PH127 Lectures Nov. 2022 4

PH 127:VIBRATIONS, WAVES AND
OPTICS (12 Credits)
Course Instructor:
Dr. I. N. Makundi
Physics Department, Room 206
University of Dar es Salaam.
1
OBJECTIVES
At the end of the course a student shall be able to:
 Describe the basic principles of vibrations ,wave
motion and their applications;
 Differentiate between free and forced oscillators,
 Analyze the effect of damping;
 Explain the linear optical properties of materials;
 Apply modern techniques to analyze and measure the

linear optical properties of materials
 Apply principles of optics in practical situations.
2
Admin
Time table:
 Mon 15:00-16:00 SB (Tutorial for NON-
ED)
 Mon 12:00-13:00 YOMBO(tutorial for
ED)
 Tue 07:00-08:00 SA (Lecture)
 Wedn. 07:00-08:00 SB (Lecture)
 Thurs 13:00-14:00 SA (Lecture)

3
Assessment:
 Continuous assessment (CA) will consist
of at least 2 TESTS @ 20 marks. Total
40%
 University Examination (UE) 60%
 There will be Assignments and Tutorial

questions, they may contribute to the
CA.
4
CORE REFERENCE BOOKS
1. AP French: Vibrations and Waves, MIT
introductory physics Series, Chapman
and Hall 1998;
2. NK Bajaj: The physics of Waves and
Oscillations, Tata McGraw-Hill
publishing company, 1998.
3. Jenkins F.A and White H.E,
Fundamentals of optics. McGraw-Hall,
Auckland 1976
5
1. INTRODUCTION
The presentation will be

QUANTITATIVE and ANALYTICAL
rather than DESCRIPTIVE.
Pre-requisite:
1. Simple calculus eg. Differential
equations, Integration and
differentiation.
2. Complex exponential and
trigonometry.
6
PERIODIC MOTIONS (THE
OSCILLATOR)
Motion of physical systems can be classified

into:
 Translational: position of the body varies
linearly with time, e.g.. Moving train,
rolling ball, etc.
 Periodic: one that repeats itself in equal
(definite) interval of time, e.g. Hand of a

clock, motion of the earth around the sun,
etc.
7
THE OSCILLATOR cont…
 If a body in a periodic motion moves

back–and-forth or to-and-fro over the
same path, its motion is called
vibratory or oscillatory.
 The vibrations can be simple eg. Sine
curve of a tuning fork or complex eg.
Pressure variations inside the heart.
8
THE OSCILLATOR cont…
 Vibrations or oscillations of mechanical systems

constitute one of the most important fields
of study of all physics.
 Natural oscillations of small objects are
likely to be rapid and those of large objects
are likely to be slow. Compare: Mosquito
wings and elephant ears.
 Vibrating parts of Human body: Heartbeats,
Lungs, shiver when we are cold, snoring,
hearing (ear drums), speaking (larynges), we
move by oscillating or legs, we say
“vibration”- tongue oscillates. 9
SIMPLE HARMONIC
MOTION
 It is the motion described by pure sines

and cosines, so called because the
vibrations of the musical instruments are
described by these functions.
 It is the simplest type of oscillatory
motion:-1 degree of freedom (i.e. Can be
described completely by a single physical
quantity).
10
 Characteristics of SHM:
1. The motion is periodic: -repeats itself after a
definite time interval.
2. The motion is about an equilibrium position in
which no net force acts on the system.
3. There exists a restoring force (proportional to the
displacement from the equilibrium position) that
acts to restore the system to its equilibrium
position, and an inertial term that acts to make
the body to overshoot the equilibrium position.
11
Simple harmonic motion cont..
Thus: SHM is a periodic motion in

which the restoring force is
proportional to the displacement from
the mean position and opposes its
increase.
12
EQUATION OF SHM
 By Newton’s second Law (1) F 

md 2 x
dt 2
The restoring force (2) Fr  bx(t )

where the –ve sign signifies the Fr acts to
“turn back” x(t) and b is a coefficient (
constant) that is characteristic of the
motion and independent of t and x(t).
2
Equating (1) and (2) we get, m dt  bx

d x
2
where md is the inertial term (carrying the

2
x
2
dt
k.e.) and -bx(t) is the restoring term
(carrying p.e.). 13
EQUATION OF SHM cont..
..
x  x  0 b
2
0  2
0 
m
The eqn above is a Simple Harmonic diff.eqn.
 Conservation of Total mechanical energy:

1 2 1 2
mv  bx  ET
2 2
14
Solutions to SHM equation
 Here we shall look at two solutions

namely;
1.Trigonometric (sine and cosine) or
sinusoidal
2. Exponential
15
1. The trigonometric soln
Let the solution be of the form, x(t )  A sin t
Differentiating twice w.r.t. time and substituting
in the SHM equation, we get,
 A 2 sin t   2 A sin t  0
Similarly,
x(t )  B cos t
Is a solution.
General solution:
x(t )  A sin t  B cos t
16
2. The exponential soln
Assume the solution of the form,

t
x(t )  Ce
Differentiating twice with respect to time and
substituting in the SHM equation we get, ( 2   2 ) x(t )  0
which gives   i
Hence, x(t )  C eit it
1 or x(t )  C e2
are possible solutions of the SHM eqn.

The general soln: it it
x(t )  C1e  C2e 17
Review of complex exponential
Let z=a+jb; j2=-1, a and b are real, z is a complex

number.
Euler’s relation,  j
e  cos  j sin 
j  j
e e j  j
cos   e e
2 sin  
2j
If x  A cos(t   ) and y  A sin(t   )
Then,
z  A cos(t   )  jA sin(t )  Ae j (t  )
18
Review of complex exponential
cont..
dz j (t  )
 jAe  jz
dt
2
d z j (t  )
2
  j  Ae
2 2
  z
2
dt
19
THE PHYSICAL MEANING OF SHM EQN
PARAMETERS
x  A sin(t   )
A is the amplitude:the max value of
excursion (displacement) from the equilibrium
position.
 is the angular frequency: the number of
oscillations completed in unit time interval.
For a system undergoing free oscillations is
called natural or characteristic frequency.
  2f 1
(rads ) , f ( Hz or s )1
20
Physical meaning cont…
The equation of SHM is periodic and we define the period
T as the smallest time interval during which the oscillation
repeats.  2
T 

Is the phase constant.

The argument (t   )

of the sine function is referred to as the phase angle
of the motion.
21
Total energy in SHM
Let
x(t )  A cos(t   )

v  x(t )   A sin(t   )
1 2 1
Ke : Ek  mv  m 2 A2 sin 2 (t   )
2 2
1 2 1
Pe : E p  kx  m 2 A2 cos 2 (t   )
2 2
22
Total Energy in SHM Cont…
 Kinetic energy varies periodically , with
a max. value at x=0, Ek ,max  1 m 2 A2
2
when t    90 0
Ek , min  0; when t    0
23
POTENTIAL ENERGY
 We know that a stretched medium (eg.
Spring) by amount, x, possess stored energy
U(x) equal to the work done in stretching it.
 Work =force x distance,
Force Fr=x, x=Acos(t+)

