Formulas for IPhO

Version: January ,
I Mathematics
1. Taylor series (truncate for approximations):
F(x) = F(x
0
) +

F
(n)
(x
0
)(x x
0
)
n
/n!
Special case linear approximation:
F(x) F(x
0
) +F

(x
0
)(x x
0
)
Some examples for [x[ 1:
sin x x, cos x 1 x
2
/2, e
x
1 +x
ln(1 +x) x, (1 +x)
n
1 +nx
2. Perturbation method: fnd the solution itera-
tively usingthe solutiontothe "non-perturbed" (di-
rectly solvable) problem as the
th
approximation;
corrections for the next approximation are calcu-
lated on the basis on the previous one.
1. Solution of the linear diferential equation with
constant coeficients ay

+by

+cy = 0:
y = Aexp(
1
x) +Bexp(
2
x),
where
1,2
is the solution of the characteristic
equation a
2
+b+c = 0 if
1
,=
2
. If the solu-
tionof the characteristic equationis complex, while
a, b and c are real numbers, then
1,2
= iand
y = Ce
x
sin(x +
0
).
4. Complex numbers
z = a +bi = [z[e
i
, z = a ib = [z[e
i
[z[
2
= z z = a
2
+b
2
, = arg z = arcsin
b
[z[
Rez = (z + z)/2, Imz = (z z)/2
[z
1
z
2
[ = [z
1
[[z
2
[, arg z
1
z
2
= arg z
1
+ arg z
2
e
i
= cos +i sin
cos =
e
i
+e
i
2
, sin =
e
i
e
i
2i
s. Cross and dot products of vectors are distribu-
tive: a(b +c) = ab +ac.
a

b =

b a = a
x
b
x
+a
y
b
y
+. . . = ab cos
[a

b[ = ab sin; a

b =

b a a,

b
a

b = (a
y
b
z
b
y
a
z
)e
x
+(a
z
b
x
b
z
a
x
)e
y
+. . .
a [

b c] =

b(a c) c(a

b).
Mixed prod. (volume of parallelep. def. by vec.):
(a,

b, c) (a [

b c]) = ([a

b] c) = (

b, c, a).
. Cosine and sine laws:
c
2
= a
2
+b
2
2ab cos
a/ sin = b/ sin = 2R
. An angle inscribed in a circle is half of the central
angle that subtends the same arc on the circle.
Conclusions: hypotenuse of a right triangle
is the diameter of its circumcircle; if the angles
of a quadrilateral are supplementary, it is a cyclic
quadrilateral.
8. Taking derivatives:
(fg)

= fg

+f

g, f[g(x)]

= f

[g(x)]g

(sin x)

= cos x, (cos x)

= sinx
(e
x
)

= e
x
, (ln x)

= 1/x, (x
n
)

= nx
n1
(arctanx)

= 1/(1 +x
2
)
(arcsinx)

= (arccos x)

= 1/

1 x
2
9. Integration: the formulas are the same as for
derivatives, but with swapped lef-hand-side and
rhs. (inverse operation!), e.g.

x
n
dx = x
n+1
/(n + 1).
Special case of the substitution method:

f(ax +b)dx = F(ax +b)/a.

10. Numerical methods. Newtons iterative method
for fnding roots f(x) = 0:
x
n+1
= x
n
f(x
n
)/f

(x
n
).
Trapezoidal rule for approximate integration:

b
a
f(x)dx
b a
2n
[f(x
0
) + 2f(x
1
) +. . .
+2f(x
n1
) +f(x
n
)]
11. Derivatives and integrals of vectors: diferenti-
ate/integrate each component; alternatively difer-
entiate by applying the triangle rule for the difer-
ence of two infnitesimally close vectors.
II General recommendations
1. Check all formulas for veracity: a) examine di-
mensions; b) test simple special cases (two param-
eters are equal, one param. tends to or ); c)
verify the plausibility of solutions qualitative be-
haviour.
2. If there is an extraordinary coincidence in the
problem text (e.g. two things are equal) then the
key to the solution might be there.
1. Read carefully the recommendations in the
problems text. Pay atention to the problems for-
mulation sometimes insignifcant details may
carry vital information. If you have solved for some
time unsuccessfully, thenread the text againper-
haps you misunderstood the problem.
4. Postpone long and time-consuming mathemat-
ical calculations to the very end (when everything
else is done) while writing downall the initial equa-
tions which need to be simplifed.
s. If the problem seems to be hopelessly dificult,
it has usually an extremely simple solution (and a
simple answer). Tis is valid only for Olympiad
problems, which are defnitely solvable.
. In experiments a) sketch the experimental
scheme even if you dont have time for measure-
ments; b) think, how to increase the precision of
the results; c) write down (as a table) all your di-
rect measurements.
III Kinematics
1. For a point or for a translational motionof a rigid
body (integral area under a graph):
v =
dx
dt
, x =

