
very long time. They require setting up of post offices in various regions
and then a hierarchical level of post officers and transport systems to
carry the mails. Such a huge infrastructure is required for the mail
delivery system. This was a sort of manual technology for mail delivery.
Then telephones were made more accessible to the common man.
Communication through letters reduced considerably. The e-mail has
simply revolutionised our lives, conquered time and space and
communication is instantaneous and cheap.The scope of message that
could be communicated through e-mail in comparison to postal or
telephone mode is mind boggling.
The e-mail enables one to send message content of any size
consisting of video, photographs, graphics, and audio. One can even
keep track of sent messages and received messages. Another
communication technology is chat where two persons can communicate
by sending instant messages to each other; they can even see each
other using web cameras. E-mail and chat technology are based on
the Internet. This technology provides all options under one roof with
security provisions.
Communication is essentially exchange of information and
information by its own right has evolved as an independent technology.
With the kind of information explosion that has happened globally
and the logical thirst for knowledge, computers have an eminent role
to play in view of their capacity to generate and store information as
well as their essentiality in the broadband technology on which the
Internet works.

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2.3.1 COMPUTER TECHNOLOGY IN EDUCATION
Computer technology promotes independence and self-assessment. It
stimulates the interest of the students. The various programs in the
system help students in self-assessment. Word processor programs
help students in organi sing their written work letter. Interactive
computers also help students with their pronunciation. Computer
technology assists people in learning languages. Teachers may evaluate
their teaching methods with the help of computers. They may also
effectively use computer technology to enhance their teaching skills.
Computer technology assists people with learning disabilities. The
physically challenged may use graphics software and word processor
to express themselves. Computer technologies also benefit people with
speech disability by replaying film clips of their speeches and helping
in practising their speech skills.
2.4 SOFTWARE
A computer is a programmable device. A program is a stepwise
organisation of the different steps in which an event happens. When
these steps are predetermined and incorporated in a device we have
actually programmed the device to perform the job. Our human brain
also functions as a programmed device. But it is uniquely endowed
with the power of altering a program with which it initially started if
the situation demands. It is in this that the computer is different from
the human brain. The computer does not have its own intelligence. It
can as an obedient servant, execute instructions. But it has tremendous
potential to execute them with an accuracy and speed far exceeding
the domain human physical capabilities.Hence with increasing
requirements, the human brain has worked out complex programs to
make best use of the capabilities of a computer, at the same time
overcoming its limitations.
Figure 2.36 : Classification of software

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Software is usually divided into two major categories:
System software
Application software.
2.4.1 SYSTEM SOFTWARE
System software is a set of one or more programs, which are designed
to control the operation and networking of computers. It acts as an
intermediary between computer hardware and application program. It
can further be divided into three types: Operating System, Language
Processing and Utilities.
Operating System : An operating system is a set of instructions
that manages overall performance and functioning of the computer
system by controlling the resources such as CPU, memory, I/O
devices and overall flow of information within the system. It acts
as an interface between the machine and its users. Some examples
are Li nux, MS/PC-DOS, Mac OS, Wi ndows 95/98/NT/ME/
Millienium/VISTA.
Language Processors : For program execution, instructions must be
converted into the machine language. Language processors are used
to convert assembly language and high-level language programs into
machine level language. Examples: assemblers, translators and
compilers.
Utilities : These are designed to aid, manage and tune the computer
hardware, operating system or application software. These are also
known as service programs, service routines, tools, or utility routines.
Examples: disk defragmenter, disk compression, disk cleanup, disk
checkup etc.
2.4.2 APPLICATION SOFTWARE
Application software is a set of one or more programs designed to do a
specific task such as processing of student admission examination
result, pay calculation, payroll, general accounting, inventory control.
Different organisations need different application programs. The special
purpose programs are also known as packages.
A computer system comprises not only of hardware or software but
of both. Hardware is generally controlled by the software. Software is a
set of instructions called a program. British sp.programme. Computer
related spelt as program. In general, the word program means a
sequence of steps, like come home, wash hands, have a cup of tea or
lunch and like this we prepare a list of activities that we are going to
do throughout the day. Similarly while designing a software, instructions
need to be written in a proper sequence.