dW=dW=  xdx=½ x2
Therefore,U(t)=½m2A2cos2(t+); 2= /m
24
P.E. cont..
 Note:
1. | Umax |=½m2A2
2. Total energy,
ET =U(t)+EK(t)= =½m2A2
25
PHASE-SPACE TRAJECTORY
 Recall: x(t )  A cos(t   )
p  mv  mA sin(t   )
2
x
2
 cos (t   )
2
A
2
p
 sin 2
(t   )
m A
2 2
26
cont…
 From the two eqns. we get,
2 2
x p
 1
A m A
2 2 2
1
E  m A  m  A  2 Em
2 2 2 2 2
2
x2 p2
2E  1
A 2
 (2 E 2)
2mE
m 2 m 27
Review of conic sections
 A circle
 Ellipse
 Parabola
 Hyperbola
 Etc.
 Recall the pertinent equations.
28
cont…
 The plot of p as a function of x is
referred to as phase-space trajectory.
 It is an equation of an ellipse with the
semi-major axis a and semi-minor axis
b given by,
2E
a and b  2mE
m 2
29
cont…
 The ellipses does not intersect.
 The area enclosed by the ellipse in the
phase-space is given by,
1 1
2E
A( E )   pdx  ab  ( 2
) (2mE ) 2
m 2
2E
2E E
 A( E )   
 2f f
30
cont…
 Here f is the natural frequency of the
oscillator in Hz.
 Therefore, as the energy of the oscillator
increases, the area enclosed by the phase –
space trajectory increases.
 Application: Quantum mechanics where
several discrete values of energy are given
by,
En=(n+½)hf; n=0,1,2,3… and his the Planck’s
constant .
31
2. SOME OSCILLATORS AND
THEIR USES
 The vibratory concepts we have been
considering make a basis for understanding
other several systems together with their
applications. We will consider the following
oscillators:
 MECHANICAL OSCILLATORS, eg. pendulum,
mass-spring system,
 SOUND OSCILLATORS, eg.Helmholtz
resonator,
 ELECTRICAL OSCILLATOR, eg.LC circuit,
 ELECTRON OSCILLATOR, eg. plasma 32
Mechanical oscillators
 (a)The pendulum
 The pendulum has been the most reliable
time keeper, succeeded (replaced) only in the
last decade by clocks based on atomic or
electronic oscillations.
 Consider a pendulum fixed at O, mass m
located at C.
 The torque, , about O;   mgl sin 
(-ve because of restoring force).
 The torque produces angular acceleration,
d 2
a 33
dt 2
The pendulum cont….
 If Io is the moment of inertia of the body
about O,
d 2 d 2 mgl
I0 2
  mgl sin   2
 sin   0
dt dt I0
3 5
sin       ...   for small 
3 5
d 2 mgl mgl
 2    0.     0 cos(0t   ); 0 
dt I0 I0
34
I0
T  2
mgl
 Until 1952, the pendulum was the sole
method for determining g. (1st by Galileo in
1657). Now it is done by timing a falling body
(free-fall technique). With the pendulum it is
difficult to determine Io precisely, to eliminate
air drag and viscous resistance.
 Otherwise simple pendulum could be used as
Io=ml2, 2
ml l
T  2  2
mgl g
35
 The motion is SHM, T depends only on
length and not on the mass of the bob.
I0 1 2 0 9 4 0
Texact  2 F ( ); where F ( )  1  sin ( )  sin ( )  ...
mgl 4 4 64 4
36
Mass- spring system
For a spring of spring constant k, when a
mass m is hung from its free end while
the other is fixed, let the extension of
the spring be e.
Since the system is in equilibrium, upward
force due to the spring is equal to the
downward force due to gravity;
i.e. ke=mg or k=mg/e
37
The effective spring constant
Case 1:
If the spring of spring constant k is now
cut into two-halves, let the effective
spring constant of each half is k1.
Let again the same mass m be hung from
the free end, the extension of the
spring now becomes e/2.
So mg=k1(e/2) hence k1=2(mg/e) =2k.
38
Effective k for two springs joined in
series
Case 2:
If two identical springs of spring constant
k are joined in series, let the effective
spring constant be k2. If the mass m is
hung from its free end the extension is
2e.
At equilibrium, k2(2e) = mg
Therefore, k2=mg/2e=k/2.
39
The effective spring constant
Case 3:
If two identical springs of spring constant
k are joined in parallel, let the effective
spring constant be k3. If the mass m is
hung from its free end the extension is
e/2.
At equilibrium, k3(e/2) = mg
Therefore, k3=2mg/e=2k.
40
Effective spring constant
We can extend the argument to a system
of several springs connected in different
configurations.
Consider 3 identical springs connected
/joined in series or parallel and find the
effective spring constant.
41
The mass-spring system cont..
Vertical oscillations
We consider the vertical oscillations of a loaded
spring. The equilibrium state of the loaded
spring is when the spring is stretched by a
distance e by the force mg. No net force acts
on the body, i.e. mg = ke; k = mg/e.
When the body is pulled through a distance y
from the equilibrium position and released,
the restoring force is F=-ky and the
acceleration is given by,
d2y k d2y k d2y
2
  y  2
 y  0  2
  2
y0
dt m dt m dt
42
The mass-spring system
Horizontal oscillations
Consider a mass-less spring of constant k, one
end fixed and the other attached to a body of
mass m which is free to move on a frictionless
horizontal surface. When the body is pulled
through a small distance x, the force exerted by
the spring to the body (Restoring force) is given
by, F=-kx. The body moves with a linear
acceleration,
d 2x k d 2x k d 2x 2 k
2
  x  2  x  0  2  x  0   
2
dt m dt m dt m 43
SOUND OSCILLATIONS
(The Helmholtz resonator)
 In the course of analyzing musical sounds,
Helmholtz made use of air resonators.
 A Helmholtz resonator is an acoustic device
that consists of a rigid enclosure with a
volume V coupled to the atmosphere through
an open pipe of radius r and length l.
 When the sound has the same frequency as
the resonator the ear can detect it.
 Resonator: Appliance or system for increasing
sound resonance.
44
SOUND OSCILLATIONS
(The Helmholtz resonator) cont..
 Consider the resonator V, l and A.
 Excite the opening of the vessel by blowing
across the neck.

Let the mass of the air in the neck, m=Alo,
where o is the density of un-disturbed air.
 Restoring force is due to pressure difference
dp=p-po in the volume V.

 Here po is pressure at equilibrium.
dV dV  Ax 2 dp
 Fr  Adp  Adp( )  A ( )0 x
dV dV 45
SOUND OSCILLATIONS
 The subscript (o) signifies that dp/dV
should be evaluated at equilibrium.
 Let’s assume that:
-the air behaves like an ideal gas.

