Renewable Energy

Lecture No.1
Sources of energy, classification

Introduction

Energy plays a very important role in our lives, providing comfort, increasing
productivity and allowing us to live the way we want to. Since the beginning of mankind, we
have made use of wood, water, and fossil fuels as a means of heating and making machines
work. Almost for all types of activities, we rely on one or another form of energy.

Amount of energy used by a society is an indicator of its economic growth and

development. Without energy even our body would be unable to perform basic functions like
respiratory, circulatory, or digestive functions to name a few. Plants would also be unable to
complete the process of converting Carbon dioxide, water and minerals into food without the
light from the Sun. Almost all the machines used for the production and manufacture of different
types of items would be unable to operate without the use of a source of electrical energy.
Almost everything we see around us, the clothes we wear, the food we eat, the houses we live in,
the paper we write on, the vehicles we drive, all need energy to be created or transformed from
some natural resource to the final product. Nowadays, the electrical energy has become so
important that almost in all walks of life electricity is required. For example all electrical
appliances in our homes and at our workplace require electricity. All the industries and factories
run on electricity.

1.1.Sources of Energy
In simple terms we can say that anything out of which usable energy can be extracted is a
source of energy. There is a variety of sources that provide us energy for different purposes. You
must be familiar with coal, petrol, diesel kerosene and natural gas. Similarly you must have also
heard about hydroelectric power, wind mills, solar panels, biomass etc.

1
 Renewable Energy

1.1.1. Fossil Fuels – Conventional Source of Energy

A fossil fuel is a fuel formed by natural processes, such as anaerobic decomposition of
buried dead organisms, containing energy originating in ancient photosynthesis. Millions of
years ago the remains of dead plants and animals were buried under the ground. Over the years
by the action of heat from the Earth‟s core and pressure from rock and soil, these buried and
decomposed organic materials have been converted into fossil fuels.. Fossil fuels contain high
percentages of carbon and include petroleum, coal, and natural gas. Coal, crude oil and natural
gas are common examples of fossil fuels. They are used to run the vehicles, cooking, lighting,
washing, to generate electricity, for making plastics and paints etc.

Advantages Disadvantages

 Provide a large amount of  Nonrenewable


thermal energy per unit of mass  Burning produces smog
 
 Easy to get and easy to transport  Burning coal releases substances that

 Can be used to generate electrical can cause acid precipitation

energy and make products, such  Risk of oil spills

as Plastic, paints etc.  High cost

1.1.2 Energy from the Atom – Nuclear Energy

Nuclear power is the use of nuclear reactions that release nuclear energy to generate heat,
which most frequently is then used in steam turbines to produce electricity in a nuclear power
plant. Nuclear power can be obtained from nuclear fission, nuclear decay and nuclear fusion. The
atoms of a few elements such as radium and uranium act as natural source of energy. In fact
atoms of these elements spontaneously undergo changes in which the nucleus of the atom
disintegrates. The energy stored in the nuclei of atoms can be released by breaking a heavy
nucleus such as uranium into two lighter nuclei. The splitting of the nucleus of an atom into
fragments that are roughly equal in mass with the release of energy is called nuclear fission.
When a free neutron strikes a Uranium (235) nucleus at a correct speed, it gets absorbed.
A Uranium (235) nucleus on absorbing a neutron becomes highly unstable and splits into nuclei

2
 Renewable Energy
of smaller atoms releasing huge amount of energy in the process. During this process, a few
neutrons are also released. These neutrons split other nuclei of the Uranium (235). The reaction
continues rapidly and is known as the chain reaction. In this process a large amount of energy is
released. This energy is used for boiling water till it becomes steam. Steam so generated is used
to drive a turbine which helps in generating electrical energy.

Advantages Disadvantages
 Very concentrated form of energy  Produces radioactive waste
 Power plants do not produce smog  Radioactive elements arenonrenewable

1.1.3 Sun - The Ultimate Source of Energy

Solar energy is energy derived from sun in the form of solar radiation. It is hardness by
either direct sources (like solar cooker, solar steam systems, solar dryer, solar cells, etc.), or
indirect sources (biomass production, wind, tidal, etc.). The output of the sun is 2.8 x 10 23 Kwy-
1
. The energy reaching the earth is 1.5x 108 Kwy-1. It is used for drying, cooking, heating,
generating power etc.

Advantages Disadvantages
 Almost limitless source of energy  Expensive to use for large scale energy

 Does not produce air pollution production

 Only practical in sunny areas

 It is intermittent in nature

1.1.4 Wind Energy

Wind power is another alternative energy source that could be used without producing
by-products that are harmful to nature. Like solar power, harnessing the wind is highly
dependent on weather and location. However, it is one of the oldest and cleanest forms of energy
and the most developed of the renewable energy sources. There is the potential for a large
amount of energy to be produced from windmill.

3
 Renewable Energy

Advantages Disadvantages
 Renewable  Only practical in windy areas
 
 Relatively inexpensive to generate  Produces less energy
 
 Does not produce air pollution  Wind mill is big, bulky and
inconvenient to use as compared to
other forms of energy

1.1.5 Biomass Energy

Organic material made from plants and animals (microorganisms). Biomass has an
existing capacity of over 7,000 MW. Biomass as a fuel consists of organic matter such as
industrial waste, agricultural waste, wood, and bark. Biomass can also be used indirectly, since it
produces methane gas as it decays or through a modern process called gasification. Methane can
produce power by burning in a boiler to create steam to drive steam turbines or through internal
combustion in gas turbines and reciprocating engines.

Advantages Disadvantages
 Renewable  It is dispersed and land intensive source
 Cleaner burning than oil  Produces smoke
 Abundant  It has low energy density

1.1.6 Geothermal Energy

Geothermal energy is energy derived by tapping the heat of the earth itself like volcano,
geysers, hot springs (etc.). These volcanic features are called geothermal hotspots. Basically a
hotspot is an area of reduced thickness in the mantlewhich expects excess internal heat from the
interior of the earth to the outer crust.The heat from these geothermal hotspots is altered in the
form of steam which is usedto run a steam turbine that can generate electricity.

4
 Renewable Energy

Advantages Disadvantages
 Reliable  High cost of investment
 Sustainable  Emission of greenhouse gases during
 Environmentally friendly extraction of heat from ground
 Abundant Supply

1.1.7 Ocean Tidal and Wave energy

Tidal power or tidal energy is a form of hydropower that converts the energy obtained
from tides into useful forms of power, mainly electricity.
 Wave energy, also known as ocean energy is defined as energy harnessed from oceanic
waves. As the wind blows across the surface of the ocean, it creates waves and thus they
can also be referred to as energy moving across the surface of the water

 Tides are defined as the rise and fall of sea level caused by the gravitational pull of the
moon and the sun on the Earth. They are not only limited to the oceans, but can also
occur in other systems whenever a gravitational field exists.
 Ocean thermal energy (OTE)is the temperature differences (thermal gradients) between
ocean surface waters and that of ocean depths.Energy from the sun heats the surface
water of the ocean. In tropical regions, surface water can be much warmer than deep
water. This temperature difference can be used to produce electricity and to desalinate
ocean water

Advantages Disadvantages
 Running cost is negligible  Low efficiency
 Continuous power supply  High installation cost

1.2 Classification of energy sources

1.2.1 Based on usability
 Primary resources :-Primary sources can be used directly, as they appear in the natural

environment: coal, oil, natural gas and wood, nuclear fuels (uranium), the sun, the wind,

5
 Renewable Energy
tides, mountain lakes, the rivers (from which hydroelectric energy can be obtained) and
the Earth heat that supplies geothermal energy.
 Secondary resources: - They are derived from the transformation of primary energy

sources: for example petrol that derives from the treatment of crude oil and electric energy
obtained from the conversion of mechanical energy (hydroelectric plants, Aeolian plants),
chemical plants (thermoelectric), or nuclear (nuclear plants). Electric energy is produced
by electric plants, i.e. suitable installations that can transform primary energy (non-
transformed) into electric energy.
1.2.2 Based on transaction
i. Commercial Energy:-The energy sources that are available in the market for a definite
price are known as commercial energy. By far the most important forms of commercial
energy are electricity, coal and refined petroleum products.
ii. Non Commercial Energy:-The energy sources that are not available in the commercial
market for a price are classified as non-commercial energy. Non-commercial energy
sources include fuels such as firewood, cattle dung and agricultural wastes, which are
traditionally gathered, and not bought at a price and used especially in rural households.
These are also called traditional fuels. Non-commercial energy is often ignored in energy
accounting.
1.2.3 Based on energy storage or cycling time involved
i. Renewable energy (inexhaustible) are mostly biomass based and are available in
unlimited amount in nature. Since these can be renewed over a relatively short period of
time, energy sources that are replenished more rapidly are termed as renewable. These
include firewood or fuel wood from forest, petro plants, plant biomass ie. agricultural
waste like animal dung, solar energy, wing energy, water energy in the form of hydro-
electricity and tidal energy and geothermal energy etc.
ii. Non-renewable energy (exhaustible) are available in limited amount and develop over a
longer period of time. As a result of unlimited use, they are likely to be exhausted one
day. These include coal, mineral, natural gas and nuclear power. Coal, petroleum and
natural gases are common sources of energy being organic (biotic) in this origin. They
are also called fossil fuels.

6
 Renewable Energy

1.3.4 Based on traditional use

i. Conventional energy sources:- The sources of energy which have been in use for a long
time, e.g., coal, petroleum, natural gas and water power.They are exhaust able except
water and cause pollution when used, as they emit smoke and ash.
ii. Non-conventional energy sources:- The resources which are yet in the process of
development over the past few years. It includes solar, wind, tidal, biogas, and biomass,
geothermal.They are inexhaustible, pollution free, easy to maintain and less expensive
due to local use.

7
 Renewable Energy

Lecture No. 2
Properties of different types of renewable energy sources

2.1 Renewable energy is important because of the benefits it provides

a. Environmental Benefits
Renewable energy technologies are clean sources of energy that have a much lower
environmental impact than conventional energy technologies.
b. Energy for Our Children's Children (Sustainability)
Renewable energy will not run out. Ever, other sources ofenergy are finite and will someday be
depleted.
c. Jobs and the Economy
Most renewable energy investments are spent on materials and workmanship to build and
maintain the facilities, rather than on costly energy imports. Renewable energy investments are
usually spent within frequently in the same state, and often in the same town. This means your
energy dollars stay home to create jobs and fuel local economies, rather than going overseas.
d. Energy Security
After the oil supply disruptions of the early 1970s, our nation has increased its dependence on
foreign oil supplies instead of decreasing it. This increased dependence impacts more than just
our national energy policy
2.2 Availability of renewable energy resources
 Renewable Energy sources are not depleted, and it is distributed over a wide geographical
area, these resources are quickly renewed through natural process

 It won‟t create any environmental pollution problems

 The main advantage of using renewable resource is it is available throughout the year

 By an one time investment we can drew energy for many decades without affecting the
environment
2.3 Advantages of renewable energy

8
 Renewable Energy
 These sources of energy are renewable and there is no danger of depletion. These recur
in nature and are in-exhaustible.

 The power plants based on renewable sources of energy don‟t have any fuel cost and hence negligible running cost.

 Renewable are more site specific and are used for local processing and application. There
is no need for transmission and distribution of power.

 Renewables have low energy density and more or less there is no pollution or ecological
balance problem.

 Most of the devices and plants used with the renewables are simple in design and
construction which are made from local materials, local skills and by local people. The
use of renewable energy can help to save foreign exchange and generate local
employment.

 The rural areas and remote villages can be better served with locally available renewable
sources of energy. There will be huge savings from transporting fuels or transmitting
electricity from long distances.
2.4 Disadvantages of renewable energy
 Low energy density of renewable sources of energy need large sizes of plant resulting in
increased cost of delivered energy.

 Intermittency and lack of dependability are the main disadvantages of renewable energy
sources.

 Low energy density also results in lower operating temperatures and hence low
efficiencies.

 Although renewables are essentially free, there is definite cost effectiveness associated
with its conversion and utilization.

 Much of the construction materials used for renewable energy devices are themselves
very energy intensive.

 The low efficiency of these plants can result in large heat rejections and hence thermal
pollution.

 The renewable energy plants use larger land masses.

9
 Renewable Energy

Lecture No.3
Types of biogas plants, constructional details, biogas production and
utilization-problems

3.1 Biogas
Most organic materials undergo a natural anaerobic digestion in the presence of moisture and
absence of oxygen and produce biogas.The biogas so obtained is a mixture of methane (CH4):
55-65% and Carbon dioxide (CO2) : 30-40%. The biogas contains traces of H2, H2S and N2. The
calorific value of biogas ranges from 5000 to 5500 Kcal/Kg (18.8 to 26.4 MJ /m3).
Digestion is biological process that occurs in the absence of oxygen and in the presence of
anaerobic organisms at temperatures (35-70ºC) and atmospheric pressure. The container in
which, this process takes place is known as digester.
3.2 Types of biogas plants
Biogas plants basically are two types
3.2.1 Floating dome type
o The floating-drum plant with a cylindrical digester (KVIC model)
3.2.2 Fixed dome type
o The fixed-dome plant with a brick reinforced, moulded dome (Janata model)
o The fixed-dome plant with a hemisphere digester (Deenbandhu model)
3.2.1 Floating dome type
Floating-drum plants consist of an underground digester and a moving gas-holder. The gas-
holder floats either directly on the fermentation slurry or in a water jacket of its own. The gas is
collected in the gas drum, which rises or moves down, according to the amount of gas stored.
The gas drum is prevented from tilting by a guiding frame. If the drum floats in a water jacket, it
cannot get stuck, even in substrate with high solid content.

10
 Renewable Energy

Fig 3.1 Floating dome type plant

Drum:-In the past, floating-drum plants were mainly built in India. A floating-drum plant
consists of a cylindrical or dome-shaped digester and a moving, floating gas-holder, or drum.
The gas-holder floats either directly in the fermenting slurry or in a separate water jacket. The
drum in which the biogascollects has an internal and/or external guide frame that provides
stability and keeps the drum upright. If biogas is produced, the drum moves up, if gas is
consumed, the gas-holder sinks back.
Size:-Floating-drum plants are used chiefly for digesting animal and human feces on a
continuous feed mode of operation, i.e. with daily input. They are used most frequently by small-
to middle-sized farms (digester size: 5-15m3) or in institutions and larger agro-industrial estates
(digester size: 20-100m3).
3.2.1.1 KVIC type biogas plant
This mainly consists of a digester or pit for fermentation and a floating drum for the
collection of gas. Digester is 3.5-6.5 m in depth and 1.2 to 1.6 m in diameter. There is a partition
wall in the center, which divides the digester vertically and submerges in the slurry when it is
full. The digester is connected to the inlet and outlet by two pipes. Through the inlet, the dung is
mixed with water (4:5) and loaded into the digester. The fermented material will flow out
through outlet pipe. The outlet is generally connected to a compost pit. The gas generation takes
place slowly and in two stages. In the first stage, the complex, organic substances contained in
the waste are acted upon by a certain kind of bacteria, called acid formers and broken up into

11
 Renewable Energy
small-chain simple acids. In the second stage, these acids are acted upon by another kind of
bacteria, called methane formers and produce methane and carbon dioxide.

