Oscillations are Everywhere!

Why study oscillations and waves?

– A large fraction of all physical situations involve

periodic or oscillatory behaviour
• Motion of the planets
• Stable mechanical systems
• Electrical systems
• Fundamental forces
– Periodic motion in continuous media
• Wave propagation
• Electromagnetic radiation (light/optics)
• Quantum mechanics
– Most fundamental description of nature
• Quantum Mechanics + Special Relativity Quantum Field Theory
• Matter particles are quantized “waves” in an underlying “field”.
 Oscillating Systems

Each day we encounter many kinds of oscillatory

motion, such as swinging pendulum of a clock, a
person bouncing on a trampoline, a vibrating guitar
string, and a mass on a spring etc.

They have common properties:

1. The particle oscillates back and forth about a

equilibrium position. The time necessary for one
complete cycle (a complete repetition of the motion)
is called the period T.
2. No matter what the direction of the displacement,
the force always acts in a direction to restore the
system to its equilibrium position. Such a force is
called a “restoring force”. More on this later

3. The number of cycles per unit time is called the

“frequency” f.
1
f =
T
Unit: period (s)
frequency(Hz, SI unit), 1 Hz = 1 cycle/s
4. The magnitude of the maximum displacement
from equilibrium is called the amplitude of the motion.
Restoring Forces: Key to Oscillation

N
Fnet = 0
Restoring Forces

N
Fnet = toward equil.
 Restoring Forces

N
Fnet = toward equil.

Restoring forces always push

the system back towards equilibrium
 Restoring force in Pendulum

FR FR
W
Restoring force in mass on a spring
 Simple Harmonic Oscillations
Any oscillation that can be expressed with a
sinusoidal function is a harmonic oscillation.
When its amplitude is constant, it is a simple
harmonic oscillation.
That is, x(t ) = A sin( t +  )
• A is the amplitude
• t is the time 2p
•  is the angular frequency,w = =2p f
T angle
• f is the phase constant or phase
• (t+f) is the phase
Simple Harmonic Oscillations: Why is it important?

❑ Good approximation to many things

❑ Easy to manage analytically
❑ Most importantly, the connection with
Fourier transform [You will study it in 2nd
Sem (Math)]
❑ x(t) can be any physical quantity
❑ A projection of uniform circular motion
 Simple Harmonic Oscillations: Some Math

x(t ) = A sin( t +  )
dx
 =  A cos( t +  )
dt
d 2x
 2 = −  2 A sin( t +  ) = − 2 x(t )
dt

d2x
+ w 2
x(t) = 0
dt 2

This is called the “equation of motion of the simple harmonic oscillator”. It is the basis
of many complex oscillator problems. A system that satisfies this equation undergoes
SHM
 Simple Harmonic Motion
If the oscillating quantity is the position of an
object, the simple harmonic oscillation is a
simple harmonic motion (SHM).
From Newton’s 2nd law we have, for SHM,
d x 2
F = ma = m 2 = -mw x = -kx
2

dt
SHM is the motion executed by a system subject
to a force that is proportional to the displacement
of the system but opposite in sign.
 Simple Harmonic Motion
The block-spring
system shown on the
right forms a linear -A O +A
SHM oscillator, which
follows Hooke’s law: F = -kx = -mw x 2

The spring constant of

the spring, k, is related
to the angular
frequency, , of the k m
w= ® T = 2p
oscillator: m k
Simple Harmonic Motion
d x
2
F = m 2 = -kx
dt
d x k
2
+ x = 0
dt 2
m
d x
2
+ w 2
x = 0
dt 2

x(t ) = A sin( t +  )
 x(t ) = A sin( t +  ) − − − −(1)

a)  :
2
If we increase the time by  in Eq(1), then
2
x = A[sin  (t + ) +  ] = A sin(t +  )

2
Therefore  is the period of the motion.
2 m
T= = 2
 k
1 1 k
f = =
T 2 m
The quantity  is called the angular frequency.
 = 2f
b) A :
A is the maximum value of displacement. We call it
the amplitude of the motion.

c) t + f and f :
The quantity t + f is called phase of the motion.
f is called “phase constant ”.

A and f are determined by the initial position and

velocity of the particle.  is determined by the system
and independent of amplitude.
 SHM (Displacement vs Time)
x(t ) = A sin( t +  )

Amplitude

Equil. point

period (=T)
Displaced systems oscillate
around stable equil. points
Characteristics of Simple Harmonic Oscillation:
Pure Sine-like curve

Equil. point

Displacement: x(t) =A sin (wt+ɸ)

A= Amplitude and ɸ = phase constant
T= time period = time for 1 complete oscillation
f = frequency = no. of oscillations/time= 1/T
 Velocity (v)
It is the rate of change of displacement and is given by,

Velocity is maximum at mean position and minimum at extreme positions.

Acceleration (a)
It is the rate of change of velocity and is given by,

Acceleration is maximum at extreme positions and minimum at mean position.

 Simple Harmonic Motion (Undamped)
we considered an idealized
spring mass system on a
frictionless surface. As a result,
the oscillations once started will -A O +A
continue forever with the same
amplitude and such oscillations
are called free or undamped
harmonic oscillation.
In reality, there will always be resistive
forces such as friction, air resistance,
viscous drag etc at play. These
dissipative forces will oppose the free
oscillation and thus reduce the
amplitude of oscillation with time.
Such an oscillator is called damped
harmonic oscillator
We next discuss such an oscillator.
Summary:
• We have discussed about oscillation with few examples.

• We have gained some idea on the restoring force, the cause for
oscillation.

• We have discussed the simple harmonic oscillation/motion (e.g.

in a spring-mass system) and it's characteristics for an
undamped oscillator.

Next Class:
• We shall discuss the damped oscillation with examples.
• We shall derive it's equation of motion and find its solution.
 Last Class Summary
The block-spring
system on a smooth
surface forms a linear -A O +A
SHM oscillator that is
undamped:
d x
2
k m
+ w 2
x(t) = 0 w= ® T = 2p
dt 2
m k

Displacement: x(t) =A sin (wt+ɸ)

A= Amplitude and ɸ = phase constant
T= time period = time for 1 complete oscillation
f = frequency = no. of oscillations/time = 1/T
 Damped Harmonic Oscillation

❑ So far we have assumed that no frictional force acts

on the spring-mass system. The oscillator is
undamped.
❑ For real oscillators, there will always be resistive
forces such as friction, air resistance, viscous drag
acting on the system.
❑ These dissipative forces oppose the free oscillation
and reduce the amplitude of oscillation with time.
❑ This loss in amplitude is called “damping” and the
motion is called “damped harmonic motion”.
❑ Such an oscillator is called damped harmonic
oscillator (DHO).
Damping is not all that bad after all!

Door Damper Modern Car Suspension System

Earthquake Protection of Buildings Vibration Isolation

 Damping Force
❑ Most oscillating physical systems dissipate their energy over time
❑ We will consider the special cases where the damping force is a
function of velocity (v)
FD = -bv –cv2, b & c are positive constants
❑ The drag force is in the opposite direction of the velocity
❑ Typical of an object moving through a fluid
– Moving quickly through air: turbulent drag (cv2 is important)
– Moving slowly through water: viscous drag (bv is important)
❑ When v is small enough, or c is small enough, only the first term
is important.

We will assume the damping force FD = -bv , where ‘b’ is a positive

constant called the “damping constant”.
 Our Model DHO

❑ Consider the spring-mass system where a body of mass ‘m’

attached to one end of a spring with spring const (k).
❑ A rod attached to the mass carries a disk moving in an fluid-filled
cylinder (a dashpot).
❑ The other end of the spring is attached to a fixed wall and vibrating
horizontally.
❑ The viscous drag due to the fluid provides the damping foce Fd = -bv
 Equation of Motion of DHO

Let x be the instantaneous displacement at time t, then various forces

acting on the body are:

1. Restoring Force (FR): This acts opposite to the displacement and tries
to bring the body back to its equilibrium position.

2. Damping Force (FD): The damping force is in the opposite direction of

the velocity and is proportional to velocity.

3. Inertial Force (FI): Each moving particle has inertia force which is
proportional to its acceleration.
Equation of Motion (cont.):
The force of inertia balances the restoring and the damping force, i.e.,

Here, b = damping constant, r = b/2m = damping coefficient

k
= = angular frequency of the undamped oscillator.
m
Solution for the Equation of Motion:

Let the solution is of the form

Therefore,

Hence the solution is,

A1 and A2 are arbitrary constants.

 Various Scenarios of Damping

Depending on the relationship between r and ω, three

different cases arise. We shall discuss them with
examples in the next class.

Lets check what we are supposed to see before we do the maths.

 r2 > ω2 (overdamping)

The mass does not oscillate.

r = 0 (Undamped SHO)
It gradually approaches the
equilibrium

r2 = ω2 (critical damping)
The mass does not oscillate.
r2 < ω2 (underdamping)
But it returns to the equilibrium in
The mass does oscillate, but with a reduced
frequency. fastest possible time

Animation courtesy - Harald Pleym, Telemark College, Norway

Summary:

• We have discussed about damped oscillation.

• We have derived the equation of motion for a damped
harmonic oscillator.
• We have also solved the second order differential
equation of motion.

Next Class:
• Depending on the relationship between r and ω, three
different cases arise. We shall see mathematically how
to arrive at different cases of damping with examples.
• We shall also discuss about energy decay due to
damping
 Last Class Summary

We have chosen a spring-mass system where a body of mass ‘m’

attached to one end of a spring with spring const (k). A rod attached
to the mass carries a disk moving in a fluid-filled cylinder. The fluid
provides the damping force.

Equation of Motion:

Solution:

The amplitude decay is decided by the damping coefficient r

 Three different cases:
1. Case I: r > ω (Overdamping).

2. Case II: r = ω (Critical damping).

3. Case III: r < ω (Underdamping).

Displacement vs time for three different cases.

Case I : r > ω (Overdamped Oscillation):

When is real and less than r.

Therefore, are both negative.

The second term dies out more quickly than the first one. The displacement is mainly
governed by the first term.

➢ The displacement decays

exponentially to zero
r > ω (overdamping)
➢ The system gradually reaches
the equilibrium
➢ The motion is no more
Oscillatory

Application- Overdamping is typically used in door dampers as the system

goes to equilibrium (without overshooting it) in a relatively longer time.
 Case II : r = ω (Critically damped Oscillation):

When r =ω ⇒ r2=ω2 ⇒r2−ω2= 0, then we will just have one single

solution! What happened to the other solution? Therefore, we shall
consider √(r2−ω2)=h→0, i.e.,h is very small quantity. Hence the
solution is of the form,

You can arrive at the same solution when you learn about solving differential equations
Critical damping (Contd.) (r = ω)

Initially, for small t, the (p+qt) will dominate.

But with further increase in t, e−rt will dominate.
Hence the nature of the curve is exponentially decaying.

➢ The displacement decays

exponentially to zero r = ω (critical damping)

➢ The system reaches the The mass does not oscillate.

But it returns to the equilibrium in
equilibrium in a very short time fastest possible time
➢ The motion is no more Oscillatory

Examples: Suspension of car.

Critically damping vs Overdamping

r = ω (critical damping)
r > ω (overdamping)
The mass does not oscillate.
The mass does not oscillate. But it returns to the equilibrium in
It gradually approaches the fastest possible time
equilibrium
Case III : r < ω (Underdamped Oscillation):

Hence the solution is

Underdamping Contd. (r < ω)

The system is oscillatory with a new angular

frequency  2 − r 2
In the above solution, ae-rt is the amplitude term
which is exponentially decaying. This is called as
Amplitude decay for underdamped oscillation.

is the angular frequency for

underdamped oscillation. The oscillation
frequency is lower than that of the undamped
oscillation and decided by damping coefficent.

In the absence of damping, i.e. r=0 the solution is

same as that of the undamped oscillation.
 r = 0 (Undamped SHO)

The mass does oscillate, but with a slightly

reduced frequency.

r < ω (underdamping)
 Energy Decay
Energy of oscillation α Amplitude2

For underdamped oscillation,

Amplitude = ae-rt
Hence, Energy (E) is given by,
=> E α a2e-2rt
=> E = E0e-2rt

This is energy decay relation.

 Logarithmic Decrement (δ)
It is the natural log of the ratio of two successive
amplitude and is given by,
 Relaxation Time (τ)
It is the time taken for the energy to decay to 1/e
times of its original value.
 Quality factor (Q)
Q = No of complete cycles during the time the energy decays by a
factor of 1/e.

We know: Time taken for energy to decay by 1/e is the relaxation time
().

Q essentially measures how many radians the oscillator goes around in time .

Since, # angular oscillation (in radian) per unit time = ω

# oscillation (in radian) in time  = ω

Therefore, 𝑚
𝑄 = 𝜔𝜏 = 𝜔
𝑏
1
𝑄 ∝
𝑏
The Q factor is a measure of the “quality” of an oscillator (such as a bell or a
tuning fork): how long will it keep ringing once you hit it?
 Summary:
➢ We have discussed three different types of
damped oscillations with example.
➢ We have discussed amplitude decay, energy
decay, logarithmic decrement, and relaxation
time associated with underdamped oscillation.

Next Class:
❑ In case of damped oscillation, the amplitude
decreases with time. But what happens when we
provide constant force from outside to keep
the amplitude constant.
❑ This is the case of Forced Oscillator, which we
shall discuss in next class.
 Recap- Damped Oscillations

Underdamped

• Damped system: System stops oscillating because the mechanical energy is dissipated by friction/viscous drag
etc
• Overdamped: Damping is very large (speed approaches zero as the object approaches the equilibrium position).
• Underdamped: Damping is very small (system oscillates with a amplitude that decreases slowly with time)
Example: child on a playground swing when a parent stops providing a push each cycle.
• Critically damped: Motion with the minimum damping for non-oscillatory motion.
 Damping
Damping in an oscillating system causes
(a) the amplitude, and
(b) the energy of the system to decrease
(c) the frequency, to reduce slightly.

To enable an oscillating system to go on

continuously, an external force must be applied to
the system.

The external force supplies energy to the system.