-The compressions and rarefractions are
so rapid that there is no sufficient time
for the heat to flow, i.e. adiabatic
behavior,
 cp
pV  const;   ( 2.8)
cV 46
SOUND OSCILLATIONS
 Differentiating (2.8) w.r.t. V, we get,
 1  dp p
pV dV  V dp  0;  
dV V
A p 0
2
 Fr   x
V0
2
d x A p0
2
Eqn of motion : Al 0 2   x
dt V
47
SOUND OSCILLATIONS
 The equation of motion is,
d 2 x Ap0 p0 A
 x  0; 0  ( )( )
dt 2
V0l 0  0 lV0
2 lV0  0
T0   2
0 p0 A
p0 1.40 x1.013x10 5

A
  332m / s  0  332
0 1.29 lV0
48
The Helmholtz resonator cont…
 The frequency depends on the volume
of the vessel, length and area of the
neck.
 Exercise: Determine the lowest
frequency of a 1-litre bottle that has 5
cm long neck and radius of 1c m.
Ans: 133 Hz
 Note: Speed of sound varies with T as,
0
T ( C)
v (T C )  vSTP 1 
0
273 49
The Electrical oscillations
(The LC circuit)
 Suppose a capacitor is charged to some
value at t=0, then close the switch to
complete the circuit.
 At a later time, t, let the charge in the
capacitor be Q(t), current flowing I(t)
and voltage V(t) develop across the
capacitor.
dQ dV
I (t )  and Q  CV  I  C ...(2.13)
dt dt 50
(The LC circuit) cont..
 The current through the inductor causes the
p.d. to develop across its terminals according
to: dI
V  L ....................( 2.14)
dt
 -ve sign= V opposes increase of I
 The restoring force is due to the force of
repulsion btwn electrons. This force tends to
distribute electrons equally on the capacitor
plates so that there is no net charge. The
inductance tend to oppose this distribution.
51
 Eqns (2.13) and (2.14) are 1st order
D.eqns with two variables V and I in
mixed form. Let’s eliminate V.
2 2 2
dV d I I dI dI 1
 L 2  L 2  2  ( )I  0
dt dt C dt dt LC
1
I  I 0 cos(0t   ) where 0 
LC
52
Note that voltage varies as
V= -LI00Sin(0t+)
In terms of energy stored in the Capacitor and
Inductor,
1 𝑄2 1 2
+ L𝐼 = 𝐸𝑇
2 𝐶 2
=>Continuous back-and-forth flow of
electrical energy stored in C and
magnetic stored L.
53
ELECTRON OSCILLATIONS
(The plasma frequency)
 Plasma medium is the one that has equal
concentrations of +ve and -ve charges/ions
of which at least one charge type is mobile
eg. Ionosphere, fluorescent tube, etc
 Consider a slab of plasma medium with

N electrons/m3
N ions/m3
54
(The plasma frequency) cont..
 Assume the system is in equilibrium.
 Application of Electric field E to the medium
separates +ve and –ve charges by distance x.
 Assume the electrons to move while the +ve
ions are stationary because they are massive
(mi=2000me).
 Then there will be two charge sheet but the
bulk plasma remains neutral electrically.
55
 A charged sheet (surface charge
density ) produce the electric field
distributed symmetrically on each side
of magnitude, E= /20
 The field at a point within the plasma
due to 2 charged sheets is, E= /0
Take A = 1, so that  = xe.
56
 For N electrons we have, E = Nex/0
 This induced field exerts a restoring
force, F = -eE = -Ne2x/ 0
 Equation of motion becomes,
2 2 2 2
d x Ne d x Ne
me 2  x0 2  x0
dt 0 dt me 0
57
 Each electron oscillates about its
equilibrium position as,
2
Ne
x  x0 cos( p t   ) where  p 
me 0
p  N for N  1011 cm 3 for ionosphere
𝑚𝑒 = 9.11x10−31 kg, e = 1.6x10−19 𝐶,

0 = 8.85𝑥10−12 𝐹/𝑚
58
 The Ultraviolet and x-rays emanating
from the sun ionizes the ionosphere.
 The refractive index of the gas is given
by, p2
n   (1  i 2 )

 For >p ; n is real, waves propagate
as in dielectric medium.
59
Conclusion
 Clearly, the oscillatory behavior of all
the systems results from the interplay
of two opposing tendencies, a restoring
force (PE) that attempts to restore the
system to its initial equilibrium and the
inertial (KE) that tends to preserve the
existing motion and causes the system
to overshoot.
60
Conclusion cont…
In summary
,System Restoring force Inertial
Pendulum Torque, mglsin Moment of inertia, I0
Mass on Spring const. k Mass, m

spring
Electrical Capacitance, 1/C Inductance, L
oscillations
Plasma Ne2/0 Electron mass, me
oscillations
61
3. (Free!) DAMPED HARMONIC
OSCILLATOR
 We consider mechanical oscillations
first.
 Earlier assumption that acceleration is
usually proportional to the displacement
is unrealistic.
 Consider a case where the body in the
mass-spring system is immersed in a
fluid (liquid or gas)-> buoyant force.
62
DAMPED HARMONIC
OSCILLATOR cont…

 Damping term:  bv  b x
 
Newtons 2 nd
Law gives; m x b x kx  0
  b k
x   x   x  0 where   ; 0 
2
0
2
m m
 and 0 have same dim ensions
63
DAMPED HARMONIC
OSCILLATOR cont…
 Assume the solution of the form:
t
x  Ae  (     ) x  0
2 2
0
       0
2 2
0
1
  (    40 )
2 2
2 64
DAMPED HARMONIC
OSCILLATOR cont…
 The solution becomes;
1t  2t
x  A1e  A2e
 1 1
 t  2  402 t   2  402 t
xe 2
[ A1e 2
 A2e 2
]
65
(a) Light (or under) damping
 When  2
 4 2
0
 2
2  2 
2 2
  0  (1)(0  )  i 0   i
2
4 4 4

 t
it it
x  e 2
[ A1e  A2 e ]
66
Light (or under) damping cont...

 t
x  e 2
[( A1  A2 ) cos t  i( A1  A2 ) sin t ]
Let A1  A2  A cos  and i( A1  A2 )  A sin 


 t
 x  Ae 2
cos(t   )
67
 We apply initial conditions: At x=0, t=0
and x
v 0

 x(t  0)  A cos( )  A cos   0   

2
dx  t 
  Ae [ sin(t   )  cos(t   )]
2
dt 2
  
x(t  0)   A( sin   cos  )  v0  A for  
2 68 2
Therefore, A=v0/.
 
v0  t  v0  t
x  e 2
cos(t  )  ( e ) sin t  A(t ) sin t
2
 2 

v0  t
where A(t )  e 2

69
 If the damping is small,0,the motion
is approx.SHM with constant amplitude.
 Otherwise the motion is oscillatory,
gradually dying exponential.

 The energy of the oscillator decreases
as,E0e-t
i.e. 1 1 2  t  t
ET  m A  m A0 e
2 2 2
 E0e
2 2
70
  is the reciprocal of time required for
energy to decrease to e-1 of its initial
value.
 2
 1;    lifetime
2 
  relaxation time of oscillator .71

(b) Critical Damping   4
2 2
0
 Hence
q   4  0
2 2
0
 1 1
 t  2  402 t   2  402 t
xe 2
[ A1e 2
 A2e 2
]
 
 t  t
xe 2
( A1  A2 )  Be 2
72
Critical Damping cont..
 It can be shown that complete solution

takes the form (ie.with two adjustable
constants),
X(t)=(B+Ct)e-½t
 Oscillation dies away in the least time.
 Oscillator is drawn to equilibrium

position with no overshoot.
73
(c) Overdamped motion   4
2 2
0
Let
q   4  0
 2 2
0

 t
 qt
xe 2
[ A1e  A2e ]
qt

  t  1
qt  1
 qt
xe 2
[(  q) A1e 2
 (  q) A2e 2
]
2 2
74
Overdamped motion cont..
 Suppose the initial conditions: At t=0
x=0 and v=v0
 0=A1+A2
  
x  [(  q) A1  (  q) A2 ]  2qA1
2 2
v0
 A1 
2q
75
Overdamped motion cont..
 