vdt (x =

v
x
dt etc.)
a =
dv
dt
=
d
2
x
dt
2
, v =

adt
t =

v
1
x
dx =

a
1
x
dv
x
, x =

v
x
a
x
dv
x
If a = Const., thenprevious integrals canbe found
easily, e.g.
x = v
0
t +at
2
/2 = (v
2
v
2
0
)/2a.
2. Rotational motion analogous to the transla-
tional one: = d/dt, = d/dt;
a = dv/dt +nv
2
/R
1. Curvilinear motion same as point , but vec-
tors are to be replaced by linear velocities, accelera-
tions and path lengths.
4. Motion of a rigid body. a) v
A
cos = v
B
cos ;
v
A
, v
B
velocities of pts. Aand B; , angles
formed by v
A
, v
B
with line AB. b) Te instanta-
neous center of rotation (,= center of curvature of
material pt. trajectories!) can be found as the inter-
section pt. of perpendiculars to v
A
and v
B
, or (if
v
A
, v
B
AB) as the intersection pt. of AB with
the line connecting endpoints of v
A
and v
B
.
s. Non-inertial reference frames:
v
2
= v
0
+v
1
, a
2
=a
0
+a
1
+
2

R +a
Cor
Note: a
Cor
v
1
, ; a
Cor
= 0 if v
1
= 0.

. Ballistic problem: reachable region

y v
2
0
/(2g) gx
2
/2v
2
0
.
. For fnding fastest paths, Fermats and Huygenss
principles can be used.
8. To fnd a vector (velocity, acceleration), it is
enough to fnd its direction and a projection to a
single (possibly inclined) axes.
IV Dynamics
1. For a D equilibrium of a rigid body: eqns.
for force, eq. for torque. () eq. for force can
be substituted with () for torque. Torque is of-
ten beter boring forces can be eliminated by a
proper choice of origin. If forces are applied only to
points, the (net) force application lines coincide;
for points, the lines meet at a single point.
2. Newtons
nd
law for transl. and rot. motion:

F = ma,

M = I (

M = r

F).
For D geometry

M and are essentially scalars
and M = Fl = F
t
r, where l is the armof a force.
1. Generalized coordinates. Let the systems state be
defned by a single parameter and its time deriva-
tive

so that the pot. energy = () and kin. en.
K =

2
/2; then

= d()/d. (Hence for

transl. motion: force is the derivative of pot. en.)
4. If the system consists of mass points m
i
:
r
c
=

m
i
r
i
/

m
j
,

P =

m
i
v
i

L =

m
i
r
i
v
i
, K =

m
i
v
2
i
/2
I
z
=

m
i
(x
2
i
+y
2
i
) =

(x
2
+y
2
)dm.
s. In a frame where the mass centers velocity is v
c
(index c denotes quantities rel. to the mass center):

L =

L
c
+M

R
c
v
c
, K = K
c
+M

v
2
c
/2

P =

P
c
+M

v
c
. Steiners theorem is analogous (b distance of
the mass center fromrot. axis): I = I
c
+mb
2
.
. With

P and

Lfrom pt. , Newtons
nd
law:

= d

P/dt,

M

= d

L/dt
8

. Additionally to pt. , the mom. of inertia rel. to

the z-axis through the mass center can be found as
I
z0
=

i,j
m
i
m
j
[(x
i
x
j
)
2
+(y
i
y
j
)
2
]/2M

.
9. Mom. of inertia rel. to the origin =

m
i
r
2
i
is useful for calculating I
z
of D bodies or bodies
with central symmetry using 2 = I
x
+I
y
+I
z
.
10. Physical pendulum with a reduced length

l:

2
(l) = g/(l +I/ml),
(l) = (

l l) =

g/

l,

l = l +I/ml
11. Coeficients for the momenta of inertia: cylin-
der
1
2
, solid sphere
2
5
, thin spherical shell
2
3
, rod
1
12
(rel. to endpoint
1
3
), square
1
6
.
12. Ofen applicable conservation laws:
energy (elastic bodies, no friction),
momentum (no net external force; can hold only
along one axis),
angular momentum (no net ext. torque, e.g. the
arms of ext. forces are (can be writen rel. to or
pts., then substitutes conservation of lin. mom.).
11. Additional forces in non-inertial frames of ref.:
inertial force ma, centrifugal force m
2
R and
Coriolis force

2mv

(beter to avoid it; being

to the velocity, it does not create any work).
14. Tilted coordinates: for a motion on an inclined
plane, it is ofen practical to align axes along and
to the plane; gravit. acceleration has then both x-
and y- components. Axes may also be oblique (not
to each other), but then with v = v
x
e
x
+v
y
e
y
,
v
x
,=to the x-projection of v.
1s. Collision of bodies: conserved are a) net mo-
mentum, b) net angular mom., c) angular mom. of
one of the bodies with respect to the impact point, d)
total energy (for elastic collisions); in case of fric-
tion, kin. en. is conserved only along the axis to
the frictionforce. Also: e) if the slidingstops during
the impact, the fnal velocities of the contact points
will have equal projections to the contact plane;
d) if sliding doesnt stop, the momentum delivered
from one body to the other forms angle arctan
with the normal of the contact plane.
1. Every motion of a rigid body can be repre-
sented as a rotation around the instantaneous cen-
ter of rotation C (in terms of velocities of the body
points). NB! Distance of a body point P fromC ,=
to the radius of curvature of the trajectory of P.
1. Tension in a string: for a massive hanging
string, tensions horizontal component is constant
and vertical changes according to the strings mass
underneath. Pressure force (per unit length) of a
string resting on a smooth surface is determined by
its radius of curvature and tension: N = T/R.
Analogy: surface tension pressure p = 2/R; to
derive, study the pressure force along the diameter.
18

. Adiabatic invariant: if the relative change of

the parameters of anoscillating systemis small dur-
ing one period, the area of the loop drawn on the
phase plane (ie. in p-x coordinates) is conserved
with a very high accuracy.
19. For studying stability use a) principle of mini-
mum potential energy or b) principle of small vir-
tual displacement.
20

. Virial theoremfor fnite movement:

a) If F [r[, then K) = ) (time averages);
b) If F [r[
2
, then 2 K) = ).
21. Tsiolkovsky rocket equation v = u ln
M
m
.
V Oscillations and waves
1. Damped oscillator:
x + 2 x +
2
0
= 0 ( <
0
).
Solution of this equation is (cf. I..):
x = x
0
e
t
sin(t

2
0

0
).
2. Eq. of motion for a system of coupled oscilla-
tors: x
i
=

j
a
ij
x
j
.
1. A system of N coupled oscillators has N dif-
ferent eigenmodes when all the oscillators oscillate
with the same frequency
i
, x
j
= x
j0
sin(
i
t +

ij
), and N eigenfrequencies
i
(which can be
multiple,
i
=
j
). General solution (with 2N
integration constants X
i
and
i
) is a superposition
of all the eigenmotions :
x
j
=

i
X
i
x
j0
sin(
i
t +
ij
+
i
)
4. If a system described with a generalized coordi-
nate (cf IV-) and K =

2
/2 has an equilib-
rium state at = 0, for small oscillations ()

2
/2 [where =

(0)] so that
2
= /.
s. Te phase of a wave at pt. x, t is = kxt +

0
, where k = 2/ is a wave vector. Te value
at x, t is a
0
cos = a
0
e
i
. Te phase velocity is
v
f
= = /k and group velocity v
g
= d/dk.
. For linear waves (electromagn. w., small-amplit.
sound- and water w.) any pulse can be considered
as a superpos. of sinusoidal waves; a standing w. is
the sum of two identical counter-propagating w.:
e
i(kxt)
+e
i(kxt)
= 2e
t
cos kx.
. Speed of sound in a gas
c
s
=