Such a motion is called a Forced or Driven Oscillation.
 Forced Oscillation Examples

❑ A swing in a park where the moving swing is

periodically tapped by a person standing next to
the swing. However, the moving swing without
periodic “tap” may be considered as a “DHO”.
❑ Similarly, an RLC circuit as shown in the
diagram can be considered as an example of a
driven oscillator. [You will learn it in your BEE
course]

https://encrypted-
tbn0.gstatic.com/images?q=tbn%3AANd9GcSwJ_cVqzy91PiUh
0p9dadCtKFQfj8nF7Ig_g&usqp=CAU
 From damped to driven oscillations

Door Damper

Picture courtesy: http://www.physics.louisville.edu/cldavis/phys298/notes/resonance.

 Driving Force & forced/driven oscillation
❑ In addition to a damping force which is a function of velocity (v)
Fd = -bv, b & here b is a positive constant.

❑ A driving force is needed which is a periodic external force acting on

the oscillator (e.g. a regular tapping during the motion of the swing)

❑ Typically for weak damping case the damping effect dies out quickly
with time & the the frequency of the
periodic external force.

We will assume the damping force Fd = -bv , where ‘b’ is a positive constant
called the “damping constant” & a periodic external force F = F0 sinpt
 Equation of Motion of Forced oscillation
Let x be the instantaneous displacement at time t, then various forces
acting on the body under driven condition are:

1. Restoring Force (FR): This acts opposite to the displacement and tries
to bring the body back to its equilibrium position.

2. Damping Force (FD): The damping force is in the opposite direction of

the velocity and is proportional to velocity.

3. Inertial Force (FI): Each moving particle has inertia force which is
proportional to its acceleration.

4. External Force (FI): A periodic external force that drives the oscillation.
F = F0 sin pt
Equation of Motion (cont.):
The force of inertia along with the external periodic force balances the
restoring and the damping force, i.e.,
FI = FR + FD + F0 sin pt

d 2x dx
 m 2 = −b − kx + F0 sin pt
dt dt

d 2x b dx k F
 2 =− − x + 0 sin pt
dt m dt m m

d 2x dx F0
 2 + 2r +  x = f 0 sin pt , where f 0 =
2

dt dt m

Second order differential equation of motion for forced harmonic oscillator (FHO)

Here, b = damping constant, r = b/2m = damping coefficient

k = angular frequency of the undamped oscillator.
=
m
 Solution for the Equation of Motion:
d 2x dx
2
+ 2 r +  2
x = f 0 sin pt
dt dt
Let the general solution be x(t) = xC(t) + xP(t)

Let's find the complementary solution, xC(t) for an underdamped oscillator.

For a weak-damped driven osccilator, we can start with

d 2x dx
2
+ 2 r +  2
x=0
dt dt
Solution to an underdamped
 xc (t ) = A0e − rt
sin(1t +  ) oscillator with frequency
1 =  2 − r 2

At sufficiently long time i.e. t >>1/1, xC(t) vanishes, and the general solution
reduces to a steady-state solution given by particular integral (xP(t)). We will be
interested in this steady-state solution.
 Particular integral or steady state behavior
Here the external force plays a key role, We seek a solution (trial) as shown below with the
same frequency but a different phase to that of the driving force (F0 sin pt).

x = x p (t ) = A sin( pt −  )
With unknown A & , which we have to determine so that this is a solution to the inhomogeneous equation
dx
 = pA cos( pt −  )
dt
d 2x
 2 = − p 2 A sin( pt −  )
dt
d 2x dx
Using the above in the differential equation for FHO 2
+ 2 r +  2
x = f 0 sin pt
dt dt

 − p 2 A sin( pt −  ) + 2 prA cos( pt −  ) +  2 A sin( pt −  ) = f 0 sin pt

 − p 2 A sin( pt −  ) + 2 prA cos( pt −  ) +  2 A sin( pt −  ) = f 0 sin[( pt −  ) +  ]

 Particular integral or steady state behavior, contd..

Expanding all the sine and cosine terms, and comparing the coefficients of sine and cosine terms one can
easily obtain,
𝐴 𝜔2 − 𝑝2 = 𝑓0 cos 𝜃 2𝑟𝑝𝐴 = 𝑓0 sin 𝜃

f 0 =  f 0 cos   +  f 0 sin  
2 2 2

 f 0 2 = A2 {( 2 − p 2 ) 2 + 4 p 2 r 2 }
f0
 A=
( 2 − p 2 ) 2 + 4 p 2 r 2
Thus, the amplitude of forced/driven oscillations is therefore a function of the natural angular frequency of oscillation
ω, the damping coefficient, r and the frequency ‘p’ of the external force, p.

is given as a tangent of the angle

The general Solution for the Equation of Motion:

f0
Now, x p (t ) = sin( pt −  )
( − p ) + 4 p r
2 2 2 2 2

 x(t ) = x p (t ) + xc (t )
 f0 
 sin( pt −  ) +Ce sin(1t +  )
− rt
 x(t ) = 
 ( 2
− p 2 2
) + 4 p 2 2
r 

Steady-state solution
 f0 
x(t ) =   sin( pt −  )
 ( − p ) + 4 p r 
2 2 2 2 2
 Steady-state solution

f0
x(t ) = A sin( pt −  ), where A = is the Amplitude
( − p ) + 4 p r
2 2 2 2 2

❑ We have met a number of frequencies in this discussion, so it might be

helpful to list them in one place to help keep them straight.
 = k / m = natural frequency of undamped oscillator
1 =  2 − r 2 = frequency of damped oscillator
p = frequency of driving force

❑ To find out the maximum amplitude of a particular driven oscillator, just let
p ~  in f o2
2
A = .
( 2
−p )
2 2
+ 4r p
2 2

fo
i.e. Amax = .
2r 
❑ From this you can see that the amplitude goes as r−1.
 Summary:

• We have discussed Forced oscillation (i.e a DHO with an

external periodic force).
• We have derived the equation of motion for a Forced harmonic
oscillator (FHO).
• We have also solved the second order inhomogeneous
differential equation of FHO to find the Steady State Solution.

Next Class:
• We shall discuss about Resonance phenomena with
examples.
• We shall see mathematically how to arrive at
conditions of Amplitude resonance with different cases
of damping.
 Quick re-cap of FHO

• We have discussed Forced oscillation (i.e a DHO with an

external periodic force).
• We have derived the equation of motion for a Forced harmonic
oscillator (FHO).
• We have also solved the second order inhomogeneous
differential equation of FHO to find the Steady State Solution.

This Class:
• We shall discuss about Resonance phenomena with
examples.
• We shall see mathematically how to arrive at
conditions of Amplitude resonance with different cases
of damping.
 Recap – Last Class
Forced Harmonic Oscillator r=
b
;  =
k
2m m
k F0 sin (pt)
m d 2x dx
m 2 + 2r + kx = F0 sin( pt )
b dt dt

General f0  2rp 
Solution: x(t ) = xc (t ) + sin( pt −  )  = tan −1 
  2
− p 2 

.
( − p ) + 4 p r
2 2 2 2 2

General solution of associated

homogeneous equation
(Transient Term)
Particular solution of
(Decays to zero as t → )
inhomogeneous equation
(Steady State Term)
 Recap – Last Class
In special case of underdamped oscillation (r < )
 f0 
x(t ) = Ce − rt
sin(1t +  ) +   sin( pt −  )
 ( − p ) + 4 p r 
2 2 2 2 2

 2rp 
 = tan −1  2 
Transient Term Steady State Term  − p 
2

= k
m
→ Natural frequency of free oscillation

1 =  2 − r 2 → Frequency of damped oscillation

p → Frequency of external driving force

Conclusion: Given enough time, oscillation associated with natural frequency (i.e.,  ,1) dies out
and the system oscillates with frequency of external force (i.e., p).
 Steady State Solution
f0
x(t ) = sin( pt −  )
( − p ) + 4 p r
2 2 2 2 2

f0
x(t ) = A sin( pt −  ), A = (Amplitude for a driven/forced oscillator)
( − p ) + 4 p r
2 2 2 2 2

 2rp  (Phase constant for a driven oscillator)

 = tan −1  2 
  2
− p 
• The displacement and the driving force oscillate with the same frequency, but they differ in
phase by . When the driving frequency p approaches zero,  approaches zero.
• When  = p,  =90o, and when p is much greater than ,  approaches 180o. The phase of
a driven oscillator always lags behind the phase of the driving force.
• The velocity of the object in the steady state is dx
V= = pA cos( pt −  )
dt
dx
For  = p (i.e.  =90o), V| = = pA cos( pt − 90) = pA sin pt
p = dt
 Resonance f o2
❑ When the frequency of the driving force is near the natural frequency ( p ~ A2 = .
) an increase in amplitude occurs. This dramatic increase in the amplitude ( 2
−p )
2 2
+ 4r p
2 2

is called resonance

❑ The amplitude expression is interesting, because it says that as you drive a A2

system at frequency p, its amplitude depends on both how far off you are
from the resonant frequency , and also on how big the damping is.

❑ If there is no damping at all (bit unrealistic), and you drive the system at p
( )
2
the resonant frequency, then both terms  2 − p 2 = 0 and 4r 2 p 2 = 0.

❑ In this case, the amplitude goes to infinity! The way to think about this is
that the driving force pumps energy into the oscillator (like pushing a child
on a swing), and if there is no dissipation, there is no loss of energy and
the energy grows to become infinite.

❑ If you tune the driver frequency (variable p ) for a given oscillator (fixed ),
what is the value of  for which A2 is maximum? This is condition for
Amplitude Resonance.
f = 0.4f0 f = 1.1f0 f = 1.6f0

natural freq. = f0
 Condition for Amplitude Resonance
fo
A =
(  2 − p 2 ) + 4r 2 p 2
2

❑ Amplitude of the driven oscillator is maximum when the denominator is a minimum

d
( 2 − p 2 ) 2 + 4 p 2 r 2 = 0
dp
 p =  2 − 2r 2

❑ When ω ≈ p, the amplitude becomes maximum,

and this condition is known as Amplitude resonance. At resonance,
f0
 A = A max =
2 rp
❑ Thus, the amplitude (at resonance) goes as r -1

❑ Smaller the r, the .

❑ In principle for r = 0, A= ∞, though it is practically unattainable.

 Resonance, contd.
• Resonance (maximum peak in amplitude, velocity, power
etc) occurs when driving frequency is nearly equal to the
natural frequency
• The amplitude increases with decreased damping
• The curve broadens as the damping increases
• The shape of the resonance curve depends on damping
constant b

• Amplitude & energy of oscillator decreases rapidly as the

frequency increases orr decreases from either side of the
resonant frequency (ωR).
• The rate of decrease of amplitude/energy on either side of
resonant frequency defines the sharpness of resonance
•Smaller the r, or weaker damping, sharper is the
resonance & larger the damping flatter is the resonance.
 Applications of Resonance

The loudness of music produced by musical instruments such as the trumpet and flute
is the result of resonance in the air.
 Applications of Resonance
• Electricity, tuning a radio
– The natural frequency of the radio circuit is made
equal to the incoming electromagnetic wave by
changing its capacitance
– The electrons in the circuit will oscillate with the
incoming electromagnetic wave.
– The electric current will oscillate and this can be
turned into sound, through a speaker
 Applications of Resonance
• Quartz Oscillators
-A quartz feels a force if placed in an electric field and will oscillate
when removed.
-Appropriate electronics are added to generate an oscillating voltage
from the mechanical movements of the crystal and this is used to
drive the crystal at its own natural frequency.
-These devices provide accurate clocks for microprocessor systems.
 Resonance Effects
• A Driving force at resonance increases the
oscillations, sometimes this is unwanted
• Structures
– Tacoma Narrows bridge, this bridge was
destroyed as the wind (driving force) was at the
same as the natural frequency. The bridge
vibrated and shook itself apart

ON NOVEMBER 7, 1940, THE ACCLAIMED TACOMA

NARROWS BRIDGE COLLAPSED DUE TO
OVERWHELMING RESONANCE.
 Resonance Effects

Cracking of wine glass

 Applications of Resonance
An additional unwanted resonance would be
– Tower blocks, the same effect as the bridge the wind,
or earthquakes, can cause vibrations to destroy the
buildings
– Vibrations in machinery, if the driving force equals
the natural frequency the amplitude may get
dangerously high. Ex. At a particular speed in a
truck’s rear view mirror can be seen to vibrate
This can be stopped by designing the building with
heavy damping
– High stiffness
– Large mass
– Shape
– Good at absorbing energy
Summary:

• We have discussed about amplitude variation in forced

oscillation as a function of frequency.
• We have derived the expressions for different cases
depending on r, p and ω.
• We observed the maximum amplitude for FHO when the
frequency of FO is nearly same as that of the driving force

Next Class:
• We shall also obtain bandwidth of resonance.
• We will then discuss the sharpness of resonance and
the Q-factor.
 Recap-Steady State Solution
f0 k F0 sin (pt)
x(t ) = sin( pt −  ) m
( − p ) + 4 p r
2 2 2 2 2

b
f0
x(t ) = A sin( pt −  ), A=
(Amplitude for a driven/forced
( 2 − p 2 ) 2 + 4 p 2 r 2
oscillator)
 2rp  (Phase constant for a driven oscillator)
 = tan −1  2 
 − p 
2

• The displacement (x) and the driving force (F) oscillate with the same frequency, but differ in
phase by .
– When the driving frequency p approaches zero,  approaches zero.
p = , 90o, and p >> ,  ~ 180o. The phase of a driven oscillator always lags behind the
phase of the driving force.
• The velocity of the object in the steady state is
dx
For  = p (i.e.  =90o), V | p = = = pA cos( pt − 90) = pA sin pt
dt
 More on Resonance: The Phase
f0
A=
• The peak of the amplitude occurs at a frequency p =R, ( 2 − p 2 ) 2 + 4 p 2 r 2
such that R ≈ &R ≠. The oscillator amplitude (A)
falls on either side of the peak @R; the driving force (F)
oscillate with the same frequency, but A & F differ in phase
by .
• The phase of a driven oscillator,  always lags behind the
phase of the driving force. p
• At resonance (i.e.  ~ p):

– Phase shift  =90o   = tan −1 
 2rp 
2 
 − p 
2
– The applied force is in phase with the velocity
– The driving force pushes the mass in the direction it is already
moving adding energy to the system.
– As object is moving in the direction of the driving force, the
power transferred to the oscillator is a maximum.
 Quality Factor (Q)
Instead of using r = b/2m and 𝜔 = 𝑘Τ𝑚, it is convenient to describe
the shape of the resonance curve using the variables 𝜔 and Q = 𝜔 /2r .
• Q = 𝜔 /2r is called the “quality factor”.
• Written in terms 𝜔 & Q , the amplitude (A) is

F0 m
A=
( 2 − p 2 ) 2 + 4 p 2 r 2
F0 m
 A=
( 2 − p 2 ) 2 + ( p) 2 Q 2
F0  p
 A=
k  p  1
2

− +
 p   Q2
 
 Quality Factor (Q)

F0  p
A( ) =
k  p 
2
1
 p −   + Q2
 

Why is this a convenient form?