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Open Source
Open source describes the principles and methodologies to promote open access
to the production and design process for various goods, products, resources and
technical conclusions or advice. The term is most commonly applied to the source
code of software that is made available to the general public with either relaxed or
non-existent intellectual property restrictions. This allows users to create user-
generated software content through either incremental individual effort, or
collaboration.
OSS Advantages
Better for Coders Open source software development is quite different from
conventional closed source software development. People start coding from the point
of already existing level of code. They are not required to waste their time and
energy to research on something, which has already been done by someone else.
Better for Users The user does not have to get into huge budgetary issue for
using applications. The user can get his applications customised without getting
into huge investments.
Faster development The applications are developed very fast by taking references
from OSS developers working worldwide.
Future of Open Source So where does it all end? How exactly will open source
shape our lives leading us to a better tomorrow? It is for certain that with this
level of growth and progress, we expect to see open source as the driving force of
the software industry in the next few years.
Greater Freedom OSS finds developers in users. Following the movement which
has started and following the guidelines they had set for building OSS, it will
continue its excellence in building better and better stuff for everyone.
Software can also be classified as given below:
2.4.3 SHAREWARE
Shareware software is copyrighted software that is distributed on a
try before we buy basis by paying a nominal shareware fee. Users
who want to continue using the program after the trial period are
encouraged to send a payment for the program to the program
developer. Shareware is generally less expensive because often a single
programmer develops it.
2.4.4 FREEWARE
Freeware programs are programs that are given away free of charge
and often made available on the Internet. The programmer offers
programs as freeware either for personal satisfaction or to assess its
reception among interested users. Program developers often retain all
rights to their freeware and users are not free to copy or distribute or
sell it further.

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Open Standards Also known as Open Formats, Open Standards are much more
than just a published specification for storing digital content, media or data. It is
a key to freedom.
Algorithm
When any job or task is written or described in a sequence of steps in
plain English language, it is called an algorithm. It can contain simple
words, which convey meaning, to do a task. For example, algorithm to
add two numbers can be simply described in a few steps given below:
1. Start
2. Accept first number as A
3. Accept second number as B
4. Take a number C = A + B
5. Display C
6. End
As the computer is a machine and does not have a brain of its own we
need to tell from where to begin and where to end. In the above example,
use of Start and End is to indicate the beginning and end of the task.
Flowchart
Pictorial representation of these steps is known as flowchart. A flowchart
uses a particular set of symbols shown in Table 2.7. A flowchart can
help to identify bottlenecks or any inefficiencies in the program.
Table 2.7 : Various symbols used in flowchart
Start or end of the program
Computational steps or processing function of a program
Input or output operation
Decision making and branching
Connector or joining of two parts of program
Magnetic Tape
Magnetic Disk
Off-page connector
Flow line
Annotation
Display

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Example of Flowchart
Draw a flowchart to find the sum of first 50 natural numbers.
Answer : The required flowchart is given below:
Algorithms and flowcharts are like road maps for accomplishing a given, well-
defined task.
2.5 PROGRAMMING LANGUAGES
2.5.1 MACHINE LANGUAGE (FIRST GENERATION COMPUTER LANGUAGE)
After preparing an algorithm and a flowchart for a particular software
it has to be written in the computer coded language. Unlike humans,
computers can understand language of only 0s and1s (binary digits),
i.e., binary number system (Number system is given in Appendix 2.2).
A program written in 0s and 1s is called machine language program or
binary language program. Machine language was the first generation
(Figure 2.37) computer language.
Figure 2.37 : First generation language
Followed
Machine language only
User