v0  t v0  t
 qt
 x  e [e  e ]  e
qt2 2
sinh( qt )
2q q
The motion is non-oscillatory, goes

slowly to equilibrium position and does
not go across it.
76
Damped harmonic Oscillator
(Electrical)-The RLC circuit
 Consider the series RLC-circuit;
dQ dV dV I
Q  CV , I    C  
dt dt dt C
2
dI dVC dI d I
VC  IR  L  R L 2
dt dt dt dt
2
d I R dI 1
 2
  I 0
dt L dt LC 77
The RLC circuit cont…
R 1
 Define  and   2
0
L LC
2
d I dI
 2
  0 I  0
2
dt dt
Similar result to mechanical case.
The resistance R plays the part of damping

(resistive/dissipative) force
78
 For light damping ( < 402) the
solution is,

 t
I  I 0e 2
cos(t   )  I (t ) sin t
 1 R 2 2
where       2
2
0
4 LC 4 L
79
 Energy stored is a function of time
1 2 1  t
E  LI (t )  CV (t )  E0 e {Oscill.Factor}
2
2 2
 The physics behind is the same as for

mechanical case.
 Critical damping is the desired case in most
electrical devices,  0 if <<1.
80
Alternative approach,
q dI dq
 L  IR; but I 
C dt dt
d 2q dq q
L 2
 R   0
dt dt C
d 2q dq
 2
   02 q  0
dt dt

Rt
 2
1 R 2
q  q0 e 2L
cos(t   ) where   02    2
4 LC 4 L
81
Discharge of a Capacitor bank
 As an example of the application of the
damping phenomenon we consider a
capacitor bank (camera flash).
 Capacitor bank is essentially a Capacitor
capable of storing (slowly) and delivering (in
a fraction of a second) a large amount of
electrical energy.
 The charging process: DC power supply.
 The load is a coil and a resistor, resembles an
RLC circuit.
82
Discharge of a Capacitor bank cont..
 Suppose that the capacitor bank with
capacitance 100x10-6 F is charged to
peak voltage V0 = 20 kV and is
connected to a load with internal
resistance 45x10-3  and inductance
10x10-6 H.
 Energy stored is U0=½CV2=½x10-4 x
(20x103)2=20,000J
83
 For lightly damped motion,  < 402
 1 R2
f    2  5,000 Hz
2 LC 4 L
The current reaches its first peak value at t= T/4 = 1/(4f) =

50sec
84
Recall, R 45 x10 3 
   5
 4500
L 10 H
1 1
 
2
0  5 6
 10 rad .s
9 1
LC 10 x100 x10
 2  2 x107 Also, R  2
L
 0.045  0.63
C
4  4 x10
2
0
9
   4  UNDERDAMPED.
2 2
0
85
 We can determine the value Imax
1
dV ( )
T 4
I max  I( )  C
4 dt

 t 1 
where V (t )  I 0 Re 2
[ cos(t   )  sin(t   )]
2 
2
R 1 R
  ,   2
L LC 4 L 86
 Substituting one gets, Imax=56,500A
 This value decays due to damping.
 The next peak has only the value 45,200A.
 This V, I oscillatory nature is practically
UNDESIRED (can even damage the
capacitor).
 Remedy: Increase R to R = 0.64 
L
corresponding to critical damping, i.e.R  2
C
87
 For critical damping the solution is of
the form,

 t
I  ( A  Bt )e 2

1  t
V  ( L  R( A  Bt )e 2
2
88
Discharge of a Capacitor bank cont
 We apply the initial conditions to the
two eqns. At t=0, I=0 and V=V0

V0  t
 I (t )  te 2
L

1R  t
V (t )  V0 [1  t ]e 2
2 L
89
Discharge of a Capacitor bank cont
 Neither quantity is oscillatory.
 The voltage across the capacitor decreases
exponentially.
 The current rises from its initial value of zero
and reaches a max. current I*max in time t*
during which the voltage has fallen to V=V*.
 Ex. Show that I*max =0.736V0/R=23,000A,

V*=0.736V0=14720volts,
t*=2L/R=RC/2=32s.
90
4. Forced Vibrations and
Resonance
 We now apply a periodic driving force (from
an external agent).
 The driving system only serves as the
supplier of a periodic force.
 If the frequency of the driving force () is
made close to the natural frequency (0),
the amplitude of oscillation can be made
very large by repeated applications of quite a
small force. Such phenomenon is referred to
as resonance.
91
Forced Vibrations and Resonance
cont..
 Resonance is a phenomenon of driving the

system under such conditions that the
interaction between the driving force and the
system is maximized.
92
Undamped oscillator with harmonic
forcing (Forced oscillation with no
damping)
 Consider a sinusoidal driving force
F= F0cost applied on an oscillating mass-
spring system.
d 2x
 The eqn. of motion is: m 2  kx  F0 cos t
dt
 When F is first applied, the motion is
complicated being a combination of two
harmonic motions of different angular
frequencies: 0 and .
93
Forced oscillation with no
damping cont..
 The stage at which both motions are
prominent is called Transient state (lasting for
a short time only).
 After a sufficient long time, only one motion
(the forced oscillator) will be in effect and
continue undiminished at frequency .
 This implies, a steady-state motion of the
driven oscillator has been attained.
94
damping Cont…
 The steady-state motion is independent of

the way in which the oscillator was started
into motion, its amplitude, phase and 0.
 The motion depends only on the constants F0
and  of the force.
 Let x = Ccost be the solution of the eqn 4.1.
95
damping cont…
 Substituting we get,
 m C cos t  kC cos t  F0 cos t
2
F0 F0 / m F0 / m
C    2
k  m 2
k / m   0  
2 2
F0 / m
Hence x  2 cos  t
0   2
96
damping cont…
 The figure shows the amplitude of the forced
oscillator as a function the driving frequency
for zero damping.
By putting A=abs(C) we have,

x=Acos (t+).
The negative sign of the amplitude for > 0
corresponds to a phase lag of  of x w.r.t.F.
97
Forced oscillation with
damping
 The equation of motion is,
2
d x dx
m 2 b  kx  F0 cos t
dt dt
2
d x dx F0
2
    2
0 x  cos t
dt dt m
98
Forced oscillation with damping
cont…
 It can be shown that z=Aei(t-) with
x=Re(z) is a solution to the eqn of
motion.
F0 it
i (t  )
(  i   ) Ae
2 2
0 e
m
F0 i
(0   ) A  iA 
2 2
e
m
99
cont…
 This implies,
F0
(   ) A 
2
0
2
cos  from real
m
F0
A  sin  from imaginary
m
100
cont…
 From the two eqns one can deduce
that,
F0 / m
A( )  1
[(   )  (  ) ]
2
0
2 2 2 2

tan  ( )  2
0   2
Where  is the angle by which the driving force

leads the displacement. 101
The effect of varying the resistive
term
 Recall eqns (4.3)
F0 / m
A( )  1
[(02   2 ) 2  (  ) ]
2 2

tan  ( ) 
 02   2
102
term cont…
0
Substitute;   to get ,
Q
F0 / m
A( ) 
0 1
[(   )  (
2
0
2 2
)2 ] 2
Q
0 / Q
tan  ( )  2
0   2
103
term cont…
 Dividing by 0
F0 0 / 
A( ) 
m0 2
0  2 1 2 2 1
[(  )  ( ) ]
 0 Q
1/ Q
tan  ( ) 
0 

 0 104
term cont…
 The figure 4.2 (a) shows Amplitude as a

function of various Q assuming the driving
force is of constant magnitude
 As the damping increases, the resonance

curve becomes smaller and wider, and the
resonance is slightly displaced from =0
105
term cont…
 Figure 4.2(b) shows the phase

difference as a function of the driving
frequency for different values Q.
 Note that;
0     (0   )(0   )
2 2
   0
 0 0 0
106
term cont…
   0
At
0  20 (0   ) 2(0   )
  
