ENERGY FORMS AND ENERGY SOURCES

Energy is the ability to do work.

Fossil fuels
These are the remains of dead plants and animals that have been buried underground for millions of years. Examples of
fossil fuels include; coal, natural gas, petrol, diesel and oil.

IMPORTANCE OF FOSSIL FUELS

They are a source of energy e.g.
- heat energy
- used to heat water that turns turbines to produce electricity
- used as a fuel in transport

Some of the problems caused by energy usage are;

 The burning of fossil fuels is causing global warming
 The burning of fossil fuels causes air pollution
 Water that has been polluted by spilled oil and fuel eventually pollutes rivers, lakes, dams and the sea.
 Chopping down of trees causes deforestation, soil erosion and desertification.
 The generation of energy in coal fired power stations uses a lot water
 Non-renewable fossil fuels are running out.

RENEWABLE AND NON – RENEWABLE ENERGY SOURCES

RENEWABLE SOURCES – these are sources that can RENEWABLE ENERGY SOURCES – these are
be replaced sources that cannot be replaced once they are used up.
Biomass (wood, dung, etc) Oil
The sun (solar energy) Coal
Moving water(hydroelectric energy) Gas
The heat of the earth(geothermal energy) Energy from radioactive material( nuclear energy)

ALTENATIVE ENERGY SOURCES AND THEIR AVAILABILITY IN BOTSWANA

Form of energy Formation Availability in Botswana

Solar Created from heat and light of the sun. Available
Hydroelectric Produced when running or falling water is used to Not available
turn turbines.
Wind When blow, it is used to turn large propellers which Available
turbines to turn.
Biomass Produced when bacteria and chemical process change Available
waste matter to fuel.
Nuclear Is generated when atoms undergo fusion. fusion takes Not available
place when the nucleus of an atom splits, during this
process a large amount of energy is released.
Geothermal Generated when heat from beneath the earth’s surface Not available
is used to turn turbines.

ENERGY SOURCES IN THE HOME

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WAYS BY WHICH ALTERNATIVE SOURCES COULD BE HARNESSED IN BOTSWANA
The benefits of developing renewable energy resources;
 It provides power to run primary schools, health clinics, local government centers, rural businesses and
households.
 It provides power for communication equipment and electric lighting to enable evening classes for
disadvantaged groups thereby freeing them for participation in village meetings , education and village
governance
 Health benefits include fighting diseases by boiling water , reducing respiratory illnesses from indoor
pollution , improving medication and providing power for refrigeration
 Providing electricity for communication ( for example : radio / television ) that can spread important public
information about , for example , combating deadly diseases
 Ending the negative effects on the environment (air pollution, land degradation, acidification of land and
water, climate change).

SOLAR POWER
Solar power is the best alternative energy source in Botswana. Even though the solar power is expensive to install (the
panels and batteries are expensive) the maintenance costs are low. Some of the solar power can be used in a solar
cooker, a reflecting screen concentrates the sun`s rays onto a pot with food.
The business potential of solar power in Botswana
 There are businesses opportunities in supply, installation and maintenance of solar panels, batteries and
appliances.
 The development of solar technology in Botswana will assist many small businesses, particularly in the rural
areas which are not supplied by the national power grid.
 There are some research opportunities in this field of alternative energy supply.

WIND POWER
Wind energy has been used in Botswana on a small scale;
 windmill used in pumping water for livestock and for domestic supply in rural areas.
 wind turbines to produce electrical energy.
The business potential of wind power in Botswana
 The business potential of Botswana is very small but there is a limited supply of pumps and storage tanks.
 Wind is a valuable source of energy for farmers, particularly in rural areas.

HYDROELECTRIC POWER
There is no hydroelectric power generated in Botswana but Botswana is part of the West Corridor Power Project which
involves using the hydroelectric energy of the Congo River at the Inga rapids. The power generation is estimated to be
3500 megawatts. 2000 megawatts is used by South Africa, Angola, Namibia, Botswana and the DRC.
The business potential of hydroelectric power in Botswana
The costs of developing hydroelectric power are very high. The costs have to be shared by countries.

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Sources of Chemical Energy in the Home

- food: e.g. rice, mealie meal

- fuels: e.g. paraffin, petrol

SOURCES OF HEAT AND LIGHT ENERGY IN THE HOME

 From chemical energy – this is released from burning fuels such as: oil, paraffin, gas, dung
and wood.
 From electrical energy

ENERGY CHANGES AND USING ENERGY

Energy changes in everyday life
Energy that is stored in something is known as potential energy. Potential energy has the ability to be changed into
other forms of energy.

Some of the applications of energy changes in everyday life

1. Photosynthesis: light energy from the sun is changed into chemical energy in plants
2. Car engine: chemical potential energy in petrol is changed into mechanical energy
3. Respiration: chemical energy in food is converted into work and heat energy
4. Tractor engine: potential energy in diesel fuel is changed into kinetic and heat energy
5. CD player: electrical potential energy in a battery is changed into kinetic energy to spin the disc.

The importance of energy transformations

The changing of one form of energy into another is called the transformation of energy. Energy transformations are
important in the lives of people, animals and plants.

