FORUM

The Sustainability Balanced

Scorecard as a Framework
for Eco-efciency Analysis
Andreas M oller and Stefan Schaltegger
Summary
To provide valuable support for successful decision-making,
managers need a balanced set of nancial and nonnan-
cial measures that represent different requirements, strategic
goals, strategies, resources, and capabilities and the causal re-
lationships between these domains. The balanced scorecard is
such a measurement system. As an open system the balanced
scorecard facilitates the consideration of sustainability issues.
But enhanced balanced scorecards require a new type of data.
This is where eco-efciency analysis comes into play.
This article discusses the relationship between so-called
sustainability balanced scorecards and eco-efciency analysis.
Eco-efciency analysis not only provides a data source for sus-
tainability balanced scorecards; in the perspective of environ-
mental information systems it also serves as a link between the
balanced scorecard and corporate environmental accounting
systems so that eco-efciency as a component of an envi-
ronmental information system becomes an adapter with two
interfaces, which are characterized in this article. The main
focus is on the principle of cause and effect, its different forms,
and the implications for the design of appropriate information
system components.
Keywords
eco-efciency
environmental information systems
industrial ecology
strategic management
strategy maps
sustainability indicators
Address correspondence to:
Andreas M oller
Faculty of Environmental Sciences
University of Lueneburg
21332 Lueneburg, Germany
<amoeller@uni-lueneburg.de>
<http://umweltinformatik.
uni-lueneburg.de/Portal/index.htm>
Volume 9, Number 4
http: //mitpress. mit. edu/jie Journal of Industri al Ecol ogy 73
FORUM
Introduction
Managers communicate with stakeholders of
companies, they set strategic and operational
objectives, they develop resources and capabil-
ities, and they work out corporate strategies.
To do so, managers need appropriate informa-
tion, as the fourth basic element in the work
of the manager is measurement (Drucker 1999,
20). But performance measurement systems are
not only oriented to formal, isolated domains.
Strategic management also deals with relation-
ships between different stakeholders, strategic
goals, strategies, resources, and capabilities. In
this paradigm of instrumental rationality, man-
agers derive the strategic goals from the specic
purpose and mission of the business. They have to
think through the coherence of strategies using,
for example, SWOT analysis (see Boseman and
Phatak 1989), where strategy is formulated in
relation to four sets of considerations: Strengths,
Weaknesses, Opportunities, and Threats. While
strengths and weaknesses relate to the resources
and capabilities of the rm, opportunities and
threats relate to the external environment
(Grant 1996, 44). Many of the external issues
inuencing business are nonmarket or sustain-
ability issues addressed by stakeholders. Conse-
quently performance measurement systems have
to represent this special kind of causal relation-
ship.
Because businesses exist for the sake of eco-
nomic performance (Drucker 1999, 36), promi-
nent performance measures are return on capital
employed, net prot margin, or assets turnover
(see Eilon 1999, 63). These performance mea-
sures express mainly the relationship between the
business and its shareholders as a special group of
stakeholders. Often this focus results in the dom-
inance of the nancial perspective. But basing
decisions only on a few nancial measures pro-
vides a poor basis for considering all domains of
a business. In the nancial perspective it is dif-
cult to take into consideration dependencies on
nancial outcomes and activities in domains such
as customer satisfaction, product quality, process
quality, new-product development, or organiza-
tional learning. Therefore it is necessary to op-
erate with a mix of nancial and nonnancial
measures. One approach that has been designed
to deal with a mix of nancial and nonnancial
measures has recently become popular under the
name of the balanced scorecard (see Kaplan
and Norton 1996).
Balanced Scorecard
The balanced scorecard was developed by
Kaplan and Norton to improve established
performance measurement systems, which are
focused mainly on nancial performance and
conventional physical and tangible assets. The
balanced scorecard, as a broader approach, also
takes into account customers, processes, and or-
ganizational learning as additional issues and per-
spectives. Kaplan and Norton want to incor-
porate the valuation of a companys intangible
and intellectual assets, such as high-quality prod-
ucts and services, motivated and skilled employ-
ees, responsive and predictable internal processes,
and satised and loyal customers (Kaplan and
Norton 1996, 7). So the Balanced Scorecard
complements nancial measures of past perfor-
mance with measures of the drivers of future per-
formance. The objectives and measures of the
scorecard are derived from an organizations vi-
sion and strategy (Kaplan and Norton 1996,
8). Therefore, in all four key perspectives (see
gure 1), the balanced scorecard consists of an
appropriate, consistent, and balanced set of key
performance indicators. Taken together, the in-
dicators show whether companies and their sub-
units have improved their performance across a
range of activities and outcomes (see Schaltegger
and Burritt 2000, 151).