 0 0
2
0
107
The transient phenomenon
 Recall that the transient motion is one
before the steady-state motion. If the
damping is small the transient stage
may take very long time.
2
 The soln to equation m x  kx  F0 cos t
d
2
dt
F0 / m
x 2 cos  t
0   2
108
cont..
 If we assume the driving force started

to act at t = 0, it means that the
particle has displaced so far at a
sudden. That is,
F0 / m
x 2
0   2
109
cont..
 Or x becomes infinity in the case =0.
 Or gone to a large negative value of x if

>0
 Let’s consider transient solution

(incorporating both motions)
110
cont..
 Suppose x1 is a solution of (4.1) and x2

is the solution of the free vibration,
then, 2
d x1 F0
2
 0 x1  cos t
2
dt m
d 2 x2
2
  0 x2  0
2
dt
If x1 and x2 are solutions then
x1+x2 is also a solution 111
cont..
 Adding the two eqns we get;

d 2 ( x1  x2 ) F0
2
 0 ( x1  x2 ) 
2
cos t
dt m
Let x1  x2  X
Solution is,
X  B cos(0t   )  C cos(t )
F0 / m
where C 2
0   2 112
cont..
 This equation has to fit conditions:
At t = 0 X=0 and dx/dt=0.
 For X, 0=Bcos+C
 For the differentiation,

dX
 0 B sin(0t   )  C sin t
dt
t  0  0  0 B sin     0 or 
 B  C
 X  C (cos t  cos 0t ); example of BEATS 113

cont..
 For 0t<<1 and t<<1

 t
2 2
cos t  1   ...
2
0 t
2 2
cos 0t  1   ...
2
F0 / m (   )t 1 F0 2
2 2 2
X 2 2 0
 t
0   2 2m 114
Power absorbed by a driven
oscillator
 We want to answer the question: “At what
rate energy must be fed into a driven
oscillator in order to maintain its oscillations
at a fixed amplitude?”
 Answer: If no damping we need no
power input since there is no
dissipative effect.
If there is damping we need power input.
115
oscillator cont…
 Power dW dx
P  F  Fv
dt dt
F  F0 cos t
x  A cos(t   )

v  x   A sin(t   )
 P  Fv  ( F0 cos t )(v0 sin(t   ))
116
oscillator cont…
 Therefore,
P  F0v0 cos t[sin t cos   cos t sin  ]

P  ( F0v0 cos  ) sin t cos t  ( F0v0 sin  ) cos t
2
 P  ( F0 v0 cos  )  sin t cos t 

 ( F0 v0 sin  )  cos t 
2
117
oscillator cont…
 The average is taken over any integral
number of cycles
1 1
cos t  (1  cos 2t ) 
2
2 2
 cos 2t  0
 cos t sin t  0
118
oscillator cont…
1 1
 Therefore,  P  F0 v0 sin   F0A sin 
2 2
Noting
F0 0 / 
A( ) 
m0 2
0  2 1
1 2 2
[(  ) ( ) ]
 0 Q
F00 / k
v0 ( )  A 
0  2 1 2 2
1
[(  ) ( ) ]
 0 Q 119
oscillator cont…
 This implies that v0 passes through the
max. at =0 exactly: VELOCITY
RESONANCE.
 Using A(), power can be written as,
F 0
2
 P( )  0
0  2 1 2
2kQ(  )  ( )
 0 Q
120
oscillator cont…
 Again this power input passes through
max. at =0 for any Q. (Also see
fig.4.3)
 The max power is given by,

F 0Q F Q
2 2
Pmax  0
 ; k  m 0
0 2
2k 2m0
121
Electrical resonance
 If the current is changing (AC), the
inductor L acts to oppose the change.
(Lenz’s law). The voltage difference btwn
the ends of the inductor is;
di
VL  L
dt
In an LC  circuit,
di q
VL  VC  0  L  0
dt C 122
Electrical resonance cont…
 But,
2 2
dq di d q d q q
i   2 , hence; 2  0
dt dt dt dt LC
1 1
cf . k  , m  L, q  x  0 
c LC
123
 We now introduce a resistor R, VR=iR
2
d q R dq 1
2
  q0
dt L dt LC
R 1
 ;  0
2
L LC
124
 If the circuit is driven by an alternating
voltage, we obtain a typical forced
oscillator.
2
d q R dq 1 V0
2
  q  cos t
dt L dt LC L
2
d x dx F0
cf . 2    0 x 
2
cos t
dt dt m
125
 In mechanical system Fdx is the
amount of work done by the driving
force F in displacement dx.
 In electrical system Vdq is the amount

of the work done by the driving voltage
V when an amount of charge dq passes
through the circuit.
126
 Power absorbed at resonance=V02/(2R)
2
F
cf .P  0
2b
1 V0 2   2 2
 P  ( )
2 R (0   )   
2 2 2 2
0 0 L b R
Q  ;    ; F0  V0
 R m L
127
 Therefore;
QF 2
0 LV2
V2
 P  max  0
 0
 0
2 m 0 2 L  0 R 2 R
128
Summary
 In order to keep a system which has a degree of
damping in continuous oscillatory motion, some
outside periodic force must be applied.The
frequency of this force is called FORCING
FREUENCY, .
 When the forcing frequency is equal to the natural
frequency,0, resonance is said to occur.
 Forced frequency is the frequency due to an
external periodic force.
 Natural frequency of a system is the frequency on
its own.
 The forced oscillations always have the SAME
frequency as the forcing frequency.
129
5. COUPLED OSCILLATORS
&NORMAL MODES
 We have been considering systems having
only one type of free vibrations and
characterized by a single natural frequency.
 A real physical system is usually capable of
vibrating in different ways and may resonate
to many different frequencies.
 We call these various characteristic of
vibrations modes or normal modes of the
system.
130
COUPLED OSCILLATORS
&NORMAL MODES cont..
 How does the coupling of SHOs affect
the behavior of the individual oscillator?
 We consider two couple oscillators. The
results can be generalized to a number
of oscillators
131
TWO COUPLED PENDULUMS
 Two identical pendulums A and B connected
with a spring whose relaxed length is exactly
equal to the distance between the pendulum
bobs (d=l).
 Draw A aside while holding B fixed then
release both of them.
 =>Pendulum B, initially at rest, gradually
begins to oscillate and its amplitude
continuously increases. After some time the
amplitude of A and B are equal. Later the
amplitude of B becomes maximum while
that of A becomes zero. 132
TWO COUPLED PENDULUMS cont….
 The spring is responsible for the observed
behavior. As A oscillates, the spring pushed
and pulls on B.
Case 1: SYMMETRIC CONSIDERATIONS
We draw both A and B aside by equal amounts
and release them.
 No force exerted by the spring on either
pendulum.
 A and B will oscillate in PHASE and equal
amplitude maintaining equal separation.
 Each oscillates with its free natural frequency
133
TWO COUPLED PENDULUMS cont….
 Same frequency and same

amplitude=>normal mode of he
coupled system.
 Equations of motion are:
x A  C cos 0t , xB  C cos 0t