Examples;
1. The chemical energy stored in petrol is converted into heat in a car engine .This heat energy is used to move
mechanical parts of the car causing the car to move. Thus chemical energy is converted into kinetic energy.
chemical energy heat energy kinetic Energy
2. In a thermal power station, the coal is burned to heat water and change it into steam. The steam turns the
turbines which in turn produce electricity. The chemical energy stored in coal is converted into electrical
energy.
chemical energy heat energy kinetic energy electrical energy
3. When we burn wood, the chemical potential energy is converted into heat energy. etc
chemical energy heat and light energy

Using energy sources safely

Safety precautions when using electricity

Caution!
ELECTRICITY KILLS! ALWAYS CONSIDER YOUR SAFETY WHEN USING ELECTRICITY!

Diagnosing Faults in Electric Appliances

Before taking a faulty appliance to an electrician for possible repair, follow the following steps:

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 1) check if the plug is pushed into the socket firmly
2) check if the power is switched off
3) check if the appliance is switched off
4) if it uses a bulb, check if the bulb is not burnt
5) if it is still not on, open the plug and check for tight and proper connection
6) if all wires are connected firmly and properly, check if the fuse is not blown out. If it is
burnt, replace it with a fuse of the same rating. Never replace a fuse with a wire!
7) If it is still not on, check where the cord get into the appliance, the wires must be
connected according to Live, Neutral and Earth as coded.
8) If it is still not on, take it for repair by a qualified electrician.

A circuit breaker (strip switch)

It switches off more quicker than the reaction of a fuse. This protects users against electric shock. It can be switched on
after a fault is attended successfully, other wise it will keep on tripping to break the circuit until the fault is successful
attended.

Dangers of burning fuels

Fuels produce a gas called carbon monoxide which is poisonous. It makes the blood to fail to carry oxygen, hence
people are suffocated to death.

Good ventilation must be undertaken whenever fuels are burnt to let poisonous gases out and fresh air circulate into the
building.

Safety Precautions when Burning Fuels

- Always avoid leakage of fuels, when they leak, they may catch fire.

- Apparatus must be fixed securely so that they do not topple over eg stoves, heaters, lamps
- When there is methane gas leak, close the source immediately, open all windows and doors.
- Always have good ventilation when burning fuels
- Fuels produce carbon monoxide when they burn where oxygen is in short supply. This
gas let people get drowsy, fall asleep and die very

The greenhouse effect is a process by which thermal radiation from a planetary surface is absorbed by atmospheric
greenhouse gases, and is re-radiated in all directions. Since part of this re-radiation is back towards the surface, energy
is transferred to the surface and the lower atmosphere. As a result, the temperature there is higher than it would be if
direct heating by solar radiation were the only warming mechanism.

The greenhouse effect and global warming

Burning of fossil fuels like coal, oil and natural gases releases carbon dioxide. The increase in carbon dioxide which is
called greenhouse gas has caused the atmosphere to trap more heat , leading to an increase in the temperature of the
earth . This is called global warming. Global warming can lead to problems such as increase in sea level, severe storms
and farmer`s crops failing.

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SOUND ENERGY

• Sound is a form of energy that is made when molecules vibrate (move backwards and
forwards)
• We hear sound because vibrations travel through air to our ears and make the eardrum
vibrate
• Sound cannot travel through a vacuum because sound needs a medium to travel through

RELATIONSHIP BETWEEN PITCH & FREQUENCY OF VIBRATIONS

Pitch can be as the number as the highness or lowness of a note. Frequency can be defined as the number of vibrations
of a sound per second. When frequency is high, pitch is high. That is when there are many vibrations of

RELATIONSHIP BETWEEN LOUDNESS OF SOUND TO AMPLITUDE

VIBRATIONS
Amplitude can be defined as the minimum or the maximum displacement from rest to the
peak or trough.

THE REFLECTION OF SOUND

Sound waves that are moving in a particular direction can be reflected by obstacles such as big walls and cliffs. The
reflected sound is known as an echo. Echoes can be useful, e.g. they are used to find the depth of the ocean. Sometimes
an echo is a nuisance. Architects have to design rooms carefully to reduce the disturbance caused by echoes.

THE RELATIVE SPEED OF SOUND IN DIFFERENT MEDIA

Sound takes time to travel from one place to another. The speed of sound is not the same everywhere because it
depends on its media. Generally sound travels faster where particles are closely packed than where particles are further
apart. The table below illustrates the speed of sound in each of the mediums.

STATE OF MATTER SPEED OF SOUND WAVE

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 Solid 5000 m/s
Liquid 1483 m/s
Gas 330 m/s
LONGITUDINAL AND TRANSVERSE WAVES
Waves are disturbances caused by the movement of some forms of energy from one place to another.

LONGITUDINAL WAVES TRANSVERSE WAVES

A wave in which particles of the medium move parallel ( A wave in which particles of the medium move in a
in the same direction) to the movement of the, e.g. sound direction perpendicular (at a 90 degrees angle) to the
wave direction in which the wave moves.

Transverse wave

Difference between wavelength, frequency and amplitude

Wavelength
Is the shortest distance between two identical points on a wave.
Frequency
Is how often the particles of the medium vibrate when a wave passes through the medium.

frequency = no. of vibrations

time taken

Amplitude
Is the maximum amount of movement of a particle of the medium from its rest position. It can be said as the distance
from rest to crest or from the rest position to the trough position.