Fig 3.2 KVIC model biogas plant

Gas holder :-The gas holder is a drum constructed of mild steel sheets. This is cylindrical in
shape with concave. The top is supported radically with angular iron. The holder fits into the
digester like a stopper. It sinks into the slurry due to its own weight and rests upon the ring
constructed for this purpose. When gas is generated the holder rises and floats freely on the
surface of slurry. A central guide pipe is provided to prevent the holder from tilting. The holder
also acts as a seal for the gas. The gas pressure varies between 7 and 9 cm of water column.
Under shallow water table conditions, the adopted diameter of digester is more and depth is
reduced. The cost of drum is about 40% of total cost of plant. It requires periodical maintenance.
The unit cost of KVIC model with a capacity of 2 m3/day costs approximately Rs.14, 000.
3.2.1.2 Advantages and Disadvantages of floating dome plants

Advantages Disadvantages
 Simple, easily understood operation  High material costs of the steel drum
 
 Volume of stored gas is directly visible  Susceptibility of steel parts to corrosion

 The gas pressure is constant, floating drum plants have a shorter life
determined by the weight of the gas span than fixed-dome plants
holder 
 
 The construction is relatively easy,  Regular maintenance costs for the
construction mistakes do not lead to painting of the drum

12
 Renewable Energy
major problems in operation and gas
yield.

3.2.2 Fixed-dome type plants

A fixed-dome plant consists of a digester with a fixed, non-movable gas holder, which sits on
top of the digester. When gas production starts, the slurry is displaced into the compensation
tank. Gas pressure increases with the volume of gas stored and the height difference between the
slurry level in the digester and the slurry level in the compensation tank.

Fig 3.3 Fixed-dome type plants

1 Mixing tank with inlet pipe and sand trap. 6 Entry hatch, with gastight seal
2 Digester 7 Accumulation of thick sludge.
3 Compensation and removal tank 8 Outlet pipe
4 Gasholder 9 Reference level
5 Gaspipe 10 Supernatant scum, broken up by varying level

13
 Renewable Energy

Fig 3.4 Basic function of a fixed-dome biogas plant

1. Mixing pit, 2. Digester, 3. Gasholder, 4. Displacement pit, 5. Gas pipe

a) Function - A fixed-dome plant comprises of a closed, dome-shaped digester with an

immovable, rigid gas-holder and a displacement pit, also named 'compensation tank'. The gas is
stored in the upper part of the digester. When gas production commences, the slurry is displaced
into the compensating tank. Gas pressure increases with the volume of gas stored, i.e. with the
height difference between the two slurry levels. If there is little gas in the gas-holder, the gas
pressure is low.
b) Digester - The digesters of fixed-dome plants are usually masonry structures, structures of
cement and ferro-cementexist. Main parameters for the choice of material are:
o Technical suitability (stability, gas- and liquid tightness)
o Cost-effectiveness
o Availability in the region and transport costs
o Availability of local skills for working with the particular building material.
Fixed dome plants produce just as much gas as floating-drum plants, if they are gas-tight.
However, utilization of the gas is less effective as the gas pressure fluctuates substantially.
Burners and other simple appliances cannot be set in an optimal way. If the gas is required at
constant pressure (e.g., for engines), a gas pressure regulator or a floating gas-holder is
necessary.

14
 Renewable Energy
c) Gas Holder - The top part of a fixed-dome plant (the gas space) must be gas-tight. Concrete,
masonry and cement rendering are not gas-tight. The gas space must therefore be painted with a
gas-tight layer (e.g. 'Water-proofer', Latex or synthetic paints). A possibility to reduce the risk of
cracking of the gas-holder consists in the construction of a weak-ring in the masonry of the
digester. This "ring" is a flexible joint between the lower (water-proof) and the upper (gas-proof)
part of the hemispherical structure. It prevents cracks that develop due to the hydrostatic pressure
in the lower parts to move into the upper parts of the gas-holder.

3.2.2.1 Advantages and Disadvantages of fixed dome plants

Advantages Disadvantages

 Low initial costs and long useful life-  Masonry gas-holders require special
span sealants and high technical skills for

 No moving or rusting parts involved gas-tight construction
 
 Basic design is compact, saves space  Gas leaks occur quite frequently;
and is well insulated fluctuating gas pressure complicates

 Construction creates local gas utilization

employment.  Amount of gas produced is not

 The underground construction saves immediately visible, plant operation
space and protects the digester from not readily understandable

temperature changes  Fixed dome plants need exact planning
of levels; excavation can be difficult
and expensive in bedrock.

3.2.3 Types of Fixed Dome Plants

3.2.3.1 Janata model
The design of this plant is of Chinese origin but it has been introduced under the name
“Janata biogas plant” by Gobar Gas Research Station, Ajitmal in view of its reduced cost. This is
a plant where no steel is used, there is no moving part in it and maintenance cost is low. The
plant can be constructed by village mason taking some pre-explained precautions and using all
the indigenously available building materials. Good quality of bricks and cement should be used
to avoid the afterward structural problems like cracking of the dome and leakage of gas.

15
 Renewable Energy
Substrates other than cattle dung such as municipal waste and plant residues can also be used in
janata type plants.
The plant consists of an underground well sort of digester made of bricks and cement having
a dome shaped roof which remains below the ground level is shown in Fig 3.5.At almost middle
of the digester, there are two rectangular openings facing each other and coming up to a little
above the ground level, act as an inlet and outlet of the plant. Dome shaped roof is fitted with a
pipe at its top which is the gas outlet of the plant. The principle of gas production is same as that
of KVIC model. The biogas is collected in the restricted space of the fixed dome, hence the
pressure of gas is much higher, which is around 90 cm of water column.

Fig 3.5Janta model biogas plant

3.2.3.2 Deenbandhu Model

Deenbandhu model biogas plant was developed by AFPRO (Action for Food Production,
New Delhi) in 1984. The world Deenbandhu is meant as the friend of the poor. This plant is
designed on the principle that the surface area of biogas plants is reduced (minimized) to reduce
their installation cost without sacrificing the efficiency of the plant. The design consists of
segments of two spheres of different diameters, joined at their bases. The structure thus formed
act as the digester as fermentation chamber as well as the gas storage chamber. The higher
compressive strength of the brick masonry and concrete makes it preferable to go in for a

16
 Renewable Energy
structure which could always be kept under compression. A spherical structure loaded from the
convex side will be under compression and therefore, the internal load will not have any residual
effect on the structure.
The digester is connected with the inlet pipe and the outlet tank. The upper part above the
normal slurry level of the outlet tank is designed to accommodate the slurry to be displaced out
of the digester with the generation and accumulation of biogas and is called outlet displacement
chamber. The size of these plants is recommended up to 6 m3 per day. The different components
of Deenbandhu model biogas plant are show in Fig. 3.6.

Fig 3.6 Deenbandhu model biogas plant

3.3 Comparison among KVIC, Janta and Deenbandhu biogas plants

Comparison among the above mentioned biogas plants is explained in Table 3.1
Table 3.1 Comparison between KVIC, Janata and Deenbandhu biogas plants
KVIC Janata Deenbandhu

The digester of this plant is a Digester of this plant is a Digester is made of segments
deep well shaped masonry shallow well shaped masonry of two spheres: one for the
structure. In plants of above structure, No partition wall is bottom and other for the top
3m3capacity a partition wall provided
is provided in middle of the
digester

17
 Renewable Energy
Gas holder is generally made Gas holder is an integral part of The structure described
of mild steel. It is inverted into the masonry structure of the above includes digester and
the digester and goes up and plant. Slurry from the gas the gas storage chamber. Gas
down with formation and storage portion is displaced out is stored in the same way as
utilization of gas with the formation of gas and in the case of Janata plants
comes back when it is used

The gas is available at a Gas pressure varies from 0 to Gas pressure varies from 0 to
constant pressure of about 10 90 cm of water column 75 cm of water column
cm of water column

Inlet and outlet connections Inlet and outlet tanks are large Inlet connection is through
are provided through A.C masonry structures designed to A.C pipe. Outlet tank is a
pipes store the slurry displaced out of large masonry tank designed
the digester with the formation to store slurry displaced out
of gas of the digester with the
formation of gas

Gas storage capacity of the It is the combined volume of It is the volume of outlet
plant is governed by the inlet and outlet displacement displacement chamber and is
volume of gas holder and is chambers and is 50% of gas 33% of gas produced per day
50% of gas produced per day produced per day

The floating mild steel gas There is no moving part and There is no moving part and
holder needs regular care and hence no recurring expenditure. hence no recurring
maintenance to prevent the gas It also has long working life expenditure. It also has a
holder from getting worn out long working life
because of corrosion. It also
has short life span.

Installation cost is very high It is cheaper than the KVIC It is much cheaper than
type plants KVIC and Janata type plants

18
 Renewable Energy
Digester can be constructed Entire plant can be built by a Entire plant can be built by a
locally but the gasholder needs trained mason using locally trained mason using locally
sophisticated workshop available materials available material
facilities

3.4 Design procedure for a biogas digester

A biogas plant may be designed based on the energy requirement or on the feed material
available. Generally standard designs are available for the common biogas plant designs.
However, it is advisable to understand the basic procedure.
The following example shows the design for cooking requirement for a medium family.

= 6 X 0.30

Gas requirement Gas required for cooking for 6 people (@ 0.30 m3 / day /
person)
= 1.8 m3/day
= ~ 2 m3/day
Cow dung requirement
1 kg of wet cow dung yields = 0.035 m3
= = 2.0/0.035
= 57 kg
= 60 kg
Average cow dung yield from 1 cattle = 12 kg (wet)
So, number of animals required = 60/12
= 5 animals
Digester dimensions
Amount of slurry fed (1:1 ratio of slurry: water) = 60+60 litre/day
= 120 litres/day
(Sp. Gravity of slurry is assumed to be 1.0) = 0.12 m3/day
The plant can also be designed as per the dung availability. If 5
cows are available, Then,

19
 Renewable Energy
Dung production per cow = 12 kg/day

Total dung production = 12 * 5 = 60 kg

Assuming Sp. Gravity as 1, volume = 60 litre
Daily slurry volume by mixing with water = 120 litres/day
Retention time = 35 days
Volume of the digester required = 0.12 * 35
Using a ratio of 1 to 1.1 for height to diameter, = 4.2 m3
π D2 * (1.1D) / 4 = 4.2 m3

Diameter D can be found from the above relation

Design of gas holder
Gas produced daily = 2 m3
It is assumed that the gas produced during the night is used up for cooking the breakfast and
lunch in the morning. The gas produced in the day time after the morning cooking is used for
cooking dinner in the evening. So the storage requirement is only 50% of daily gas production.
Gas to be stored = 1 m3
Diameter of he gas holder will be slightly less than the diameter of he digester so as to ensure its
free movement.
π D2 * H / 4 = 1 m3
We can find the height of gas holder, H from the above relation ship
3.5 Utilization of biogas
Biogas generated from anaerobic digestion processes is a clean and environmentally
friendly renewable fuel. But it is important to clean, or upgrade, biogas before using it to
increase its heating value and to make it useable in some gas appliances such as engines and
boilers. Biogas can potentially be used in many types of equipment, including:
 Internal Combustion (Piston) Engine – Electrical Power Generation, Shaft Power

 Gas Turbine Engine (Large) – Electrical Power Generation, Shaft Power

 Microturbine Engine (Small) – Electrical Power Generation

 Stirling Heat Engine – Electrical Power Generation

 Boiler (Steam) Systems

20
 Renewable Energy
 Hot Water Systems

 Process Heaters (Furnaces)

 Space or Air Heaters

 Gas Fired Chiller - Refrigeration

 Absorption Chiller - Refrigeration

 Combined Heat and Power (CHP) - Large and Small Scale – Electrical Power and Heat

 Fuel Cells – Electrical Power, Some Heat
There are a variety of end uses for biogas. Except for the simplest thermal uses such as odor
flaring or some types of heating, biogas needs to be cleaned or processed prior to use. With
appropriate cleaning or upgrade, biogas can be used in all applications that were developed for
natural gas. The three basic end uses for biogas are:
a. Production of heat or steam
The most straightforward use of biogas is for thermal (heat) energy. In areas where fuels
are scarce, small biogas systems can provide the heat energy for basic cooking and water
heating. Gas lighting systems can also use biogas for illumination. Conventional gas burners are
easily adjusted for biogas by simply changing the air-to-gas ratio. The demand for biogas quality
in gas burners is low, only requiring a gas pressure of 8 to 25 mbar and maintaining H2S levels
to below 100 ppm to achieve a dew point of 150 degrees C.
b. Electricity Generation or Combined Heat and Power (CHP)
Combined heat and power systems use both the power producing ability of a fuel and the
inevitable waste heat. Some CHP systems produce primarily heat, and electrical power is
secondary (bottoming cycle). Other CHP systems produce primarily electrical power and the
waste heat is used to heat process water (topping cycle). In either case, the overall (combined)
efficiency of the power and heat produced and used gives a much higher efficiency than using
the fuel (biogas) to produce only power or heat. Other than high initial investments, gas turbines
(micro-turbines, 25-100 kW; large turbines, >100 kW) with comparable efficiencies to spark-
ignition engines and low maintenance can be used for production of both heat and power.
However, internal combustion engines are most cmmonly used in CHP applications. The use of
biogas in these systems requires removal of both H2S (to below 100 ppm) and water vapor.
c. Vehicle fuel

21
 Renewable Energy
Gasoline vehicles can use biogas as a fuel provided the biogas is upgraded to natural gas
quality in vehicles that have been adjusted to using natural gas. Most vehicles in this category
have been retro-fitted with a gas tank and a gas supply system in addition to the normal petrol
fuel system. However, dedicated vehicles (using only biogas) are more efficient than these retro-
fits.

22
 Renewable Energy
Lecture No.4

Agricultural wastes, principles of combustion, pyrolysis and gasification

4.1 Biomass
Plant matter created by the process of photosynthesis is called biomass (or) all organic
materials such as plants, trees and crops are potential sources of energy and are collectively
called biomass.The term biomass is also generally understood to include human waste, and
organic fractions of sewage sludge, industrial effluents and household wastes. The biomass
sources are highly dispersed and bulky and contain large amounts of water (50 to 90%). Thus, it
is not economical to transport them over long distances, and conversion into usable energy must
takes place close to source, which is limited to particular regions.