134
TWO COUPLED PENDULUMS
Case 2: ANTISYMMETRIC
 Draw A and B aside by equal amount

but in opposite directions and then
release them.
 If either were displaced by a small
distance x, the restoring force is m02x.
 In the present situation the spring is
stretched or compressed a distance
2x.(Restoring force 2kx)
135
cont…
 The equation of motion for A,
2
d xA
m 2
 m0 x A  2kx A  0
2
dt
2
d xA
2
 (0  2e ) x A  0
2 2
dt
g k
where 0 2
and e  2
l m
136
cont…
 This is a SHM equation of motion for
1 1
g k
 '  (  2 )  (  2 )
2
0
2
e
2 2
l m
The solution is of the form xA=Dcos’t
The motion of B is the mirror image of A
xB=-Dcos’t
137
cont…
 => The action of the coupling spring
has been to increase the restoring force
and hence the frequency over that of
uncoupled.
 The phase is 180-deg (out of
phase)=>SECOND NORMAL MODE.
 NB. If either is fixed (Clamped) the
angular frequency of the other will be
1 1
g k 2
(02  e2 ) 2
(  )
l m 138
Superposition of the normal
modes
 Both in cases (1) and (2) the motion
once begun, in the absence of damping
force, will continue without change.
 No energy transfer from (1) to (2).
We consider the combination of cases (1) and

(2).
139
modes cont..
 The spring is stretched by xA-xB
 Force due to the spring on A and B is
k(xA-xB)
 Restoring force on A is:
m x  k ( x A  xB )
2
0 A
 Restoring force on B is:
m x  k ( x A  xB )
2
0 B
140
modes
 Equations of motion for A and B are:
2
d xA
m 2  m0 x A  k ( x A  xB )  0
2
dt
d 2 xB
m 2
 m0 xB  k ( x A  xB )  0
2
2
dt
d xA
2
 (0  e ) x A  e xB  0
2 2 2
dt
2
d xB
2
 (0  e ) xB  e x A  0
2 2 2
dt 141
modes cont…
 The two equations cannot be solved
independently.
 Adding the two eqns we get,
d ( x A  xB )
2
2
 0 ( x A  x B )  0
2
dt
Subtracting we get,
d ( x A  xB )
2
2
 (0  2e )( x A  xB )  0
2 2
dt 142
modes cont…
 The two frequencies correspond to
case(1) and (2) of the normal modes.
 Let q1 = xA+xB , q2 = xA-xB
and ’2 = 20+2e2
2
d q1
2
  0 q1  0  q1  C cos 0t
2
dt
d 2 q2
2
  q2  0  q2  D cos  ' t
'2
dt
143
modes cont…
 q1 and q2 are called normal coordinates.
 0 and ’ are called normal frequencies.
1 1 1
x A  (q1  q2 )  C cos 0t  D cos  ' t
2 2 2
1 1 1
xB  (q1  q2 )  C cos 0t  D cos  ' t
2 2 2
144
Alternative approach (General method of
finding normal modes) or Analytical
approach.
 Consider eqns.
2
d xA
2
 (0  e ) x A  e xB  0
2 2 2
dt
2
d xB
2
 (0  e ) xB  e ) x A  0
2 2 2
dt
Let the solution be x A  C cos t
xB  D cos t 145
Analytical approach. Cont..
 Substituting we get simultaneous eqns

with unknown C and D,
(   )C   D  0
2 2
0
2
e
2
e
  C  (   ) D  0
2
e
2 2
0
2
e
146
 From the first eqn.
C  2
 e
D    0  e
2 2 2
 From the second eqn.

C   2 2 2
 0 e
D  2
e
147
 This implies,
 2
  2 2 2
e
 0 e
   0  e
2 2 2
 2
e
 Solving we get,
    
2 2
0
2
e
2
e
148
 We have two solutions say’ and ’’ ,

which are our earlier normal
frequencies,
 
'2 2
0
    2
'' 2 2
0
2
e
149
 From the ratio of C/D we can see that

C/D=±1.
 That is ’0 for C/D=+1 (Symm)
and ’’(20 + 22e) for C/D=-1 (Anti-
symm)
150
 In a special case , the sum of the two

solns is also a soln,
XA=Ccos0t +Dcos’’t
XB=Ccos0t -Dcos’’t
The missing factor of 2 can be found from
the initial conditions.
151
FORCED VIBRATION AND RESONANCE
FOR TWO COUPLED OSCILLATORS
 Suppose we apply a harmonic driving

force F=F0cost to pendulum A (eg. By
moving its point of suspension back and
forth with a sinusoidal force).
 Let the motion of pendulum B be
controlled only by its own restoring
force and the coupling spring.
152
Forced V & R for two CO cont….
 The eqns are:
d 2 xA
m 2  m02 x A  k ( x A  xB )  F0 cos t
dt
2
d xB
m 2  m0 xB  k ( x A  xB )  0
2
dt
g k
  and e 
2
0
2
l m 153
Forced V & R for two CO cont..
 The eqns simplify to,
d 2 xA F0
2
 (0  e ) x A  e xB 
2 2 2
cos t
dt m
2
d xB
2
 (0  e ) xB  e x A  0
2 2 2
dt
154
 We introduce the normal coordinates:

q1=xA+xB, q2= xA-xB
Adding the diff. Eqns. we get,
2
d q1 F0
2
 (0 q1 
2
cos t
dt m
 Subtracting we obtain,
2
d q2 F0
2
 ( ' ) q2  cos t;  ( ' )  0  2e
2 2 2 2
dt m 155
 Steady-state solution:
F0 / m
q1  C cos t ;  C  2
0   2
F0 / m
q2  D cos t ;  D 
( ' )  
2 2
156
 For the two pendulums,

q1=xA+xB, q2= xA-xB=>xA=1/2(q1+q2);
xB=1/2(q1-q2)
1
x A  A cos t ;  A  (C  D)
2
1
xB  B cos t ;  B  (C  D)
2
157
 Therefore,
F (   )  
2 2 2
A( )  0 e
m (0   )( '  )
2 2 2 2
F  2
B ( )  e
m (0   )( '  )
2 2 2 2
158
 (i) The plot of A as a function of 
 (ii) The plot of B as a function of 
159
 At 1, A=0 B0    

2
1
2
0
2
e
 At a certain frequency 1, between the

resonances, A=0 and B0.
 But from the assumed condition of the
problem it is clear that the periodic forcing of
the pendulum B depends on the motion of
pendulum A.
=>In any real system some small oscillation of
the bob of pendulum A would be essential.
160
 The frequency 1 at which the

apparent anomalous situation develops
is precisely the natural frequency of
single pendulum whose coupling spring
is attached under the condition that the
other pendulum is held quite fixed.
1
1  (   )
2
0
2 2
e
161
Exercise
 Two identical objects of mass m are
connected by two identical springs with
spring constant k. the masses are displaced
vertically and made to oscillate.(a) what is
the restoring force on (i) body A? (ii) body
B?
(b) Set up the differential eqns of the motion
of the system
162
Ex. Cont.
(c) Assuming the solutions
ya  A cos(t   ); yb  B cos(t   )
show that the frequencies of the two normal
modes are given by
k
  (3  5 )
2
2m
163
Soln. to exercise
 (a) f a  kya  k ( yb  ya )
fb  k ( yb  ya )
2
(b) d ya

m 2  kya  k ( yb  ya )  0
dt
2
d yb
m 2  k ( yb  ya )  0
dt
164
Soln. to exercise cont…
 (c) Let ya  A cos(t   ) and yb  B cos(t   )
 Substituting in the DE. we get,
( 2k  m 2 ) A  kB  0
( k  m ) B  kA  0
2
A k A k  m 2
 and 
B 2k  m 2 B k
165
Soln. Cont…
 So,
2
2k k k
(   )(2
 ) 
2
2
m m m
2
3k k
  4
 