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HEARING
The sense of hearing enables us to hear information from our environment. The ears are the organs responsible for
hearing and also for the maintenance of balance. The ears transfer energy of sound waves to special cells, which send
signals to the brain. The brain interprets the signals as sound.

THE STRUCTURE OF THE HUMAN EAR

EAR PART FUNCTION

Ear flap Collects sound waves in the air
Ear canal Channels sound waves to the middle ear
Ear drum Vibrates when sound waves reach it
Hammer, anvil Three connected bones that are set into motion at the same frequency as the vibrating ear drum
and stirrup
(ossicles)
Oval window Transfers vibrations to the fluid in the cochlea in the inner ear
Cochlea A fluid filled tube lined with hair cells which move when the fluid vibrates
Hair cells Transmits electrical signals to the auditory nerves
Auditory nerve Transmits electrical signals to the brain

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 THE EUSTACHIAN TUBE
The Eustachian tube runs from the middle ear to the pharynx, which is the part of the neck and the throat behind the
mouth and nasal cavity. The function of the Eustachian tube is to protect and drain the middle ear and allow movement
of air in and out of the middle ear.

The movement of sound waves into the ear and electric signals to the brain
The human eardrum is a stretched membrane. When sound waves hit the eardrum, it vibrates and the brain interprets
the vibrations as sound. The eardrum sends the vibrations to the small bones. The stirrup passes the vibrations along the
cochlea. Cochlea contains thousands hair like nerve endings called cilia. When cochlea vibrates, it moves the cilia. The
cilia change messages to electrical signals which are sent to the brain through auditory nerve. The brain translates the
electric signals and tells us what we are hearing.

EAR DEFECTS AND HEARING IMPAIRMENT

Hearing impairment is a term used to describe the complete or partial loss of hearing in one or both
ears.

THE DIFFERENT DEGREES OF HEARING IMPAIRMENT

The table below shows the different degrees of hearing impairment that can happen.
DEGREE OF HEARING DESCRIPTION
IMPAIRMENT
MILD The person may not even be aware of their inability to hear certain sounds.
MODERATE The person will have some difficulty in hearing, e.g. in background noise, but not in
every situation. Many people with mild to moderate hearing impairment blame others,
saying people are always mumbling.
SEVERE The person will have considerable difficulty in following speech and in hearing
environmental sounds. Their own speech may not be affected by their hearing
disability.
PROFOUND The person’s range of hearing is extremely limited. They may hear low toned sounds at
a much higher than normal volume, but are not able to hear enough to follow speech
and will not hear most environmental sounds such as a telephone or alarm. They may
use sign language or have difficulty monitoring the volume and pitch of their own
voice when speaking.

CAUSES OF HEARING IMPAIRMENT AND DEAFNESS

Listed are some of the causes of hearing impairment.

- Deafness can be inherited
- Infections in a woman during pregnancy
- The use of certain drugs during pregnancy
- Jaundice (when a baby becomes a yellow colour) in a newborn baby.
- Infectious diseases such as meningitis, measles, mumps, & chronic ear infections -
Head injury or injury to the ear.
- Wax or foreign bodies blocking the ear canal
- Excessive noise e.g. noise machinery, gun fire or explosions

SIGNS OF HEARING IMPAIRMENT

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 PREVENTING HEARING IMPAIRMENT

- Wear protective gear

People who work in an environment where loud sounds are common( such as heavy industries,
mines, road works, air ports etc) should wear ear muffs.

- Immunize children against infectious diseases

Immunization will reduce the occurrence of hearing impairment

- Avoid use of certain drugs, particularly during pregnancy

- Treat chronic illnesses such as ear infections, especially in young children.

SAFE AND HEALTHY CARE FOR EARS

- Clean ears carefully

- Wipe the outer ear gently with a wash cloth or tissue
- Have your hearing checked occasionally
- Always wear a helmet when you ride a bicycle or skate board
- See a doctor if you a sore ear

Practices which can cause harm or damage to the ears include ;

 Do not ever poke anything into yours ears , including cotton ear cleaners
 Do not listen to loud music with headphones
 Wear ear protection when you are using machinery that makes a loud noise

HEALTH AND SAFETY

PERSONAL HYGIENE

CARING FOR TEETH

Structure of the Human Teeth

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Parts of the human tooth

Enamel: This is the toughest bone covering the tooth.

Dentine: This is softer than the enamel but it is still tougher than the other tooth parts.
Pulp cavity: This is very soft and sensitive.
Blood vessels: They supply oxygen and nutrients to the tooth. They also take waste material and
deoxygenated blood (blood without oxygen) out of the body.

Types of Teeth
RELATING THE SHAPE OF THE TOOTH TO ITS FUNCTION

Teeth are used to tear, cut and grind the food into smaller pieces that can be easily swallowed and digested. An
adult mouth contains 32 teeth; 16 in the upper jaw and 16 in the lower jaw. These teeth are divided into 3 main
types, that is the:

1 INCISORS
These are sharp and chisel-shaped and therefore well suited for cutting food into small pieces. They are
found in the front of the upper and lower jaw.