❑Dimensionless quantities are easier to analyze
❑The scale of the amplitude is determined by F0/k
𝑝
❑The shape of the curve is determined by the dimensionless quantities &Q
𝜔
 Quality Factor (Q)
F0  p
A( ) =
k  p 
2
1
− +
 p   Q2
 

𝑝/𝜔
➢ The normalized height is approximately Q
𝑝
➢ The maximum occurs when ≈ 1
𝜔
➢ At resonance, the motion is amplified by the factor Q.
 Energy/Power
❑ An oscillator stores energy
❑ The driving force adds energy to the system
❑ The damping force dissipates energy
❑ Instantaneous rate at which energy is added:
dw dx
P= =F ,
dt dt
x(t ) = A sin( pt −  )
F (t ) = F0 sin( pt )
dx
= pA cos( pt −  )
dt
P = F0 pA sin( pt ) cos( pt −  )
T
1
Pav =  F0 pA sin( pt ) cos( pt −  )dt
T 0
1 1 2rpmA b
 Pav = F0 Ap sin  = bA2 p 2 , where sin  = , r=
2 2 F0 2m

Maximal when  = /2

 Average power & power dissipation in forced oscillation
▪ The steady state condition in a FHO is achieved at the expnse of the energy absorbed
from the driving force which is utilized in overcoming the effect of damping.
▪ The given by the external force in each cycle is:

F0 Ap 1
Pav = sin  = bA2 p 2
2 2

▪ In a cycle of driven oscillation, power supplied by the driving force is not stored rather
dissipated via work done against damping force. Thus the average power disspated
across a cycle is
dx dx dx
dPdissipated = Fd = (b )
dt dt dt
T
1 dx 2 1 2 2
 Pdissipated =  dPdissipated =  b( ) dt = bA p
T 0 dt 2
 Power Resonance Shape
Pav ( ) Pav ( ) 1 1
=
( F02 2k ) ( F02 2k ) Q   − p 2 + 1
 p   Q2
 

𝑝/𝜔
 b
Bandwidth (FWHM) =  = = 2r =
Q m
Average power & power dissipation in a cycle in forced oscillation
1 2 2
 P
 The average power, Pav absorbed or dissipated in a cycle in the FHO, is thus av = Pdissipated = bA p
2
1
 ( Pav ) max = bAmax p 2
2

2
 The maximum absorbed power can be given as F0 F
 Amax = = 0
2 prm bp
2 2 2
F F mf
 ( Pav ) max = 0 = 0  ( Pav ) max = 0
2b 4brm 4r

 The power thus depends on A2 . A graph plotted between average power and frequency of driving force, p is
called as the absorption curve, which follows a similar pattern as amplitude of FHO.
 The power is maximum at the resonant frequency i.e. when p ≈ ω
 Average power falls on either side of the resonant frequency, (ωR), & the sharpness of the absorption curve is
decided from the frequency range over which the Pav falls to half of its peak value.
 “2r” is the bandwidth (FWHM) of frequency range over which the average power falls to half the peak value on
either side of the resonant frequency, (ωR), & represents the sharpness of the absorption curve.
 Quality Factor (Q)
❑ Quality factor, or Q, which is a measure of sharpness of
resonance can be defined in terms of absorption band width A
as, high Q
 
Q= =
2 − 1 2r
m
Q=
b

❑ Weaker the damping better the Q-value & higher would be

the energy transfer/resonance. low Q

❑ A pendulum has a Q-value of ~100, where as for the seismic

wave during earth quake, the Q ~1000. For a quartz clock, Q
 p
may reach 10000.
 Summary: Resonance Curves

General properties:
❑ Amplitude at resonance: Static displacement x Q
❑ FWHM power bandwidth: 2r = Q/ 𝜔
❑ When Q is large, a small force at the resonant frequency produces large
oscillations
❑ Large amplitudes persist only when the driving force is near the
oscillation frequency
Coupled Oscillations
 Coupled Oscillations
❑ Isolated oscillators rarely exist in reality.

❑ Nearly all oscillating systems have more than one component which are interconnected. If any part of
the coupled system is set into vibrations, its vibration energy is transmitted to other parts because of
their coupling.

❑ The vibration of such a system depends on the components and the manner in which these
components are coupled to one another.

❑ Oscillation of a multi component system is Coupled oscillation.

❑ A coupled system oscillates in different modes, and the frequencies of different modes of vibration of
the system depend on the properties of the individual oscillators as well as the manner and strength
of their coupling with other parts.
 Coupled Oscillations: Some Examples
❑ Two pendulums connected by a light spring
❑ Two oscillatory electrical circuits coupled inductively through mutual
inductance.
❑ Atoms and ions in molecules or in solids
❑ Continuous systems such as vibrating strings and membranes
❑ Acoustic and electric cavity oscillators
❑ & many more
 Two Masses and Three Springs
❑ We covered oscillations, but here we add complexity by considering a system with two
oscillators coupled together. The coupling can be strong or weak.

k1 k k1
m m

k1 k k1
m m

x1 x2
equilibrium equilibrium

❑ The equilibrium positions of the two masses are shown by the vertical lines, and we will use
coordinates x1 and x2 relative to those.

❑ We will limit the discussion to oscillators obeying Hooke’s Law, and without friction. It is a
special case, but one with a wide application.

❑ we want to obtain the equations of motion for the two masses.

 Equation of Motion
k1 k k1
m m

x1 x2
equilibrium equilibrium

The forces on m (left side) are k1x1 to the left, and k(x2 −x1) to the right, so its equation of
motion is
d 2 x1
m 2 = −k1 x1 − k ( x1 − x2 ) − − − −(1)
dt

Likewise: The forces on m (right side) are k1x2 to the left, and k(x2 −x1) to the left, so its
equation of motion is
d 2 x2
m 2 = −k1 x2 − k ( x2 − x1 ) − − − −(2)
dt
 EOM Contd.
The two coupled equations of motion:

d 2 x1 d 2 x2
m 2 = −k1 x1 − k ( x1 − x2 ) − − − −(1) m 2 = −k1 x2 − k ( x2 − x1 ) − − − −(2)
dt dt
❑ Note also that if the coupling spring, k = 0, then the two equations become uncoupled and
describe two separate oscillators.

❑ but you can imagine that we might have more than one frequency of oscillation,  = k1 / m ,
since we have two ms and 3 ks.

❑ Let’s try the solutions

k1 k k1
m m

x1 x2
equilibrium equilibrium
 EOM Contd.
d 2 x1
m 2 = −k1 x1 − k ( x1 − x2 ) − − − −(1)
dt
d 2 x1 k1 k
2
+ x1 + ( x1 − x2 ) = 0
dt m m
d 2 x1 k k1
 +  2
x
1 1 + ( x1 − x2 ) = 0 − − − − (1i ), where 1
2
=
dt 2 m m

d 2 x2
m 2 = −k1 x2 − k ( x2 − x1 ) − − − −(2)
dt
d 2 x2 k1 k
2
+ x2 + ( x2 − x1 ) = 0
dt m m
d 2 x2 k k1
 +  2
1 2x + ( x2 − x1 ) = 0 − − − − (2i ), where 1
2
=
dt 2 m m
The pair of equations (1i) and (2i) involve both variables ‘x1’ and ‘x2’ and hence are
called as coupled equations.
 EOM Contd.
d 2 x1 k d 2 x2
2
+  2
1 1x + ( x1 − x2 ) = 0 − −(1i) 2
+  2
1 2x +
k
( x2 − x1 ) = 0 − (2i)
dt m dt m
Adding (1i) and (2i):
d 2 ( x1 + x2 )
2
+ 1 ( x1 + x2 ) = 0 − − − − − (4)
2

dt
And subtracting (1i) and (2i):
d ( x1 − x2 )
2
2k
2
+  1
2
( x1 − x2 ) + ( x1 − x2 ) = 0
dt m
d 2 ( x1 − x2 ) 2k
 + {  1
2
+ }( x1 − x2 ) = 0 − − − −(5)
dt 2 m

Let us introduce two new variables given by Q1 = x1 + x2 and Q2 = x1 − x2

d 2Q1 d 2Q2
2
+ 1
2
Q1 = 0 − − − − − (6) 2
+ 2 Q2 = 0 − − − −(7)
2
dt dt
2k k1 2k
where 2 2 = 12 + = + − − − −(8)
m m m
 Normal Coordinates
2
d 2Q1 d Q2
+  Q2 = 0 − − − −(7)

2
+ = − − − − −
2
2 1 Q1 0 ( 6) 2 2
dt dt
k 2k k1 2k
where 12 = 1 , 2 2 = 12 + = +
m m m m

❑ The equations of motion (6) and (7) expressed in terms of new coordinates Q1 & Q2 and
are decoupled and each equation describes oscillation of a simple harmonic oscillator.
❑ The coordinates Q1 & Q2 are called as the normal coordinates of the coupled System
(Independent coordinates with which the Coupled system is described after decoupling the
differential equation of Motions)
❑ The normal coordinates are linear combinations of original variables (‘x1’ and ‘x2’ here). The
oscillations described in terms of the normal coordinates are independent and are called as
“normal modes of oscillation”.
❑ Normal Mode Frequencies: The corresponding angular frequencies of oscillation to each
normal coordinates are
k1 k1 2k
1 = and 2 = +
m m m
 Normal Modes
❑ With suitable choice of the initial conditions, it is always possible to describe the
oscillation of the coupled oscillator in terms of only one normal coordinate. The system
oscillates with corresponding normal mode frequency.

❑ If the system is initially disturbed in such a way that only one normal mode is excited, the
system continues to oscillate in that mode and no other mode is excited (Since the
different modes are decoupled).

❑ However, if the system is initially disturbed in an arbitrary manner, the general oscillation
will be a linear combination of different normal modes of oscillation. [More on this later]
 Q1 Normal Mode [x1 = x2]
❑ The motion is shown in the figure below. Notice that the spring between the
two masses does not stretch or contract at all.
k1 k k1
m m

x1 x2 = x1
equilibrium equilibrium

❑ When we plot the motion, it looks like this (identical motions, in phase).

x1 (t ) = A1 cos(1t −  )
[first normal mode].
x2 (t ) = A1 cos(1t −  )
 Q2 Normal Mode [x1 = -x2]
❑ The motion is shown in the figure below. Notice that the spring between the
two masses stretches and contracts, contributing to the higher force, and
hence, higher frequency.
k1 k k1
m m

x1 x2 = - x1

❑ When we plot the motion, it looks like this (identical motions, out of phase,
but at a higher frequency 2).

x1 (t ) = A2 cos(2t −  )
[2nd normal mode].
x2 (t ) = − A2 cos(2t −  )
 General Motion
❑ It is important to realize that, although these are the only two normal modes
for the oscillation, the general oscillation is a combination of these two
modes, with possibly different amplitudes and phases depending on initial
conditions.
1 1
x(t ) = A1   cos(1t − 1 ) + A2   cos(2 t −  2 ).
1  −1

❑ The resulting motion is surprisingly complicated, but deterministic. Because

2 = 31
is an irrational ratio, the motion never repeats itself, except in the case that
either A1 or A2 = 0.

Motion for
A1 = 1, 1 = 0
A2 = 0.7, 2 = p/2
 Normal Coordinates
❑ If the motion seems complicated, you should realize that there is an
underlying simplicity that is masked by our choice of coordinates. We can
just as easily choose for our coordinates the so-called normal coordinates
Q1 = x1 + x2
Q2 = x1 − x2
❑ Using these coordinates, as you can easily check, the two normal modes are
no longer mixed, but instead we have:
Q1 (t ) = A cos(1t −  ) 
. [first normal mode]
Q2 (t ) = 0 

Q1 (t ) = 0 
. [second normal mode]
Q2 (t ) = A cos(2t −  ) 
 Normal Coordinates
The significance of choosing Q1 and Q2 to describe the motion is that these parameters give a very
simple illustration of normal coordinates.
❑ Normal coordinates are coordinates in which the equations of motion take the form of a set of
linear differential equations with constant coefficients in which each equation contains only
one dependent variable (our simple harmonic equations in Q1 and Q2).
❑ A vibration involving only one dependent variable Q1 (or Q2) is called a normal mode of
vibration and has its own normal frequency. In such a normal mode all components of the
system oscillate with the same normal frequency.
❑ The importance of the normal modes of vibration is that they are entirely independent of each
other. The energy associated with a normal mode is never exchanged with another mode;
this is why we can add the energies of the separate modes to give the total energy. If only one
mode vibrates the second mode of our system will always be at rest, acquiring no energy from
the vibrating mode.
❑ Each independent way by which a system may acquire energy is called a degree of freedom
to which is assigned its own particular normal coordinate. The number of such different ways in
which the system can take up energy defines its number of degrees of freedom and its number
of normal coordinates.
 Coupled Oscillation:

• Isolated oscillators rarely exist in reality.