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Assembler Assembly Language Program Object code in matching language
Figure 2.39 : An assembler
A sample code in machine language is shown below:
ADD 011814 is written as
0001000000000010011101100001100
Machine language is faster in executions since the computer directly starts
executing it but at the same time it is very difficult to write and understand.
2.5.2 ASSEMBLY LANGUAGE (SECOND GENERATION LANGUAGE)
As it was very difficult to generate code in machine language, the assembly
language was developed which consisted of small meaningful terms.
This is considered to be the second generation language (Figure 2.38).
An example of an assembly language program for adding two numbers
X and Y and storing the result in some memory location:
LDA A Load value of A in accumulator
ADA B Add value of B in the value of accumulator
OUTA Display the content of accumulator on output device
A machine cannot execute an assembly languages program directly
as it is not in a binary form. An assembler is needed in order to
translate an assembly language program into the object code executable
by the machine.
This is illustrated in the figure 2.39:
Writing a program in assembly language is more convenient than
in machine language. It is more readable. But assembly language has
some complications associated with it like:
Assembly language is not portable. It means that assembly language
program written for one processor will not work on a different processor.
Assembly language program is not as fast as machine language because
it has to be first translated into machine (binary) language code.
Figure 2.38 : Second generation language
Followed
Assembly language
User
I am an
assembler

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Machine language and assembly language are referred to as low
level languages since the coding for a problem is at the individual
instruction level.
2.5.3 HIGH LEVEL LANGUAGE (THIRD GENERATION LANGUAGE)
We have heard about programming languages like C, PASCAL, COBOL,
FORTRAN and BASIC. These are called high level languages (HLL) or
third generation languages (Figure 2.40). The program shown below is
written in BASIC to obtain the sum of two numbers.
10 X=7
20 Y=10
30 PRINT X+ Y
40 END (.)
The time and cost of creating machine and assembly languages
was quite high and this was the prime motivation for the development
of high level languages.
A high level source program must be translated first into a form
which the machine can understand; this is done by a software called
Compiler (Figure 2.41).
HLL program Compiler Object Code (machine language)
Figure 2.41 : A compiler
Advantages
Readability
Portability
Easy Debugging
Easy Software development
Figure 2.40 : Third generation language
Followed
High level languages
User
I am compiler

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2.5.4 FOURTH GENERATION LANGUAGE
Most fourth generation languages (Figure 2.42) are nonprocedural
languages. The programmer does not have to give the details of procedure
in the program, but instead, specify what is wanted.
Major fourth generation languages are used to get information from
files and databases. They are query languages, which are used to
answer queries or question with data from a database. For example:
SELECT Name, Address
FROM Personnel
WHERE Name = Ekambaram Vasudevan;
2.5.5 FIFTH GENERATION LANGUAGE
Fifth generation programming languages will permit the user to give
commands in a more conversational way. These will use voice input
devices rather than traditional keyboards or pointing devices.
Fifth generation languages are used mainly in artificial intelligence
research. Example of fifth generation languages: PROLOG, OPS5, and
MERCURY are the best known fifth generation languages.
Figure 2.42 : Fourth generation language
Followed
4 GLs
User

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60 60 60 60 60
60 60 60 60 60
EXERCISE
SHORT ANSWER TYPE QUSTIONS
1. CPU is the brain of the computer. Comment.
2. Why is cache memory known as fastest memory?
3. What types of operations are performed by ALU?
4. What are the components of the storage unit of a computer system?
5. Define Input and Output devices.
6. Differentiate Shareware and Freeware.
7. What is Clock speed?
8. What is the relation between bit, byte, kilobyte, megabyte, gigabyte, terabyte
and petabyte?
9. A device can be used as input as well as output. Explain with an example.
10. What do you understand by the word Microprocessor?
11. Human speech may be used as input and output discuss. What hardware
and software are required for it?
12. What do you mean by language processor? Give few examples of language
processors.
Summary
A computer system is a combination of hardware and software used to perform a task
more efficiently and accurately.
Hardware is the set of all tangible and physical components.
Software comprises of a set of instructions.
An input device is used to feed instructions or data into the computer.
An output device is used to show the results processed by the computer.
Input/output can be in the form of text, graphics or sound.
A port is a connecting socket which can be used to transfer data to and from the computer.
A port can be a parallel port, or a serial port.
CPU is the brain of the computer which processes all the information.
A software can be either a system software or application software.
System software handles the working of the system.
Application software is useful for a particular application in daily life.
Shareware is very inexpensive software.
Freeware is a software which is free of cost.