(p/)
adiab
=

p/ = v

/3.
8. Speed of sound in elastic material c
s
=

E/.
9. Sp. of shallow(h ) water waves: v =

gh.
10. Dopplers efect: =
0
1+v/cs
1u/cs
.
11. Huygens principle: wavefront can be con-
structed step by step, placing an imaginary wave
source in every point of previous wave front. Re-
sults are curves separated by distance x = c
s
t,
where t is time step and c
s
is the velocity in given
point. Waves travel perpendicular to wavefront.
VI Geometrical optics. Photometry.
1. Fermats principle: waves path from point A to
point B is such that the wave travels the least time.
2. Snells law:
sin
1
/ sin
2
= n
2
/n
1
= v
1
/v
2
.
1. If refraction index changes continuously, then
we imaginarily divide the media into layers of con-
stant n and apply Snells law. Light ray can travel
along a layer of constant n, if the requirement of to-
tal internal refection is marginally satisfed, n

=
n/r (where r is the curvature radius).
4. If refraction index depends only on z, the pho-
tons mom. p
x
, p
y
, and en. are conserved:
k
x
, k
y
= Const., [

k[/n = Const.
s. Te thin lens equation (pay atention to signs):
1/a + 1/b = 1/f D.
. Newtons eq. (x
1
, x
1
distances of the image
and the object fromthe focal planes): x
1
x
2
= f
2
.
. Parallax method for fnding the position of an
image: fnd such a pos. for a pencils tip that it
wouldnt shif with resp. to the image when moving
perpendicularly the position of your eye.
8. Geometrical constructions for fnding the paths
of light rays through lenses:
a) ray passing the lens center does not refract;
b) ray | to the optical axis passes through the focus;
c) afer refr., initially | rays meet at the focal plane;
d) image of a plane is a plane; these twoplanes meet
at the plane of the lens.
9. Luminous fux [unit: lumen (lm)] measures
the energy of light (emited, passing a contour, etc),
weighted according to the sensitivity of an eye. Lu-
minous intensity [candela (cd)] is the luminous
fux (emited by a source) per solid angle: I =
/. Illuminance [lux (lx)] is the luminous fux
(falling onto a surface) per unit area: E = /S.
10. Gauss theorem for luminous fux: the fux
through a closed surface surrounding the point
sources of intensity I
i
is = 4

I
i
; single-
source-case: at a distance r, E = I/r
2
.
11. An experimental hint: if a grease stain on a pa-
per is as bright as the surrounding paper, then the
paper is equally illuminated fromboth sides.
VII Wave optics
1. Difraction method based on Huygens prin-
ciple: if obstacles cut the wavefront into frag-
ment(s), the wavefront can be divided into small
pieces which serve as imaginary point-like light
sources; the wave amplitude at the observ. site will
be the sumover the contributions of these sources.
2. Two slit interference (the slit width d a, ):
angles of maxima
max
= arcsin(n/a), n
Z; I cos
2
(k
a
2
sin ), where k = 2/.
1. Single slit: angles of minima
min
=
arcsin(n/d), n Z, n ,= 0. NB! the central
maximum is double-wide. I sin
2
(k
d
2
sin )/.
4. Difraction grating: the main maxima are the
same as in pt. , the width of the main maxima
the same as for pt. with d being the net grating
length. Spectral resolving power

= nN, where
n is the order number of the main max. and N
the number of slits.
s. Resolving power of a spectral device:

=
L

,
where L is the optical path diference between the
shortest and longest beams.
. Resolving power of a prism:

= a
dn
d
.
. Angular distance whentwopts. are resolvedinan
ideal telescope (lens): = 1.22/d. For that an-
gle, the center of one point falls onto the frst difr.
min. of the other point.
8. Bragg theory: a set of | ion planes of a crystal
refects X-rays if 2a sin = k; a distance be-
tween neighb. planes, glancing angle.
9. Refection from optically denser dielectric me-
dia: phase shif . Semi-transparent thin flmS also
introduce phase shifs.
10. Fabry-Prot interferometer: two | semitransp.
mirrors with large refectivity r (1 r 1). Re-
solving power

2a
(1r)
. Transmission spec-
trum can be found by introducing plane waves
(for lef- and rightwards-propagating waves before
the device, in the dev. and afer the dev.) and tailor-
ing these at the region boundaries.
11. Coherent electromagnetic waves: electric felds
are added; vector diagram can be used, angle be-
tween vectors is the phase shif; NB! dispersion:
n = n() =