Fig. 4.1 Schematic diagram of utilization of biomass

23
 Renewable Energy
4.1.2 Biomass Conversion
Biomass can either be utilized directly as a fuel, or can be converted into liquid or
gaseous fuels, which can also be as feedstock for industries. Most biomass in dry state can be
burned directly to produce heat, steam or electricity. On the other hand biological conversion
technologies utilize natural anaerobic decay processes to produce high quality fuels from
biomass. Various possible conversion technologies for getting different products from biomass is
broadly classified into three groupsviz. (i) thermo-chemical conversion, (ii) bio-chemical
conversion and (iii) oil extraction.
Thermo-chemical conversion includes processes like combustion, gasification and
pyrolysis. Combustion refers to the conversion of biomass to heat and power by directly burning
it, as occurs in boilers. Gasification is the process of converting solid biomass with a limited
quantity of air into producer gas, while pyrolysis is the thermal decomposition of biomass in the
absence of oxygen. The products of pyrolysis are charcoal, condensable liquid and gaseous
products.
Combustion, gasification and pyrolysis are all thermochemical processes to convert
biomass into energy. In all of them, the biomass is heated to evaporate water and then to cause
pyrolysis to occur and to produce volatiles.
Thermal conversion processes for biomass involve some or all of the following
processes:
Pyrolysis: Biomass +heat charcoal , gas and oil
Gasification: Biomass +limited oxygen fuel gas
Combustion: Biomass +stoichiometric O2 hot combustion products
4.1.3 Combustion
Combustion is a process whereby the total or partial oxidation of carbon and hydrogen
converts the chemical energy of biomass into heat. This complex chemical reaction can be
briefly described as follows:
Burning fuel = Products from reaction + heat
During the combustion process, organic matter decomposes in phases, i.e. drying,
pyrolysis/gasification, ignition of volatile substances and charcoal combustion. Generally
speaking, these phases correspond to two reaction times: release of volatile substances and
respective combustion, followed by charcoal combustion.

24
 Renewable Energy
Wood, agricultural residues, wood pulping liquor, municipal solid waste (MSW) and
refuse derived fuel are examples of feed stocks for combustion. Combustion requires high
temperatures for ignition, sufficient turbulence to mix all of the components with the oxidant,
and time to complete all of the oxidation reactions. The moisture content of the feedstock should
be low and pre-drying may be necessary in some cases.
Biomass combustion starts by heating and drying the feedstock. After all of the moisture
has been removed, temperature rises for pyrolysis to occur in the absence of oxygen. The major
products are hydrogen, CO, CO2, CH4 and other hydrocarbons. In the end, char and volatile
gases are formed and they continue to react independently. The volatile gases need oxygen in
order to achieve a complete flame combustion. Mostly CO2 and H2O result from complete
combustion. When combusting biomass in a furnace, hot gases are released. They contain about
85% of the fuel‟s potential energy. The heat can be used either directly or indirectly through a
heat exchanger, in the form of hot air or water. Boiler used for biomass combusting transfers the
produced heat into steam. The steam can be used for producing electricity, mechanical energy or
heat.
4.1.4 Gasification
Gasification is a process whereby organic matter decomposes through thermal reactions,
in the presence of stoichiometric amounts of oxidising agents. The process generates a
combustible gas mix, essentially composed of carbon monoxide, hydrogen, carbon dioxide,
methane, steam and, though in smaller proportions, other heavier hydrocarbons and tars. The
process is aimed at converting the energy potential of a solid fuel into a gas product, whose
energy content has the form of chemical energy with the capacity to generate work.
Gasification is carried out in two steps. First, the biomass is heated to around 600
degrees. The volatile components, such as hydrocarbon gases, hydrogen, CO, CO2, H2O and tar,
vaporize by various reactions. The remaining by-products are char and ash. For this first
endothermic step, oxygen is not required. In the second step, char is gasified by reactions with
oxygen, steam and hydrogen in high temperatures. The endothermic reactions require heat,
which is applied by combusting some of the unburned char. Main products of gasification are
synthesis gas, char and tars. The content depends on the feedstock, oxidizing agent and the
conditions of the process. The gas mainly consists of CO, CO4, H2O, CH4 and other

25
 Renewable Energy
hydrocarbons. The synthesis gas can be utilized for heating or electricity production. It can also
be used for the production of ethanol, diesel and chemical feed stocks.
4.1.5 Pyrolysis
In pyrolysis, biomass is heated in the absence of air. The process results liquid, solid and
gaseous fractions, mainly gases, bio-oil and char. The gases and the bio-oil are from the volatile
fraction of biomass, while the char is mostly the fixed carbon component. In the first step,
temperature is increased to start the primary pyrolysis reactions. As a result, volatiles are
released and char is formed. Finally, after various reactions, pyrolysis gas is formed. The main
product of slow pyrolysis, a thousands of years old process, is char or charcoal. In slow pyrolysis
biomass is heated to around 500 degrees for 5 to 30min.Fast pyrolysis results mainly in bio-oil.
The biomass is heated in the absence of oxygen and the residence time is 0, 5 to 5s. Vapours,
aerosols and char are generated through decomposition. After cooling, bio-oil is formed. The
remaining non condensable gases can be used as a source of energy for the pyrolysis reactor.
Calculated by weight, fast pyrolysis results in 60%-75% liquid bio-oil, 15%-25% solid char, and
10%-20% non-condensable gases.
Table 4.1 Comparison between pyrolysis, combustion and gasification
Process Pyrolysis Combustion Gasification

oil, tar (liquid/vapour), heat, flue gas and gases as: CO2, H2O
CO2,H2O, combustible gases as: CO2, H2O, and N2 ) in case air
Main products gas(es)as:CO,H2, CH4 N2. was thegasifying
and char agent),heat, tar and
combustiblegas as:
CO, H2 and CH4
Carbon
conversion, % ≈75 >99 80-95
Oxygen nil >1, typically 1.3 for 0-1, typically 0.2-0.4.
stoichiometry solid fuels.
Chemical
reactivity of main reactive, combustible non-reactive stable, combustible.
product

26
 Renewable Energy

Physical existence Solid, liquid and gas gas gas

High heating
value (HHV), 16-19 nil 5-20
MJ/kg
air, pure oxygen,
Oxidant non air steam or their
combinations
550-900 with air
Operating 500-800 850-1200 gasification. 1000-
temperature, °C 1600 with other
gasifying agents
Operating higher than or atmospheric atmospheric
pressure atmospheric
particulates, tars and particulates and particulates, tars and
Pollutants compounds of chloride, compounds of compounds of
nitrogen and sulfur chloride, nitrogen chloride, nitrogen and
and sulfur sulfur

27
 Renewable Energy
Lecture No.5

Types of gasifiers, producer gas and its utilization

5.1 Gasifiers
Gasification of wood and other agricultural cellulosic residues was a common practice at
the beginning of this century to produce low calorie fuel gas. Gasifiers can be suitably used for
thermal decomposition of a wide range of feed materials from forestry products, agricultural
residues, and aquatic biomass to municipal solid wastes.
However, some important points which should be taken into consideration while
undertaking any biomass gasification system:
 A gasifier itself is of little use. It is used either to generate a combustible gas to provide
heat or to generate a fuel gas which can be used in an internal combustion engine as a
petroleum oil substitute.

 Some of the gaseous, liquid and solid products of combustion are not only harmful to
engines and burners, but also to human beings. That is why these gases are not used as
cooking gas.

 A gasifier must have an effective gas cleaning train if the gas is to be used for internal
combustion engines. A maximum limit of 5-15 mg solids and tar per kg of gas may be
allowed for the use of the gas in an internal combustion engine.

 A gasification system may not be of much advantage to generate a combustible gas, as far
as fossil fuel savings, economies and ease of operation are concerned.
5.1.1 Types of gasifiers
`Gasifiers are generally classified on the basis of the physical conditions of the feed stocks in
the reactors. The gasifiers may be grouped into the following types:
(a) Dense phase reactors
(b) Lean phase reactors
(a) Dense phase reactors
In dense phase reactors, the feedstock fills most of the space in the reactor. They
are common, available in different designs depending upon the operating conditions, and
are of three types: downdraft, updraft, and cross-draft.

28
 Renewable Energy

i) Downdraft or co-current gasifiers

The downdraft (also known as co-current) gasifier is the most common type of gasifier.
In downdraft gasifiers, the pyrolysis zone is above the combustion zone and the reduction zone is
below the combustion zone. Fuel is fed from the top. The flow of air and gas is downwards
(hence the name) through the combustion and reduction zones. The term co-current is used
because air moves in the same direction as that of fuel, downwards. A downdraft gasifier is so
designed that tar, which is produced in the pyrolysis zone, travels through the combustion zone,
where it is broken down or burnt. As a result, the mixture of gases in the exit stream is relatively
clean. The position of the combustion zone is thus a critical element in the downdraft gasifier, its
main advantage being that it produces gas with low tar content, which is suitable for gas engines.

Fig. 5.1 Downdraft gasifier

ii) Updraft or counter-current gasifier
In updraft gasifiers (also known as counter-current), air enters from below the grate and
flows upwards, whereas the fuel flows downwards. An updraft gasifier has distinctly defined
zones for partial combustion, reduction, pyrolysis, and drying. The gas produced in the reduction
zone leaves the gasifier reactor together with the products of pyrolysis from the pyrolysis zone
and steam from the drying zone. The resulting combustible producer gas is rich in hydrocarbons
(tars) and, therefore, has a higher calorific value, which makes updraft gasifiers more suitable
where heat is needed, for example in industrial furnaces. The producer gas needs to be
thoroughly cleaned if it is to be used for generating electricity.

29
 Renewable Energy

Fig 5.2 Up-draft gasifier

iii) Cross-draft gasifier

In a cross-draft gasifier, air enters from one side of the gasifier reactor and leaves from
the other. Cross-draft gasifiers have a few distinct advantages such as compact construction and
low cleaning requirements. Also, cross-draft gasifiers do not need a grate; the ash falls to the
bottom and does not come in the way of normal operation.

Fig. 5.3 Cross-draft gasifier

b) Lean phase reactors
Lean phase gasifiers lack separate zones for different reactions. All reactions –
drying,combustion, pyrolysis, and reduction – occur in one large reactor chamber. Lean phase
reactors are mostly of two types, fluidized bed gasifiers and entrained-flow gasifiers.

30
 Renewable Energy
i) Fluidized bed gasifiers
In fluidized bed gasifiers, the biomass is brought into an inert bed of fluidized material
(e.g. sand, char, etc.). The fuel is fed into the fluidized system either above-bed or directly into
the bed, depending upon the size and density of the fuel and how it is affected by the bed
velocities. During normal operation, the bed media is maintained at a temperature between 550
°C and 1000 °C. When the fuel is introduced under such temperature conditions, its drying and
pyrolyzing reactions proceed rapidly, driving off all gaseous portions of the fuel at relatively low
temperatures. The remaining char is oxidized within the bed to provide the heat source for the
drying and devolatilizing reactions to continue. Fluidized bed gasifiers are better than dense
phase reactors in that they produce more heat in short time due to the abrasion phenomenon
between inert bed material and biomass, giving a uniformly high (800–1000 ºC) bed temperature.
A fluidized bed gasifier works as a hot bed of sand particles agitated constantly by air. Air is
distributed through nozzles located at the bottom of the bed.

Fig. 5.4 Fluidized bed gasifiers

ii) Entrained-flow gasifiers
In entrained-flow gasifiers, fuel and air are introduced from the top of the reactor, and
fuel is carried by the air in the reactor. The operating temperatures are 1200–1600 °C and the
pressure is 20–80 bar. Entrained-flow gasifiers can be used for any type of fuel so long as it is
dry (low moisture) and has low ash content. Due to the short residence time (0.5–4.0
seconds), high temperatures are required for such gasifiers. The advantage of entrained-flow
gasifiers is that the gas contains very little tar.

31
 Renewable Energy

Fig. 5.5 Entrained-flow gasifiers

Some of the advantages and disadvantages of different types of gasifiers are shown in Table 5.1.
Table 5.1 Advantages and disadvantages of different gasifier types
Gasifier Advantages Disadvantages
Simple design Simple design
High amount of tar and pyrolysis High amount of tar and pyrolysis
Updraft High fuel to gas conversion efficiency
Accepts fuels with higher moisture content
Accepts fuels of different sizes
Low tar Limited scale-up Limited scale-up
Best option for usage in gas engines At low temperatures, more tar
Downdraft produced
High amounts of ash and dust
Fuel requirements are strict
Cross-draft Applicable for small-scale operations High amount of tar produced
Due to high temperatures, gas cleaning
requirements are low
Compact construction Gas stream contains fine particles
ofdust
Uniform temperature profile Complex system due to low
Fluidized biomass
bed hold up in the fuel bed

32
 Renewable Energy
Accepts fuel size variation Variety of biomass can be used but
fuel flexibility is applicable for
biomass of 0.1 cm to 1 cm size
High ash melting point of biomass does
not
lead to clinker formation
Entrained- Applicable to large systems High investment
flow Short residence time for biomass Strict fuel requirements

5.2 Producer gas applications

The producer gas obtained can be used either to produce heat or to generate electricity.
5.2.1 Thermal applications
Producer gas can also be burnt directly in open air, much like Liquid Petroleum Gas
(LPG), and therefore can be used for cooking, boiling water, producing steam, and drying food
and other materials.
 Dryer: The hot gas after combustion can be mixed with the right quantity of secondary
air to lower its temperature to the desired level for use in dryers in the industries such as
tea drying, cardamom drying etc.

 Kilns: Firing of tiles, pottery articles, limestone and refractories, where temperatures of
800–950 °C are required.

 Boilers: Producer gas can be used as fuel in boilers to produce steam or hot water.
5.2.2 Power applications
Producer gas can be used for generating motive power to run either dual-fuel engines
(which run on a mixture of gas and diesel, with gas replacement of up to 85% of diesel) or
engines that run on producer gas alone (100% diesel replacement). In general, the fuel-to
electricity efficiency of gasification is much higher than that of direct combustion: The
conversion efficiency of gasification is 35%–45% whereas that of combustion is only 10%–
20%. Generated electricity can be fed into the grid or can be used for farm operations, irrigation,
chilling or cold storage, and other commercial and industrial applications.

33
 Renewable Energy
5.2.3 Conditions and requirements for implementation
Biomass gasifier needs uniform-sized and dry fuel for smooth and trouble-free operation.
Most gasifier systems are designed either for woody biomass (or dense briquettes made from
loose biomass) or for loose, pulverized biomass.
Woody biomass:
 Pieces smaller than 5–10 cm (2–4 inches) in any dimension, depending on design

 Bulk density of wood or briquettes: less than 250–300 kg/m3
Loose biomass:
 Pulverized biomass, depending on design

 Moisture content up to 15%–25%, depending on gasifier design

 Ash content below 5% preferred; with a maximum limit of 20%

 Bulk density of loose biomass is less than 150 kg/m3

34
 Renewable Energy
Lecture No.6

Briquettes, types of briquetting, uses of briquettes, shredders

6.1 Briquetting

It is the process of compaction of residues into a product of higher density than the
original raw materials. It is also known as densification. The handling characteristics of material
for packaging, transportation and storage are also improved. If produced at low cost and made
conveniently accessible to consumers, briquettes could serve as compliments to firewood and
charcoal for domestic cooking and agro-industrial operations, thereby reducing the high demand
for both. Besides, briquettes have advantages over fuel wood in terms of greater heat intensity,
cleaningness, convenience in use and relatively smaller space requirement for storage. The
briquettes are normally cylindrical or rectangular in shape.