2 CANINES
These teeth are used for tearing food and they are sharp, pointy, cone shaped teeth.

3 MOLARS AND PRE-MOLARS

These are the large teeth found towards the back of the mouth on the upper and the lower jaws. They
have large, flat crowns with points that are used to grind up food into smaller pieces before swallowing.

TOOTH DECAY AND GUM DISEASES

Tooth decay: This is a process by which the tooth rots. The decayed tooth is very painful. There is no
cure for decayed tooth; the tooth is rather removed to cease (stop) the pains.

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HOW TOOTH DECAY TAKE PLACE

• Food substances are trapped on the teeth (in the cusps)

• The bacteria feed on the food particles. As bacteria feed, an acid will be produced as a by-
product
• The acid will start to corrode the enamel. The enamel will get softer.
• The cavity (holes) will be formed in the tooth.
• Food particles will be trapped in the cavities. This supply bacteria with more food, hence
they will multiply and produce more acid.
• The acid will continue to corrode the enamel until it reaches the dentine. There will be
mild (little) pain in the tooth.
• Acid continues to corrode the dentine until it reaches the pulp cavity. When the pulp
cavity is reached there will be severe pain in the tooth.
• The acid will then corrode the blood vessels. Then the blood vessels will burst and blood
will be seen dripping through the gums. This condition may lead to scurvy.

Stages of tooth decay

diagram science by investigation and application Bk 1

Gum disease
Gum disease is caused by accumulation of plaque around the teeth. (Plaque is a mixture of food, saliva and bacteria)
Plaque irritates the gum causing swelling. Slowly the gum gets damaged resulting in teeth being exposed to infection.
Gum disease is also caused by;
-lack of vitamin C (scurvy)
-smoking
-stress
-poor nutrition

PREVENTION OF TOOTH DECAY AND DISEASES

*Clean the teeth after meals using toothpaste and toothbrush

-The toothpaste contains some alkali, which neutralises some acid (acid +alkali = neutralisation)
- The tooth brush removes food remains, so avoiding plaque formation

*Do not use the tooth for the purpose they were not made for e.g. do not use your teeth to open bottles.
• Visit your dentist for regular teeth check-up and advice.
* Eat food rich in vitamins eg oranges

COMMUNICABE DISEASES

Communicable diseases are diseases which are caused by micro-organisms and can be transferred from one person to
another. They are also called contagious or infectious diseases. Infectious disease is any type of disease caused by
micro-organisms. These diseases are caused by virus, bacteria, fungi and protozoa. Micro-organisms that cause diseases
are called pathogens.

Non communicable diseases are caused by some problem in the body i.e. (develop within a person) and
cannot be passed on to others. Examples are: cancer, anaemia, diabetes, Pneumonia, goiter, multiple
sclerosis etc.

Examples of communicable diseases and their CAUSATIVE AGENT

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 BACTERIAL DISEASES VIRAL DISEASES FUNGAL PROTOZOAL
DISEASES DISEASES
Tuberculosis, Whooping cough, Influenza Mumps Ringworm Bilharzia
Diphtheria, Typhoid Rubella Measles Athlete foot Malaria
Syphilis, Polio, Cholera, Gonorrhea Hepatitis B Chicken pox Thrush Intestinal infection
HIV/ AIDS

Spreading of communicable diseases

Germs can be spread from the source to other people in many ways, such as the following:
(i) Food: Food may be contaminated by germs e.g. house flies. It could be by faeces
through careless handling- spreading gastric fever and diarrhoea.
(ii) Water: Can carry many germs such as those causing cholera and typhoid. The water
is usually contaminated by faeces.
(iii) Air: When people sneeze or cough they expel air containing small droplets of
moisture from their lungs with great force. The droplets carry germs which are then
inhaled by other people and can cause infections. Diseases spread in this way include
influenza, tuberculosis etc.
(iv) Direct contact: Germs can be spread through direct contact when two people touch
one another, e.g. sexually transmitted diseases which may be spread through sexual
intercourse.
(v) Vectors: A vector is an organism that picks up germs from one organism and then
carries to another
e.g. house fly, or mosquito which carry malaria

Preventing or controlling communicable diseases

(i) Proper water purification will prevent spread of water borne diseases e.g. cholera
(ii) Proper sanitation means that carriers (flies) cannot pick up germs to spread diseases.
(iii) Good personal hygiene, e.g. regular washing will decrease germs on one’s body.
(iv) Timely vaccination will enable people to develop immunity or at least increased
resistance, to diseases
(v) Proper nutrition increases resistance to diseases
(vi) Isolating the infected and treating them to kill germs.
(vii) The correct handling of food should be stressed
(viii) Avoid contact with infected people including other people’s combs, towels etc. This
includes sexual contact. Sexually transmitted diseases can be prevented by using
condoms, abstaining from sex.

Life Cycles

A life cycle is a summary of the development stage of an organism from the first stage of development (the egg) to the
last mature adult stage. Though all life cycles follow the same circular pattern the actual development stage may differ
from organism to organism.

LIFE CYCLE- THE HOUSE FLY

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Adult house flies lay their eggs on waste food and faeces. These eggs hatch to form larvae (or maggot)
that feed on rotten food or human waste. The larva forms a pupa. When a male adult fly leaves the pupa
case it mates with female fly producing eggs.