2
2
0
m m
 Solve for  .
2
166
WAVES
 A wave allows energy to be transferred
from one point to another some
distance away without any particle of
the medium traveling between the two
points.
 For speed v of the wave, wavelength 
and f vibrations we have v=f.
 Progressive wave equation,
2x
y  a sin(t   )  a sin(t  )
 167
Waves cont….
2 t x
y  a sin (ct  x)  a sin 2 (  )
 T 
The velocity of the particle at any
instant is given by
dy 2a t x
v  cos 2 (  )
dt T T 
168
STANDING WAVES
 Vibrating loops.
 The wave-like profile does not move along
the medium (eg the string).
 Standing wave is due to the superposition of
two waves of equal amplitude and frequency
traveling in the opposite directions along the
string.
 Wave properties: reflection, refraction,
diffraction, interference.
169
STANDING WAVES cont….
 Consider a string stretched between
two fixed points a distance L apart.
 A transverse blow at some point along
its length initiates two waves traveling
in opposite directions along the string (
reflected waves).
 If no energy loss such a back-and-forth
waves will exist indefinitely.
y1  A1 cos(t  kz   )
170
 Y1 wave moving to the R, y2 to the L
y2  A2 cos(t  kz   )
By the principle of superposition, total
displacement of the string will be,
Y  y1  y2
171
 Note:
y1  A1[cos(t   ) cos kz  sin(t   ) sin kz ]
y2  A2 [cos(t   ) cos kz  sin(t   ) sin kz]
Y  ( A1  A2 ) cos(t   ) cos kz  ( A1  A2 ) sin(t   ) sin kz
172
 Applying the initial conditions,
(i) Y(0,t)=0 implies that the first term
vanish if A1=-A2 and hence
Y  A sin(t   ) sin kz; where; A  2 A1

(ii) Y(L,t)=0 so that Sin(kL)=0
n
 kL  n ,  k  ; n  1,2,3...
L
173
 Thus,
n
Y ( z, t )  A sin( z ) sin(t   ); n  1,2,3...
Note:
L
1. All positions (z) for which sin(nz/L)=0 the
displacement Y=0 for all t, called NODES
2. There exists other positions called ANTI-
NODES for which sin(nz/L)=1 such that
Y=±A
174
 Node occur when sin(kz)=0, i.e kz=n
2 n
z  n  z  ; n  1,2,3,..
 2
This means that nodes are separated by half
wavelength and antinodes lie btwn the nodes
at z=n/4.
175
 Measuring the distance btwn nodes or
antinodes provides a very powerful way of
determining wavelength of radiation. Hertz
used this method to determine the
wavelength of radio waves.
 Obs:
(1) Different from traveling waves, standing
waves have the property that certain points
in space have zero motion at all times and
(2)There is no net transport of energy.
176
 Nodes and antinodes occur at fixed positions
hence the term STANDING WAVES.
 The standing wave that has n=1 is called the
fundamental (or first harmonic).
 The wave for n=2 is the second harmonic ,
etc.
 The wavelength n is governed by the string
length L.
 The frequency then depends on the phase
velocity v=(T/).
177
 Hence by altering the tension T, the
string can be tuned to any a particular
frequency fn=v/n.
178
Waves in a string
 Consider a very long flexible but inextensible
string held at one end and kept under
constant tension, by say, a spring at the
other end.
 At O the string is attached to an oscillator,

shaking it periodically in direction
perpendicular to z.
179
Waves in a string cont…
 If we denote the string displacement at
the origin as S(0, t0) and assume that
the displacements are SHM we can
write,
S(0,t0)=S0cos(t0+)
 At an arbitrary point z‡0, it takes some
for the disturbance to reach there.
180
 If v is the velocity then, t0=t-z/v
z
S ( z , t )  S 0 cos[ (t  )   ]
v
v is called the phase velocity or propagation
velocity or wave velocity.
This is the velocity at which the disturbance
propagates along the medium( eg the string).
This is different from velocity acquired by any
one point on the string. 181
 Note that, the phase is the stage or state of
development of regularly recurring quantity,
it is a fraction of the period that has elapsed
w. r.t. a fixed point.
 Particles with the same relative displacement
are said to be in the same phase of vibration.
 Wavelength is the distance btwn to adjacent
displacements of the same phase along the
direction of propagation.
182
 A given mass element of string
oscillates with SHM about equilibrium
position in direction perpendicular to z
and has an instantaneous velocity given
by, dS z
 S 0 sin[ (t  )   ]
dt v
 The phase velocity is directed along z.
183
 The frequency f of vibration is given by
v 
f   v  f   . ,   2f
 2
2z
S ( z , t )  S 0 cos(t  )

2
S ( z, t )  S0 cos(t  kz   ); k 

184
 Here k is a propagation constant. In
terms of k, the phase velocity v and
angular frequency  are connected by
the dispersion relation, v  
k
Dispersion means variation of the wave speed
with wavelength (e.g. glass prism and light).
The period, T, of the wave is the time required for
a point at any z-coordinate to undergo on
complete cycle of transverse motion. During this
time T, the wave travels a distance vT=. 185
Wave motion
 Transfer of a disturbance from one point of
the medium to the next by interaction
among the particles.
 Some waves e.g. EM waves ( radio, light,
x-rays) consists of propagating E and B
fields that travel through vacuum. They
can also travel through matter but suffer
absorption in varying degree.
186
Wave motion cont…
 Observing a cork floating on water reveals an
up-and-down bobbing motion as the waves
move across the surface of water.This implies
that the wave travel steadily in some
direction without any corresponding transport
of the water or floating matter.
 If the displacement of the medium is
perpendicular to the direction of propagation
of the wave, then the wave is said to be
transverse.
187
Wave motion cont…
 If the disturbance of the medium is

back-and-forth along the direction of
propagation of the wave, then the wave
is referred to as longitudinal.
188
The eqn of Transverse waves on a
string
 Consider a flexible and inextensible string
maintained under constant tension T. In
order to find out how the displacement S
varies with position z and time t, we isolate a
short section of the string and find the net
force acting on it.
 The net force is given by,
Fy=Tsin(+0)-Tsin
Fz=Tcos(+0)-Tcos
189
string cont…
 2
 For small , cos   1  

2!
3
sin      ...
3!
sin(   )  sin  cos   sin  cos
T sin(   )  sin   T (     )  T

d
 Fy  T  T ( )z; and Fz  0
dz
190
string cont…
 For small displacement
  S 2S
  tan    ( )
z z z z 2
The length considered here is z. Let the

mass per unit length of the string be
m
 
z
191
string cont…
 Neglecting gravity, Newton’s 2nd law
gives, 2S
Fy  ma y  T ( 2
) z
dz
2S 2S
m  T( ) z
t 2
dz 2
2S 2S
( z ) T( ) z
t 2
dz 2
2S T 2S T
  ; v 
t 2
 dz 2

192
string cont…
 The propagation velocity v, is
independent of angular frequency, .
This implies that  varies linearly with k
and the wave is said to be non-
dispersive.
193
SOUND WAVES IN A PIPE.
 Consider a pipe fitted with a piston that can
move in and out so that the fluid inside the
pie can be compressed or decompressed.
 Let’s isolate a section of the fluid in which the
undisturbed condition lies btwn z and z+z. If
A is the cross-sectional area of the pipe, then
the elementary volume of the fluid lying btwn
z and z+z is V0=Az.
 Due to the back-and-forth movement of the
piston, fluid element move through distance
S(z) and S(z+ z) respectively.
194
SOUND WAVES IN A PIPE
cont…
 The change in volume is given by,
V  [S ( z  z )  S ( z )] A
Fractional change in volume
V [ S ( z  z )  S ( z ) S
 