• Nearly all oscillating systems have more than one component which are
interconnected.
• If any part of the coupled system is set into vibrations, its vibration energy is
transmitted to other parts because of their coupling.
• The vibration of such a system depends on the components and the manner
in which these components are coupled to one another.
• Oscillation of a multi component system is Coupled oscillation.
• A coupled system oscillates in different modes, and the frequencies of different
modes of vibration of the system depend on the properties of the individual
parts as well as the manner and strength of their coupling with other parts.
 Coupled Oscillation:
Examples:
Oscillation of:
1. Two pendulums connected by a light spring
2. The prongs of a tuning fork
3. Two oscillatory electrical circuits coupled inductively through mutual inductance.
4. Atoms and ions in molecules or in solids
5. Continuous systems such as vibrating strings and membranes
6. Acoustic and electric cavity oscillators
Etc. etc
 Coupled Oscillation:
Coupled oscillation of a system of two pendulums
q Two identical pendulums ‘A’ and ‘B’ each having a bob
of mass ‘m’, suspended by rigid, weightless rod of length l
from a rigid support. The two pendulum bobs are l l
connected by a light spring of spring constant ‘k’.

q The normal length of the spring is equal to the distance

between the bobs, when they are in their equilibrium
positions. In this condition, the spring does not exert
m A m B
any force on the pendulum bobs.

q If the system is so disturbed that the bobs undergo

unequal displacements, the springs get either stretched
or compressed, depending upon the relative l
l
displacement of the bobs.

q Deformed spring exerts force on the bobs. The

pendulum bobs are set into oscillations in plane of
pendulum. A B
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=YyOUJUOUvso
 Coupled Oscillation:
Let at a given instant, the displacement of the
bobs are ‘x’ and ‘y’ respectively (in the same
direction).
Then the restoring force, due to spring, on
‘A’ and ‘B’ are:
FA1   k  x  y  and FB1   k  y  x 
respectively.
Along with these spring forces, gravitational
force is also acting on each mass. The components
of gravitational forces (adding with spring force to
Provide restoring force) on ‘A’ and ‘B’ are:
mgx (-ve sign because it acts against ‘x’) on ‘A’
 mg sin   
1
l
mgy
and  mg sin  2   on ‘B’ respectively.
l
So the differential equation of motion of pendulum ‘A’ and ‘B’ are:
2
d 2x mgx d y mgy
 k  y  x      ( 2)
m 2   k x  y     (1) and m 2
 
dt l dt l
respectively.
 Coupled Oscillation:
These two differential equations involve both coordinates ‘x’ and ‘y’. Hence these
are coupled equations.
The second terms on the R.H.S of eqns (1) and (2) arise due to coupling of two
pendulums by deformed spring. In absence of coupling (no deformation of spring),
eqns (1) and (2) reduce to the equation of motion of two independent simple
pendulums.
Equations (1) and (2) also can be written as:
d 2 x gx k
2
  x  y   0
dt l m
d 2x k
 2  1 x  x  y   0    (1i)
2

dt m
And
d 2 y gy k
2
   y  x  0
dt l m
d2y k
 2  1 y   y  x  0    (2i)
2

dt m
Where we have substituted: 2 g
1      (3)
l
 Coupled Oscillation:
The pair of equations (1i) and (2i) involve variables both ‘x’ and ‘y’ and hence are
called as coupled equations. They can be converted to a pair of decoupled equations
in terms of two new variables as follows:
Adding (1i) and (2i):
d 2 (x  y) 2
  1 ( x  y )  0      (4)
dt 2
And subtracting (1i) and (2i):
d 2 (x  y) 2 2k
2
  1 ( x  y )  (x  y)  0
dt m
d 2 (x  y) 2 2k
 2
 {  1  }( x  y )  0     ( 5 )
dt m
Let us introduce two new variables given by Q1  x  y and Q2  x  y
d 2 ( x  y ) d 2 Q1 d 2 ( x  y ) d 2 Q2
  and 
dt 2 dt 2 dt 2 dt 2

Then eqns (4) and (5) transforms:

d 2 Q1 2
2
  1 Q1  0      ( 6 )
dt
 Coupled Oscillation:
d 2Q 2 2
And: 2
  2 Q 2  0     (7 )
dt
2k g 2k
 2 2  1 2        (8 )
Where we have put m l m
The equations of motion (6) and (7) expressed in terms of new coordinates Q 1and Q2
are decoupled and each equation describes oscillation of a simple harmonic oscillator.
Normal Coordinates:
The coordinates Q 1 and Q2 are called as the normal coordinates of the coupled
System (Normal coordinates are the independent coordinates with which the
Coupled system is described after decoupling the differential equation of
Motions. These are the generalized coordinates describing Coupled Oscillation).
The normal coordinates are linear combinations of original variables (‘x’ and ‘y’
here).
The oscillations described in terms of the normal coordinates are independent
and are called as “normal modes of oscillation”.
Normal Mode Frequencies:
After describing the coupled oscillation in terms of normal coordinates Q 1 and Q2
the corresponding angular frequencies of oscillation to each normal coordinates Q 1
and Q2 are: g g 2k
1  and  2  
l l m
 Coupled Oscillation:
The corresponding frequencies:
1 1 g 2 1 g 2k
f1   and f2   
2 2 l 2 2 l m
are called the normal mode frequencies of the coupled oscillator.
With suitable choice of the initial conditions, it is always possible to describe the
oscillation of the coupled oscillator in terms of only one normal coordinate. The
system oscillates with corresponding normal mode frequency. The oscillation of the
coupled system in terms of each normal coordinate is called as “Normal mode
Of Oscillation”.
If the system is initially disturbed in such a way that only one normal mode is excited,
the system continues to oscillate in that mode and no other mode is excited (Since
the different modes are decoupled). However, if the system is initially disturbed
in an arbitrary manner, the general oscillation will be a linear combination of
different normal of oscillation.
Q1 mode:
If the initial conditions are chosen such that x = y, i.e. both pendulum bobs are
displaced by the same amount in the same direction, then Q 2  x  y  0 .
Thus only the Q 1 mode is excited and the equation of motion is described by
only one equation of motion (6). Since both the bobs have same displacement in
the same direction, the spring is always in the normal state and both the bobs
Oscillate with same amplitude, frequency and phase. This is called as in phase
mode of oscillation.

In “in phase mode of oscillation”, the spring does not play any role and the two
pendulum oscillate as if there is no coupling. The frequency of oscillation in this
case is same as that of any one independent oscillator.
 OSCILLATIONS
Q2 mode:

If the initial conditions are such that x = -y, i.e. the bobs are displaced by same amount
in opposite directions , then x+y = 0 and hence, Q 1  0 . So here only the Q2 mode is
excited and the oscillation is described by equation of motion (7). Then the angular

Frequency of oscillation becomes 2 (greater than the individual bob frequency).

In this case, bobs always vibrate in opposite phase. This is called as “out of phase
mode” of oscillation. As 2  1 , so the frequency of out of phase mode is greater
than frequency of in phase mode.
 Physics (PH 1007)

FRAUNHOFER’S DIFFRACTION AT A SINGLE SLIT

Department of Physics
School of Applied Sciences

Prepared by Dr. Sushant Kumar Sahoo

Edited by Dr. R. N. Mukherjee
FRAUNHOFER’S DIFFRACTION AT A SINGLE SLIT
Consider a narrow slit AB of width ‘e’ placed in front of a convex lens L1. S is a monochromatic
source of light of wavelength  placed at the principal focus of this lens. So that the rays after
passing through the lens are rendered parallel to its principal axis. Let MN is the incident plane
wave front of light. When this plane wave front of light is incident on the slit then every point on
this wave front lying on the plane of the slit acts as the origin of new disturbances according to
Huygens’s principle. As a result secondary waves are produced and these are diffracted in various
directions. The secondary waves which are diffracted in a direction normal to the plane of the slit
are parallel to each other. These diffracted waves converge to a point ‘O’ on the screen placed in
front of the slit using another convex lens L2. The screen is placed at the principal focus of this
lens.

Diagram courtesy:Textbook of Physics, ISBN-978-81-8487-638-3

Another set of waves which are diffracted making an angle ‘θ’ with the normal to the slit known
as angle of diffraction, they are also rendered parallel but not parallel with the principal axis of the
lens L2. So they are converged at any point ‘P’ on the screen as shown in the figure 3.8.
Theory of diffraction
Let’s assume a large number of secondary waves each having amplitude ‘a’ diffract in various
directions from the plane of the slit. These waves start with same phase but they may or may not
meet with same phase because of different optical paths travelled. The set of waves which travel
normal to the plane of the slit, start with same phase, travel equal optical paths and superpose in
phase at point ‘O’ on the screen producing resultant amplitude A  na .
Another set of waves which are diffracted in the direction ‘θ’, start with same phase but do not
superpose with same phase at any point ‘P’ on the screen because they travel different optical
paths. Let’s assume these secondary waves have phases which are in arithmetical progression
having common phase difference ‘ϕ’. Using the principle of superposition of waves, the resultant
amplitude at the point ‘P’ is given by,
sinn  2
Ra
sin 2
sin 
a (where   n 2 )
sin  n 
sin 
 na [ sin  n    n  as n is very large]

 sin 
A (3.6.1)

Since the intensity of light is proportional to the square of its amplitude, hence the
intensity at the point P is given by
I  R2
I  k R2
sin 2  sin 2 
I  A2  I0 (3.6.2)
2 2
where I 0  A 2 (assuming the proportionality constant k to be 1). The eq. (3.6.2) gives
the intensity distribution of light on the screen due to Fraunhofer class of diffraction at
a single slit.
The common phase difference ‘ϕ’ and the value of ‘  ’ can be calculated as given
below.
A perpendicular AK is drawn from the point A on the path BP as shown. BK is the
optical path difference between two secondary waves diverging from the points A and
B to meet at the point P. From the right angled triangle AKB,
BK  ABsin   e sin 

 2 
The corresponding phase difference    e sin  (3.6.3)
  
Since ‘n’ number of secondary waves are diverging from the plane of the slit, so the
common phase difference between any two consecutive waves is given by
1  2 
    e sin 
n  
Hence
n

2
 
    e sin  (3.6.4)

Condition for principal maximum (Central maximum)
The point ‘O’ on the screen is equidistant from the end points of the slit AB called the
central point, where the intensity of light is maximum ( I max ). According to the
equation for intensity given in eq. (3.6.2),
sin 2 
I  I0
2
I will be I max , when sin    1 for   0 .
i.e.
 
   e sin   0

sin   0
   00
i.e. the waves which are diffracted at an angle   00 produce maximum intensity at the
central point ‘O’ on the screen called central maximum or principal maximum.
Diffraction minima
Diffraction minima correspond to those regions on the screen where intensity of light
is zero ( I  0 ). Using eq. (3.6.2), I will be zero when sin   0     m , where
m  0 but m  1, 2, 3,          . This is because for m  0 , this leads to   0 ,
which corresponds to the condition for central maximum. Hence the condition for
diffraction minima is given by
   m
 
  e sin    m

e sin    m ( m  1, 2, 3,          ) (3.6.5)
Eq. (3.6.5) is the required condition for mth order diffraction minimum (  sign
indicates that minima are observed on either side of central maximum). ‘m’ gives the
order of diffraction minima. m  1, 2, 3,          correspond to 1st order, 2nd order,
        diffraction minima respectively.
Condition for secondary maxima
Other than principal maximum, there is a series of secondary maxima of gradually
decreasing intensity observed on the screen. The intensity of these secondary maxima
is calculated as given below. From eq. (3.6.2) the intensity distribution due to single
slit diffraction is given by
sin 2 
I  I0
2
Differentiating I with respect to  and equating to zero, we have
dI
0
d
sin    cos   sin  
2I0  0 (3.6.6)
  2 
Eq. (3.6.6) is satisfied for different values of ‘  ’. sin   0 corresponds to the
condition for central maximum as well as diffraction minima. So the only condition
for secondary maxima is given by the equation,
( cos   sin  )  0 ,
  tan  (3.6.7)
The values of  which will satisfy eq. (3.6.7) determine the condition for secondary
maxima. These can be obtained by plotting graphs, y   and y  tan  as shown in
the figure 3.9.
 Diagram courtesy:Textbook of Physics, ISBN-978-81-8487-638-3
(1) y   plot is a straight line graph passing through the origin, inclined at an angle
45º with either axes.
(2) To plot y  tan  , let us study the nature of the graph
(a) y  0  tan   0    0,   ,  2 ,       i.e. the curve will intersect the   axis
at points 0,   ,  2 ,       .
(b) The slope of the graph y  tan  is given by tan   dy d  sec 2  . For the
values of   0,   ,  2 ,       , tan   1    45 0 i.e. the slope of the tangents
drawn on the curve at the points 0,   ,  2 ,       are inclined 45º with   axis.
(c) y will be infinite when     2,  3 2 ,     , i.e. the plot
y  tan  represents a series of asymptotic curves, passing through the points
  0,   ,  2 ,       and tend to infinity, when  tends to   2,  3 2 , .
The intersections of the curves y   and y  tan  give the value of  for
secondary maxima which are indicated by dotted lines. The possible values of  are
closer to  3 2 ,  5 2 ,  7 2 ,  9 2 ,  .
Using eq. (3.6.2), one can calculate the intensities of principal maximum and other
secondary maxima.
For   0 , I  I 0 →intensity of principal maximum
For    3 2 , I  I1  I 0 4 9 2  → intensity of 1st secondary maximum
 
For    5 2 , I  I 2  I 0 4 25 2 → intensity of 2nd secondary maximum
For    7 2 , I  I 3 0  I 4 49  → intensity of 3rd secondary maximum
2

and so on. Hence the intensity of maxima in case of Fraunhofer single slit diffraction
is in the ratio
4 4 4
I0 : I0 : I : I 0 : 
9 2
25 2 0
49 2
4 4 4
i.e. 1 : 2 : : : 
9 25 49 2
2

i.e. 1 : 0.0459 : 0.0168 : 0.0083 : 

It is seen from the calculation that the intensity of secondary maxima decreases with
increase of order.
The distribution of intensity on the screen due to single slit diffraction is shown in the
figure 3.10.

Diagram courtesy:Textbook of Physics, ISBN-978-81-8487-638-3

As shown in the graph,   0 corresponds to the position of principal maximum.
    ,  2 ,  3 ,  correspond to the position of 1st,2nd,3rd,  diffraction
minima on either side of the central maximum.   3  2,  5 2 ,  7 2, 
correspond to the position of 1st, 2nd, 3rd,  secondary maxima respectively and so on.
(  sign indicate both diffraction minima and secondary maxima occur on either side
of principal maximum symmetrically)
Half angular width of central maximum
In case of single slit diffraction the central maximum spreads over certain region on
the screen. The separation between two first order minima on either side of the central
maximum is known as linear width (x) of central maximum. The angle of diffraction
(θ) for first order minimum is a measure of half angular width of central maximum
which can be calculated as given below.
As shown in the figure 3.11, M is the centre of the slit, O is the centre of the principal
maximum on the screen, P, P are the positions of 1st order minima on either side of
central maximum and D is the distance of separation between the slit and the screen.