(). Energy fux density (en.

per unit area and time): I = c
0
nE
2
.
12. Malus law: for linearly polarized light I =
I
0
cos
2
, where is the angle between the polar-
ization planes.
11. Brewsters angle: refected and refracted rays
are ; refected ray is completely polarized; inci-
dence angle tan
B
= n.
14. Difr. with optical elements: no need to cal-
culate optical path lengths through lenses, prisms
etc.: work simply with images. Particular conclu-
sion: biprism gives the same difr. as a double slit.
1s

. Optical fbres: Mach-Zehnder interferome-

ter is analogous to a double-slit difraction; circular
resonator to Fabry-Prot interferometer; Bragg
flters work similarly tothe X-ray case. Single-mode
fbres: n/n /d.
VIII Circuits
1. U = IR, P = UI
R
series
=

R
i
, R
1

R
1
i
2. Kirchofs laws:

node
I = 0,

contour
U = 0
1. Toreduce the number of eqns. for pt : method of
node potentials; method of loop currents; equivalent
circuits (any -terminals triangle or star; any -
terminal with emf r and c in series).
4. Resistivity of infnite chain: use self-similarity;
resistance between neighbour nodes of infnite
grid: generalized method of electrical images.
s. AC: apply pts. while substituting Rwith Z:
Z
R
= R, Z
C
= 1/iC, Z
L
= iL;
= arg Z, U
ef
= [Z[I
ef
P = [U[[I[ cos(arg Z) =

I
2
i
R
i
.
. Characteristic times:
RC
= RC,
LR
= L/R,

LC
= 1/

LC. Relaxation to stationary current

distribution exponential, e
t/
.
. Energy conservation for electric circuits:
W + Q = Uq, where q is charge which has
crossed a potential drop U; work of emf is A = cq.
8. W
C
= CU
2
/2, W
L
= LI
2
/2.
9. c = d/dt = d(LI)/dt, = BS.
10. Nonlinear elements: graphical method fnd
the solution in U-I coordinates as an intersection
point of a nonlinear curve and a line representing
Ohm/Kirchof laws. In case of many intersection
points study stability some solutions are usually
unstable.
11. Make use of short- and long-time limits. For
t
observation

RC
or
LR
, quasiequilibrium is
reached: I
C
0 (wire is broken near C) and
c
L
0 (L is efectively short-circuited). For
t
observation

RC
or
LR
, the charge leakage of
C and current drop in L are small, Q Qand
I I: C is short-circuited and Lis broken.
12. If L ,= 0, then I(t) is a continuous function.
11. Trough a superconducting contour, magnetic
fux = Const. In particular, with no external B,
LI = Const.
14. Mutual inductance: magnetic fux through a
contour
1
= L
1
I
1
+ L
12
I
2
(I
2
current in
a second contour). Teorems: L
12
= L
21
M;
M

L
1
L
2
.
IX Electromagnetism
1. F = kq
1
q
2
/r
2
, = kq
1
q
2
/r Keplers laws
are applicable (Ch. XII).
2. Gausss law:

Bd

S = 0,

Ed

S = Q,

gd

S = 4GM.
1. Circulation theorem

Ed

l = 0 (=

),

Bdl

0
= I,

gd

l = 0.
4. Magnetic feld caused by current element:
d

B =

0
I
4
d

l e
r
r
2
;
hence, at the center of circular I: B =
0I
2r
s.

F = e(v

B +

E),

F =

I

Bl.
. Fromthe Gausss and circulation laws:
charged wire: E =

20r
, DC: B =
I0
2r
;
charged surface E =

20
, current sheet B =
0j
2
;
inside a sphere (or infnite cylindrical surface) of
homogeneous surface charge E = 0, inside a cylin-
drical surface current | to the axes B = 0,
inside a ball (d = 3), cylinder (d = 2) or layer
(d = 1) of homogeneous or

j:

E =

d
0
r;

B =
1
d
0

j r.
. Long solenoid: inside B = In
0
, outside 0,
elsewhere B

=
In0
4
; fux = NBS and in-
ductance L = /I = V n
2

0
(where n =
N
l
).
8. Measuring magnetic feld with a small coil and
ballistic galvanometer: q =