6.1.1 Types of Briquetting

On the basis of compaction, the briquetting technologies can be divided into: High
pressure compaction, medium pressure compaction with a heating device and low pressure
compaction with a binder.

At present, there are two high-pressure technologies: Piston press and screw extrusion
machines used for briquetting. The briquetting produced by a piston press are completely solid,
while screw press briquettes have a concentric hole, which gives better combustion
characteristics due to a larger specific area. The screw press briquettes are also homogenous and
do not disintegrate easily. Having a high combustion rate, these can substitute for coal in most
applications and in boilers. Briquettes can be produced with a density of 1200 Kg/m 3 from loose

biomass of bulk density 100 to 200 Kg/m3 . A higher density gives the briquette a higher heat
value (KJ/Kg), and makes the briquettes burn more slowly as compared to the raw materials
from which the briquettes are made.

35
 Renewable Energy
6.1.2Process of briquetting

Briquetting is a technological method of compressing and densifying the bulky raw

material, thereby reducing its volume-weight ratio and making it usable for various purposes.
The vital requirement of briquette formation from woody biomass is the destruction of the
elasticity of the wood, which could be done either by previous heat treatment or by a high
pressure or by a combination of both. There are two processes of briquetting biomass, namely
direct compaction and compaction after pyrolysis or carbonization as mentioned below:

Fig. 6.1Process of briquetting

a) Direct compaction
There are two technologies for the manufacture of briquettes by directly compacting the biomass
without previous heat treatment.
(i) Binderless process :The process involves two steps
 Semi-fluidizing the biomass: Biomass is semi-fluidized through the application of high

pressure in the range of 1200 – 2000 kg/cm2, at which conditioned biomass gets heated
to a temperature of about 182°C and the lignin present in biomass begins to flow and act
as binder, provides mechanical support and repels water.

36
 Renewable Energy
 Extracting the densified material: The semi-fluidized biomass is densified through
electrically operated briquetting machines available in the range of 100-300 kg/h, the cost
of such briquetting units depend upon its capacity and is in between Rs. 3 lakh to 20
lakhs.

(ii) With binder process: In this process, the biomass requires addition of some external binding
materials like molasses, dung slurry, lignasulphonate, sodium silicate etc. The briquetting
machines operate at lower pressure range of 500-1000 kg/cm2 and are powered by electricity.
Such machines are available in the capacity range of 100 to 400 kg/h.
b)Pyrolysis / carbonization and extrusion
The elasticity of biomass could be destroyed by previous heat treatment of the biomass.
Pyrolysis is the process of destructive distillation of organic materials heated at slow rate at
about 270°C in the absence or minimum presence of oxygen. During process of pyrolysis, solid
char, liquid tar and combustible gases besides organic liquids are produced. The nature and
quantum of these products depend on various factors such as composition of biomass, residence
time in kiln and temperature. During the pyrolysis, the fibre content of biomass is broken, which
later facilitates in briquetting of produced charcoal. The charcoal is briquetted through extrusion
or compaction process.
6.2 Briquettes

Fuel briquettes are essentially a compressed block of organic waste materials used for
domestic cooking and heating. The final end product of briquetting process is known as a
briquette. Briquettes are made from raw materials that are compacted into a mould. Briquette
could be made of different shapes and sizes depending on the mould. The appearance, burning
characteristics of briquettes depend on the type of feedstock and the level of compactness and the
mould used. But in general, briquettes have better physical properties and combustion rate than
the initial waste. Production of briquette charcoal helps to ease the pressure on the forest reserve,
there by solving the deforestation problem.

6.2.1 Applications of Briquettes

Briquettes have many numerous uses which include both domestic and small industrial
cottage applications. They are often used as a development intervention to replace firewood,

37
 Renewable Energy
charcoal, or other solid fuels. This is because with the current fuel shortage and ever rising
prices, consumers are looking for affordable alternative fuels and briquettes fill this gap for:

• Cooking and water heating in households

• Heating productive processes such as tobacco curing, fruits, tea drying, poultry rearing etc.

• Firing ceramics and clay wares such as improved cook stoves, pottery, bricks etc.

• Fuel for gasifiers to generate electricity

• Powering boilers to generate steam.

6.2.2 Advantages of Briquetting Process

 The process helps to solve the problem of loose waste / residues of agricultural
forestry and agro-industrial processing so as to check environmental pollution.

 The process increases the net calorific value per unit volume.

 The fuel produced is uniform in size and quality. No toxic gas and sulphur emission,
even no odour during combustion.

 Densified product is easy to transport and store. Bulk density of briquettes (1000 kg
/m3) is higher than agro-wastes (50 kg /m3).

 Fire risk in loose storage of biomass is minimized.

 The process produces high quality fuel with very low ash content (2-5 %) compared to
30-40% in case of coal.

 The briquettes are easy to burn, as briquettes have lower ignition temperature
compared to coal.

 It produces gas during burning which accelerates burning efficiencies and inhales
Co2 and releases oxygen to the atmosphere

6.2.3 Limitations of Briquetting Process

 Briquettes can only be used as solid fuels. They have no application as liquid fuel such as
the one being used in internal combustion engines.

38
 Renewable Energy
 The second major problem identified with the briquetting process is the life of the screw,
where dies screw is used. Usually the screw wears out within 3-4 hours and becomes
unusable.

 Repairing of the screw causes interruption in the work and also one screw cannot be
repaired more than 10 times Therefore, the cost of screw and its repair are one of the
major barriers to further dissemination of briquetting technology.

 Briquettes cannot withstand direct contact with water, so a covered storage facility is

required. The maximum attainable temperature is 1000oC due to their low carbon content.
However, this temperature is more than adequate for cooking purpose, but may not be
sufficient for industrial applications.

 The burning capacity per unit volume is low compared to coal, so a larger storage area is
required.
6.3 Shredders
Shredders are used to reduce biomass volume and make it convenient for handling, transport and
storage. This machine uses high speed rotating flails to shred material.
6.3.1 Types of densification processes
 Briquetting: Where biomass is compacted between rollers with cavities producing egg-
shaped briquettes (product 1-4 cm size).

 Pelleting: Where biomass is forced through the holes in a die-plate by pressure rolls (product
0.5- 1 cm size).

 Cutting: A modified form of pelleting (product 2 -5 cm size).

 Extruding: Where biomass is forced through the holes using a screw (2 -10 cm dia).

 Rolling / Compressing: Where biomass is wrapped round a rotating shaft which produces a
high density roll or log (Where biomass is forced through the holes in a die-plate by pressure
rolls (product 10 -18 cm dia).

39
 Renewable Energy

Lecture No. 7
Solar energy, solar flat plate and focussing plate collectors

7.1 Solar Energy

The Earth receives around 170,000 terawatts of solar energy continuously, which is roughly
10,000 times what is needed to power the world. Every day, the sun radiates an enormous
amount of energy. This energy comes from within the sun itself. Like most stars, the sun is a big
gas ball made mostly of hydrogen and helium. The sun produces energy in a process called
nuclear fusion. The high pressure and temperature in the sun‟s core cause hydrogen atoms to
split apart. Four hydrogen nuclei combine or fuse, to form one helium atom, producing radiant
energy in the process.

The sun radiates more energy in one second than the world has used since time began. Only a
small portion of this energy strikes the earth, one part in two billion. Yet this amount of energy is
enough to meet the world‟s needs, if it could be harnessed. About 15 percent of the radiant
energy that reaches the earth is reflected back into space. Another 30 percent is used to evaporate
water, which is lifted into the atmosphere and produces rainfall. The radiant energy is also
absorbed by plants, landmasses and the oceans.

Solar energy is a very large, inexhaustible source of energy. The power from the sun
intercepted by the earth is approximtely1.8×1011 MW which is many thousand times larger than
the present consumption rate on the earth of all commercial energy sources. Thus, in principle,
solar energy could supply all the present and future energy needs of the world on a continuing
basis. This makes it one of the most promising of the unconventional energy sources. The
advantages of solar energy are (i) environmentally clean source of energy and (ii) freely
available in adequate quantities in almost all parts of the world where people live. The main
problems associated with solar energy are: (i) dilute source of energy and (ii) availability varies

40
 Renewable Energy
widely with time. India, being tropical country receives solar insolation in the order of 1650-
2100 kwh/m2/year for nearly 250-300 days. Solar energy can be used directly or indirectly.

7.2 Applications of solar energy

 Heating and Cooling of buildings


 Solar water and air heating

 Salt production by evaporation of seawater

 Solar distillation

 Solar drying of agricultural products

 Solar cookers

 Solar water pumping

 Solar refrigeration

 Electricity generation through Photo voltaic cells

 Solar furnaces

 Industrial process heat

 Solar thermal power generation

7.3 Classification of methods for solar energy utilization

41
 Renewable Energy
7.4 Solar energy collectors

Solar energy collectors are special kind of heat exchangers that transform solar radiation
energy to internal energy of the transport medium. The major component of any solar system is
the solar collector. This is a device which absorbs the incoming solar radiation, converts it into
heat, and transfers this heat to a fluid (usually air, water, or oil) flowing through the collector.
The solar energy thus collected is carried from the circulating fluid either directly to the hot
water or space conditioning equipment or to a thermal energy storage tank from which can be
drawn for use at night and/or cloudy days. There are basically two types of solar collectors:
nonconcentrating or stationary and concentrating. A nonconcentrating collector has the same
area for intercepting and for absorbing solar radiation, whereas a sun-tracking concentrating
solar collector usually has concave reflecting surfaces to intercept and focus the sun‟s beam
radiation to a smaller receiving area, thereby increasing the radiation flux.

7.4.1 Flat plate collectors (FPC)

A typical flat-plate solar collector is shown in Fig.7.1.The flat plate collector mainly
consist of a casing, absorber plate, transparent glass covers, insulating material and fluid passage
tubes .When solar radiation passes through a transparent cover and impinges on the blackened
absorber surface of high absorptivity, a large portion of this energy is absorbed by the plate and
then transferred to the transport medium in the fluid tubes to be carried away for storage or use.
The underside of the absorber plate and the side of casing are well insulated to reduce conduction
losses. The liquid tubes can be welded to the absorbing plate, or they can be an integral part of
the plate. The liquid tubes are connected at both ends by large diameter header tubes. The
transparent cover is used to reduce convection losses from the absorber plate through the
restraint of the stagnant air layer between the absorber plate and the glass. It also reduces
radiation losses from the collector as the glass is transparent to the short wave radiation received
by the sun but it is nearly opaque to long-wave thermal radiation emitted by the absorber plate
(greenhouse effect).The absorber is usually a sheet of high-thermal conductivity metal such as
copper or aluminum, with tubes either integral or attached. Its surface is coated to maximize
radiant energy absorption and to minimize radiant emission. The insulated box reduces heat loss
from the back or the sides of the collector.

42
 Renewable Energy
FPC are usually permanently fixed in position and require no tracking of the sun. Flat-
plate collectors are the most widely used kind of collectors in the world for domestic water-
heating systems and solar space heating/cooling.

Fig.7.1. Flat plate collector

7.4.2 Centrating collectors (Focussing plate collectors)

For applications such as air conditioning, central power generation, and numerous industrial heat
requirements, flat plate collectors generally cannot provide carrier fluids at temperatures
sufficiently elevated to be effective. They may be used as first-stage heat input devices; the
temperature of the carrier fluid is then boosted by other conventional heating means.
Alternatively, more complex and expensive concentrating collectors can be used. These are
devices that optically reflect and focus incident solar energy onto a small receiving area. As a
result of this concentration, the intensity of the solar energy is magnified, and the temperatures
that can be achieved at the receiver (called the "target") can approach several hundred or even
several thousand degrees Celsius. The concentrators must move to track the sun if they are to
perform effectively.
Concentrating, or focusing, collectors intercept direct radiation over a large area and
focus it onto a small absorber area. These collectors can provide high temperatures more
efficiently than flat-plate collectors, since the absorption surface area is much smaller. However,
diffused sky radiation cannot be focused onto the absorber. Most concentrating collectors require
mechanical equipment that constantly orients the collectors toward the sun and keeps the
absorber at the point of focus. Therefore; there are many types of concentrating collectors.

43
 Renewable Energy

7.4.2.1 Types of concentrating collectors

There are four basic types of concentrating collectors:

 Parabolic trough system


 Parabolic dish

 Power tower

 Stationary concentrating collectors

7.4.2.2 Parabolic trough system

Parabolic troughs are devices that are shaped like the letter “u”. The troughs concentrate sunlight
onto a receiver tube that is positioned along the focal line of the trough. Sometimes a transparent
glass tube envelops the receiver tube to reduce heat loss.

These solar collectors use mirrored parabolic troughs to focus the sun's energy to a fluid-
carrying receiver tube located at the focal point of a parabolically curved trough reflector. The
energy from the sun sent to the tube heats oil flowing through the tube, and the heat energy is
then used to generate electricity in a conventional steam generator. The temperature attained by
the collector is 100-3000C. Many troughs placed in parallel rows are called a "collector field."
The troughs in the field are all aligned along a northsouth axis so they can track the sun from east
to west during the day, ensuring that the sun is continuously focused on the receiver pipes.
Individual trough systems currently can generate about 80 MW of electricity

Fig.7.2.Parabolic trough system

44
 Renewable Energy
7.4.2.2 Parabolic dish systems

A parabolic dish collector is similar in appearance to a large satellite dish, but has mirror-
like reflectors and an absorber at the focal point. It uses a dual axis sun tracker.The radiation
received on the collector is reflected towards the concentrator. The concentrator, which is coated
with absorber coating, is heated up with concentrated radiation. The temperature attained with
this type of collector is more than 3000C.

Fig.7.3. Parabolic dish systems

Fig.7.4. Parabolic dish collector with a mirror-like reflectors and an

absorber at the focal point

45
 Renewable Energy

7.4.2.4 Power tower system

A heliostat uses a field of dual axis sun trackers that direct solar energy to a large absorber
located on a tower. To date the only application for the heliostat collector is power generation in
a system called the power tower

Fig.7.5.Power tower system

A power tower has a field of large mirrors that follow the sun's path across
the sky. The mirrors concentrate sunlight onto a receiver on top of a high tower. A computer
keeps the mirrors aligned so the reflected rays of the sun are always aimed at the receiver, where
temperatures well above 1000°C can bereached.High-pressure steam is generated to produce
electricity.

46
 Renewable Energy
Lecture No. 8
Solar air heaters, solar space heating and cooling

8.1 Solar air heaters

Solar air heating is a solar thermal technology in which the energy from the sun,
insolation, is captured by an absorbing medium and used to heat air. Solar air heating is a
renewable energy heating technology used to heat or condition air for buildings or process heat
applications. It is typically the most cost-effective out of all the solar technologies, especially in
commercial and industrial applications, and it addresses the largest usage of building energy in
heating climates, which is space heating and industrial process heating.

The heat absorbed by the absorber plate is transmitted to the air drawn into the collector
(Fig.8.1). The hot air leaves the collector to a storage tank for further use. If the size of collector
is large, a blower is used to draw air into the collector and transmit the hot air to dryer. The most
favorable orientation, of a collector, for heating only, is due south at an inclination angle to the
horizontal equal to the latitude plus 15°.