Diagram courtesy:Textbook of Physics, ISBN-978-81-8487-638-3

In the right angled triangle OPM,
OP
tan     (for small value of  )
OM
x 2
 (3.6.8)
D
From the condition of 1st order minimum,
e sin   
e   (for small value of  )

 (3.6.9)
e
Eq. (3.6.9) gives the value of half angular width of central maximum. It is directly
proportional to the wavelength of light used and inversely proportional to slit width.
Angular width of central maximum is given by,
 2
2  (3.6.10)
e
Equating eq. (3.6.8) and (3.6.9),
x 2 

D e
2 D
x (3.6.11)
e
Eq. (3.6.11) is the expression for linear width of central maximum.
 Light Light

Shadow

Illumination

Shadow

Wide gap Screen Narrow gap Screen

Diffraction means bending of light around the corners of an obstacle, when size of the
obstacle is comparable to wavelength of light.
or
Diffraction means encroachment of light into the region of geometrical shadow of an
obstacle, when size of the obstacle is comparable to wavelength of light
 Fresnel Diffraction Fraunhoffer Diffraction

v Here both the source and v Here either the source or the
screen are at finite distance screen or both of them are at
from the obstacle infinite distance from the
screen
v No lens is used
v Here lens is used
v Incident wave fronts are either
spherical or cylindrical v Incident wave fronts are plane
 Interference Diffraction
v Interference fringes are formed due v Diffraction fringes are formed due to
to superposition of two or more superposition of secondary wavelets
waves from a coherent source. coming from the different points of
v The intensity of all the maxima the same wavefront.
remain same. v intensity of the maxima goes on
v The width of all the fringes may or decreasing as we go to higher orders.
may not be same. v The width of all the fringes are not
v The intensity distribution curve is the same.
given as v The intensity distribution curve is
given as
Magnetism- it’s everywhere!

1
 Michelson Interferometer

v Interferometer : the instrument is based upon

the principle of interference

v Michelson : American Physicist

v Michelson Interferometer : basic principle-

Interference due to division of amplitude

v Used for the precise measurement of

wavelength, refractive index, small distance etc.

Albert Abraham Michelson

(1852-1931)
Nobel Prize (1907 for his work in Optics)
Michelson Interferometer : Expt. Set up (Ray diagram)

M1
Fixed Mirror
M 2 Rear Side
Semi Silvered
Converging lens

45o 45o
M2
Movable Mirror
Source

G1 G2
Compensating
Beam Spliter glass plate

Observation
Screen
Michelson Interferometer : Set up (Schematic)

4
 Michelson Interferometer : Formation of Fringes

vMI is an amplitude splitting interferometer devised by Albert Michelson in 1890.

vIt consists of 2 highly polished mirrors M1 (Fixed) ans M2 (movable).

vTwo glass plates named G1 and G2 in the figure are placed parallel to each other
between the mirrors at an angle of 450 .

vThe rear side of glass plate G1 is semi silvered such that the light from a source is
equally reflected and transmitted by it. Hence this glass plate is known as beam
splitter.

vThe reflected part of light that travelled towards M1 is reflected normally from it
along the same path. Again it passes through glass plate G1 before it reaches eye.

vThe transmitted part of light from G1 passes through glass plate G2 and travels
towards mirror M2 which also reflects it normally along the same path. 5
 Michelson Interferometer : Formation of Fringes

vThe reflected light passes through G2 second time and is reflected from the lightly
silvered surface of glass plate G1. Then it reaches eye.
vThe purpose of glass plate G2 is to render the optical path in glass after divison of
oiginal light ray into two parts. Therefore, it is known as compensatory glass plate.
vFinally the two rays coming from the two mirrors interfere and fringes are
observed by eye.
vMirror M1 is mounted on a translation stage so that it can be moved back and
forth to observe the change in fringes.
vWe can vary the path difference between the two rays by moving mirror M1. M1
and the virtual image of M2 act as the two surfaces of an air film.
vThe fringes formed in MI may be circular, curved or straight depending on the
nature of the film.

6
 Michelson Interferometer : Shape of Fringes

# Fringes of equal inclination (concentric circular fringes)

Ø Concentric circular fringes are obtained when the air film between M1 and virtual
image of M2 are parallel.
Ø Maxima will be formed when 2dCosθ = nλ
Ø For a fixed value of n, λ and d, the value of θ is a constant, and the contour of the
maximum point becomes a ring.
Ø The centre of the ring is in line with the observer and perpendicular to the mirror
plane. Each circular ring corresponds to a particular value of θ. Hence the fringes
are known as fringes of equal inclination.
L

7
 Michelson Interferometer : Shape of Fringes

# Curved fringes (fringes of equal thickness)

Ø When M1 and virtual image of M2 are inclined to each other, the film enclosed is
wedge shaped. Then curved fringes can be observed as shown in figure. These are
also known as fringes of equal thickness.

#Straight line fringes

Ø When M1 and virtual image of mirror M2 intersect, straight line fringes are obtained
around the point of intersection.
Ø The path difference along the line of intersection is zero and therefore, is same for
all the wavelengths.

8
 Michelson Interferometer : Applications

vDetermination of wavelength of monochromatic light (We will do it in Physics Lab)

vDetermination of refractive index of thin transparent sheet

vResolution of spectral lines

vMI can also be used to determine the speed of light in different mediums

vMI and its modified versions are used in optical industries

and many more...

9
 Forced Harmonic Oscillation

Notes for

B.Tech Physics Course

(PH-1007)

2020-21

Department of Physics

School of Applied Sciences

Kalinga Institute of Industrial Technology

Bhubaneswar, India
 Forced Oscillation

Have you ever been on a swing, or helped someone swing by periodically tapping on the
moving swing? Have you noticed how a regular tap after each cycle keeps the motion on for
a long time without much effect on the amplitude? Also, the moment the periodic tapping is
stopped, the swing gradually slows down and eventually stops. We have already seen that
the presence of resistive forces reduces the amplitude of oscillation with time as energy is
dissipated. In fact, the only way of maintaining the amplitude of a damped oscillator is to
continuously feed energy into the system in such a manner so as to compensate the losses.
A steady (i.e., constant amplitude) oscillation of this type is called driven damped harmonic
oscillation. Consider the mass-spring system discussed in damped harmonic oscillator to
which we now apply a periodic force externally. We will soon see that when a periodic
external force is applied to an oscillating object, with time the natural oscillation frequency
and amplitude of the oscillating system dies out. Eventually, the system starts to oscillate with
the frequency of the applied force or the driving force.

1. Forced Harmonic Oscillation: an analytical treatment

Let us consider an oscillator (a simple mass spring system with some damping) of mass ‘m’
undergoing oscillation. In the absence of any damping factor, the equation of motion of the
oscillator as we know is given by,
d 2x
ma = −kx  a = 2 = − 2 x …………(1)
dt
where, ‘a’ is the acceleration, ‘x’ is the instantaneous displacement at any given instant, ‘k’

is the force constant, and ‘  = k

m ’ is the natural angular frequency of oscillation.

Let us now consider the same oscillator undergoing oscillatory motion in the presence of an
external periodic force (F= F0 sin 𝑝t). The equation of motion would now be changed to
incorporate the cumulative effects of periodic external applied force, damping and inertia of
motion. Let us look at the various forces acting on the oscillating system.
 i. Restoring Force: The oscillating mass would experience a restoring force
proportional to the displacement (x) of the system from its equilibrium position at
any given instant, such that
𝐹𝑅 = −𝑘 𝑥 ………(2)
ii. Damping Force: Assuming a velocity dependent damping force with a damping
constant ‘b’ is acting on the system, the damping force can be given as,
FD = – b v (b > 0) ………..(3)
iii. Driving force: Driving force is the external periodic force acting on the system i.e.,
F = F0 sin pt ….…. (4)

where ‘p’ is the frequency of external force acting on the oscillator.

iv. Force of Inertia: The resultant force acting on the system allowing it to execute the
motion.
ⅆ2 𝑥
𝐹𝐼 = 𝑚𝑎 = 𝑚 ….…..(5)
ⅆ𝑡 2

The resultant equation of motion can then be obtained as follows.

FI = FR + FD + F0 sin 𝑝t ……..……... (6)

d 2x dx
m 2
= −b − kx + F0 sin pt …….(7)
dt dt
d 2x b dx k F
 2
=− − x + 0 sin pt ….(8)
dt m dt m m
d 2x dx F
 2
+ 2r +  2 x = 0 sin pt ….(9)
dt dt m
where, ω, is the natural frequency of oscillation in the absence of damping, and r = b/2m is
the damping coefficient (note b is the damping constant).
Thus, the equation of motion for forced oscillator or an oscillator driven by a periodic external
force is,

d 2x dx F
+ 2r +  x = 0 sin pt ..….(10)
2
2
dt dt m
Solution to equation of motion of forced harmonic oscillator:

The equation mentioned above is an in-homogeneous, linear second order differential

equation with constant coefficients ω2 and r. You will soon learn (in mathematics) that the
general solution to this equation would have two parts to it viz. complementary solution (𝑥𝐶 (t))
and particular integral (𝑥𝑃 (t)).

i.e. 𝑥(𝑡) = 𝑥𝑃 (𝑡) + 𝑥𝐶 (𝑡)

Complementary solution

The complementary solution is obtained by solving the homogeneous part of the equation or
using,

d 2x dx
+ 2r +  x = 0 .….(11)
2
2
dt dt

which is same as that of a damped harmonic oscillator. For an under damped oscillator (r <
ω), the solution is given by

xc = Ce− rt sin(1t +  ) …(12)

where, the constant C corresponds to the amplitude of oscillation in the absence of external
driving force, and ‘ω1’ is the frequency of damped oscillation. Here, 𝑥𝐶 decays exponentially
with time and dies out (𝑥𝐶 →0) at sufficiently long time (rt >>1). Thus, 𝑥𝐶 represents a
transient solution.

Particular integral (The steady state solution)

At sufficiently long time i.e. t >>1/r, the complementary solution (𝑥𝐶 (t)) vanishes, and the
general solution reduces to a steady-state solution given by particular integral (𝑥𝑃 (t)).While
the complementary solution (𝑥𝐶 ) is the transient solution, the particular integral (𝑥𝑃 ) yields
the steady state solution to the equation of motion of the forced/driven oscillator

The particular integral (𝑥𝑃 ) may be obtained by using a trial function, x = x p (t ) = A sin( pt −  )

as the solution to the equation of motion in steady state. Here A is the amplitude of oscillation
in the presence of the applied force and  is the phase difference between the driving force
and displacement of the oscillator.

When we use x = A sin( pt −  ) in the steady state equation, we must substitute,

dx d 2x
= pA cos( pt −  ),& 2 = − p 2 A sin( pt −  )
dt dt

in the steady state equation of motion [i.e. eqn(10)]. The equation then yields,

F0 F
− p 2 A sin( pt −  ) + 2 prA cos( pt −  ) +  2 A sin( pt −  ) = sin pt = f 0 sin pt , where f 0 = 0
m m

− p 2 A sin( pt −  ) + 2 prA cos( pt −  ) +  2 A sin( pt −  ) = f 0 sin[( pt −  ) +  ]

 A( 2 − p 2 )sin( pt −  ) + 2rpA cos( pt −  ) = f 0 sin( pt −  ) cos  + f 0 cos( pt −  )sin  .........(13)

For the above relation to hold good for all values of t, the coefficient of sin( pt −  ) and
cos( pt −  ) on both sides of the equation must be equal i.e., by comparison of the coefficient

of sin( pt −  ) and cos( pt −  ) on both sides, we obtain

A( 2 − p 2 ) = f 0 cos  …….(14)

2rpA = f 0 sin  …….(15)

Squaring and then adding (14) & (15) one can obtain the amplitude, A of the forced vibration
as follows

f 0 2 =  f 0 cos   +  f 0 sin  
2 2

 f 0 2 = A2 {( 2 − p 2 ) 2 + 4 p 2 r 2 }
f0
 A=
( 2 − p 2 ) 2 + 4 p 2 r 2
f0
 A= .. (16 )
( − p ) + 4 p 2 r 2
2 2 2

The amplitude of forced/driven oscillations thus depends on the natural angular frequency of
oscillation ω, the damping coefficient, r and the periodicity of the external force, p.
The phase difference () between the driving force and the driven system may be obtained
as tangent of the angle , by dividing equation (15) by (14)

 2rp   2rp 
tan  =  2    = tan −1  2
2 
 …………….(17)
2 
 − p   − p 

Thus, for a given oscillator  depends on the frequency of the external force. The particular
integral or the steady state solution is therefore given as,

f0
 x p (t ) = sin( pt −  ) …(18)
( 2 − p 2 ) 2 + 4 p 2 r 2

Therefore, the complete solution to the equation of motion of a forced oscillator driven by an
external periodic force F0 sin 𝑝t, may be obtained as
f0
 x(t ) = x p (t ) + xc (t ) = sin( pt −  ) + Ce− rt sin(1t +  ) ….(19)
( − p ) + 4 p r
2 2 2 2 2

Note that both parts of the solution contribute at the beginning, however, the first part of the
solution quickly dies out depending on the degree of damping. Ultimately, once the transient
part of the solution vanishes the oscillator attains a steady state and oscillates with the
frequency of the external force.

Variation of Amplitude of Forced Vibration & Amplitude Resonance

As evident from equation (16), amplitude of forced vibration depends on the difference
between the driving frequency, p and the natural frequency, ω. Thus, not only the driving
frequency but also how far the driving frequency is from the natural frequency (i.e. the
undamped oscillator) is crucial in determining fate of a driven oscillator and so is the damping
coefficient. While, frequency of undamped oscillator (ω) is constant, the driving frequency, p
can be tuned to match the oscillatory frequency. Such situation where both the frequencies
nearly match each other; amplitude and energy of the oscillator system increases
dramatically. This phenomenon is called resonance. We will soon see that if the damping b
is small the amplitude A gets very large when the frequency of the driver approaches the
natural frequency of the oscillator and it can sometimes lead to catastrophes such as
collapse of the Tacoma Narrows Bridge. This bridge was destroyed as the wind (driving
force) was at the same as the natural frequency. The bridge vibrated and shook itself apart
It is for this same reason a marching troop is asked to break their rhythm if they have to cross
a narrow bridge. Of course, it has its positive aspects, from getting a swing going to tuning
a radio. We now discuss in details how the amplitude changes as we drive the oscillator with
frequency near and far from the frequency of the undamped oscillator.