The balanced scorecard is more than a col-
lection of distinct indicators, grouped by four
perspectives. The causal relationships between
different domains of management are repre-
sented by so-called strategy maps (see Kaplan
and Norton 2001, 68, 131; Kaplan and Norton
2004). The strategy maps link together several
domains and elements of the strategy in the
four key perspectives. These linkages visualize
hypotheses about cause-and-effect relationships
and are based on the principle of cause and ef-
fect and on the paradigm of instrumental ra-
tionality in particular (see Kaplan and Norton
1996).
74 Journal of Industri al Ecol ogy
FORUM
Figure 1 The four perspectives of the balanced scorecard. Source: Kaplan and Norton 1996.
Strategy maps are the result of almost ten years
of experience with balanced scorecards. In their
rst books, Kaplan and Norton mention cause-
and-effect chains on a few pages (see Kaplan
and Norton 1996). Eight years later they write,
We now realize that the strategy map, a visual
representation of the cause-and-effect relation-
ships among the components of an organizations
strategy, is as big an insight to executives as the
Balanced Scorecard itself (Kaplan and Norton
2004, 9). Strategy maps play a prominent role
in strategy formulation and strategy implemen-
tation. By means of strategy maps the balanced
scorecard becomes the starting point for a mod-
eling process.
One main task in the modeling process, there-
fore, is the development and design of strategy
maps (see gure 2). In fact, no two companies de-
velop the same strategy maps. But some strategy
maps have similar structures. One typical pattern
of conventional balanced scorecards for private-
sector organizations shows the cause-and-effect
linkages between the learning and growth per-
spective, internal perspective, customer perspec-
tive, and nancial perspective (see Kaplan and
Norton 1996, 2004). Renements of this highly
aggregated design pattern are presented normally
by case studies in different business sectors. The
case studies sample sector-related reference mod-
els. Other companies can customize the refer-
ence models to implement balanced scorecards
and strategy maps in their individual organi-
zations.
Sustainability Balanced
Scorecard
Kaplan and Norton assume that prominent
performance measures such as Return on Invest-
ment are the ultimate indicators in the strategy
maps and balanced scorecards. The term bal-
anced refers to a balance between external
measures for shareholders and customers, and in-
ternal measures of critical business processes, in-
novation, and learning and growth. The measures
are balanced between the outcome measures
the results from past effortsand the measures
that drive future performance. And the score-
card is balanced between objective, easily quanti-
ed outcome measures and subjective, somewhat
judgmental, performance drivers of the outcome
measures (Kaplan and Norton 1996, 10; see also
Epstein and Birchard 1999, 95). Furthermore,
the balanced scorecard allows making a balance
between past- and future-oriented, quantitative
and nonquantitative, and nancial and non-
nancial information (see Schaltegger and Dyllick
2002, 28f.). In spite of the fact that the conven-
tional balanced scorecard considers nonnancial
and nonquantitative issues, which characterize
many ecological and sustainability aspects, it ba-
sically does not explicitly distinguish and balance
M oller and Schaltegger, The Sustainability Balanced Scorecard and Eco-efciency 75
FORUM
Figure 2 The strategy map as a sequence of hypotheses about the cause-and-effect relationship between
outcome measures and the performance drivers of those outcomes (Kaplan and Norton 1996, 31; Kaplan
and Norton 2004) in the four perspectives.
different stakeholder interests, eco-efciency and
sustainability issues, and derived strategic goals.
Fortunately, the balanced scorecard is an open
system: All stakeholder interests, when they are
vital for the success of the business units strat-
egy, canbe incorporated ina Balanced Scorecard
(Kaplan and Norton 1996, 35).