Fig.8.1. Solar air heater

47
 Renewable Energy
8.2 Solar space heating

Space heating is of particular relevance in colder countries where a significant amount of

energy is required for the heating. In India, it is of importance mainly in the northern and north
eastern regions in winter. Space heating can be done by two methods:

(i) Passive methods

(ii) Active methods

8.2.1 Passive method of space heating

Space heating gives a fair degree of comfort by adopting passive method. A passive
method is one in which thermal energy flows through a living space by natural means without
the help of a mechanical device like a pump or blower.

Typically, passive solar heating involves:

 The collection of solar energy through properly-oriented, south-facing windows.


 The storage of this energy in "thermal mass," comprised of building materials with high
heat capacity such as concrete slabs, brick walls, or tile floors.

The natural distribution of the stored solar energy back to the living space, when
required, through the mechanisms of natural convection and radiation.
 Window specifications to allow higher solar heat gain coefficient in south glazing.

Fig.8.2. Passive method of space heating

48
 Renewable Energy
8.2.2 Active method of space heating

Space heating system mainly consists of an array of collectors arranged on the roof of a
building, insulted storage tank, auxiliary heater, pump/blower and heat exchanger. Liquid/air
gets heated up in the flat plate collectors. The hot fluid passes to storage tank. The fluid from
storage tank is transmitted by pump/blower to heat exchanger. The heat exchanger blows out hot
air and heats up the surrounding living space in the building. Again the cool air/water passes to
the storage tank, which supplied to flat plate collectors for heating. In the absence of solar
energy, an auxiliary heater is used for space heating.

49
 Renewable Energy
Lecture No. 9

Solar energy applications, solar cookers, solar water heating system

9.1 Solar Energy applications

Energy from sun can be categorised in two ways: in the form of heat and light. We use
the solar energy every day in many different ways. When we hang laundry outside to dry in the
sun, we are using the solar heat to dry our clothes. Plants make their food in the presence of
sunlight. Animals and humans get food from plants. Fossil fuels are actually solar energy stored
millions and millions of years ago.
There is variety of products that uses solar energy. These products are called solar
devices (or appliances) or solar thermal collectors. Solar thermal technologies uses the solar heat
energy to heat water or air for applications such as space heating, pool heating and water heating
for homes and businesses.
Some of the major applications of solar energy are as follows
 Solar water and air heating

 Heating and cooling of buildings

 Salt production by evaporation of seawater

 Solar distillation

 Solar pumping

 Solar drying of agricultural and animal products

 Solar furnaces

 Solar cooking

 Solar refrigeration

 Solar electric power generationthrough Photo voltaic cells

 Solar thermal power production

 Industrial process heat

 Solar green houses

50
 Renewable Energy
9.2 Solar cooker

A 'solar cooker' is a device which uses the energy of direct sunlight to heat, cook or
pasteurize food or drink. Many solar cookers currently in use are relatively inexpensive, low-tech
devices, although some are as powerful or as expensive as traditional stoves, and advanced,
large-scale solar cookers can cook for hundreds of people. Because they use no fuel and cost
nothing to operate, many nonprofit organizations are promoting their use worldwide in order to
help reduce fuel costs (especially where monetary reciprocity is low) and air pollution, and to
slow down the deforestation and desertification caused by gathering firewood for cooking. Solar
cooking is a form of outdoor cooking and is often used in situations where minimal fuel
consumption is important, or the danger of accidental fires is high, and the health and
environmental consequences of alternatives are severe.

9.3 Types of solar cooker

1. For household cooking : Box type solar cooker

2. For community cooking : Concentrator type solar cookers
9.3.1. Box Type solar cooker
The solar rays penetrate through the glass covers and absorbed by blackened metal trays
(Boxes) kept inside the cooker (Fig.9.1). The upper cover has two glass sheets each 3 mm thick
fixed in the wooden frame with 20 mm distance between them. This prevents the loss of heat due
to re radiation from blackened surface. The loss due to convection is minimized by making the
box air-light by providing a rubber strap all round between the upper lid and the box. Insulating
material like glass wool saw dust or any other material is filled in the space which minimizes
heat loss due to conduction. When this type of cooker is placed in the sun, the blackened surface
starts absorbing sunrays and temperature rises. The food in the trays is cooked. The temperature
of cooking depends upon the intensity of radiation. The size of a box type cooker is 50×50×12
cm. Overall dimensions of the latest model are 60×60×20 cm. This type of cooker is termed as
family solar cooker as it cooks sufficient dry food materials for a 49 family of 5 to 7 people. The
temperature attained is about 100ºC. With the addition of single glass reflector, 15-20ºC more
temperature is obtained and the cooking time is reduced.

51
 Renewable Energy

Fig.9.1.Box Type solar cooker

9.3.2 Concentrator type solar cooker for community cooking

It works on the principle of solar energy concentration using a Reflecting Parabolic Solar
Concentrator. A parabolic solar concentrator is used for concentrating solar radiation on a focal
area where the cooking vessel is placed.

Fig.9.2. Parts of the concentrator type solar

 Part A - Solar Concentrating Disc (Primary Reflector) - The disc which helps in concentrating
solar energy to a focal point

52
 Renewable Energy
 Part B- Automatic Tracking System - With the help of a simple automatic mechanical tracking
system the solar disc rotates in the direction of the movement of the Sun to give continuous and
accurate solar energy concentration.

 Part C - Secondary Reflector - This is provided opening in the north-facing wall of the kitchen
or the cooking place just below the cooking vessel. This reflector receives the concentrated solar
radiation and reflects it on to the bottom of the cooking vessel.

 Part D- Cooking vessels

9.4 Merits of solar cooker

 No requirement of cooking gas or kerosene, electricity, coal or wood.

 No need to spend on fuel, as solar energy is available free.

 No loss of vitamins in the food: Food cooked in solar cooker is nutritious. About 10-20% of
protein retention is more as compared to that in conventional cooking .Vitamin thiamine
retention is about 20 to 30% more whereas vitamin A is retained 5 to 10% more when food is
cooked in solar cooker.

 No orientation to sun is needed

 No attention is needed during cooking.

 No fuel, maintenance and recurring cost.

 Simple to use and fabricate.

 Solar cooking is pollution free and safe.

 Solar cookers come in various sizes. Based on the number of family members, the size of the
cooker can be chosen.

 All cooking activities (like boiling, roasting) can be done using a solar cooker.

 There are government schemes which offer subsidies to purchase solar cookers.

9.5 Demerits of solar cooker

 Adequate sunshine is required for cooking: Cooking can be done only when there is sunshine.

 Takes longer time to cook food than the conventional cooking methods

 All types of foods can‟t be cooked.

9.6 Solar water heater

A solar water heating unit comprises a blackened flat plate metal collector with an
associated metal tubing facing the general direction of the sun. The plate collector has a

53
 Renewable Energy
transparent glass cover above and a layer of thermal insulation beneath it.The metal tubing of the
collector is connected by a pipe to an insulated tank that stores hot water during cloudy days. The
collector absorbs solar radiations and transfers the heat to the water circulating through the
tubing either by gravity or by a pump.This hot water is supplied to the storage tank via the
associated metal tubing. This system of water heating is commonly used in hotels, guest houses,
tourist bungalows, hospitals, canteens as well as domestic and industrial units.

It consists mainly of:

 A thermal panel (solar collector) installed on the roof;


 A tank to store hot water;

 Accessories, such as a circulating pump to carry the solar energy from the collector to the
tank, and a thermal regulator.

Small capacity domestic solar water heaters are also available in simpler design, in which
the functions of the collector and storage tank are combined in one unit. The hot water is used for
domestic purposes or meeting the needs of industries and commercial establishments. Solar
water heating systems can be classified into two categories:

(i) Natural circulation (thermo-syphon) system

(ii) Forced circulation system

9.6.1 Natural circulation water heating system

Basic elements of a solar water heating system are: (i) flat plate collector, (ii) storage tank, (iii)
circulation system (iv) auxiliary heating system and (v) control of the system is shown in Fig.9.3
natural circulation system consists of a tilted collector, with transparent cover plates, a separate,
highly insulated water storage tank, and well-insulated pipes connecting the collector and storage
tank. The bottom of the storage tank is at least a foot higher than the top of the collector, and 52
no auxiliary energy is required to circulate water through it. Circulation occurs through natural
convection, or thermo-siphoning. When water in the collector is heated by the sun, it expands
(becomes less dense) and rises up the collector, through a pipe and into the top of the storage
tank. This forces cooler water at the bottom of the tank and flow out from storage tank by

54
 Renewable Energy
gravity, enter into the bottom of the collector through pipe provided at the bottom of the storage
tank. This water, in turn, is heated and rises up into the tank. As long as the sun shines the water
will quietly circulate, getting warmer. After sunset, a thermo-siphon system can reverse its flow
direction and loss heat to the environment during the night. To avoid reverse flow, the top heater
of the absorber should be at least 1 foot below the bottom of the storage tank. To provide heat
during long, cloudy periods, an electrical immersion heater can be used as a back up for the solar
system.

Fig.9.3.Natural circulation water heating system

9.6.2 Forced circulation water heating system

The forced circulation water heating system is suitable for supplying hot water to
community centers such as hostels, hotels etc., and industries. Large array of flat-plate collectors
are then used and forced circulation is maintained with a water pump. The restriction to keep
storage tank at a higher level is not required, as done in the case of natural circulation water
heating system. Depending on the size of storage tank, a group of flat plate collectors are
selected and connected together. The storage tank is maintained with cold water fully by
connecting to a make-up water tank which is provided with ball-float control mechanism. The
pump for maintaining the forced circulation is operated by an on-off controller which senses the

55
 Renewable Energy
difference between the temperature of water at the exit of collectors and a suitable location inside
the storage tank. When the temperature in the storage tank is reduced, the thermal controlling
system operates the pump and cold water is pumped to the collectors. The cold water gets heated
up in the collector and the flow to the storage tank. If the temperature of water in the storage tank
reaches to a predetermined value, the pump automatically stop the pumping water from the tank
to collector. If the temperature of hot water falls, the pump starts working and water flows to
collector. In the absence of solar energy, the auxiliary heater operated by electrical power is
used. The auxiliary heater has to be kept in the storage tank is shown in fig.9.4

Fig.9.5. Direct systems: (A) Passive CHS system with tank above collector. (B) Active
system with pump and controller driven by a photovoltaic panel.

56
 Renewable Energy
Lecture No. 10
Solar grain dryers, solar refrigeration system, solar ponds

10.1 Solar Drying

One of the traditional uses of solar energy has been for drying of agricultural products.
The drying process removes moisture and helps in preservation of the product. Traditionally
drying is done on open ground. The disadvantages associated with the traditional system of
drying are slow process, uncontrolled drying, quality deterioration, and losses due to birds,
rodents and insects. Drying under solar cabinet or convective dryers can be done faster and in a
controlled condition.

10.2 Advantages of Solar Drying System

1) Better Quality of Products are obtained

2) It reduces losses and better market price to the products.

3) Products are protected against flies, rain and dust;

4) Product can be left in the dryer overnight during rain, since dryers are waterproof.

5) Prevent fuel dependence and Reduces the environmental impact

6) It is more efficient and cheap.

10.3 Disadvantages of Solar Drying System

1) Quality of products are not obtained in some cases.

2) Adequate solar radiation is required.

3) It is more expensive

4) Require more time for drying.

10.4 Different types of solar dryer

10.4.1 Direct type solar dryer/ cabinet dryer:

57
 Renewable Energy
A cabinet type solar dryer is suitable for small scale use. The figure 10.1 shows simplest
type of cabinet dryer. Here moisture is removed from top; air enters into cabinet from below and
leaves from top. The dryer consists of an enclosure with a transparent cover. This is open to the
sun drying type of dryer only difference is food product is covered with the glass cover. The
material to be dried is placed on the perforated trays. The solar radiation entering the enclosure is
absorbed in the product itself and the surrounding internal surfaces of the enclosure. As a result,
moisture is removed from the product and the air inside is heated. Suitable openings at the
bottom and top ensure a natural circulation. Temperature from 50-80ºC is attained and drying
time ranges from 2-4 days.

When sun light fall on the surface of glass then three things happens, first is some light is
absorbed, some light is reflected back from the glass, and some light is transmitted. As part of
radiation absorbs by surface of crop which causes increase in temperature. The glass cover
reduces direct convective losses to the ambient and which plays important role in increasing
temperature of agricultural product and cabinet temperature. Products like dates, apricots, grapes,
chillies, turmeric etc., can be dried in a cabinet dryer. There are some disadvantages of cabinet
dryer like, drying time required is large due to natural convection of air flow hence low heat and
moisture transfer coefficient. Hence efficiency is low.

Fig.10.1 Direct type solar dryer/ cabinet dryer

58
 Renewable Energy
10.4.2 Indirect type of solar dryer/Convective dryer:

For large scale drying, convective dryer is used (Fig.10.2). In this dryer, the solar
radiation does not fall on the product to be dried. Air is heated separately in a solar air heater and
then forced into the chamber in which the product to be dried is placed. A blower circulates the
air from the heater to the grain hopper.

This type of dryer differs from direct dryer by heat transfer and vapour removal. In this
method atmospheric air heated in flat plate collector. Then this hot air from flat plate collector is
flow in the cabin where products are placed. The moisture from this type of dryer is removed by
convection as well as by diffusion. These dryers are suitable for food grains, tea, tobacco, spices
etc. In India about 10,000m2 of collector area for drying various kinds of crops and food
products and for drying timber has been installed in about 50 industries.

Fig.10.2 Convective dryer

10.5. Space cooling and refrigeration system
Space cooling is one of the promising applications of solar energy to provide comfortable
living conditions (air-conditioning) or of keeping a food product at low temperature to increase
its shelf life. Since the energy of the sun is being received as heat, the obvious choice is
absorption refrigeration system, which requires most of its energy input as heat.
A diagram of a simple solar operated absorption refrigeration system is shown in fig.10.3. The
water heated in a flat plate collector array, is passed through a heat exchanger called the

59
 Renewable Energy
generator where transfer of heat takes place to a solution (absorbent + Refrigerant), which is rich
in refrigerant. Refrigerant vapour boiled off at a high pressure and goes to the condenser where it
is condensed into a high pressure liquid. The high pressure liquid is throttled to a low pressure
and temperature in an expansion value and passes through an evaporator coil. Hence, the
refrigerant vapour absorbs heat and cooling is obtained in the space surrounding this coil. The
refrigerant vapour is now absorbed back into a solution mixture withdrawn from the generator.
The refrigerant concentration is weak in this solution and pumped back into the generator, there
by completing the cycle. The common refrigerant absorbent liquids are ammonia-water, water-
lithium bromide. The later is used in air conditioning.