Case I: p << ω (when the driving frequency is lower than natural frequency)

f0
A …….. (20)
2

Since p << ω, here we have neglected the terms containing p2.

This shows that the amplitude of vibration is independent of the frequency of driving force.

Case II: p >> ω (when the driving frequency is greater than natural frequency)

f0
i.e.,  2  p 2 , A =
( − p ) + 4 p 2 r 2
2 2 2

f0 f0 f0
or , A = = =
 2 
2
p4 + 4 p2r 2  4r 2 
p  2 − 1 + 4 p 2 r 2
4 p 4 1 + 2 
p   p 
r2 2
for ,   p & small r , 2  0 & 2  0
p p
f0
A ..............(21)
p2

Thus, the amplitude A goes on decreasing with the increase in the driving force frequency.

Case III: p ≈ ω or Resonance (when the driving frequency is nearly same as natural
frequency)
 f0 f0 f0 F
A= = = 0
( 2 − p 2 ) 2 + 4 p 2 r 2 4 p2r 2 2 pr b
F0 b
[ f0 = ,r = and p =  ]
m 2m

Thus, the amplitude is governed by the damping constant and is inversely proportional to it.
For small damping, the amplitude of vibration will be quite large. Thus, a weakly damped
oscillator can be driven to large amplitude by the application of a relatively small amplitude
external driving force that oscillates at a frequency close to the resonant frequency. If you
vary the driver frequency (variable p) for a given oscillator (fixed ω), what is the value of p for
which A is maximum? This is the condition for amplitude resonance.

Amplitude Resonance

Looking at eqn (16), the amplitude is maximum when ( 2 − p 2 )2 + 4 p 2 r 2 is minimum, i.e.

d 
( 2 − p 2 ) 2 + 4 p 2 r 2  = 0
dp  
2(−2 p)( 2 − p 2 ) + 4(2 p) r 2
 =0
2 ( 2 − p 2 ) 2 + 4 p 2 r 2
 − p( 2 − p 2 ) + 2 pr 2 = 0
 ( 2 − p 2 ) + 2r 2 = 0
 p 2 =  2 − 2r 2
 p =  2 − 2r 2

 At resonance, p = R =  2 − 2r 2 ………(22)

Here driving frequency, p = ωR i.e. the resonant frequency, and is not equal to ω but slightly
lesser than it.

Thus, substituting equation (22) in (16) we can obtain the maximum amplitude at resonance
as,
 f0 f0
Amax = =
( − p ) + 4 p r
2 2 2 2 2
(−2r ) + 4 p 2 r 2
2 2

f0 f0
 Amax = =
4r 2 ( r 2 + p 2 ) 4r 2 ( r 2 + p 2 )
f0
 Amax = ................(23)
2r r 2 + p 2

Thus, for low/weak damping it reduces to

f0
 Amax =
2rp

When, ω ≈ p, the amplitude becomes maximum, and this condition is known as resonance.
At resonance,

F0 F
 A= = 0 …..(24)
2mr  b

Thus, the smaller the b, the larger is the resonance amplitude. In principle for b = 0, A= ∞,
though it is practically unattainable as in a real system there will always be dissipative forces
leading to nonzero damping.
 Figure -2 Amplitude Resonance

Figure 2 shows the variation of amplitude with frequency of the external periodic force.
Following points can be noted.

• Resonance occurs when driving frequency is nearly equal to the natural frequency

• The amplitude increases with decreased damping

• The curve broadens as the damping increases

• The shape of the resonance curve depends on damping constant b

• Amplitude & energy of oscillator decreases rapidly as the frequency increases or

decreases from either side of the resonant frequency (ωR).

• The rate of decrease of amplitude/energy on either side of resonant frequency defines

the sharpness of resonance
 • Smaller the r, or weaker damping, sharper is the resonance & larger the damping
flatter is the resonance.

Sharpness of Resonance & width of resonance curve

As we move away from the resonance frequency ωR i.e. ωR ≈ ω, the amplitude and thus the
energy of oscillator decreases rapidly as the frequency increases or decreases from
resonance frequency. The sharpness of resonance is defined as the rate of decrease of
amplitude/energy on either side of resonant frequency. Using (22) & (23) one can show that
Amax
for p = ωR ± r, the amplitude reduces from A= Amax to A=Amax/√2 i.e. A| = A| = The
R + r R − r
2
width of resonance curve can thus be estimated from the range of frequency for which A >
Amax/√2 or which corresponds to full width at half maximum (FWHM).

 Width of resonance curve spanning over all frequencies for which A > Amax/√2, is
∆ω = (ω + r) – (ω -r) = 2r
Thus, smaller the r, or weaker damping, sharper is the resonance & larger the damping flatter
is the resonance.

R
R - r R + r
Phase of a forced harmonic oscillator and Power Resonance

The displacement (x) of the oscillator and the

driving force (F) have the same frequency, but
differ by a constant phase θ as expressed in
 2rp 
equation (17) i.e.  = tan −1  2  . Thus,
2 
 − p 
the phase is completely determined by the
ω p
frequency together with the physical
constants of the undriven oscillator: the mass, 
spring constant, and damping strength. So,
when the driving force generates the motion,
the phase angle θ is independent of the p
strength of the driving force: a stronger force doesn’t get the oscillator more in sync, it just
increases the amplitude of the oscillations. Depending on the variation of r & p, θ can take
up values between 0 to π. A variation of the phase with respect to the driving frequency p
shows that with increasing p, θ increases from 0 to π. When p << ω, θ → 0, on the other
hand for p >> ω, θ → π, and for p ≈ ω, θ → π/2. While the phase slowly increases from 0 and
also slowly approaches π, the rate of change is significantly high around θ ≈ π/2. The phase
difference of π/2 happening at p ≈ ω is thus a crucial factor in forced oscillation. As indicated
in the top figure for amplitude (A) variation as a function of driving frequency (p), A is
maximum for p ≈ ω for which phase is π/2. The phase of a driven oscillator always lags behind
the phase of the driving force, however, for θ ≈ π/2 the velocity of the oscillating object in the
steady state will be in the same phase as the driving force (as shown below)

dx
V| = = pA cos( pt − 90) = pA sin pt
p =
dt
This shows that when the driving force (F = F0 sin pt) is in phase with the velocity i.e. at p ≈
ω, the driving force pushes the mass in the direction it is already moving adding energy to
the system. At resonance, as the object is moving in the direction of the driving force, the

power/energy transferred to the oscillator is a maximum (recall P = F .V ). Such a situation is

Amax
called Power Resonance. As we have seen, A| = A| = i.e. the amplitude falls from
R + r R − r
2
A= Amax to A=Amax/√2, the energy/power being proportional to square of the amplitude, the
Pmax
power will fall by half P| = P| = . The width of power resonance curve can thus be
R + r R − r 2
estimated from the range of frequency for which P > Pmax/2 which corresponds to full width
at half maximum (FWHM) that is same as the bandwidth of amplitude resonance.

This, width of resonance curve spanning over all frequencies for which P > Pmax/2, is again
∆ω = (ω + r) – (ω -r) = 2r
Some applications of resonance:

Starting from producing music, to tuning to a specific radio station broadcasting at a

particular frequency, or heating food inside a microwave oven or MRI images being taken in
the hospitals, resonance effects play a crucial role. Few examples are discussed briefly.

1. Quartz Oscillators: A quartz feels a force if placed in an electric field and will oscillate when
removed. Appropriate electronics are added to generate an oscillating voltage from the
mechanical movements of the crystal and this is used to drive the crystal at its own natural
frequency. These devices provide accurate clocks for microprocessor systems.

2. The loudness of music produced by musical instruments such as the trumpet and flute is
the result of resonance in the air.

3. Tuning of an electrical radio.

It is the same effect one may have observed during tuning a radio, trying to reach a particular
radio frequency with the best sound quality. In this example from electricity and electronics,
tuning a radio is an example where one experiences forced oscillation of electrical
components while tuning the radio. The natural frequency of the radio circuit is made equal
to the incoming electromagnetic wave by changing its capacitance. The electrons in the
circuit will oscillate with the incoming electromagnetic wave. The electric current will oscillate
and this can be turned into sound, through a speaker.

A Driving force at resonance increases the oscillations, sometimes this is unwanted. Few
unwanted resonance effects would be:

1. Tower blocks, the same effect as the bridge & the wind, or earthquakes, can cause
vibrations to destroy the buildings

2. Vibrations in machinery, if the driving force equals the natural frequency the amplitude
may get dangerously high. Ex. At a particular speed in a truck’s rear-view mirror can be seen
to vibrate

Such effects can be managed by designing the building with heavy damping.

Quality factor:

There is a quantitative measure of how sharp the resonance is. This is done by defining
quality factor, or Q, a dimensionless quantity. It measures the strength of response of the
oscillator to an external driver at the resonant frequency. Instead of using r = b/2m and 𝜔 =

√𝑘⁄𝑚, it is convenient to describe the shape of the resonance curve using these variables

𝜔 and Q = 𝜔 /2r.

Written in terms 𝜔 & Q, the amplitude (A) of eqn (16) is

F0  p
A( ) =
k  p 
2
1
 p −   + Q2
 

The above expression can be easily verified to be the same expression of amplitude given in
eqn (16).

This is a very convenient form of amplitude as dimensionless quantities are easier to analyze.
The scale of the amplitude is determined by F0/k and the shape of the curve is determined
 𝑝
by the dimensionless quantities & Q. From the figure below, it can be seen that the
𝜔
𝑝
normalized height is approximately Q. The maximum occurs when 𝜔 ≈ 1, i.e. at resonance,

the motion is amplified by the factor Q.

𝑝/𝜔

The bandwidth (∆ω) of the resonance curve which amounts to 2r can be expressed in terms
of Q as ∆ω = 𝜔 /Q. It is quite evident now that the quality factor (Q-value) of the forced
oscillator is an indicator of sharpness of resonance. Larger the Q-value, sharper is the
resonance. In the case of a pendulum, which you might think is a good resonator (keeps
good time), the Q might be about 100. For a quartz clock, on the other hand, Q may reach
10000. Q value can also be calculated as a ratio of average energy stored per cycle to
energy dissipated per cycle, which signifies the importance of the quantity in various
resonator designs.
 Oscillations

Notes for
B.Tech. Physics Course
PH 1007
2020-21

KIIT-eps-converted-to.pdf

Department of Physics
School of Applied Sciences
KIIT Deemed to be University
Bhubaneswar, India
Contents
1 Brief Introduction to Oscillation 1

2 Simple Harmonic Oscillation 2

3 Characteristics of Simple Harmonic Oscillation 3

4 Damped Harmonic Oscillation 5

4.1 Case I: r > ω (overdamping): . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7
4.2 Case II: r = ω (Critical damping): . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8
4.3 Case III: r < ω (under-damping): . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9

5 Energy Decay 9

6 Logarithmic Decrement (δ) 10

7 Relaxation Time (τ ) 10

8 The Q factor 11
1 Brief Introduction to Oscillation
Oscillations are everywhere. Our heartbeat, as an important life process, is an example
of oscillation that we all perceive every moment. Oscillating electric and magnetic fields
(called electromagnetic waves) carry light to our eyes. Oscillating air carries sound to our
ears. Through electromagnetic waves and sound waves (acoustic vibrations), we receive the
major part of information about the world surrounding us. Without oscillation, neither can
we see each other nor can we hear. Other examples of oscillatory motion include pendulum
clock, swing, tuning fork, vibration of strings in musical instruments, alternating current, the
motion of atoms in molecules and solids etc.
When we talk about the word ‘oscillation’, immediately a picture of to and fro motion
comes to our mind. Yes, oscillation means to and fro motion of an object about a mean
position. Some oscillations are periodic but not all periodic motions are oscillatory. Some
examples of the periodic motion that are not oscillatory are motion of planets around the sun,
motion of moon around the earth etc.
According to the physical nature of the phenomena involved, oscillations in various sys-
tems can be divided into mechanical oscillations and electromagnetic ones. Mechanical
oscillations are characterized by alternating conversions of the kinetic energy into one (or
several) kinds of potential energy and back. In electromagnetic oscillations, alternating con-
versions occur between the electric field energy (which is analogous to the potential energy
in mechanical systems) and the magnetic field energy (the analogue of the kinetic energy).
Sometimes oscillations have a combined mechanical and electromagnetic nature, e.g., os-
cillations in plasma. However, we will confine our discussion to mechanical oscillations
only.
In order for mechanical oscillation to occur, a system must possess two quantities: elas-
ticity and inertia. When the system is displaced from its equilibrium position, the elasticity
provides a restoring force such that the system tries to return to equilibrium. The inertia
property causes the system to overshoot equilibrium. This constant interplay between the
elastic and inertia properties is what allows oscillatory motion to occur. The natural fre-
quency of the oscillation is related to the elastic and inertia properties. The simplest example
of an oscillating system is a spring mass system (Fig. 1), where the mass is connected to a
rigid support by a spring. The spring constant k provides the elastic restoring force, and the

1
inertia of the mass m provides the overshoot.

2 Simple Harmonic Oscillation

mass-spring-eps-converted-to.pdf

Figure 1: The oscillation in a horizontal spring-Mass system placed in a friction-less surface.

The equilibrium position is represented by the position ‘O’ (in the middle). When the spring
is displaced by an amount “x” towards the right or left by extension or compression of the
spring, the restoring force always tries to drive the mass towards the equilibrium point “O”.
This sets up an oscillation due to the interplay of inertia and restoring force.