In the case of corporate sustainability it is
obvious to reect on connections between sus-
tainable development and an enhanced balance
scorecard. From an environmental perspective,
one advantage of balanced scorecards is that
they show the relationship between long-term
resources and capabilities, including sustainabil-
ity issues, and short-term nancial outcomes.
The cause-and-effect chains with sustainability-
related resources, capabilities, and activities
involved should not comprise only environmen-
tally indicated costs, but rather all direct and in-
direct outcomes. The interpretation of the term
balanced in that case is extended to the inten-
tions and objectives of corporate sustainability.
Balanced scorecards containing such enhance-
ments canbe referred to as sustainability balanced
scorecards (SBSC).
The balanced scorecard can incorporate sus-
tainability issues in different ways. One way is to
restructure the existing perspectives; another is
to add a new key perspective. In the rst case, the
arrangement of the four perspectives is not mod-
ied. Research and case studies have shown that
this approach allows incorporating all sustain-
ability issues that have direct relevance to one
market, that is, the nancial market, the customer
market, the supplier market, or the labor mar-
ket. Using the four perspectives of the conven-
tional balanced scorecard increases acceptance
of the enhancements. Nevertheless, users of con-
ventional balanced scorecards have to revamp
their strategy maps and indicators. In that case
the nancial perspective describes the outcomes
not only in conventional nancial terms but also
in terms of the market relevant corporate sus-
tainability issues. Adequate indicators represent
the starting point for thinking through related
performance drivers in the other perspectives,
so that the sustainability balanced scorecard can
be implemented in an evolutionary process start-
ing with conventional design patterns (Hahn and
Wagner 2001).
Indeed, the purpose of such a process is not
simply to add some new indicators. Starting from
a reconsidered vision, new design patterns are re-
quired. These design patterns should incorporate,
in particular, requirements of corporate sustain-
ability. Orientation guides include, for example,
76 Journal of Industri al Ecol ogy
FORUM
Figure 3 Balanced scorecard enhanced by a nonmarket perspective (Figge et al. 2002).
publications, guidelines, and international initia-
tives for the greening of industries. Often these
texts contain appropriate visions and metaphors
that can guide the strategy map development. For
instance, Rommuses the termCool Companies
to draw a picture of prosperous companies whose
success is based on cutting greenhouse gas emis-
sions (see Romm 1999).
Sometimes it makes sense to expand the
balanced scorecard with a new nonmarket per-
spective (Figge et al. 2002); see gure 3. The non-
market perspective complements all four conven-
tional perspectives by nonmarket issues that are
not covered inthe conventional four perspectives
(e.g., social pressure of neighbors or due to child
labor at subcontractors). The nonmarket perspec-
tive is drawn as a basic layer in gure 3 because
societal issues constitute the framework of mar-
ket operations withthe nancial community, cus-
tomers, suppliers, and employees. The expanded
sustainability balanced scorecard allows well-
dened consideration of nonnancial outcomes
of a business. Consequently, the nonmarket per-
spective does not incorporate all sustainability-
oriented objectives and indicators of the business,
but only nonmarket issues that cannot be covered
in the conventional perspectives.
Regardless of the way that is chosen, such bal-
anced scorecards and associated strategy maps
constitute an open framework that comprises
sustainability-oriented indicators as key perfor-
mance indicators in the balanced scorecard.
Sustainability Balanced
Scorecard and Eco-efciency
Analysis
Withthe inclusionof sustainability-related re-
sources, capabilities, and activities, the sustain-
ability balanced scorecard requires entirely new
M oller and Schaltegger, The Sustainability Balanced Scorecard and Eco-efciency 77
FORUM
data. For example, when it comes to getting pro-
cess engineers to reduce specic process emis-
sions, there is no one-stop source of information.
The parameters of such a ratio between desired
process output and correspondent process emis-
sions cannot be expressed inmonetary terms only.
This leads to an important question: what are
the key measures and parameters describing ef-
ciency with regard to environmental protection
and sustainability?