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Components of CCT
13. Expand the following terms
(i) ROM (x) VDU
(ii) RAM (xi) CRT
(iii) USB (xii) MDA
(iv) SCSI (xiii) CGA
(v) OMR (xiv) VGA
(vi) MICR (xv) SVGA
(vii) OCR (xvi) DPI
(viii) EPOS (xvii) XGA
(ix) MIDI (xviii) RAID
14. What do you understand by secondary storage? Why is there a need for
secondary storage devices?
15. What is firmware? State the use of firmware.
LONG ANSWER TYPE QUESTIONS
1. Draw a block diagram to illustrate the basic organisation of a computer system
and explain the functions of various units.
2. What is the relation between a flowchart and an algorithm?
3. What is the role of a computer in communication?
4. What are various parts of a computer and how do they work?
5. Differentiate between the following:
(a) System software and Application software.
(b) Software and Firmware.
(c) Firmware and Liveware.
(d) Hardware and Software.
(e) Primary memory and secondary memory
6. What is utility software? Where are they used?
7. What is an operating system? Describe its main functions.
8. List out some of the key functions performed by the system software of a
computer system.
9. The computer cannot perform anything on its own, thus any error in the
output is not a technological error. Comment.
10. Although the computer possess various advantages, it also has certain
limitations - Explain.
11. What are I/O devices? What is the significance of using such devices?
12. Differentiate between parallel port and serial port. Why are they necessary for
the computer system?
13. What do you understand by interactive input devices? Discuss a situation
where they are appropriate for use.
14. What is the difference between locator and pointing devices? Describe their
applications.

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15. What is digitising tablet? Is it an input or output device? What kind of
applications are associated with this device?
16. Identify the differences between vision-input system and image scanning
system.
17. What are offline data entry devices? How are they different from online data
entry devices?
18. Why do we require output devices? Describe the various forms of output.
19. A report needs to be generated for managers in an organisation, containing
total sales over the year with a graph indicating the last 5 years sale and
prediction for the next year. What kind of output devices will be appropriate for
this purpose and why?
20. Describe the utility of printers.
21. Write short notes on the following:
(a) Scanner
(b) MIDI
(c) Intelligent Terminal
(d) Ports
(e) Non-Impact Printers
22. Distinguish between the following:
(a) Laser Printer and Dot Matrix Printer
(b) Dumb-terminal and Intelligent Terminal
(c) Impact Printer and Non-Impact Printer
(d) Optical Mark Reader and an Optical Character Reader.
MULTIPLE CHOICE QUESTIONS
1. Which of the following language(s) has portability as its main feature?
(i) Assembly language
(ii) High level language
(iii) Machine language
(iv) 4GL
2. Debugging is the term for
(i) compilation
(ii) execution
(iii) removing errors
(iv) not reading comments
3. Hardware is
(i) Tangible equipment
(ii) In-tangible equipment
(iii) Set of instructions
(iv) Operating system
4. Assembler converts
(i) Assembly language to Machine language
(ii) Machine language to Assembly language
(iii) Assembly language to High level language
(iv) High language to Assembly language
62 62 62 62 62
62 62 62 62 62

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Activities
1. Look at the computer in your school and observe the following:
(a) What type of input devices and output devices are used?
(b) To which type of port are they attached.
2. Ask your teacher to show you an inkjet print cartridge and laser toner cartridge. Why do
you think ink-jet print cartridge dries out faster than laser toner cartridge?
3. Can you access the computer using a microphone to use word processing software.
4. Observe what kind of software/utilities you use on a computer.
5. Look at your own computer and note down its memory, speed, type. Also draw and label the
main components of your computer. Observe the software used on your computer system.
APPENDICES
APPENDIX 2.1 : PREVENTIVE MAINTENANCE OF COMPUTER EQUIPMENT
The basic preventive maintenance features are described below:
Excessive dust buildup inside the computer can cause overheating, which
degrades performance as well as accelerates wear and tear of the interior parts.
If we are not already familiar with opening the computer to do a little dusting,
hire a professional for a through cleaning job. The cost should be minimal,
especially if we request it during the yearly hard-drive swap.
The keyboard can be cleaned by turning it upside down and gently tapping the
bottom of the keyboard.
Monitors can be cleaned with a dry soft cotton cloth.
Printers require routine maintenance as well. Clearing out paper jams, changing
cartridges and cleaning the printer will lengthen the life of the printer. Most
printers have a print head clearing function or we can use a print head cleaning
kit. Make sure that you read the manufacturers instructions before performing
any maintenance.
Consumables like floppy disks, CD, DVD and paper require correct storage to
ensure that they will be usable when required. They should be stored in a
clean and dry area.
To ensure that the moisture content of the paper is kept at an optimum level,
paper should be stored in a sealed container. Moist paper tends to curl and
jam in the paper path of a printer.
The case within which the motherboard, power supply, drivers, ect. are housed,
has a number of vents that allow for a controlled airflow from the power supply
and processor fan to keep the components at a satisfactory operating
temperature.
Effect of Negligence to Computer Equipment
Loss of Money : The loss of computer equipment caused by mechanical
failure of hardware components is common. When losses occur, the cost of
repairs is absorbed by the affected organisations budget.
Waste of time and reputation : Gross negligence results in physical
damage, defacement, or destruction of computer equipment; theft;
unauthori sed access or use; unauthori sed alteration, substitution, or
deletion of programs, command files, data files, documentation, or other
63 63 63 63 63 63 63 63 63 63
Components of CCT