In simple harmonic oscillation, the body executes to and fro motion about its mean po-
sition. But in addition to that it has an important characteristic that is the restoring force is
directly proportional to the displacement of the body but in the opposite direction. Our basic
model of simple harmonic oscillator is a mass m moving back and forth along a line on a
smooth (i.e. friction less) horizontal surface, connected to a horizontal spring, having spring
constant k, the other end of the string being attached to a wall (see Figure 1). The spring
exerts a restoring force equal to −kx on the mass when it is a distance x from the equilibrium
point. By “equilibrium point”, we mean the point corresponding to the spring resting at its
natural length, and therefore exerting no force on the mass. The restoring force (FR ) exerted
by the spring on the mass can be written as,

2
 FR ∝ −x

⇒ FR = −kx

By applying Newton’s second law FI = ma (i.e., the inertial force) to the mass, one can
obtain the equation of motion for the system:

FI = FR
2
⇒ m d x2 = −kx
dt
2
⇒ d x + ω2x = 0
dt2
q
k
where, ω = m
is the natural oscillation frequency.
One can solve the above differential equation. Solving this differential equation gives
the position of the mass relative to the rest position as a function of time: However, we can
verify by substitution that the solution to the above equation is given as follows

x(t) = A sin(ωt + φ)

where A is the amplitude of the oscillation, φ is the phase constant of the oscillation,
and ωt + φ is called phase. Both A and φ are constants to be determined by the initial
condition (i.e., initial displacement and velocity) at time t = 0 when one begins observing
the oscillatory motion.
We discuss the various aspect of the solution below as part of the simple harmonic motion

3 Characteristics of Simple Harmonic Oscillation

The displacement of the pendulum w.r.t. time is represented with a sinusoidal function.

1. Displacement (x): At any instant of time, the distance of the particle from the mean
position measured along the direction of motion is called as the displacement. The
displacement (x) at any instant of time t is given by

x(t) = A sin(ωt + φ) (1)

3
shmintro-eps-converted-to.pdf characteristics-eps-converted-to.pdf

Figure 2: (left) The oscillation of a vertical spring-mass system shows that the displacement
can be represented as the sinusoidal function of the time. (right) The plot of displacement of
the mass w.r.t. time.

2. Amplitude (A): It is the maximum displacement of the particle on each side of the
mean position.

3. Time period (T ): It is the time taken by the particle to complete one oscillation.

4. Frequency (f ): It is the number of complete oscillations taken by the particle in one

unit of time. It can be written as the inverse of time period, i.e., (f = T1 ).

5. Velocity (v): The velocity of particle at any instant of time t is given by,

dx
v=
dt
d
⇒v = (A sin(ωt + φ))
dt
√
⇒v = ω A2 − x2 (2)

At mean position (x = 0): vmax = Aω, i.e., the velocity is maximum. Since the particle
has maximum velocity at the mean position, therefore when the restoring force brings
the particle towards the mean position, instead of stopping there, it moves the other
side of the mean position with high velocity.
At extreme position (x = A): vmin = 0, i.e., the velocity is zero here, therefore the
particle stops there and comes back towards its mean position.

6. Acceleration (a): Acceleration is the rate of change of velocity, therefore,

d2 x d2
a= = (A sin(ωt + φ))
dt2 dt2
⇒ a = −Aω 2 sin ωt = −ω 2 x (3)

4
 The negative sign implies that acceleration acts in the opposite direction to the dis-
placement.

7. Phase (φ): This is the physical quantity which differentiate between two particles at
the same time of oscillation.
k
We saw above that x(t) = A sin(ωt + φ), where ω 2 = m
. The sine function goes
through one complete cycle when its argument increases by 2π, so we require that,

(ω(t + T ) + φ) − (ωt + φ) = 2π

⇒ωT = 2π
r
2π k
⇒ω = = 2πf = (4)
T m

This parameter is determined by the system: the particular mass and spring used.
For a linear system, the frequency is independent of amplitude. This is a hallmark
of simple harmonic motion. So far, in our discussion, we considered an idealized
spring mass system on a friction-less surface. As a result, the oscillations once started
will continue forever with the same amplitude and such oscillations are called free
or undamped oscillation. But in reality, there will always be resistive forces such as
friction, air resistance, viscous drag etc at play. These dissipative forces will oppose
the free oscillation and thus reduce the amplitude of oscillation with time. Such an
oscillator is called damped harmonic oscillator and is of practical utility. We next
discuss such an oscillator.

4 Damped Harmonic Oscillation

So far, what we have discussed is the situation where the amplitude of the oscillation remains
constant with time. But actually in practice, this doesn’t happen. There always present a re-
sistive force, which opposes the free oscillation. Hence, the amplitude always decreases with
time. Such oscillation with decrease in amplitude is called as damped harmonic oscillation.
For example, in simple pendulum, when the bob sets into oscillation, the amplitude decreases
and slowly the oscillation comes to rest.
Consider a body of mass m, which is subjected to damped oscillation. If x be the instan-
taneous displacement at time t, then various forces acting on the body are,

5
 1. Restoring force (FR ): This force acts opposite to the displacement and tries to bring
the body back to its mean position.

FR ∝ −x ⇒ FR = −kx (5)

2. Damping force (FD ): Most oscillating physical systems dissipate their energy over
time. We will consider the special cases where the force is a function of velocity
FD = −bv − cv 2 , both b & c are constants. The damping force is in the opposite
direction of the velocity. For motion at low velocities, when velocity is small enough,
or c is is small enough, only the first term is important. We will consider a damping
force that is proportional to velocity i.e.
dx
FD ∝ −v ⇒ FD = −bv ⇒ FD = −b (6)
dt

3. Force of inertia (FI ): Each moving particle has inertia force which is proportional to
its acceleration.
d2 x d2 x
FI ∝ ⇒ F I = m (7)
dt2 dt2
The force of inertia balances the restoring and the damping forces, i.e.,

FI = FR + FD
d2 x dx
⇒m 2
= −kx − b
dt dt
d2 x dx
⇒ m 2 + b + kx = 0
dt dt
2
dx b dx k
⇒ 2 + + x=0
dt m dt m
d2 x dx
⇒ 2 + 2r + ω2x = 0 (8)
dt dt
The above equation is the second order differential equation for a damped harmonic os-
cillator. Here, b is damping constant, 2r = mb ⇒ r = b is the damping coefficient.
q 2m
2 k k
ω = m ⇒ ω = m is the angular frequency of the undamped oscillator.
Let us try to solve this second order differential equation. Let the solution is of the form,

x = Aeαt (9)

Here, A and α are the arbitrary constants. From the above equation, we get,
dx d2 x
= Aαeαt , and 2
= Aα2 eαt
dt dt

6
Therefore, the differential equation (8) can now be written as,

Aα2 eαt + 2rAαeαt + ω 2 Aeαt = 0

⇒ Aeαt α2 + 2rα + ω 2 = 0

⇒ α2 + 2rα + ω 2 = 0 as Aeαt = x 6= 0
p
⇒ α = −r ± (r2 − ω 2 ) (10)

Hence, the solution can be written as,

 √   √ 
−r+ (r2 −ω 2 ) t −r− (r2 −ω 2 ) t
x(t) = A1 e + A2 e (11)

In the above equation, the relative term under the square-root, i.e., r2 and ω 2 can give rise
to three different situations. These three cases are discussed here.

damping-eps-converted-to.pdf

Figure 3: The displacement vs time curve for three different types of damping.

4.1 Case I: r > ω (overdamping):

In this situation, the damping coefficient is more than the angular frequency of oscillation.
√
Hence it is called as the over-damped situation. When r > ω ⇒ r2 > ω 2 ⇒ r2 > ω 2 is real
 p   p 
and less than r. That is, both −r + (r2 − ω 2 ) and −r − (r2 − ω 2 ) are negative.
Hence, both the terms of equation (11) represent the situation where, the displacement decay
exponentially to zero with time t (the green colour curve in Fig. 3). Thus the motion is no
more oscillatory as mass does not oscillate. It gradually approaches the equilibrium position
at x = 0.

7
  p 
Though both the terms decay exponentially, but the second term, i.e., −r − (r2 − ω 2 )
 p 
decays to zero faster than the first term, i.e., −r + (r2 − ω 2 ) . Therefore, the displace-
ment is primarily governed by the first term.
Overdamping is typically used in door dampers as the system goes to equilibrium (with-
out overshooting it) in a relatively longer time. A shock absorber is basically a damped
spring oscillator, the damping is from a piston moving in a cylinder filled with oil. If the oil
is really thick, or the piston too tight, the shock absorber will be too stiff - it won’t absorb
the shock, and you will! This is the case of overdamping. So we need to tune the damping
so that the car responds smoothly to a bump in the road, but doesn’t continue to bounce after
the bump. This is achieved using critical damping as discussed below.

4.2 Case II: r = ω (Critical damping):

In this case, the damping coefficient is approximately equal to the angular frequency of
oscillation. If we consider r = ω ⇒ r2 = ω 2 ⇒ r2 − ω 2 = 0, then the solution of the
equation (11) will have only one constant term, hence will not represent the general solution
√
of equation (11). Therefore, we shall consider r2 − ω 2 = h → 0, i.e., h is very small
quantity. Using this term, the solution is of the form,

x = A1 e(−r+h)t + A2 e(−r−h)t

⇒ x = e−rt A1 eht + A2 e−ht

 

P∞ (ht)n
Using the series expansion formula for an exponent function, eht = n=0 n!

⇒ x = e−rt [(A1 + A2 ) + ht(A1 − A2 )]

since h is very small so its higher orders are neglected

⇒ x = e−rt (p + qt) (12)

Here p = (A1 + A2 ) and q = h(A1 − A2 ), are the two constants. Initially, for small
value of t, the (p + qt) term is dominated. But with further increase in t, e−rt will be
dominated. Therefore, the nature of this curve is also exponentially decaying (as shown in
red curve in Fig 3). Such type of motion is called critically damped. So the system returns to
equilibrium in the shortest possible time without undergoing any oscillation or overshooting
the equilibrium. As discussed earlier, critical damping is used in car suspension systems for
absorbing shocks.

8
4.3 Case III: r < ω (under-damping):
√ √
When r < ω ⇒ r2 < ω 2 , then r2 − ω 2 is imaginary. Let us say, r2 − ω 2 = iω1 , where,

√
ω1 = ω 2 − r2 (13)

Hence, the solution given by equation (11) can be written as,

x = A1 e(−r+iω1 )t + A2 e(−r−iω1 )t

= e−rt [(A1 + A2 ) cos ω1 t + i(A1 − A2 ) sin ω1 t] (using Euler identity, eiθ = cos θ + i sin θ)

= ae−rt sin(ω1 t + φ)

here, (A1 + A2 ) = a sin φ and i(A1 − A2 ) = a cos φ, are the constants

√ 
x = ae−rt sin ω 2 − r2 t + φ (14)

Equation (14) represents the solution for the underdamping case. It is clear from the
above equation that the amplitude term, i.e., ae−rt is exponentially decaying (as shown in
Fig. 3 blue color curve). The time period of this oscillation is given by,

2π 2π
T1 = =√ (15)
ω1 ω 2 − r2
When the damping coefficient, r = 0, i.e., in the absence of damping, the displacement
and time period will give the solutions for simple harmonic oscillation. The example of
under-damped oscillation is simple pendulum.

5 Energy Decay
The energy of oscillation is proportional to the square of the amplitude. We just saw that
in underdamped oscillation, the amplitude of oscillation decays exponentially. Therefore,
the system looses its energy with time. For under-damped oscillation amplitude decay is
proportional to e−rt , therefore, energy decay is proportional to e−2rt . Hence energy decay is
given by,

9
 E ∝ e−2rt

E = E0 e−2rt (16)

Where, E0 is the initial energy when the oscillation starts at time t = 0.

6 Logarithmic Decrement (δ)

It is defined as the natural log of the ratio of two successive amplitude and is given by,

A(t)
δ = log
A(t + T1 )
ae−rt
⇒ δ = log −r(t+T1 )
ae
2π 2πr
⇒ δ = log(erT1 ) = rT1 = r =√ (17)
ω1 ω 2 − r2
Here T1 is the time period for an underdamped oscillation.

7 Relaxation Time (τ )
1
It is the time taken for the energy to decay to e
times of its original value. This means that
1
in time τ the energy is down by a factor e
(i.e. by 37%). In other words, the system will
loose about 63% of its energy during this time.
Therefore, in equation (16), at t = τ , energy will be E = Ee0 , i.e.,

E = E0 e−2rt
E0
⇒ = E0 e−2rτ
e
1
⇒τ = (18)
2r
m
⇒τ = (19)
b

Equations (18) and (19) represent the relaxation time in terms of damping coefficient and
damping constant, respectively.

10
8 The Q factor
The Q factor is a measure of the “quality” of an oscillator (such as a bell or a tuning fork):
how long will it keep ringing once you hit it? Essentially, it is a measure of how many
oscillations take place during the time the energy decays by the factor of 1e . We know the
1
time taken for energy to decay by e
is the relaxation time (τ ). Hence, Q is defined by:

Q = ωτ (20)

Q essentially measures how many radians the oscillator goes around in time τ .

11
 Topics to be covered
vIntroduction to waves
vCharacteristics of wave motion
vTypes of waves
vThe wave equation
vDifferential equation of wave motion
vConcept of interference of light
vInteracting waves and principle of superposition
vInterference
vCoherent sources of light
vTypes of interference based on the production of effective coherent sources
vConditions of interference
vAnalytical treatment of interference
üIntensity distribution curve
ü Whether the ‘law of conservation of energy’ is satisfied in interference or not?
 What is a wave

A disturbance or variation that transfers energy progressively from one

place to another in a medium that may take the form of elastic
deformation or variation of pressure/electric field/magnetic field
intensity/electric potential/temperature etc.
 Waves

Cooperative motion of the particles of the medium producing a wave.