In general, efciency expresses a relationship
between positive and negative effects of a de-
cision. Efciency is not bound to the nancial
or technological dimension: different dimensions
such as the economic and ecological dimension
can be combined (see Schaltegger and Burritt
2000, 50). Negative effects in the ecological di-
mensioninclude all negative impacts onthe envi-
ronment, whereas net prot is often used to indi-
cate economic value creation. Eco-efciency can
be interpreted as the ratio, or a causal relation-
ship, between economic value creation and en-
vironmental impact added (see Schaltegger and
Sturm 1990, 279ff.). Economic value added and
environmental impact added can occur at dif-
ferent points in time. To prevent distortions in
eco-efciency analysis, these time issues should
be considered carefully (see, e.g., Schaltegger and
Burritt 2000, 309ff., 361ff.).
Eco-efciency analysis (Ilinitch and
Schaltegger 1995; Saling et al. 2002) is not
restricted to direct positive effects (see Eichhorn
2000, 140) or specic outcomes such as products
or services. Guidelines for measuring corporate
eco-efciency, though, are mainly focused on
goods and services produced by a company (e.g.,
WBCSD 2000). In this case the sales revenues
are used to indicate the economic outcome.
This kind of eco-efciency can be called product
eco-efciency (see Schaltegger et al. 2003, 64).
With regard to balanced scorecards and strategy
maps, the interpretation of eco-efciency as
product eco-efciency seems to be insufcient.
Two adjustments concerning integration into
balanced scorecards are deemed reasonable.
First, economic value creation is not limited
to net prot or sales revenues in the nancial
dimension. In the broader sense economic value
creation also comprises all required resources
and capabilities of the business. All nancial and
nonnancial variables in the balanced scorecard,
such as specialized knowledge or process quality,
should be taken into consideration. Second, it is
not necessary to incorporate indirect economic
outcomes into the eco-efciency analysis. This
is a basic function of balanced scorecards and
strategy maps, respectively. Consequently, the
main focus of eco-efciency analysis is directed
at environmental impacts as the denominator in
an eco-efciency ratio.
Estimating the environmental impacts of de-
cisions and activities requires appropriate mod-
eling techniques. Life-cycle assessment is such a
modeling approach. The process of developing a
balanced scorecardalso a modeling process
serves to translate the business strategy into
operational activities (Kaplan and Norton 1996).
The balanced scorecard process thus deducts the
operational business purposes and environmental
goals from the companys strategy. This, in turn,
is the basis for dening functional units and sys-
tem boundaries in the life-cycle assessment. Indi-
cators that stand for environmental impacts are
calculated in two steps: life-cycle inventory and
life-cycle impact assessment. Life-cycle inven-
tory addresses cause-and-effect chains in material
and energy ow networks that correspond to the
life of a product, process, resource, capability, or
activity. These cause-and-effect chains include
material and energy ows and transformations
outside the boundaries of the company because
major environmental impacts occur as external
effects. Consequently, internal company infor-
mation has to be supplemented by data on the
environmental impacts of the pre-life-cycle steps
and the post-life-cycle steps outside the corpo-
rate accounting entity (Schaltegger and Burritt
2000, 242).
For strategic management it is not necessary
to perform a comprehensive life-cycle assessment
to estimate the environmental impact and to
compute eco-efciency indicators. The speci-
cation of the diffuse term environmental impact
arises from strategic goals, mainly in the nonmar-
ket perspective. For example, one target in the
nonmarket perspective could be to reduce the
contribution of the business to climate change.
Another concern could be to counteract migra-
tion into cities in the region where the com-
pany resides. So the balanced scorecard facilitates
78 Journal of Industri al Ecol ogy
FORUM
Figure 4 Eco-efciency indicators embedded into a strategy map, resp. balanced scorecard.
the strategically relevant cost-effective applica-
tion of life-cycle thinking in companies. (See
gure 4.)
As a framework, the sustainability balanced
scorecard species subsequent information man-
agement, data collection, and modeling steps.
From this point of view eco-efciency analysis is
an instrument for estimating and controlling the
appropriate key performance indicators for two
major aspects of sustainability, namely the envi-
ronmental and economic issues. Moreover, eco-
efciency analysis can be considered a bridge be-
tween the balanced scorecard and environmental
management information systems, which rely on
material and energy ow analysis and life-cycle
assessment approaches.