E
R
dt = NSB/R.
9. Potential energy of a systemof charges:
= k

i>j
q
i
q
j
r
ij
=
1
2

(r)dq, dq = (r)dV.
10. Force between parts of a uniformly charged
sphere or cylindrical surface: substitute force due
to charges with force due to hydrostatic pressure.
11. If all the charges are at the distance R (eg. at
the center of an inhomogeneously charged sphere
or ring), = kQ/r.
12. To fnd the net charge (or potential) induced
by external charges, use the superpos. pr.: smear
the charges to make the problemsymmetric.
11. Conductor shields charges and electric felds,
eg. charge distribution inside a hollow sphere can-
not be seen from outside (it seems as if there is a
conducting ball carrying a total charge Q)
14. Capacitances: C =
0
S/d (plane),
4
0
r(sphere), 2
0
l(ln R/r)
1
(coaxial).
1s. Dipole moment:

d
e
=

q
i
r
i
=

lq,

d

= I

S.
1. Energy and torque of a dipole:
W =

d

E (

B),

M =

d

E (

B).
1. Dipole feld: = k

d e
r
/r
2
; E, B r
3
.
18. Forces acting on a dipole: F = (

d
e
)

, F =
(

; interaction between dipoles: F r

4
.
19. Electric and magnetic images: grounded (su-
perconducting for magnets) planes act as mirrors.
Field of a grounded (or isolated) sphere can be
found as a feld of one (or two) fctive charge(s) in-
side the sphere. Te feld ina planar waveguide (slit
betweenmetallic plates) canbe obtainedas a super-
position of electromagnetic plane waves.
20. Balls (cylinders) polarization in homoge-
neous (electric) feld: superpos. of homogeneously
charged (+ and ) balls (cylinders), d E.
21. Eddy currents: power dissipation density
B
2
v
2
/; momentum given during a single pass:
F B
2
a
3
d/ (where dthickness; a size).
22. Inside a superconductor and for fast processes
inside a conductor B = 0 and thus I = 0 (current
fows in surface layer skin efect).
21. Charge in homog. magnetic feld

B = Be
z
moves along a cycloid with drif speed v =
E/B = F/eB; generalized mom. is conserved
p

x
= mv
x
Byq, p

y
= mv
y
+Bxq,
as well as gen. angular mom. L

= L +
1
2
Bqr
2
.
24. MHD generator (a length along the direc-
tion of

E):
c = vBa, r = a/bc.
2s. Hysteresis: S-shaped curve (loop) in B-H-
coordinates (for a coil with core also B-I-coord.):
the loop area gives the thermal energy dissipation
density per one cycle).
2. Fields in mater:

D =
0

E =
0

E +

P,
where

P is dielectric polarization vector (volume
density of dipole moment);

H =

B/
0
=

B/
0

J, where

J is magnetization vector (vol-
ume density of magnetic moment).
2. Inaninterface betweentwo substances E
t
, D
n
(= E
t
), H
t
(= B
t
/) and B
n
are continuous.
28. Energy density: W =
1
2
(
0
E
2
+B
2
/
0
).
29. For 1, feldlines of B are atracted to the
ferromagnetic (acts as a potential hole, cf. pt. ).
10. Current density

j = nev =

E =

E/.
X Termodynamics
1. pV =
m

RT
2. Internal energy of one mole U =
i
2
RT.
1. Volume of one mole at standard cond. is , l.
4. Adiabatic processes: slowas compared to sound
speed, no heat exchange: pV

= Const. (and
TV
1
= Const.).
s. = c
p
/c
v
= (i + 2)/i.
. Boltzmanns distribution:
=
0
e
gh/RT
=
0
e
U/kT
.
. Maxwells distribution (how many molecules
have speed v) e
mv
2
/2kT
.
8. Atm. pressure: if p p, then p = gh.
9. p =
1
3
mn v
2
, v =