Fig.10.3 Schematic diagram of solar absorption refrigeration system

10.6 Solar Pond

The solar pond is a simple device for collecting and storing solar heat. The solar pond
combines solar energy collection and sensible heat storage. Solar ponds are also called solar salt
ponds. The solar pond works on a very simple principle. It is well-known that water or air is
heated they become lighter and rise upward e.g. a hot air balloon. Similarly, in an ordinary pond,
the sun‟s rays heat the water and the heated water from within the pond rises and reaches the top
but loses the heat into the atmosphere. The net result is that the pond water remains at the

60
 Renewable Energy
atmospheric temperature. A solar pond, on the other hand, is designed to reduce convective and
evaporative heat losses .The solar pond restricts this tendency by dissolving salt in the bottom
layer of the pond making it too heavy to rise.so that useful amounts of heat can be collected and
stored. A greater salt concentration at the bottom than at top causes bottom water to have greater
density and remains at the bottom and is also hotter. The solar energy is absorbed in deep layers
and is usually trapped.

Fig.10.4 Solar Pond

10.6.1 Applications of solar ponds

  Heating and cooling of buildings

  Power generation
  Agricultural crop drying
  Desalination
  Industrial process heat
 Production of renewable liquid fuels

10.6.2 Limitations of solar ponds

 Need for large land area

 Require sunny climate

 Availability of brackish water

61
 Renewable Energy
10.7 Types of Solar Ponds

There are two main categories of solar ponds: nonconvecting ponds, which reduce heat
loss by preventing convection from occurring within the pond; and convecting ponds, which
reduce heat loss by hindering evaporation with a cover over the surface of the pond.

10.7.1 Convecting Solar Ponds

Convecting solar ponds trap heat by stopping evaporation rather than by stopping
convection. The structure consists of a large bag of water with a blackened bottom, foam
insulation below the bag, and two layers of plastic or glass glazing on top of the bag; the design
allows convection but prevents evaporation. The Sun heats the water during the day. Then, at
night, hot water is pumped into heat-storage tanks

Fig.10.5Convecting Solar Ponds

10.7.2 Non-convecting Solar Ponds

Solar ponds are of two types: non-convecting and convecting. The more common non-
convecting solar pond reduces heat loss by preventing convection (the transfer of heat from one
place to another by the movement of fluids) with the addition of a concentration of 20–30
percent salt to the bottom level (lower convective zone) of the pond. When saturated with high
amounts of salt in the form of concentrated brine, the temperature of the bottom level rises to
about 100 °C (212 °F) as heat from the Sun is trapped. The middle level (non-convective zone)

62
 Renewable Energy
receives a lower amount of salt than the bottom level. Because it is lighter than the bottom level
but heavier than the top level, the water in the middle level is unable to rise or sink. The middle
level, therefore, halts convection currents and acts as an insulator, trapping sunlight in the bottom
level. In the top level (upper convective zone), where there is little salt, the water remains cold.
Fresh water is added to that level, and saline water is drained. Finally, heat from the bottom level
is transferred to pipes circulating through the pond to extract thermal energy.The salt gradient
pond is the most common type of non-convective solar pond.

10.7.3 Salinity Gradient Solar Pond (SGSP)

A solar pond is mass of shallow water about 1 – 1.5 m deep with a large collection area,
which acts as a heat trap. It contains dissolved salts to generate a stable density gradient. Salts
have been dissolved in high concentrations near the bottom, with decreasing concentration
towards the surface. The salts most commonly used for salt gradient ponds are sodium chloride
and magnesium chloride. Part of the incident solar radiation entering the pond surface is
absorbed throughout the depth and the remainder which penetrates the pond is absorbed at the
black bottom. Convective losses can be eliminated by initially creating a sufficient strong salt
concentration gradient with convection suppressed, the heat is lost from the lower layers only by
conduction. Because of its relatively low thermal conductivity, the water acts as an insulator and
permits high temperatures (over 90°C) to develop in the bottom layers.The solar gradient pond
consists of three layers as shown in fig.10.6

In the top layer, vertical convection takes place due to effects of wind evaporation. There
is no membrane or glazing covering this pond. The next layer, which may be as much as about
one meter thick, contains an increasing concentration of salt with increasing depth. This layer is
nonconvective. The bottom layer is a convective layer of essentially salt concentration, which
provides thermal storage. Non-convective pond of this type have been known to heat water to the
boiling point.

63
 Renewable Energy

Fig.10.6 Salinity Gradient Solar Pond (SGSP)

64
 Renewable Energy
Lecture No. 11

Solar photovoltaic systems, solar latern, Solar street lights, solar fencing

11.1 Solar Photovoltaic systems

The most useful way of harnessing solar energy is by directly converting it into DC
electricity by means of solar photo-voltaic cells. Energy conversion devices which are used to
convert sun light to electricity by the use of photo-voltaic effect are called solar cells. A typical
photovoltaic cell consists of semiconductor material (usually silicon) having a pn junction as
shown in Figure 11.1. Sunlight striking the cell raises the energy level of electrons and frees
them from their atomic shells. The electric field at the pn junction drives the electrons into the n
region while positive charges are driven to the p region. A metal grid on the surface of the cell
collects the electrons while a metal back-plate collects the positive charges.

Fig.11.1 solar photo-voltaic cells

Photovoltaic is a well-established, proven technology with a substantial international

industry network. And PV is increasingly more cost-effective compared with either extending
the electrical grid or using generators in remote locations. The cost per peak watt of today‟s PV
power is about $7. Local supply conditions, including shipping costs and import duties, vary and
may add to the cost. PV systems are very economical in providing electricity at remote locations
on farms, ranches, orchards and other agricultural operations. A “remote” location can be as little
as 15 meters from an existing power source. PV systems can be much cheaper than installing
power lines and step-down transformers in applications such as electric fencing, area or building
lighting, and water pumping – either for livestock watering or crop irrigation.

65
 Renewable Energy

Solar cells can be manufactured from different semiconductor materials and their
combinations. The voltage generated by a solar cell depends on the intensity of solar radiation
and the cell surface area receiving the radiations. The maximum achievable power is about 100
W/m2 of solar cell surface area. The main types of solar cells aremonocrystalline silicon cells,
poly crystalline silicon cells,amorphous silicon cells, gallium arsenide (GaAs), andCopper
indium diselenide (CID) cells.
At present, silicon solar cells occupy 60% of the world market. Basic types of silicon
solar cells are: (i) Mono crystalline silicon solar cells, (ii) poly crystalline silicon solar cells,and
(iii) thin film or Amorphous silicon solar cells.
11.2 Mono crystalline silicon solar cells
A silicon solar cell of size 10cm×10cm produces a voltage of 0.5V and power output of 1
W at a solar radiation intensity of 1000 W/m2. The solar cells are formed into modulus by
enclosing in an air tight casing with a transparent cover of synthetic glass. These modulus posses
high efficiency between 15 and 18% and are used in medium and large size plants.
11.3 Poly crystalline silicon solar cells: The higher efficiency of solar module is 12 to 14%.
11.4 Thin-film solar cells: The crystalline solar cells are labour and energy intensive in
manufacturing. The thin film cells are produced from amorphous silicon. It has the capacity to
absorb more solar radiation due to irregular atom arrangement. The efficiency is 5 to 8%. These
are very cheap to manufacture. Cell efficiency is defined as the ratio of electric power output of
the cell, module, or array to the power content of sunlight over its total exposed area. The
maximum theoretical efficiency of solar cells is around 47 percent.
11.5 Advantages of photovoltaic solar energy conversion
 Absence of moving parts.

 Direct conversion of light to electricity at room temperature.

 Can function unattended for long time. Low maintenance cost.

 No environmental pollution.

 Very long life. Highly reliable.

 Solar energy is free and no fuel required.

 Can be started easily as no starting time is involved.

66
 Renewable Energy
 Easy to fabricate. These have high power-to-weight ratio, therefore very useful for space
application.

 Decentralized or dispersed power generation at the point of power consumption can save
power transmission and distribution costs.

 These can be used with or without sun tracking.
11.6 Limitations of photovoltaic solar energy conversion
 Manufacture of silicon crystals is labour and energy intensive.

 High cost.

 The insolation is unreliable and therefore storage batteries are needed.

 Solar power plants require very large land areas.

 Electrical generation cost is very high.

 The energy spent in the manufacture of solar cells is very high.

 The initial cost of the plant is very high and still requires a long gasification period.
11.7 Solar lantern

A solar lamp also known as solar light or solar lantern, is a lighting system composed of
an LED lamp, solar panels, battery, charge controller and there may also be an inverter. The
lamp operates on electricity from batteries, charged through the use of solar photovoltaic panel.

It is a simple application of solar photovoltaic technology, which has found good

acceptance in rural regions where the power supply is irregular and scarce. Even in the urban
areas people prefer a solar lantern as an alternative during power cuts because of its simple
mechanism. Solar Lantern (Fig.11.2) is made of three main components - the solar PV panel, the
storage battery and the lamp. The lamp, battery and electronics all placed in a suitable housing
made of metal, plastic or fiber glass. The operation is very simple. The solar energy is converted
to electrical energy by the SPV panel and stored in a sealed maintenance-free battery for later use
during the night hours. A single charge can operate the lamp for about 4-5 hours. The lantern is
basically a portable lighting device suitable for either indoor or outdoor lighting, covering a full
range of 360 degrees.

Solar-powered household lighting can replace other light sources like candles or kerosene
lamps. Solar lamps have a lower operating costthan kerosene lamps because renewable energy
from the sun is free, unlike fuel. In addition, solar lamps produce no indoor air pollution unlike

67
 Renewable Energy
kerosene lamps. However, solar lamps generally have a higher initial cost, and are weather
dependent.

Fig.11.2 Solar lantern

11.7.1 Applications and uses

Emergency and/or house lighting, table lamp, camping, patrolling (streets, farms), Hawker /
Vendor Stalls, non-electrified remote places: Adult education, mass communication. Easy
and convenient alternative to kerosene / petromax / gas.
11.8 Solar Street Light
Solar street lights are raised light sources which are powered by solar panels generally
mounted on the lighting structure or integrated in the pole itself. The solar panels charge a
rechargeable battery, which powers a fluorescent or LED lamp during the night. The system is
provided with battery storage backup sufficient to operate the light for 10-11 hours daily. Solar
street lights are designed for outdoor application in un-electrified remote rural areas (Fig.11.3).
This system is an ideal application for campus and village street lighting.

68
 Renewable Energy

Fig.11.3 solar street light

11.8.1 Advantages of solar street lights

Solar street lights are independent of the utility grid. Hence, the operation costs are
minimized.
 Solar street lights require much less maintenance compared to conventional street lights. 

 Since external wires are eliminated, risk of accidents are minimized.

 This is a non polluting source of electricity

 Separate parts of solar system can be easily carried to the remote areas

 It allows the saving of energy and also cost.

11.8.2 Disadvantagesof solar street lights

 Initial investment is higher compared to conventional street lights.


 Risk of theft is higher as equipment costs are comparatively higher.

 Snow or dust, combined with moisture can accumulate on horizontal PV-panels and reduce
or even stop energy production.

 Rechargeable batteries will need to be replaced several times over the lifetime of the fixtures
adding to the total lifetime cost of the light.

69
 Renewable Energy

11.9 Solar Fencing

Like a normal electric fence, a solar-powered electric fence can be used to protect
livestock, pets, or land from wildlife and pests. However, unlike normal electric lines or battery-
powered fences, a solar electric fence charger use a small solar photovoltaic (PV) panel to collect
and convert sunlight into energy, which is then stored in the battery so that it can charge the
fence.
The Solar module generates the DC energy and charges the Battery. The output of the
battery is connected to Energizer or Controller or Charger or Fencer. The energizer will produce
a short, high voltage pulse at regular rate of one pulse per second. The live wire of the energizer
is connected to the fence wire and the earth terminal to the Earth system. Animal / Intruder
touching the live wire creates a path for the current through its body to the ground and back to
the energizer via the earth system and completes the circuit.

The Energizer has to be set up with its earth terminal coupled to an adequate earthing or
grounding system. The live terminal is coupled to the live insulated wires of the fence. Energizer
will send an electric current along an insulated steel wire The shock felt is a combination of
fence voltage and pulses time or energy.

The basic building blocks of a power fence are: Energizer, Earthing (Grounding System) and 3.
Fence system

1. Energizer: Most important part of the system. The energizer is selected depending on the
animals to be controls, length of the fence and number of strands. Takes input from DC battery.
Main function of the energizer is to produce short and sharp pulses of about 8000 volts at regular
intervals. The power input is from the DC energy from battery.

2. Earthing (Grounding System): The earth or ground system must be perfect to enable the
pulse to complete its circuit and give the animal an effective shock. Soil is not a good conductor
so the electrons spread out and travel over a wide area, inclining towards moist mineral soils.

70
 Renewable Energy
11.10Features of Solar Power Fencing:
 Easy Construction.

 Power fence can be erected to target species only.

 Low maintenance.

 Long lasting because of minimal physical pressure.

 All domestic and wild animals can be controlled economically.

 Makes strip grazing and back fencing easy.

 Encourages additional subdivision, giving increased production.

 Modification of system to control a variety of animals is very easy.

 Aesthetically pleasing.

 Discourages trespassers and predators.

 Not harmful. It gives a short, sharp but safe shock to the intruder.

 Perimeter protection

Fig.11.4 Solar fencing

Lecture No. 12

71
 Renewable Energy
Lecture No.12
Solar pumping system

12.1 Solar Pumping System

Water pumping is one of the simplest and most appropriate uses for photovoltaic. From crop
irrigation to stock watering to domestic uses, photovoltaic-powered pumping systems meet a
broad range of water needs.

The solar water pumping system (Fig.12.1) is a stand-alone system operating on power
generated using solar PV (photovoltaic) system.The solar cells in a PV module are made from
semiconductor materials. When light energy strikes the cell, electrons are knocked loose from
the material‟s atoms. Electrical conductors attached to the positive and negative sides of the
material allow the electrons to be captured in the form of a D.C. current. The power generated by
solar cells is used for operating DC surface centrifugal mono-block pumpset for lifting water
from bore / open well or water reservoir for minor irrigation and drinking water purpose.

Fig.12.1Solar pumping system

72
 Renewable Energy
12.2 Performance of Solar pumping system

The Solar PV Water Pumping System should provide a minimum of 85 liters of water per
watt peak of PV array used per day under average daily solar radiation conditions of 5.5
KWh/sq.m. on a horizontal surface, from a total head of 10 metres (Suction head up to a
maximum of 7 metres). For Deep Well Pumps, the water discharge should be a minimum of 28
liters of water per watt peak of PV array capacity used per day from a total head of 30 metres. In
case of High Head, Deep Well Pumps, the water discharge should be a minimum of 17 liters of
water per watt peak of PV array capacity used per day from a total head of 50 metres. Use of a
tracking system to enhance the availability of solar radiation to lift desired quantity of water is
desirable. It should be specified whether the minimum water output is achieved directly or
through tracking of PV Array. The actual duration of pumping of water on a particular day and
the quantity of water pumped could vary depending on the location, season, etc.