Environmental Information
Systems
The terms environmental information system
and environmental management information system
refer to organizational-technical systems for sys-
tematically obtaining, processing, and making
environmentally relevant information available
in companies. Above all, these systems aid in
determining the environmental damage caused
by companies and designing support measures to
avoid and reduce it (Page and Rautenstrauch
2001, 5; see also Hilty and Rautenstrauch 1997,
21). Environmental information systems support
eco-efciency analysis by providing the informa-
tional basis for it (Ilinitch and Schaltegger 1995).
An environmental information system thus inte-
grates corporate environmental accounting and
ecological accounting.
Corporate environmental information sys-
tems are not restricted to considerations of eco-
efciency issues (see Haasis et al. 1995). The mea-
surement of eco-efciency-oriented information
for the support of sustainability balanced score-
cards can be one main purpose and a suitable con-
cept for a computer-based environmental infor-
mation system. Consequently, the main analysis
steps (life-cycle inventory and life-cycle impact
assessment) play a prominent role in those sys-
tems. It is necessary to have a look at the depen-
dencies concerning eco-efciency analysis and
life-cycle assessment on the one hand and cor-
porate environmental accounting and computer-
based corporate environmental information pro-
cessing on the other hand.
As described, life-cycle inventories are based
on cause-and-effect chains in material and en-
ergy ow networks. One consequence is that the
input-output relationships of material and en-
ergy transformations in those owcharts have to
be described in a linear manner, because the
M oller and Schaltegger, The Sustainability Balanced Scorecard and Eco-efciency 79
FORUM
Balance Scorecard and Strategy Map Component
E/E Indicator #1 E/E Indicator #2 E/E Indicator #3
Eco-Efficiency Analysis Component
LCIA #3
LCI #3
LCIA #2
LCI #2
LCIA #1
LCI #1
Corporate Environmental Accounting Component
Adapter #1 Adapter #2 Adapter #3
Corporate Material and Energy Flow Model
Material and Energy Flow Analysis Component
Figure 5 Components of an environmental information system (including a balanced scorecard
component). LCI = life-cycle inventory, LCIA = life-cycle impact assessment, E/E = eco-efciency.
quantitative occurrences of the transformations
are scaled to the reference ows and functional
units (infact, the quantitative contributions from
the transformations are the results of linear sys-
tems of equations that describe the owcharts
in a mathematical manner; see Heijungs 1994).
Another consequence is the necessity of apply-
ing allocation rules for joint productions. But
most important, it is relevant for environmen-
tal information systems that cause-and-effect
chains in life-cycle inventories are always re-
lated to single functional units. Therefore, based
on the companys corporate material and en-
ergy ow model, individual life-cycle invento-
ries would be deduced for each eco-efciency
indicator incorporated into the sustainability bal-
anced scorecard (see eco-efciency analysis com-
ponents in gure 5). In practice, however, it is
not possible to establish an environmental ac-
counting system for each eco-efciency indica-
tor. It seems to be reasonable to think about
life-cycle inventories as eco-efciency oriented
analyses of joint material and energy ow mod-
els. Computer-based corporate environmental
accounting systems have to provide material and
energy models that can be analyzed in different
ways.
The need is quite evident to distinguish three
different components or layers in a computer-
based environmental information system: a sus-
tainability balanced scorecard component at the
top level, a corporate environmental account-
ing component that contains joint material and
energy ow models, and an eco-efciency anal-
ysis component as a link (see gure 5). This
eco-efciency component can contain multiple
instances of eco-efciency indicators. These in-
stances are linked to the joint material and en-
ergy ow models via adapters. In these adapters
the life-cycle inventories are calculated using the
material and energy ows of the database as fun-
damental data input. The corresponding calcula-
tion steps within the adapters are
r
Interpretation of the input and output ows
of the processes in the material and energy
ow model as production coefcients;
r
Identication of the reference ows of all
processes: process output of goods and/or
process input of waste (for details see M oller
2000);
r
Decomposition of joint processes by apply-
ing allocation rules so that we get single
processes (Heijungs 1994);
80 Journal of Industri al Ecol ogy
FORUM
Figure 6 Data ow between software components of an environmental information system.
r
Compilation of the process matrix relative
to the eco-indicator and the accordant sys-
tem reference ow;
r
Application of the matrix method (see
Heijungs 1994) to calculate the contribu-
tions from all processes.