3kT/m, = vnS.
10. Carnots cycle: adiabats, isotherms. =
(T
1
T
2
)/T
1
; derive using S-T-coordinates.
11. Heat pump, inverse Carnot: =
T1
T1T2
.
12. Entropy: dS = dQ/T.
11. I law of thermodynamics: U = Q+A
14. II law of thermodynamics: S 0 (and

real

Carnot
).
1s. Gas work (look also p. )
A =

pdV, adiabatic: A =
i
2
(pV )
1. Daltons law: p =

p
i
.
1. Boiling: pressure of saturated vapour p
v
= p
0
;
at the interface betw. liquids: p
v1
+p
v2
= p
0
.
18. Heat fux P = kST/l (k thermal con-
ductivity); analogy to DC circuits (P corresponds
to I, T to U, k to 1/R).
19. Heat capacity: Q =

c(T)dT. Solids: for low

temperatures, c T
3
; for high T, c = 3NkT,
where N number of ions in crystal latice.
20. Surface tension:
U = S, F = l, p = 2/R.
XI Quantum mechanics
1. p = h

k ([ p[ = h/), E = h = h.
2. Interference: as in wave optics.
1. Uncertainty (as a math. theorem):
px
h
2
, Et
h
2
, t
1
2
.
For qualitative estimates by non-smooth shapes, h
serves beter (px h etc).
4. Spectra: h = E
n
E
m
; width of spectral lines
is related to lifetime: h.
s. Oscillators (eg. molecule) en. levels (with
eigenfrequency
0
): E
n
= (n+
1
2
)h
0
. For many
eigenfrequencies: E =

i
hn
i

i
.
. Tunnelling efect: barrier with width l is easily
penetrable, if h, where = l/

/m.
. Bohrs model: E
n
1/n
2
. In a (classically
calculated) circular orbit, there is an integer num-
ber of wavelengths = h/mv.
8. Comptonefect if photonis scatered froman
electron, photons =
C
(1 cos ).
9. Photoefect: A + mv
2
/2 = h (A - work of
exit for electrons). I-U-graph: photocurrent starts
at the counter-voltage U = (h A)/e, satu-
rates for large forward voltages.
10. Stefan-Boltzmann: P = T
4
.
XII Kepler laws
1. F = GMm/r
2
, = GMm/r.
2. Gravitational interaction of point masses (Ke-
plers I law): trajectory of each of themis an ellipse,
parabola or hyperbola, with a focus at the center of
mass of the system. Derive from R.-L. v. (pt ).
1. Keplers II law (conserv. of angular mom.): for
a point mass in a central force feld, radius vector
covers equal areas in equal times.
4. Keplers III law: for two point masses at elliptic
orbits in r
2
-force feld, revolution periods relate
as the longer semiaxes to the power of
3
2
:
T
2
1
/T
2
2
= a
3
1
/a
3
2
.
s. Full energy (K +) of a body in a gravity feld:
E = GMm/2a.
. For small ellipticities = d/a 1, trajectories
can be considered as having a circular shapes, with
shifed foci.
. Properties of an ellipse: l
1
+ l
2
= 2a (l
1
, l
2
distances to the foci),
1
=
2
(light fromone
focus is refected to the other), S = ab.
8. A circle and an ellipse with a focus at the circles
center can touch each other only at the longer axis.
9

. Runge-Lenz vector (the ellipticity vector):

=

L v
GMm
+e
r
= Const.
XIII Teory of relativity
1. Lorentz transforms (rotation of D space-time
of Minkowski geometry), = 1/

1 v
2
/c
2
:
x

= (x vt), y

= y, t

= (t vx/c
2
)
p

x
= (p
x
mv), m

= (mp
x
v/c
2
)
2. Length of -vector:
s
2
= c
2
t
2
x
2
y
2
z
2
m
2
0
c
2
= m
2
c
2
p
2
x
p
2
y
p
2
z
1. Adding velocities:
w = (u +v)/(1 +uv/c
2
).
4. Doppler efect:

=
0

(1 v/c)/(1 +v/c).
s. Minkowski space can be made Euclidean if time
is imaginary (t ict). Ten, for rot. angle ,
tan = v/ic. Express sin , and cos via tan,
and apply the Euclidean geometry formulae.
. Shortening of length: l

= l
0
/.
. Lengthening of time: t

= t
0
.
8. Simultaneity is relative, t = vx/c
2
.
9.

F = d p/dt [=
d
dt
(mv), where m = m
0
].
10. Ultrarelativistic approximation: v c, p
mc,

1 v
2
/c
2

2(1 v/c).
11

. Lorentz tr. for E-B:

B

||
=

B
||
,

E

||
=

E
||
,

= (

+v

),

B

= (

c
2
).

marks an advanced material.

Corrections/suggestions kalda@ioc.ee.
Composed by J. Kalda, translated by U. Visk and J.K.