12.3 Advantages of solar pump sets

a) No fuel cost-uses abundantly available free sun light

b) No conventional grid electricity required

c) Long operating life

d) Highly reliable and durable- free performance

e) Easy to operate and maintain

f) Eco-friendly

g) Saving of conventional diesel fuel

73
 Renewable Energy
Lecture No.13

Wind energy, types of wind mills

13.1 Wind Energy

Wind is simple air in motion. It is caused by the uneven heating of the earth‟s surface by
the sun. Since the earth‟s surface is made of very different types of land and water, it absorbs the
sun‟s heat at different rates. Energy derived from wind velocity is wind energy. It is a non-
conventional type of energy, which is renewable with suitable devices. This energy can be used
as a perennial source of energy. Wind energy is obtained with the help of wind mill. The
minimum wind speed of 10kmph is considered to be useful for working wind mills for
agricultural purpose. Along the sea coast and hilly areas, wind mills are likely to be most
successful in Karnataka, Maharastra and Gujarat.

The wind energy over earth is estimated to be 1.6×107 M.W, which is equivalent to the
energy consumed. But, the wind energy is available in dilute form. The conversion machines are
large. The wind energy varies from time to time and place to place. Due to this reason some
storage facility is required. The kinetic energy of wind is converted into useful shaft power by
wind mills. General applications of wind mills are pumping water, fodder cutting, grain grinding,
generation of power etc. In India, wind speed lies between 5 kmph-20 kmph. The high wind
velocity is seasonal. The wind energy, if used for power generation, it will be uncertain to
generate power. In India, wind power can be used for lifting water in rural areas for drinking and
for irrigation purpose.

13.1.1 Factors affecting the wind

 Latitude of the place


 Altitude of the place.

 Topography of the place 4. Scale of the hour, month or year

13.1.2 Suitable places for the erection of wind mills

 Off-shore and on the sea coast: An average value is 2400 kWH/m2/year

74
 Renewable Energy
 Mountains: An average value is 1600 KWH/m2/year

 Plains: An average value is 750 KWH/m2/year
13.1.3 Places unsuitable for wind mills
 Humid equatorial region- there is virtually no wind energy

 Warm, windy countries, wind energy may not be usual because of the frequency of
cyclones

13.2 Advantages and disadvantages of wind mills

Advantages Disadvantages
 It is a renewable source of energy  The available wind energy is dilute

 It is non-polluting and no adverse and fluctuating in nature

influence on the environment  Unlike water energy, wind energy

 No fuel and transportation is required requires storage capacity because of

 The cost of electricity under low its irregularity

production is comparatively low  Wind energy operating machines are
noisy in operation

 Large areas are required for wind mill

 The present wind mills are neither
maintenance free nor practically
reliable

13.3 Types of wind mills

There are two types of wind machines (turbines) used today based on the direction of the
rotating shaft (axis): horizontal–axis wind machines and vertical-axis wind machines. The size
of wind machines varies widely. Small turbines used to power a single home or business may
have a capacity of less than 100 kilowatts. Some large commercial sized turbines may have a
capacity of 5 million watts, or 5 megawatts. Larger turbines are often grouped together into
wind farms that provide power to the electrical grid.

75
 Renewable Energy
13.3.1 Vertical axis wind mills
a) Savonius or S type wind mill (low wind velocity)
b) Darrius wind mill (high wind velocity)
13.3.2 Horizontal axis wind mills
a) Single blade wind mills
b) Double blade wind mills
c) Multi blade wind mills
d) Bicycle multiblade type i.e., Sail type

13.3.1 Vertical axis wind mills

Vertical axis machines are of simple design as compared to the horizontal axis. The axis of
rotation of vertical axis wind turbine is vertical to the ground and almost perpendicular to the
wind direction. These turbines can receive wind from any direction. Hence complicated yaw
devices can be eliminated. The generator and the gearbox of such systems can be housed at the
ground level, which makes the tower design simple and more economical. Moreover, the
maintenance of these turbines can be done at the ground level. The major disadvantage of
vertical axis machines are that, these turbines usually not self-starting. Additional mechanism
may be required to push and start the turbine, once it is stopped.

Fig 13.1 Vertical axis wind mill

a) Savonius wind mill

It works on the principle of cup anemometer. This machine has become popular, since it
requires low wind velocity for operation. It consists of two half cylinders, which are mounted

76
 Renewable Energy
on a vertical axis perpendicular to the direction of wind, with a gap at the axis between the two
cylinders. Two half cylinders facing each other forming an „s‟ shaped cross-section.
Irrespective of the wind direction, the rotor rotates such as to make the convex sides of the
buckets head into the wind. From the rotor shaft, we can tap power for our use like water
pumping, battery charging, grain winnowing etc.

The main action of the wind is very simple, the force of the wind is greater on the cupped
face than on rounded face. A low pressure is created on the convex sides of drums. Torque is
produced by the pressure difference between the two sides of the half cylinders facing the wind.
This design is efficient but requires a large surface area. A savonius wind energy conversion
system has a vertical axis which eliminate the expensive power transmission system from the
rotor to the axis. Since it is a vertical axis machine it does not matters much about the wind
direction. The machine performs even at lower wind velocity ranges (i.e., 8 kmph).

Fig 13.2 Schematic diagram of savonius wind mill

b) Darrieus wind mill

Added advantage with this mill is that it supports its blades in such a way that minimizes
bending stresses in normal operation. It requires less surface area as compared to Savonius type.
In this machine, the blades are curved and attached to the hubs on the vertical shaft at both ends
to form a cage-like structure. The blades look like an egg beater. Darrieus rotors have three
symmetrical aerofoil blades, both ends of which are attached to a vertical shaft. Thus, the force
in the blade due to rotation is pure tension. This provides a stiffness to withstand the wind
forces it experiences.

The blades are made lighter than in the propeller type. When rotating, these aerofoil
blades provide a torque about the central shaft in response to a wind direction. This shaft torque

77
 Renewable Energy
is transmitted to a generator at the base of the central shaft for power generation. Both Savonius
and darrieus type rotors run independently of the direction of wind because they rotate about a
vertical axis. Major advantage of darrieus wind mill is that the rotor blades can accept the wind
from any point of the compass. The machine can be mounted on the ground eliminating the
tower structures. Disadvantage is that, it may experience lower velocity wind when compared to
tower mounted conventional wind energy conversion system.

Fig. 13.3. Schematic diagram of darrieus wind mill

13.3.2 Horizontal axis type wind mills

Horizontal axis wind turbines have their axis of rotation horizontal to the ground and
almost parallel to the wind stream. Most of the commercial wind turbines fall under this
category. Horizontal axis machines have some distinct disadvantages such as low cut-in speed
and easy furling. In general, they show relatively high power coefficient. However, the generator
and gearbox of these machines are to be placed over the tower which makes its design more
complex and expensive. Depending on the number of blades, horizontal axis wind turbines are
further classified as single bladed, two bladed, three bladed and multi bladed.

78
 Renewable Energy

Fig 13.4Horizontal axis wind mill

The horizontal type wind mills have thin cross-section or more efficient thick cross-
section of aerofoil blade. The blade is designed such that the tip of the blades makes a small
angle with the plane of rotation and almost at right angles to the direction of wind. In a modern
wind turbine, the velocity of blades is six times the wind velocity. Ideally, the blade should be
twisted, but because of construction difficulties this is not always achieved. The horizontal axis
wind mills generally have better performance. These are mainly used for electric power
generation and pumping water.

Fig. 13.5 Schematic diagram of horizontal axis wind mill

a) Horizontal axis propeller type wind mill with single blade

In this type of machine, a long blade is mounted on a rigid hub. Induction generator and
gear box are arranged as shown in Fig.13.6. If extremely long blades (60 m) are mounted on the

79
 Renewable Energy
hub, large blade root bending moments may occur due to tower shadow, gravity and sudden
shifts in the wind directions. To reduce rotor cost, use of low cost counter weight is
recommended for balancing long blade centrifugally.

Fig. 13.6. Schematic diagram of horizontal axis single blade wind mill

b) Horizontal axis - two blade wind mill

In this type of design, rotor drives a generator through a step-up gear box. The blade rotor
is designed to be oriented downwind of the tower. The components are mounted on a bedplate,
which is attached on a pintle at the top of the tower. The arrangement is shown in Fig 13.7. The
rotor blades are continuously flexed by unsteady aerodynamic, gravitational and inertial loads,
when the machine is in operation. If the blades are made of metal, flexing reduces their life due
to fatigue loading. With rotor, the tower is also subjected to above loads, which may cause
serious damage. If the vibrational modes of the rotor happen to coincide with one of the natural
mode of vibration of the tower, then the mill may get damaged. Due to high cost of blades, the
rotor with more than two blades is not recommended. Rotors more than two, say 3 or 4 blades
would have slightly higher coefficient.

80
 Renewable Energy

Fig. 13.7 Schematic diagram of horizontal axis two blade wind mill

c) Horizontal axis-multi blade type wind mill

This type of design for multi blades (Fig. 13.8)made from sheet metal or aluminum. The
rotors have high strength to weight ratios and are strong enough to with stand a wind speed of 60
Kmph. This type of wind mills have good power coefficient, high starting torque, simple and are
low in cost.

d) Sail type wind mill

It is recent development in wind mills. The blades are made by stretching out triangular pieces
of canvas cloth or nylon or plastics (Fig.13.9). There is also variation in the number of sails
used. It runs at 60 to 80 rpm.

Fig.13.8. Schematicdiagram of Fig. 13.9. Schematic diagram of

horizontal axis multi blade wind mill horizontal axis sail type wind mill

81
 Renewable Energy
Lecture No.14
Construction details and application of wind mills

14.1 Construction details

There are two classes of windmill, horizontal axis and vertical axis. The vertical axis
design was popular during the early development of the windmill. However, its inefficiency of
operation led to the development of the numerous horizontal axis designs.
Of the horizontal axes versions, there are a variety of these including the post mill, smock
mill, tower mill, and the fan mill. The earliest design is the post mill. It is named for the large,
upright post to which the body of the mill is balanced. This design gives flexibility to the mill
operator because the windmill can be turned to catch the most wind depending on the direction it
is blowing. To keep the post stable a support structure is built around it. Typically, this structure
is elevated off the ground with brick or stone to prevent rotting.
The post mill has four blades mounted on a central post. The horizontal shaft of the
blades is connected to a large break wheel. The break wheel interacts with a gear system, called
the wallower, which rotates a central, vertical shaft. This motion can then be used to power water
pumping or grain grinding activities.
The smock mill is similar to the post mill but has included some significant
improvements. The name is derived from the fact that the body looks vaguely like a dress or
smock as they were called. One advantage is the fact that only the top of the mill is moveable.
This allows the main body structure to be more permanent while the rest could be adjusted to
collect wind no matter what direction it is blowing. Since it does not move, the main body can be
made larger and taller. This means that more equipment can be housed in the mill, and that taller
sails can be used to collect even more wind. Most smock mills are eight sided although this can
vary from 6 to 12.
Tower mills are further improvements on smock mills. They have a rotating cap and
permanent body, but this body is made of brick or stone. This fact makes it possible for the
towers to be rounded. A round structure allows for even larger and taller towers. Additionally,
brick and stone make the tower windmills the most weather resistant design.

82
 Renewable Energy
While the previous windmill designs are for larger structures that could service entire
towns, the fan-type windmill is made specifically for individuals. It is much smaller and used
primarily for pumping water. It consists of a fixed tower (mast), a wheel and tail assembly (fan),
a head assembly, and a pump. The masts can be 10-15 ft (3-15 m) high. The number of blades
can range from four to 20 and have a diameter between 6 and 16 ft (1.8-4.9 m).
14.2 Raw Materials
Windmills can be made with a variety of materials. Post mills are made almost entirely of
wood. A lightweight wood, like balsa wood, is used for the fan blades and a stronger, heavier
wood is used for the rest of the structure. The wood is coated with paint or a resin to protect it
from the outside environment. The smock and tower mills, built by the Dutch and British prior to
the twentieth century, use many of the same materials used for the construction of houses
including wood, bricks and stones.
The main body of the fan-type mills is made with galvanized steel. This process of
treating steel makes it weather resistant and strong. The blades of the fan are made with a
lightweight, galvanized steel or aluminum. The pump is made of bronze and brass that inhibits
freezing. Leather or synthetic polymers are used for washers and o-rings.
14.3 Application of wind energy:
a)Mechanical application: mainly (water pumping) Multi-blade windmill used for water
pumping shown below:

Fig. 14.1 water pumping system using wind mill

b) Electricity generation: Wind turbines vary in size and type. They are commercially available
for electricity generation. Size of wind turbines (400 Watt-5 MW)
c) Industrial Applications
The number of dedicated industrial applications for wind power continues to grow. Small wind
power systems are ideal for applications where storing and shipping fuel is uneconomical or
impossible. Wind power is currently being used for the following applications:

83
 Renewable Energy
 Telecommunications

 Radar

 Pipeline control

 Navigational aids

 Cathodic protection

 Weather stations/seismic monitoring

 Air-traffic control
Wind machines in industrial applications typically encounter more extreme weather than home
power systems and must be designed to be robust with very minimal maintenance.

84
 Renewable Energy

Lecture No. 15
Liquid bio fuels, types

15.1 Biofuel
Itis a generic description given to all type of fuel produced from biomass, that is, material
derived from recently living organisms. This is the scientific name given to any plant or animal
substance that is combustible, thus releasing off energy which can be then used for a number of
purposes, including for producing motion (such as the movement of a piston in an internal
combustion engine) and heating liquids (such as water in a boiler).
15.2 Types of biofuels

Biofuels can range from solid, liquid and gaseous products, and their application is as
varied as that of the petroleum products they replace. Biofuels can be used in almost all
applications where petroleum products are used. Only in the aviation industry is their used still
very limited, almost inexistent, however recent studies and experimental flights might in the
future lead to a breakthrough and a wider use similar to that experienced in the road transport
sector. The following is a list of the main biofuels available and a brief description of their use.

15.2.1 Solid biofuels

Examples of solid biofuels are probably the most common to understand as their use
has been present for as long as man has discovered fire. The main examples are wood and
charcoalwhich are used for everyday use in heating and cooking.
15.2.2 Liquid biofuels

Liquid biofuels Liquid biofuels, as their name suggests, are fuels derived from biomass and
processed to produce a combustible liquid fuel.