Whereas the models in the corporate envi-
ronmental accounting component represent the
material and energy ows in a system for spe-
cic time periods (e.g., scal years), the adapters
determine the functional-unit-oriented material
and energy ows. They bridge life-cycle assess-
ment methods and period-oriented material ow
analysis concepts, as shown in gure 6.
Although the corporate environmental ac-
counting component can be characterized as a
database, nevertheless the balance scorecard, the
strategy maps, and the eco-efciency indicators
constitute the models of this component. All
goals and indicators together determine the cov-
erage of the material and energy ow models.
Additional data sources, such as other corporate
information systems, ERP systems (enterprise re-
source planning systems; see Lee et al. 2003), or
data warehouses can be used.
Conclusions
This article addresses three different levels of
modeling and decision support. At the lowest
level, computer-based environmental accounting
systems deal with material and energy ows and
transformations inside and outside the bound-
aries of a company. The main focus is on the
relationship between planned or realized process
levels and the resulting material and energy ows.
Environmental accounting systems incorporate
all material and energy ows and stocks regardless
of single targets and indicators. In this manner,
environmental accounting systems constitute a
database of subsequent analyses.
At the middle level, eco-efciency analysis is
concerned with the causal relationship between
economic value creation and environmental im-
pact added. Life-cycle inventories and life-cycle
impact assessment serve as a link to the top
level eco-efciency indicators, which are utilized
mainly to represent and to assess the correspond-
ing environmental impacts of corporate decisions
and activities.
The top level focuses on the relationship be-
tween different requirements, goals, activities, re-
sources, and capabilities. Here the principle fol-
lows the paradigm of instrumental rationality.
1
These levels are linked together by interfaces.
Eco-efciency analysis can be interpreted as such
an interface for environmental and economic
issues as two major aspects of sustainability. It
brings together different modeling processes and
activities. Depending on the point of view, eco-
efciency analysis interfaces sustainability bal-
anced scorecards and life-cycle assessment or
serves as a bridge between sustainability balanced
M oller and Schaltegger, The Sustainability Balanced Scorecard and Eco-efciency 81
FORUM
scorecard and corporate environmental account-
ing systems.
Moreover, the sustainability balanced score-
card helps to link the pillars of sustainability,
because the sustainability balanced scorecard in-
volves social issues as well (triple bottom line). It
is not necessary to expand eco-efciency analysis
and accordingly the accounting systems. They are
designed as environmental-specic components
in the corporate information system.
Note
1. Instrumental rationality is a special interpretation
of the principle of cause and effect reecting the
means-ends relationship and the identity principle.
For more onthis term, please see the bookby Collins
(1985) onMax Weber and the one by Riebel (1990)
on direct costing.
References
Boseman, G. and A. Phatak. 1989. Strategic
managementText and cases. Second edition.
New York: Wiley.
Collins, R. 1985. Max Weber. Thousand Oaks, CA:
Sage Publications.
Drucker, P. F. 1999. ManagementTasks, responsibili-
ties, practices. Oxford: Butterworth-Heinemann.
Eichhorn, P. 2000. Prinzip Wirtschaftlichkeit [The Ef-
ciency Principle]. Second edition. Wiesbaden,
Germany: Gabler.
Eilon, S. 1999. Management strategiesA critique of
theories and practices. Norwell, MA: Kluwer Aca-
demic.
Epstein, M. J. and B. Birchard. 1999. Counting what
counts. Reading, MA: Perseus Books.
Figge, F., T. Hahn, S. Schaltegger, and M. Wagner.
2002. The sustainability balanced scorecard.
Linking sustainability management to business
strategy. Business Strategy and the Environment
11(5): 269284.
Grant, R. M. 1996. Contemporary strategy analysis. Sec-
ond edition. Cambridge, MA: Blackwell.
Hahn, T. and M. Wagner. 2001. Sustainability balanced
scorecard. Von der Theorie zur Umsetzung [Sustain-
ability Balanced Scorecard. From Theory to Im-
plementation]. L uneburg, Germany: CSM (Cen-
tre for Sustainability Management).