Control of house flies

(i) Destroy their breeding places by removing dung, covering faeces, etc.
(ii) Use fly traps to catch and kill them
(iii) Covering all cooked food
(iv) Spray their feeding and breeding places with insecticides to kill adults

THE ANOPHELES (MALARIA) MOSQUITO

Mosquitoes and flies are insects. The differences in the life cycle is mosquito larva are aquatic (they live
in water) and also the larvae have breathing tubes called spiracles on their bodies which are open to the
atmosphere whereas the larvae themselves are under water. The pupae also have breathing tubes called
siphons which are also open to the atmosphere while the pupae themselves are under water.

LIFE CYCLE OF A MOSQUITO

Control of mosquito and malaria

(i) Destroy all places where mosquitoes may breed. Drain wet areas and build houses
away from open water.
(ii) Spray open water ponds with eco-friendly pesticides

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 (iii) Cover surface water with a thin layer of oil. This cuts off the air supply to the larvae
and they suffocate.
(iv) Keep people with malaria in isolation so that mosquitoes cannot suck their blood and
transmit malaria to healthy people.
(v) Use mosquito nets
(vi) Use mosquito repellants
(vii) Put fly screens on doors and windows and keep them shut so that mosquitoes cannot
get in.

BILHARZIA

This disease is caused by parasitic flat worm called a fluke. Embryo (incomplete) fluke enter human
beings by means of snail found in ponds and rivers. When infected people urinate into the river the eggs
pass out and hatch. The larvae of the flukes pass into pond snails. Embryo flukes swim away from the
snails and may enter the skin of humans who stand or bath in the water. The adult fluke grow inside the
human blood system and cause tiredness and fever symptoms of bilharzia. When an infected person
urinates in the water, the cycle begins again.

CONTROL
(i) killing snails that live in open water
(ii) improved hygiene (using toilets)
(iii) preventing swimming in infected water
(iv) people need to be educated on the dangers of bilharzia and how to avoid infection
(v) bilharzia can be cured by proper treatment by a medical doctor or a clinic

Metamorphosis
Many insects eg housefly, mosquito etc have a life cycle in which there is a complete change from egg to adult. This is
termed as complete metamorphosis.
Egg ------------> Larva ---------------> Pupa ----------------> Adult

Insects like cockroach, grasshopper etc undergo incomplete metamorphosis

Egg -----------> Nymph --------------> Adult

FOOD POISONING

Food Poisoning: This is a situation where by bacteria, fungus or virus multiply in

food and make it unsafe to eat.

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Symptoms of food Poisoning

• vomiting
• stomach ache/ stomach cramps
• diarrhoea
• dizziness
• convulsions
• nausea

Prevention of food Poisoning

• cook the food well

• store food safely
• always handle food with clean hands and clean utensils
• always cover the body hair when handling food

Best Conditions for Microbial Growth

Microbes (fungus, bacteria, virus) grow best when:

1) it is warm
2) there is food ( starch, protein etc)
3) the environment is moist

FOOD PRESERVATION AND STORAGE

Preservation: Ways of keeping food safe for a long period (time)

Storage: This is a place for keeping the food safe for consumption (eating).

The following are ways of preserving and storing food:

1) Canning: The food is boiled at very high temperatures, then quickly cooled and kept
sealed (tightly closed) in a container.
2) Refrigeration: This is keeping the food cold so that the activity (multiplying) of the
germs (microbes) is slowed.
3) Drying: This is the removal of water from the food so that microbes stop multiplying, eg
biltong.
4) Salting: It provide environment which is not suitable for the microbes to develop.
5) Adding of Salt: This provide an environment which is not suitable for the growth of
microbes.
6) Bottling: The bottle is sterilised and then food preservatives added to make the food last
longer.
7) Pasteurisation: This is a process of boiling milk to temperature of 70oC and then quickly
cooling it to 100 . The milk is then quickly stored in an air tight (sealed) container.
8) Boiling: This is a process of heating food to very high temperatures. This is a short lived
preservative method
9) Pickling: This is the storage of food in some chemicals, eg vinegar (weak acid)is used to
preserve and store beetroots & onions
10. Freezing: The food is cooled to very low temperatures. This highly reduces the
activity of the microbes.
11. Radiation: This is passing sealed food through a radioactive material so that
microbes are killed.
12. Fermenting :it uses yeast to produce alcohol. Alcohol is a good preservative
because it kills bacteria. When you ferment grape juice you create wine, which will
last quite a long time without refrigeration.

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 Carbonating: water in which carbon dioxide gas has been dissolved under pressure. By taking out
oxygen, carbonated water stops bacterial growth..
Cheese making: the milk in cheese becomes something completely unlike milk. This process makes
use of bacteria, enzymes and naturally formed acids to solidify milk proteins and fat and preserve them
13. Chemical food preservation: there are three classes of chemical preservatives commonly used in foods
*Benzoates (such as sodium benzoate), Nitrites (such as sodium nitrite) and Sulphides (such as
sulphur dioxide).All these chemicals either slow down the activity of bacteria or kill the bacteria.