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material; wiretapping or any form of unauthori sed signal interception;
divulgence of confidential information or computer access methods to
unauthorised persons.
Performance Degradation : Computers often have too many temporary files
cluttering the system, a fragmented file system, viruses/spyware/adware,
and unnecessary programs running on startup. Windows XP has several
software packages to help clean up systems, including Disk Cleanup, Disk
Defragmenter and Check Disk. Each speeds up computers and is easily
used by novices.
If the computer is still operating slower than expected, we should look into
software packages to run deep checks of the entire system, inspecting its registry,
missing shortcuts and Windows files. These programs can increase system
performance by removing thousands of unneeded registry settings from uninstalled
software, cleaning up unnecessary programs from startup, and removing the deluge
of temporary files stored on everyones computer.
APPENDIX 2.2 : NUMBERS SYSTEM
Decimal Number System
Most people today use decimal representation to count. In the decimal system
there are 10 digits:
0, 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9
These digits can represent any value, for example:
754.
The value is formed by the sum of each digit, multiplied by the base (in this
case it is 10 because there are 10 digits in the decimal system) in power of digit
position (counting from zero):
7 . 10
2
+ 5 . 10
1
+ 4 . 10
0
= 700 + 50 + 4 = 754
Digit Position
Base
5 . 10
2
+ 4 . 10
1
+ 7 . 10
0
= 500 + 40 + 7 = 547
Digit Position Base
0
0
= 1 X
0
= 1 10
0
= 1
Position of each digit is very important! For example, if we place 7 at the end:
547
it will be another value:
Important note: Any number in power of zero is 1; even zero in power of zero is 1:
Binary Number System
Most modern computer systems operate using binary logic. By convention we
use the values zero and one. These two values, coincidentally, correspond to
64 64 64 64 64
64 64 64 64 64

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the two digits used by the binary number system. Therefore, computers employ
the binary system.
Similarly, in binary (Base2), all the columns are powers of 2. Think of the
following table as the four least significant digit place holders for the binary number
system just like the tables above using the decimal number system:
Eights column Fours column Twos column Ones column
(Most significant (Least significant
digit) digit)
2
3
2
2
2
1
2
0
10100101b =
= 1 . 2
7
+0 . 2
6
+1 . 2
5
+ 0 . 2
4
+ 0. 2
3
+ 1 . 2
2
+ 0 . 2 1 +1 . 2
0
= 128 + 0 + 32 + 0 + 0 + 4 + 0 + 1 =165
Digit Position Base
The binary number 10100101b equals to decimal value of 165:
For example, lets look at the binary number:
1011
and convert it to decimal number.
Eights Fours Twos Ones
1 x 2
3
Plus 0 x 2
2
Plus 1 x 2
1
Plus 1 x 2
0
Which equals 1 x 8 Plus 0 x 4 Plus 1 x 2 Plus 1 x 1
Which equals 8 Plus 0 Plus 2 Plus 1
The total is : 11 (in decimal), which equals 8 + 0 + 2 + 1.
In other words,
1011
2
= 11
10
.
The subscripted number indicates the number base.
Example 1
What is the decimal equivalent of the binary number 0111 (also written as 0111
2
) ?
Answer
0 x 2
3
Plus 1 x 2
2
Plus 1 x 2
1
Plus 1 x 2
0
= 0 x 8 Plus 1 x 4 Plus 1 x 2 Plus 1 x 1
= 0 + 4 + 2 + 1
Total = 7 (also written as 7
10
)
Example 2
What is the decimal equivalent of the binary number 1010 (also written as 1010
2
) ?
65 65 65 65 65
Components of CCT