Haasis, H.-D., L. M. Hilty, H. K urzl and C.
Rautenstrauch. 1995. Anforderungen an Be-
triebliche Umweltinformations-systeme (BUIS)
und Ans atze zur Realisierung [Requirements
to Environmental Management Information
Systems (EMIS) and Implementation Ap-
proaches]. In Betriebliche Umweltinformationssys-
teme (BUIS) [Environmental Management Infor-
mation Systems (EMIS)], edited by H.-D. Haasis
et al. Marburg, Germany: Metropolis.
Heijungs, R. 1994. A generic method for the identi-
cation of options for cleaner products. Ecological
Economics 10: 6981.
Hilty, L. M. and C. Rautenstrauch. 1997. Environ-
mental management information systems for pro-
duction and recycling. Proceedings of the 2nd In-
ternational Symposium on Environmental Software
Systems (ISESS), edited by R. Denzer. Whistler,
British Columbia, Canada: 2129.
Ilinitch, A. and S. Schaltegger. 1995. Developing
a green business portfolio. Long Range Planning
28(2): 2937.
Kaplan, R. and D. Norton. 1996. The strategy-focused or-
ganization: How balanced scorecard companies thrive
in the new business environment. Boston: Harvard
Business School Press.
Kaplan, R. and D. Norton. 2001. The balanced scorecard:
Translating strategy into action. Boston: Harvard
Business School Press.
Kaplan, R. and D. Norton. 2004. Strategy maps:
Converting intangible assets into tangible outcomes.
Boston: Harvard Business School Press.
Lee, J., K. Siau, and S. Hong. 2003. Enterprise inte-
gration with ERP and EAI. Communications of the
ACM 46(2): 5460.
M oller, A. 2000. Grundlagen stoffstrombasierter Be-
trieblicher Umweltinformationssysteme [Founda-
tions of Material and Energy Flow based En-
vironmental Management Information Systems].
Bochum, Germany: Projekt-Verlag.
Page, B. and C. Rautenstrauch. 2001. Environmental
informaticsMethods, tools and applications in
environmental information processing. In Envi-
ronmental information systems in industry and public
administration, edited by C. Rautenstrauch and S.
Patig. Hershey, PA: Idea Group.
Riebel, P. 1990. Einzelkosten- und Deckungsbeitragsrech-
nung [Direct Costing]. 6. Edition. Wiesbaden,
Germany: Westdeutscher Verlag.
Romm, J. J. 1999. Cool companiesHow the best busi-
nesses boost prots and productivity by cutting green-
house gas emissions. London: Earthscan.
Saling, P., A. Kicherer, B. Dittrich-Kr amer, R.
Wittlinger, W. Zombik, I. Schmidt, W. Schott
and S. Schmidt. 2002. Eco-efciency analysis by
BASF: The method. International Journal of Life
Cycle Assessment 7(4): 203218.
82 Journal of Industri al Ecol ogy
FORUM
Schaltegger, S. and R. Burritt. 2000. Contemporary envi-
ronmental accountingIssues, concepts and practice.
Shefeld, UK: Greenleaf.
Schaltegger, S., R. Burritt, and H. Petersen.
2003. An introduction to corporate environmental
managementStriving for sustainability. Shefeld,
UK: Greenleaf.
Schaltegger, S. and T. Dyllick, eds. 2002. Nachhaltig
managen mit der Balanced Scorecard [Sustainabil-
ity Management Using the Balanced Scorecard].
Wiesbaden, Germany: Gabler.
Schaltegger, S. and A. Sturm. 1990.

Okologische
Rationalit at [Ecological Rationality]. Die Un-
ternehmung 4: 273290.
WBCSD (World Business Council for Sustainable
Development). 2000. Measuring eco-efciencyA
guide to reporting company performance. Conches-
Geneva, Switzerland: WBCSD.
About the Authors
Andreas M oller is a professor for environmental
informatics at the Faculty of Environmental Sciences
and Stefan Schaltegger is a professor of environmen-
tal management and head of the Centre for Sustain-
ability Management at the University of L uneburg in
L uneburg, Germany.
M oller and Schaltegger, The Sustainability Balanced Scorecard and Eco-efciency 83