NB: Food must not be stored for too long otherwise it can be poisoned and cause illness when eaten. Do
not eat sealed food which have exceeded the expiry date since it might be poisoned!

DIGESTION

Digestion is the process in which food is broken down into smaller substances (mechanical digestion) and simpler
molecules (chemical digestion) that can then be absorbed into the body.

Importance Of Digestion

Digestion is a very important process because of the following:

 The cells of the body need a constant supply of energy to carry out their work
 Parts of the body and cells are also continually being repaired and replaced. As a result the body needs a
constant supply of new building materials in the form of protein, amino acids and other chemicals.
 The body needs vitamins and minerals. These are chemicals that are needed to help in many of the chemical
reactions that occur in cells. Without them the cells do not work properly and the person becomes ill.
 Digestion is the only way that we can obtain the raw materials that the body needs to function and survive.

PARTS OF THE DIGESTIVE SYSTEM AND THEIR FUNCTIONS

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 Parts of the digestive system Functions
Mouth -Teeth Cut/ grind the food up into small pieces.
-Tongue Mixes food with saliva and moves it into oesophagus.
Salivary glands Produce a fluid that lubricates the food and which contains enzymes that
begin breakdown of food.
Pharynx Helps with swallowing of food.
Oesophagus Connects the mouth/ pharynx to the stomach. Also passes food from mouth
to the stomach.
Stomach Contain acids and enzymes that begin the chemical breakdown of foods,
particularly proteins.
Gall bladder Releases a fluid into the duodenum that helps to digest fats.
Pancreas Releases fluid into the duodenum that contains enzymes that digest
carbohydrates, protein and fats.
Small intestine –Duodenum Contains fluids from the pancreas and gall bladder that digest food further.

-Jejunum and ileum Areas of the digestive system where digestion is completed and absorption
of nutrients takes place.
Large intestine (Colon) Water is absorbed here
Rectum Faeces are formed and stored here
Anus Faeces pass out of the body through the anus.

NB A single tube that runs from the mouth to the anus is called the alimentary canal.

ENZYMES
Enzyme: This is a biological catalyst that speeds up the chemical reactions in the body.
Functions of enzymes

• speed up chemical reactions

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 • responsible for digestion to take place

End products of Nutrients after a Chemical Reaction

Digestive enzyme Produced by Acts on …. Reaction takes place To produce ….

… in ….
Salivary amylase Salivary glands Starch Mouth maltose
Pancreatic amylase pancreas maltose Small intestine glucose
pepsin Gastric gland Protein Stomach peptides
trypsin Pancreas peptides Small intestine Amino acids
Lipase Pancreas Fat Small intestines Fatty acids and
glycerol

THE ABSORPTION OF NUTRIENTS INTO THE BLOOD STREAM

The absorption of the end products of digestion takes place in the ileum and jejunum. The inside wall of the
jejunum and ileum is highly folded increasing the surface area. These folds are known as villi( singular- villus).
The villi contain a lot of capillaries. The water soluble end-products of digestion (glucose, amino acids, minerals
and most vitamins) are absorbed into the blood in the capillaries by diffusion. The villi also contain small vessels
known as lymph vessels.

These contain fluid called lymph which is similar to blood but not exactly the same. Fatty acids, lipids and some
vitamins are not water soluble and so these are not absorbed by diffusion directly into the blood. Instead, these
substances are absorbed into the lymph vessel. The fluid in the lymph vessel eventually passes into the blood
stream.

FOOD TESTS
Types of nutrients
1) starch
2) glucose
3) proteins
4) fats/oils

Testing for Starch

- put food sample in a test-tube
- add water to make a solution in the test tube
- add 3 - 4 drops of iodine to the solution

18
Results: A dark blue (blue-black) colour will appear to show the presence of starch.

Testing for Proteins

put food sample in a test-tube
- add water to make a solution in the test tube
- Add 20 (5mm) drops of sodium hydroxide and the another 20 drops
(5mm) of copper sulphate
-
Positive Results: A pink or violet or purple colour indicates the presence of protein.

N.B Sodium hydroxide can be replaced with potassium hydroxide in the test for protein.

TESTING FOR GLUCOSE (benedict’s test)

- put food sample in a test-tube
- add water to make a solution in the test tube
- add 3 - 4 drops of benedict’s solution to the food solution
- Heat food sample with Benedict’s solution by placing it in a beaker
containing boiling water (water bath).

Positive Results: The solution will change from clear blue to green or yellow/ orange/ brick red
precipitate (suspension).

TESTING FOR FAT IN FOOD

 Emulsion test
- put food sample in a test-tube
- add water to make a solution in the test tube
- add 3 - 4 drops of benedict’s solution to the food solution

Positive Results: A cloudy white or milky emulsion will (suspension) will appear. This shows presence
of fat.

 Translucent Spot Test

- rub a food sample on a piece of white paper

- let the paper face a bright light

Positive Results: A translucent (partially transparent) spot is formed.

DRUGS

Drug: This is a chemical substance that has an effect on the body. It makes one to feel or behave
differently.

Examples of drugs which are normally abused:

Alcohol, Heroin ,Spirit based glues, Tar ,Cocaine, Nicotine, Marijuana, Caffeine, Lysergenic Acid
(LCD), Mandrax, Ectasydrug, Codeine, Morphine

Medicinal drugs : These are drugs which are used to cure certain diseases or suppress certain
conditions.