There are two main categories:

 Alcohol fuels - these include ethanol and methanol


 Vegetable oils - derived from plant seeds, such as sunflower, sesame, linseed

85
 Renewable Energy

15.2.2.1 Bioethanol
Ethanol fuels basically an alcohol fuel produced by the use of enzymes and micro-
organisms through the process of fermentation of starches and sugar. It can be used as a fuel,
mainly as a biofuel alternative to petrol, and is widely used in cars in Brazil, where sugar cane is
used as the base material. Ethanol with less than 1% water called anhydrous ethanolcan be
blended with petrol in varying quantities. Currently, all sparkignited petrol engines can operate
with mixtures of up to 5% bioethanol (E5), however certain engine manufacturers do not
discourage and actually suggest higher blends of bioethanol to be used.
The substitution of ethanol for gasoline in passenger cars and light vehicles in Brazil is
one of the largest biomass-to-energy programmes in existence today. Engines that run strictly on
gasoline are no longer available in the country, having been replaced by neat ethanol engines and
by gasohol engines that burn a mixture of 78 per cent gasoline and 22 per cent ethanol by
volume. Technological advances, including more efficient production and processing of
sugarcane, are responsible for the availability and low price of ethanol. The transition to ethanol
fuel has reduced Brazil‟s dependence on foreign oil (thus lowering its import export ratio),
created significant employment opportunities and greatly enhanced urban air quality. In addition,
because sugarcane-derived ethanol is a renewable resource (the cane is replanted at the same rate
it is harvested), the combustion of ethanol adds virtually no net carbon dioxide to the atmosphere
and so helps reduce the threat of global warming.
15.2.2.2Methanol
Itis produced by a process of chemical conversion. It can be produced from any biomass
with moisture content of less than 60%; potential feed stocks include forest and agricultural
residues, wood and various energy crops. As with ethanol it can either be blended with gasoline
to improve the octane rating of the fuel or used in its neat form. Both ethanol and methanol are
often preferred fuels for racing cars.
15.2.3 Vegetable oils
A further method of extracting energy from biomass is the production of vegetable oils as
a fuel known as biodiesel. The process of oil extraction is carried out the same way as for
extraction of edible oil from plants. There are many crops grown in rural areas of the developing
world which are suitable for oil production – sunflower, coconut, cotton seed, palm, rapeseed,

86
 Renewable Energy
soy bean, peanut, hemp and more. Sunflower oil, for example, has an energy content about 85%
that of diesel fuel.
There are two well-established technologies for oil extraction:
 The simple screw press, which is a device for physically extracting the oil from the plant
- this technology is well suited to small-scale production of oil as fuel or as foodstuff in
rural areas. The press can be motorised or hand-operated.

 Solvent extraction is a chemical process which requires large, sophisticated equipment.
This method is more efficient - that is, it extracts a greater percentage of the oil from the
plant - but is less suited to rural applications.
The oil, as well as being used for lighting and heating, can be used as a fuel in internal
combustion engines.
Biodiesel production is not complex and can be done on a small scale. The vegetable oil
is converted to a useable fuel by adding ethanol or methanol alcohol along with a catalyst to
improve the reaction. Small amounts of potassium hydroxide or sodium hydroxide (commonly
called lye or caustic soda, which is used in soap making) are used as the catalyst material.
Glycerine separates out as the reaction takes place and sinks to the bottom of the container. This
removes the component that gums up the engine so that a standard diesel engine can be used.
The glycerine can be used as a degreasing soap or refined to make other products.
15.2.4 Gaseous biofuels
Biogas is a renewable fuel, which is produced by the breaking down of organic matter by
a process of microbiological activity. Basically this means that rotting municipal waste, food
waste or sewage (both human and animal) is turned into gas by means of „anaerobic conversion‟
in a digester.Biogas contains methane, which in itself is a fuel and can be recovered from
industrial anaerobic digesters, mechanical biological treatment systems and engineered landfills.
In engineered landfills, the collected landfill gas can be used to produce electricity and heat.

87
 Renewable Energy
Lecture No. 16
Bio diesel and ethanol from agricultural produce

16.1 Biodiesel

It is an alternative fuel similar to conventional or „fossil‟ diesel. Its primary advantages

are that it is one of the most renewable fuels currently available and it is also non-toxic and
biodegradable. It can also be used directly in most diesel engines without requiring extensive
engine modifications. Biodiesel can be produced from straight vegetable oil, animal oil/fats,
tallow and waste cooking oil. The largest possible source of suitable oil comes from oil crops
such as rapeseed, palm or soybean. Most biodiesel produced at present is produced from waste
vegetable oil sourced from restaurants, chip shops, industrial food producers such as Birdseye
etc. Though oil straight from the agricultural industry represents the greatest potential source it is
not being produced commercially simply because the raw oil is too expensive. After the cost of
converting it to biodiesel has been added on it is simply too expensive to compete with fossil
diesel. Waste vegetable oil can often be sourced for free or sourced already treated for a small
price. (The waste oil must be treated before conversion to biodiesel to remove impurities). The
result is Biodiesel produced from waste vegetable oil can compete with fossil diesel.

16.2 Significance of biodiesel

 It is a processed fuel resulting from the biological sources and it is equivalent to petro-
diesel

 Biodiesel acts as a safe alternative fuel for substituting traditional petroleum diesel. It is a
clean burning fuel with high lubricity

 It is produced from renewable sources acts like petroleum diesel but produces
significantly less air pollution

 It is bio-degradable and very safe for the environment

 Biodiesel production can be achieved in different methods. Biodiesel is a mono alkyl
ester of fatty acids produced from both edible and non edible vegetable oils or animal fat
and various other bio fuels such as methanol, ethanol etc.

88
 Renewable Energy
16.3 Advantages of biodiesel
 Biodiesel can be produced from renewable, domestic resources

 It is energy efficient (The total fossil fuel energy efficiency of biodiesel is 320% vs.
83% for petroleum diesel)

 Can be used directly in most diesel engine applications

 Can reduce global warming and tailpipe emissions (-41%)

 It is nontoxic and biodegradable

 It is a good solvent and may clean out fuel line and tank sediments (this may result in
fuel filter clogging during initial use.

16.5 Limitations of biodiesel

 Biodiesel contains approximately 8% less energy per gallon


 It has a higher cloud and pour point (will freeze at a higher temp) than conventional
diesel

 It is not compatible with some hose and gasket materials, which may cause them to
soften, degrade, and rupture.

 Biodiesel is not compatible with some metals and plastics

 It may increase nitrogen oxide emissions

89
 Renewable Energy

Lecture No.17
Production of biodiesel and ethanol from agricultural produce

17.1 Method of biodiesel production

There are so many investigations on biodiesel production of nonconventional feedstock of

oils and have reached a faster pace in the last few years. An adaptation of the vegetable oil as a
CI engine fuel can be done by four methods
a) Pyrolysis
b) Micro-emulsification
c) Dilution
d) Transesterification
a) Pyrolysis

The pyrolysis refers to a chemical change caused by the application of thermal energy in
the absence of air or nitrogen. The liquid fractions of the thermally decomposed vegetable oils
are likely to approach diesel fuels. The pyrolyzate has a lower viscosity, flash point, and pour
point than diesel fuel and equivalent calorific values. The cetane number of the pyrolyzate is
lower. The pyrolyzed vegetable oils contain acceptable amounts of sulfur, water and sediments
and give acceptable copper corrosion values but unacceptable ash, carbon residual and pour
point. Depending on the operating conditions, the pyrolysis process can be divided into three
subclasses: conventional pyrolysis, fast pyrolysis and flash pyrolysis

b) Micro-emulsification

The formation of micro emulsion is one of the potential solutions for solving the problem of
vegetable oil viscosity. Micro-emulsions are defined as transparent, thermodynamically stable
colloidal dispersion. The droplet diameters in micro-emulsions range from 100 to 1000 Å.
Microemulsion can be made of vegetable oils with an ester and dispersant (co solvent), or of
vegetable oils, and alcohol and a surfactant and a cetane improver, with or without diesel fuels.
All micro-emulsions with butanol, hexanol and octanol met the maximum viscosity requirement

90
 Renewable Energy
for diesel fuel. The 2-octanol was found to be an effective amphiphile in the
micellarsolubilization of methanol in triolein and soybean oil.

c) Dilution

The dilution of vegetable oils can be accomplished with such material as diesel fuels, solvent
or ethanol. Dilution results in the reduction of viscosity and density of vegetable oils. The
addition of 4% ethanol to diesel fuel increases the brake thermal efficiency, brake torque and
brake power, while decreasing the brake specific fuel consumption. Since the boiling point of
ethanol is less than that of diesel fuel, it could assist the development of the combustion process
through an unburned blend spray.

d) Transesterification

Transesterification is the method of biodiesel production from oils and fats and can be carried
out by two ways.

i)Catalytic Transesterification

The “Catalytic Transesterification” process is the reaction of a triglyceride (fat/oil) with an

alcohol in the presence of some catalyst to form esters and glycerol. A triglyceride has a glycerin
molecule as its base with three long chain fatty acids attached. The characteristics of the oil/fat
are determined by the nature of the fatty acids attached to the glycerin. The nature of the fatty
acids can in turn affect the characteristics of the biodiesel.

ii) Super Critical Transesterification

The simple transesterification processes discussed above are confronted with two
problems, i.e. the processes are relatively time consuming and needs separations of the catalyst
and saponified impurities from the biodiesel. The first problem is due to the phase separations of
the vegetable oil/ alcohol mixture, which may be dealt with by vigorous stirring. These problems
are not faced in the supercritical method of transesterification. This is perhaps due to the fact that
the tendency of two phase formation of vegetable oil/alcohol mixture is not encountered and a
single phase is found due to decrease in the dielectric constant of alcohol in the supercritical state
(at 340°C and 43 MPa). As a result, the reaction was found to be complete in a very short time

91
 Renewable Energy
within 2-4 mins. Further, since no catalyst is used, the purification of biodiesel is much easier,
trouble free and environment friendly.

17.2Ethanol from agricultural produce (Sugar cane and corn)

Non-petroleum fuels liquid fuels find use when petroleum fuels are scarce or costly.
Among all the fuels, alcohols, which can be produced from sugarcane waste and many other
agricultural products, are considered the most promising fuels for the future. There are two types
of alcohols: methanol (CH3OH) and ethanol (C2H5OH). Ethanol has attracted a lot of attention
as a transport fuel because it is relatively cheap non-petroleum-based fuel. Also, the emissions
from the combustion of ethanol are much less than for fossile fuels. Ethanol, being a pure
compound, has a fixed set of physical as well as chemical properties. This is in contrast to petrol
and diesel, which are mixtures of hydrocarbons. Earlier, this fuel was not used in automobiles
due to low energy density, high production cost and corrosion. The current shortage of gasoline
has made it necessary to substitute ethanol as fuel in SI engines.

At present, Brazil is the only country that produces fuel alcohol on a large scale from
agricultural products (mainly sugarcane). Brazil was the first and biggest producer of cheapest
bio-ethanol in the world. Second cheapest bio-ethanol is made from corn in the USA. Properties
of ethanol and methanol are similar, with difference of only 5 -10%. Ethanol is superior to
methanol as it has wider ignition limit (3.5 -17) than methanol (2.15 -12.8). Ethanol calorific
value (26,880 kJ/kg) is considerably higher than methanol (19,740 kJ/kg). Ethanol is a much
more superior fuel for diesel engines as its cetane number is 8 compared to the cetane number of
3 for methanol. Ethanol is used in racing cars due to its very high heat of vaporization.

17.3Production of ethanol

Three different feed stocks are available for ethanol production such as, sugar feed stock
i.e., sugarcane and sugar beet; starch feed stock i.e., cereal grains and potato and cellulose feed
stock i.e., forest products and agricultural residues.

a) Ethanol from starchy feed stock (grains)

Ethanol production from cereal grains such as barley, wheat and corn is a much easier
process than from cellulose material. The process includes several steps, as listed below:

92
 Renewable Energy
a) Milling of grains

b) Hydrolysis of starch to sugar units

c) Fermentation by yeast

d) Distillation

e) Removal of water from ethanol

After grinding the raw material, it is mixed with water and enzymes to break down the
starch to sugar units. The free sugar can be used by yeast or bacteria and converted to ethanol
and carbon dioxide. As the concentration of ethanol increases to about 15%, fermentation is
reduced, since high alcohol concentration kills the yeast or bacteria. It is then necessary to
separate the ethanol from the other material in the fermentation tanks by distillation. Distillation
increases the ethanol concentration up to about 95%. In order to remove the rest of the water
from the ethanol solution, it must be dried by different drying agents to a concentration of 99.5%
ethanol or absolute ethanol. Extractive distillation with benzene also yields anhydrous ethanol. It
is possible to produce 1 litre of absolute ethanol from about 3 kg of wheat.

Fig. 17.1 The process flow chart for production of ethanol from grains

b) Ethanol from sugarcane

Ethanol production from sugarcane is one of the easiest and most efficient processes
since sugarcane contains about 15% sucrose. The glycosidic bond in the disaccharide can be
broken down into two sugar units, which are free and readily available for fermentation. The

93
 Renewable Energy
cane is cut and the juice is extracted by maceration. After clarification, the juice is concentrated
by boiling. The concentrated juice is fermented with yeast to produce raw ethanol. A series of
distillation steps including a final extractive distillation with benzene are used to obtain
anhydrous ethanol. The normal yield of ethanol is about 8.73 litres of alcohol per tonne of cane.
The potential of ethanol production in India is about 475 litres per year. The process flow chart
for production of ethanol from sugarcane is shown in Fig. 17.1.

Fig. 17.2. Process flow chart for production of ethanol from sugarcane

94
 Renewable Energy
Lecture No.18

Applied use of different types of renewable energy sources from the practical stand
point

18.1 Applications of renewable energy

Applications of renewable energy are broadly classified as “on-grid” and “off-grid”.

A grid is basically an integration of generation, transmission and distribution system

which supplies energy to several consumers. On-grid and off-grid are the terms which describe
the way electricity is delivered. On grid deals with power stations which are directly connected
to grids such as wind farm and solar panels.

Off grid applications, in general, serve only one load, such as a small home or a village
house. Off-grid applications can take many forms, from photovoltaic (PV) modules for an
individual village home to centralized windmills to power a village water pump or a commercial
battery charging facility. These off-grid applications are most generally used in remote or rural
settings. A major on-grid application is to generate electricity in mass amounts.

The most important application of wind energy is the wind turbine. The wind turbine can
convert the energy in the wind to mechanical power which, in turn, can be fed into a generator to
generate large amounts of electricity. This electricity may be used to charge batteries or pump
water. Wind energy can also be used in wind-powered vehicles. This can save a lot of fuel and
can provide increased performance and efficiency.

Similarly, solar energy can be used to power photovoltaic panels which are an excellent
way of producing electricity at small scales, especially for rural and remote areas, where
transmission lines cannot reach. Due to their little maintenance and high reliability, they are ideal
to use in isolated and far-flung places. Offices can employ glass PV modules for reliable supply
of electricity. Solar energy is also widely utilized in solar water heaters, solar calculators and
solar lights. They work on the principle of storing energy from the sun during the day and
utilizing it at night time.

95
 Renewable Energy
Geothermal energy is most common amongst farmers. They use this energy to heat their
greenhouses which enable them to grow various fruits and vegetables all around the year. In
some countries, the heat produced from this energy is also utilized to heat pedestrian walkways
and bicycle lanes in order to prevent them from freezing in extreme winters. Solid biomass can
be burnt in incinerators to produce heat that can be used to produce steam for electricity
generation.

Biomass can also be converted to biofuels like ethanol for transportation needs. A widely
used application of hydropower is in a compressor. Specially designed compressors can be used
for adjusting turbine blades and governor valves. They can also be used to blow out the water to
eliminate the load during starting .

96