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Answer
1 x 2
3
Plus 0 x 2
2
Plus 1 x 2
1
Plus 0 x 2
0
= 1 x 8 Plus 0 x 4 Plus 1 x 2 Plus 0 x 1
= 8 + 0 + 2 + 0
Binary Evaluate 24 23 22 21 20 Value Decimal Number
Decimal Value 16 8 4 2 1
0 > 0 0
1 > 1 1
1 1 0 > 4+2+0 6
1 0 1 0 > 8+0+2+0 10
1 0 1 1 0 > 16+0+4+2+0 22
1 1 0 0 1 > 1+8+0+0+1 25
1 1 1 1 1 > 16+8+4+2+1 31
32 16 8 4 2 1
1 0 1 1 0 0
32 16 8 4 2 1
0 0 1 1 1 1
Total = 10 (also written as 10
10
)
Different number systems are summarised in Table 2.8
Decimal To Binary Conversion
To convert a decimal number to binary, first subtract the largest possible power of
two, and keep subtracting the next largest possible power form the remainder,
marking 1s in each column where this is possible and 0s where it is not.
Example 3 (Convert decimal 44 to binary)
4 4
3 2
1 2
8
4
4
0
Example 4 (Convert decimal 15 to binary)
1 5
8
7
4
3
2
1
66 66 66 66 66
66 66 66 66 66
Table 2.8 : Binary to decimal conversion

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Binary Arithmetic
Rules of Binary Addition
0 + 0 = 0
0 + 1 = 1
1 + 0 = 1
1 + 1 = 0 and carry 1 to the next more significant bit.
Example 5
Rules of Binary Subtraction
0 0 = 0
0 1 = 1 and borrow 1 from the next more significant bit
1 0 = 1
1 1 = 0
Example 6
11+11=11 1 Carry
0 1 1 = 3
(base 10)
+ 1 1 = 3
(base 10)
1 1 0 = 6
(base 10)
00100101 00010001 = 0 Borrows
00010100 0 0 1 0 0 1 0 1 = 37
(base 10)
0 0 0 1 0 0 0 1 = 17
(base 10)
0 0 0 1 0 1 0 0 = 20
(base 10)
Rules of Binary Multiplication
0 x 0 = 0
0 x 1 = 0
1 x 0 = 0
1 x 1 = 1 and no carry or borrow bits.
Example 7
00100101 00010001 = 0 0 1 0 1 0 0 1 = 41
(base 10)
11110110 0 0 0 0 0 1 1 0 = 6
(base 10)
0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 = 17
(base 10)
0 0 1 0 1 0 0 1
0 0 1 0 1 0 0 1
0 0 1 1 1 1 0 1 1 0 = 246
(base 10)
67 67 67 67 67
Components of CCT
Binary Division
It is a repeated process of subtraction (as in decimal division).

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There are other number systems also. Table 2.9 gives a comparison between
different Number Systems.
00101010 00000110 = 1 1 1 = 7
(base 10)
00000111 1 1 0 ) 0 0 1
2
0 1 0 1 0 = 42
(base 10)
1 1 0 = 6
(base 10)
1 borrows
1 0
2
0 1
1 1 0
1 1 0
1 1 0
0
Number system Base value Symbolic character set
Binary 2 0,1
Octal 8 0, 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7
Decimal 10 0, 1, 2, 3, 4,5, 6, 7, 8, 9
Hexadecimal 16 0, 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9, A, B, C, D, E, F
Table 2.9: Comparison of various number systems
68 68 68 68 68
68 68 68 68 68
Example 8

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