Examples of medicinal drugs:

* Aspirin, Penicillin ,Paracetamol etc

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 * Dose: This is the amount of medicine to be taken at a given time.

Drugs which are normally Used and Abused:

1) Sedatives
2) Pain killers
3) Stimulants
4) Hallucinogens
5) Antibiotics

1) SEDATIVES: These are drugs which affect the nervous system. They calm and cause one to
sleep.

Examples of Sedatives:

• Sleeping pill
• Alcohol ( it is found in wine, beer, vodka, whisky, brandy etc )
• Marijuana (it is also known as cannabis, dagga, hash, grass, pot etc ). It is either smoked
or leaves eaten.
• Spirit based glue (it is inhaled. It causes severe liver damage)

2) PAIN KILLERS: These are drugs used to kill or lessen pain.

Examples of Pain Killers:

• Heroin
• opium

N.B Medicine containing codeine or morphine are often used as pain killers.

How pain killers are taken into the body

* swallowing (orally)
• intra-mascular (inject in muscle)
• intra-venous (inject in veins)

3) STIMULANTS: These are drugs which help us to keep awake. They give extra strength and
energy for a while (short time).

Examples of Stimulants:

• Caffeine (found in coffee,tea,cola,chocolate, etc)

• Cocaine (found in leaves of cola plants; it is sniffed)
• Nicotine (found in tobbaco,cigarettes)
• Mandrax

4) HALLUCINOGENS: These are drugs which make people to see, hear and imagine things
which do not exist. They make people to feel at great peace. Some people will imagine a wonderful
dream-like, though the sometimes imagine terrible things. Those who imagine terrible things can harm
others or themselves.

Examples of Hallucinogens

• Marijuana
• Lysergenic Acid (LCD)
• “Ecstasy drugs”

5) ANTIBIOTICS: These are drugs which are used to kill pathogens (e.g. bacteria) Examples of
Antibiotics:

20
 • Penicillin
.

DANGERS OF MISUSE OF DRUGS (DRUG ABUSE)

Drug abuse: This is the use of drugs for non-medicinal purposes.

Effects of Drug Abuse:

• Strange behaviour: drugs affect the brain causing “highs”(being completely drunk) which
leads to family break down and financial hardship
• It damages the body leading to death (this is normally due to overdosing (taking too much
drugs) The parts which are worst affected are liver, brain, lungs and kidneys
• People will engage in criminal activities such as criminal activity, prostitution, drug
selling; so that they get money.
• Emotional and physical dependence on drugs may develop
• It causes people to have a slowed reaction time

MEDICINAL PLANTS IN MY LOCALITY

1. Sengaparile (Devil’s claw): used for strengthening the heart and blood.it used to treat arthritis and
rheumatism.
2. Monepenepe (Cassia abbriviata): a small tree, the bark and roots of which are used to treat headaches,
diarrhea and skin diseases.
3. Mukwa tree: used to treat stomach problems

ALCOHOL
It is a depressant for the nervous system. Alcohol is found in:
• Beer
• Wine
• Brandy
• Vodka
Effects of Alcohol

• It damages the brain, lungs, liver and pancreas.

• It causes stomach ulcers
• It slows down reaction time which leads to accidents
• It causes verso-dilation which leads to heat loss
• It cause change in behaviour
• It causes poor sight judgement
• It weakens the heart
• It leads to obesity
• It causes loss of appetite
• It leads to violence/ vandalism

Effects of alcohol on pregnancy

• It damages the foetus

• It lowers average birth weight (2.5 Kg)
• It may cause the baby to be born ill
• The mother might have a miscarriage
• The baby might be born deformed

Alcoholism: This is dependence on alcohol

Alcoholic: This is a person who depend on alcohol

SMOKING TOBACCO

21
There are two types of tobacco smoking, which are:

1) Active smoking
2) Passive smoking

Active smoking: directly getting the smoke from the tobacco

Passive smoking: indirectly smoking the tobacco smoke from the immediate environment

N.B Smoking is addictive. This means smokers can be dependent on tobacco so much that if they do not
smoke they cannot do anything. An addict will have head ache and shiver if he do not get the drug he is
addicted to.

Contents of tobacco
• Carbon monoxide
• Tar
• Nicotine
• Hydrogen cyanide

Effects of smoking

• It damage lungs (it destroys lung cells) which lead to a disease called EMPHYSEMA.
• It can lead to a disease called bronchitis
• It increases the chances/risk of getting a heart attack
• It leads to cancers e.g. lung cancer, mouth cancer and throat cancer
• It leads to ear infections
NB Both active smokers and passive smokers are equally affected by the effects of smoking.