V0 z z
195
cont…
 The change in volume is accompanied

by the change in pressure. The bulk
modulus of the fluid in question is
dV
  V ( )0
dP
 From the Helmholtz

V resonator, z
dP     dP   
dV S
196
cont…
 The net force acting on the element z

is, F=-AP
( where P=difference btwn pressure at
z and z+ z).
For small displacements it can be shown
that, P
P  z
z
P
 F   A( ) z
z 197
cont…
 This is the force causing acceleration in

the mass of the fluid.
2S
a ; m   0 Az
t 2
2S 1 P S
 2  ; but dP   
t  0 z z
2S  2S 
 2  ; where v 
t  0 z 2
0
198
ENERGY OF WAVES
 Let us consider the piston/fluid example.
 The force exerted by the piston on the fluid is
FP=(P0+dP)A.
P0A= equilibrium(P) force (not of interest
here!!!)
(dP)A= differential (acoustic) force.
The instantaneous power exerted by the piston
on the fluid
S
Power  F .v  ( P0  dP)( )
t 199
ENERGY OF WAVES cont…
 Subtracting the equilibrium contribution
we get,
S S S
Power  (dP) A( )0   A ( )0 ( ) 0
dt z t
The subscript, 0, denote that this power is
exerted on the fluid at the origin z=0 where the
piston is located.
200
 If there is no damping, this power must
be the same at any arbitrary point z
down the pipe and is equal to energy
passing any point down the pipe.
201
 We define energy flux as energy
crossing unit area per second.
 This then gives us:
S S
E flux   ( )0 ( )0 Wm  2
z t
We again define Intensity as the energy flux
averaged over a period of oscillation (or over
one cycle)
202
S  S0 cos(t  kz   )
S S
E flux    ( ) 0 ( ) 0  kS02 sin 2 (t  kz   )
z t
1
 sin (t  kz   ) T 
2
2
1
 I  E flux T  kS02
2
Waves carry energy that is why we can use them to send
messages.
203
 We can distinguish between Intensity
and loudness.
 Loudness is determined by amplitude
and frequency. Sound with high
frequency is perceived as INTENSE.
 Intensity expressed in terms of acoustic
pressure amplitude dP is,
1 (dP) 2 
I  ;v 
2 v  204
 We define the reference level root-
mean-square (r.m.s) acoustic pressure
amplitude to be,
1
dPrms  dP0  I 0 v 0
2
 10 12 Wm  2 (331.5ms 1 )(1.29kgm 3 )
5
 2.07 x10 Pa
205
 In a 3-d wave, it is more useful to
specify the intensity of the wave
defined as the average power per unit
area oriented at right angles to the
direction of the wave propagation.
 Power   Power 
I 
A 4r 2
206
 If A1>A2 then I2<I1
 Two sounds that differ by a factor of 10 in intensity
are said to differ by 1 Bel. (Alexander Graham Bell
1847-1922)
 A more commonly used unit is the decibel (dB) equal
to 0.1 B.
 Decibel is a dimensionless unit used to express the
ratio of two powers, voltages, currents and sound
intensities.
I
 Sound level n(in dB) is given by, n  10 log 10 ( )
I0
207
 Where; I(in Wm-2), I0=10-12Wm-2 = 0dB
 I0 corresponds to the threshold hearing
of most people.
 Example: I=120dB above I0 is obtained
as,
I I
120  10 log 10 ( )  12  log 10 ( )
I0 I0
I  1012 I 0  1012.10 12  1.0Wm  2
208
Sound waves
Sound Intensity level Acoustic power
(dB) (Wm-2)
Physical damage 140 100
Threshold of pain 130 10
Painful 120 1
Very loud thunder 110 0.1
Noisy factory 90 10-3
Conversation 60 10-6
Quiet whisper 20 10-10
Threshold of hearing 30,0,10 10-9(100Hz),10-12(103Hz),10-11
(104Hz)
209
Sound cont…
 Intensity is an objective quantity that can be

measured with instruments, while, loudness
infers to individual sensations of hearing (i.e.
involves subjective judgments).
 Human ear has a good sensitivity range: 20
to 20,000 Hz.
 Resonant frequency of the auditory canal:
3,000 to 4,000 Hz.
 Dogs: up to 30 kHz
210
OPTICS
211
212

PH127 Lectures Nov. 2022 4

Uploaded by

Document Informationclick to expand document information

Copyright:

Available Formats

PH127 Lectures Nov. 2022 4

Uploaded by

Document Information

Copyright

Available Formats

Share this document

Share or Embed Document

Sharing Options

Did you find this document useful?

Is this content inappropriate?

Copyright:

Available Formats

PH127 Lectures Nov. 2022 4

Uploaded by

Copyright:

Available Formats

PH 127:VIBRATIONS, WAVES AND

OPTICS (12 Credits)

 Analyze the effect of damping;

 Explain the linear optical properties of materials;

 Apply modern techniques to analyze and measure the

 Wedn. 07:00-08:00 SB (Lecture)

 Thurs 13:00-14:00 SA (Lecture)

 There will be Assignments and Tutorial

The presentation will be

Motion of physical systems can be classified

(definite) interval of time, e.g. Hand of a

 If a body in a periodic motion moves

 Vibrations or oscillations of mechanical systems

 It is the motion described by pure sines

Thus: SHM is a periodic motion in

 By Newton’s second Law (1) F 

The restoring force (2) Fr  bx(t )

Equating (1) and (2) we get, m dt  bx

where md is the inertial term (carrying the

 Conservation of Total mechanical energy:

 Here we shall look at two solutions

Assume the solution of the form,

are possible solutions of the SHM eqn.

Let z=a+jb; j2=-1, a and b are real, z is a complex

The argument (t   )

Force Fr=x, x=Acos(t+)

Therefore,U(t)=½m2A2cos2(t+); 2= /m

 Recall the pertinent equations.

across the neck.

dp=p-po in the volume V.

-the air behaves like an ideal gas.

p0 1.40 x1.013x10 5

 Consider a slab of plasma medium with

𝑚𝑒 = 9.11x10−31 kg, e = 1.6x10−19 𝐶,

Mass on Spring const. k Mass, m

Let A1  A2  A cos  and i( A1  A2 )  A sin 

gradually dying exponential.

  relaxation time of oscillator .71

 It can be shown that complete solution

 Oscillator is drawn to equilibrium

The motion is non-oscillatory, goes

The resistance R plays the part of damping

 The physics behind is the same as for

The current reaches its first peak value at t= T/4 = 1/(4f) =

 Ex. Show that I*max =0.736V0/R=23,000A,

 Resonance is a phenomenon of driving the

 The steady-state motion is independent of

 Let x = Ccost be the solution of the eqn 4.1.

By putting A=abs(C) we have,

Where  is the angle by which the driving force

 The figure 4.2 (a) shows Amplitude as a

 As the damping increases, the resonance

 Figure 4.2(b) shows the phase

 If we assume the driving force started

 Or x becomes infinity in the case =0.

 Or gone to a large negative value of x if

 Let’s consider transient solution

 Suppose x1 is a solution of (4.1) and x2

 Adding the two eqns we get;