Animations courtesy of Dr. Dan Russell, Kettering University

Waves in a string

Animations courtesy of Dr. Dan Russell, Kettering University

Pulsed Sound Wave
Summing up the characteristics of wave motion…………

v It is the disturbance produced in a medium due to repeated periodic motion

of the particles of the medium.

v In the wave motion, wave travels in the forward direction while particles of the
medium vibrate about their mean position.

v There is a regular phase difference between the particles of the medium.

v The velocity of the wave is different from the velocity of the particle. The
velocity of the wave is uniform while the velocity of the particle is different at
different positions.
Contd…………
Contd…………
 Types of Waves

Transverse waves Longitudinal waves

Follow the link:

https://tenor.com/view/longitudinal-wave-transverse-waves-waves-gif-13936583
 Comparison between Transverse and longitudinal waves

Transverse waves Longitudinal waves

Ø Particles of the medium vibrate Ø Particles of the medium vibrate about
about their mean position in a their mean position in a direction
direction perpendicular to the parallel to the direction of the wave.
direction of motion of the wave.
Ø Made up of crests and troughs Ø Made up of compressions and
rarefactions
Ø Electromagnetic waves and waves Ø Sound waves and seismic waves are
on the surface of water are longitudinal waves.
transverse waves.
Follow the link:
https://tenor.com/view/longitudinal-wave-transverse-waves-waves-gif-13936583
Wave expression

Consider the displacement of a particle at a point ‘P’ showing simple harmonic

oscillation is given by,
…………………………………………...(1)

Let there be another particle at ‘Q’ at a distance ‘x’ from ‘P’ and the wave is
travelling with a velocity ‘v’ from P to Q, then the displacement of the particle at ‘Q’
may be given as,
….…………………………………………(2)

Where is the phase difference between the particles ‘P’ and ‘Q’.

……………………………………………...(3)
Contd….
By definition of angular frequency,
……………..……………………………….(4)

Substituting equations (3) and (4) in equation (2), we get

……..……………………………(5)

…..………………………………(6)

Equation (6) represents the equation of displacement of a particle when the

wave is travelling in + x direction. If the wave is travelling in –x direction such
that the particle at Q is at a distance x in the negative direction, then the
equation of displacement will be , …………………….(7)
Differential Equation of wave motion
Let the wave is travelling in +x direction, and can be represented as:
..…………………………………….(6)
Differentiating it w.r.t. time, we get
..…………………………………….(8)

………………………………………(9)

Again differentiating equation (6) wrt distance x,

.…………………………………….(10)

.…………………………………….(11)
Comparing equations (9) and (11), we get, ………..…………………….(12)
Equation (12) represents the general differential wave equation in one dimension
Summary
• We have discussed about waves, types of waves with examples.
• We have derived the differential equation of wave motion.
• We have also solved few sample numerical problems.

Next Class
• We shall discuss about principle of superposition, concept of interference
and its use in day to day life, conditions for interference and types of
interferences with examples.
• We shall also discuss about coherent sources, production of coherent
sources from a single source.
Principle of superposition
The resultant displacement of a particle of a medium when acted upon by two or
more waves simultaneously is the algebraic sum of the displacements of the same
particle due to individual waves in the absence of others.

Constructive Superposition Destructive Superposition

Follow the link: https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=CAe3lkYNKt8
Superposition of waves

Pulsed Waves

Animations courtesy of Dr. Dan Russell, Kettering University

Superposition of waves

Two waves in same direction with slightly different frequencies

Wave 1

Wave 2

Resultant Wave
“Beats”

Animations courtesy of Dr. Dan Russell, Kettering University

Superposition of waves
Harmonic waves in opposite directions

Incident Wave

Reflected Wave

Resultant Wave
(Standing Wave)

Animations courtesy of Dr. Dan Russell, Kettering University

How these beautiful colored patterns are formed

Yes, you are

correct. It is due
to interference
of light waves
 Interference of light waves
#Interference: When two or more waves of the same
frequency travel in approximately the same direction and
maintain a phase difference that remains constant with time,
then the resultant intensity of light is not distributed
uniformly in space. This non-uniform distribution of light
intensity due to superposition of two or more waves is
called interference.
#Constructive Interference:

#Destructive Interference:

Figure has taken from –

Follow the link: https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=PCYv0_qPk-4 https://www.physicsclassroom.com/class/waves/Lesson-3/Interference-of-Waves
 Coherent sources of light
v Two or more sources of light are said to be coherent if there relative phases do
not change with time.
v The phase difference between the sources remain constant :
• the phase of each source remains constant in time
• the phase of each source changes by the same amount
v Ordinary sources/completely independent sources of light ( such as sun, star,
electric bulb, candle, glowing solid etc.) are incoherent
v It is always possible to obtain two effectively coherent sources from a single
incoherent source by reflection, refraction or other suitable process.
• A narrow beam of light split into two components by one of the above
mentioned process
• These two beams are allowed to travel different optical path lengths
• The two beams then superpose in a region to produce interference
 Types of interferences based on production of coherent sources

vYoung’s double slit experiment vNewton’s ring

vFresnel’s biprism vMichelson’s Interferometer
vLloyd’s single and bimirror
 Conditions of interference

#For sustained interference:

v Interfering waves must be coherent.
v Frequency of the waves must be same.
v Waves must be in the same state of polarization.

For better contrast of fringes: For clear observation of fringes:

v Amplitude of the waves must be vDistance between the sources and
equal or nearly equal (though this is not screen must be large
a necessary condition) v Distance between the sources
v Light source must be Monochromatic must be small.
v Narrow source of light is preferred v Background must be dark.
 Analytical treatment of interference

Fig. (a) Schematic diagram showing two slit interference. Slits S1 and S2 behave
as coherent sources of light which produce an interference pattern on the screen;
(b) enlarged view of the center of fringe pattern on the screen.
Contd……..
Ø Two coherent sources S1 and S2 , separated by a
distance ‘d’ emit light waves of same angular frequency ‘ω’
and a constant phase difference ‘δ’.
Ø y1 and y2 be the displacements produced by the
individual waves at any point P on the screen, then
..………………..(1)
………………….(2)
where and are the amplitudes of the wave fronts from S1
and S2 respectively.

If ‘y’ be the resultant displacement at the point ‘P’ due to

the waves from S1 and S2, then by the principle of
superposition of waves, …………………...(3)
 Contd……..
Using equation (1) and (2) in equation (3),
………………(4)
.................(5)

Now let ………………(6)

………………(7)
Where is the amplitude of the resultant wave due to the superposition of the two
waves. Substituting equation (6) and (7) in equation (5) we get,
  …................(8)
.……..………(9)
 Contd……..
To find out the value of , we have to square and add equations (6) and (7).
………………(10)
   ……….........(11)

 …….…………(12)

[keeping the constant of proportionality to be 1]

The resultant intensity ‘I’ at the point ‘P’ can be obtained as:

.…………….(14) [utilizing equation (11)]

Contd…
Expressing ‘I’ in terms of individual intensities I1 and I2,
……….………(15)

Where and [taking the constant of proportionality to be 1]

Now let us find the conditions of maxima and minima and resultant intensity
under those conditions.
Case I: (Constructive interference/Maxima/Bright fringes)
‘I’ will maximum (Imax) when
for

Follow the link: https://i.gifer.com/4Qeo.gif

Contd……..
The corresponding path difference between the interfering waves will be,
Path difference
The maximum intensity, …………(16)

Case II (Constructive interference/Maxima/Bright fringes) :

‘I’ will maximum (Imin) when edium
For air m
for
Path difference
The minimum intensity, ……..…(17)
 Intensity distribution curve

For For
Can energy be conserved in interference

So far it is known that after interference occurs, we observe a distribution of bright

(maxima) and dark (minima) regions rather than uniform illumination. If we find
out the average intensity post interference, we get,

……………..(18)

Substituting equation (15) in (18),

………………(19)
Contd….

 .………...(20)

The total intensity of the wave fronts before interference occurs is also

 ‘Law of Conservation of Energy’ is satisfied in the phenomena of interference.

whatever energy apparently disappears at the minima, appears at the maxima.

 Numerical problems
1. A progressive wave is represented by the equation , where y and x are expressed
in meters and t in seconds. Find the (i) amplitude, (ii) wavelength, (iii) speed of
the wave (iv) frequency and (v) phase difference between the points 7.5 m apart.

2. Two coherent sources whose intensity ration is 81:1 produce interference

fringes. Derive the ratio of maximum intensity to minimum intensity.

3. Two coherent sources of intensity ratio β interfere. Prove that in the

interference pattern,

4. The path difference between the two interfering rays at a point on the screen is
1/8th of their wavelength. Find the ratio of the intensity at this point to that of the
centre of the bright fringe.
 Take Home

v We discussed about waves with some practical examples; their

characteristics; transverse and longitudinal waves; and the differential wave
equation.
v Next topic of interest was the phenomenon of interference and its real life
applications; conditions of interference.

v We also had an idea upon the analytical treatment of interference by

considering the two slit pattern.
v Further, the intensity distribution was elaborated along with the verification
of law of conservation of energy in interference.
 Topics to be covered
vIntroduction
vColours in thin films (pictorial)
vPath difference calculation
v Stoke’s treatment
vParallel thin film
vWedge shaped thin film
vFringes
v Fringes of equal thickness
v Fringes of equal inclination
v Point source and Extended source
vNewton’s ring
v Experimental Set-up and formation of Newton’s ring
vConstructive and destructive interference
vCalculation of path difference for bright and dark rings
vCalculation of diameter for bright and dark rings
vApplication of Newton’s ring
vDetermination of ‘λ’ of an unknown monochromatic light
v Determination of refractive index ‘’ of an unknown liquid
 Colours in thin films

Principle

Incident Reflected rays

ray

Soup Bubbles Oil Films



Transmitted rays

v The thickness of the film should

Peacock Feather be of the order of the wave length of
Butterflies
incident light
 Stokes’ relations

When the light is reflected from an interface backed by a denser medium, then the reflected light
travels an additional phase of  or an extra path of /2
 Parallel Thin Film
The optical path difference between the two reflected rays
(In ΔBDN, sin i = BN / BD and 

BC = CD as ΔBMC ≡ ΔMCD)

 In ΔBMC, cos r = t /BC

 In ΔBMC, tan r = BM / t

Snell’s law : 


  

 The effective path difference (As per Stoke’s relation)

# Condition of Maxima (Bright Fringe), 

# Condition for Minima (Dark Fringe) 

 Wedge Shaped Thin Film


 [ ΔNDL]
Again,

The effective path difference between the two

reflected rays R1 and R2 will be
The optical path difference between the two reflected
rays R1 and R2 will be

#Condition of Maxima (Bright Fringe)
[From the geometry: ΔBMD and  ΔBND]

#Condition of Minima (Dark Fringe)

 [Snell’s Law]
 Fringes of equal thickness and inclination

Fringes of equal thickness :-Newton’s ring Fringes of equal inclination:-Michelson’s interferometer

The occurrence of the alternate maxima and If the thickness of the film is uniform, then the
minima is due to variation in the thickness of path difference 2μtcosθ between coherent rays
the film and each maximum and minimum can change only with inclination.
is a locus of constant film thickness. In this case one can get wide cones of light, and
each fringe corresponds to a particular value of θ.
 Point Source Vs Broad Source

Extended/Broad Source Point Source

Necessity of broad source: 

v When point source is used only a small portion of the film can be seen through eye and as a
result the whole interference pattern cannot be seen.

v But when a broad source is used rays of light are incident at different angles and reflected
parallel beam reach the eye and whole beam and complete pattern is visible.
 Newton’s Ring
# Formation of Newton’s Ring When a plano-convex lens is placed on a plane glass
surface with it’s convex surface facing the glass, an
wedge shaped air film of increasing thickness is formed
between the lower surface of the lens and upper
surface of the glass surface. The thickness of film at
the point of contact is zero.
When a beam of monochromatic light is allowed to
fall normally on the upper surface of the lens, it is
reflected as well as refracted.
The reflected rays from the top and bottom surface of
the air film interfere with each other to form concentric
bright and dark circular rings.
When viewed by white light, concentric ring pattern of
rainbow colors is observed because the different
wavelengths of light interfere at different thicknesses
of the air layer between the surfaces.
Contd……… Conditions for Bright and Dark Rings
For wedge shaped film, the effective path difference between two reflected rays is :

………………(1) [ r → angle of refraction,

θ → angle of wedge,
In Newton’s ring, t → thickness of the film,
 → refractive index of the film]

 ………………(2)


………………(3)

 ………………(4)
Contd……… Conditions for Bright and Dark Rings

………………(5)

 ………………(6)

………………(7)

 ………………(8)
Contd……… Diameter of Bright and Dark Rings

………………(9)


 ………………(10)
Contd……… Diameter of Bright and Dark Rings

 ………………(11)
………………(12)


………………(13)

 ………………(14)

………………(15)

 ………………(16)
Contd……… Diameter of Bright and Dark Rings
#

 ………………(17)

 ………………(18)

 ………………(19)

………………(20)
 ………………(21)
Contd……… Spacing Between Fringes

n &
 Applications : Wavelength of an Unknown Monochromatic Light
Y
We know that the square of diameter of nth dark ring is

………………(22)
Slope

………………(23)
X
Order of rings
……(24)
v Measure the diameter of different orders of
rings using experimental set up
………………(25)
v Plot a graph between square of diameter,
Vs. order of rings.
v Calculate the slope of the straight line from the
graph
v Using the working formula, calculate the
wavelength of the unknown light
 Applications : Refractive Index of an Unknown Liquid

v Perform the Newton’s ring experiment for the air medium

and determine the difference in the square of the diameter of
(n+p)th and nth dark ring :
………………(26)

v Put few drops of liquid of refractive index μ in between the glass plate
and the plano-convex lens resulting a liquid film formed between the
lens and the plate.
v Repeat the experiment and determine the difference in the square of the diameter of (n+p)th and
nth dark ring in the same manner for the liquid medium :

………………(27)

vFrom the above two equations, calculate the refractive index :

………………(28)
Summary

v We learn the concept “colours in thin films”

v We learn to calculate the optical and effective path difference between reflected rays for both
parallel and wedge shaped film. We have also discuss briefly about fringes of equal thickness and
fringes of equal inclination . The need of extended source has also been explained.
v We have discussed “ Newton’s ring experimental set up and the formation of rings” followed by
the discussion on “ why central ring is dark, condition of bright and dark fringes, calculation of
diameters of bright and dark rings, fringe width etc.”
v Finally, the applications of Newton’s ring experiment were discussed “how to determine the
wavelength of an unknown monochromatic light and refractive index of an unknown liquid”.

Next Topic
In the next class, we will discuss on Michelson’s interferometer : experimental set up, formation of
fringes, shape of fringes, applications etc.