Public protection against Passive Smoking

• Tobacco smoking is prohibited (not allowed) in all public areas eg public halls
• Tobacco smoking is prohibited in all public transport

ALLERGIC REACTIONS TO DRUGS

Many people are allergic to things around them. Allergies to grass, cats, dogs, feathers, and pollen are
common. Usually people who are allergic to these sorts of things have a mild allergic reaction (often
known as hay fever) when they come in contact with them. The symptoms are:
- Itchy ears and eyes
- Runny nose
- Tickly throat
- Sneezing
Mild allergic reactions are easily treated with drugs known as antihistamines.
In some people, allergies are more severe. When they are exposed to something they are sensitive to the
following symptoms are observed:
- Difficulty in breathing( asthma)
- A drop in blood pressure
- Unconsciousness
- Itchy rash all over the body
- Swelling of lips, face, and throat ( this can the person from breathing)
Drugs that are known to sometimes cause allergic reactions include penicillin, tetracycline (antibiotic),
codeine and drugs used to treat epilepsy.

THE HUMAN BODY: TRANSPORTING SUBSTANCES IN THE HUMAN BODY

BLOOD

22
This is a liquid substance which circulates around the body. In most cases (mammals) it is red in colour.

FUNCTIONS OF THE BODY

1) Transport: Blood transport substances around the body. Blood transport the following around
the body: *food nutrients substances, water, oxygen, urea and carbon dioxide

2) Controls body temperature: The blood vessels get near the skin when it is hot so that heat is
lost from the body while when it is cold, the blood vessel get deep into the flesh (away from
the skin ) in order to conserve heat. Blood also circulate through areas which produce lot of
heat ( eg armpits and pubic areas) and takes heat to cooler parts hence maintaining a constant
(37 degrees in human beings)

3) It defends the body against diseases: Blood contain some cells, eg white blood cells, which
protect the body against diseases.

4) Blood Clotting: Blood platelets help in blood clotting at the site of injuries.

COMPONENTS OF BLOOD

The components of blood refer to different parts which compose the blood. The components of blood
are: * Red Blood Cells (RBC) *White Blood Cells
* Platelets *Plasma
1) Red Blood Cells ( RBC )
• they are disc- shaped
• they do not have the nucleus
• it contains haemoglobin ( reddish pigment mainly made of iron)
• the main function of the red blood cell is to transport oxygen around the whole body. It is
able to carry oxygen because it contains haemoglobin which attracts oxygen.

2) White Blood Cells ( WBC )

• colourless
• it has nucleus
• it does not have fixed shape
• the main function of the white blood cell is to fight against diseases.

The Two Types of White Blood Cells

a) Polymorphs (Phagocytes)
b) Lymphocytes

Differences between lymphocytes and polymorphs (phagocyte)

LYMPHOCYTES POLYMORPHS ( PHAGOCYTE )

-regular shaped nucleus -irregular shape
-it kills the pathogen ( disease causing microorganisms) -it engulf and kill the pathogens
by producing antibodies

3) Platelets: They make sure that blood clots.

4) Plasma: a yellowish liquid on which substances are dissolved

-it transport all substances around the body Examples of dissolved substances are: dissolved
food particles are urea, carbon dioxide ,oxygen traces, transport hormones

BLOOD GROUPS

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There are four blood groups. The blood groups are:
A, B, AB and O

Uses of Blood groups in medicine

 Blood groups enable medical practitioners to develop a wide range of cures by studying antigens and
antibodies.
 Even though they are not 100% effective, blood groups can be used to explain some paternity issues.
 Blood groups help in developing antibodies for vaccination against diseases.
 Blood groups can help in the development of certain antibiotics.
 Blood groups allow for the administering of safe blood transfusions.

BLOOD TRANSFUSION
Is when the blood of one person (a donor) is given to another person (the recipient) by letting it flow into the
body of the recipient through a needle placed in one of their veins.
Donor: This is a person who gives out blood.
Recipient: This is a person who receives (being given) blood.
Compatibility: This is the ability of the blood groups to be safely transfused. Incompatible group leads
to blood clotting.

THE TABLE BELOW SHOWS BLOOD GROUP COMPATABILITY

BLOOD GROUP DONATE RECEIVE FROM
A A & AB A & O
B B & AB B & O
AB AB only AB, O, A, B
O AB, A, B, O O only

UNIVERSAL RECIPIENT: Group AB receives blood from all blood groups; hence it is called a
universal recipient.

UNIVERSAL DONOR: Group O donates blood to all blood groups; therefore, it is a universal donor.

BLOOD SCREENING

Blood screening is the checking of compatibility and safeness of blood to be transfused.

Blood is screened for the following; Compatibility and Various diseases
1) Screening blood for compatibility: This is finding out whether blood is of a group that
can safely be combined without clotting.

2) Screening blood for HIV/ AIDS: This is checked because the diseases can be transmitted
from one person to another through blood transfusion.

3) Screening blood for hepatitis B: This is checked because the diseases can be transmitted
from one person to another through blood transfusion. The symptoms of the disease
include yellowish eyes and nausea (feeling like vomiting).

4) Screening blood for Syphilis: This is checked because the diseases can be transmitted
from one person to another through blood transfusion.

5) Screening blood for gonorrhoea: This is checked because the diseases can be transmitted
from one person to another through blood transfusion.

6) All equipment that is used such as containers, needles and tubes must be sterilized to
ensure utmost hygiene.

NB: Blood that is not compatible or has any of the above diseases is not will not be transfused
BLOOD CIRCULATION

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CIRCULATORY SYSTEM: The main organ in the circulatory system is the heart.

THE HEART STRUCTURE

The heart is divided into two main sides namely:

i) Left side and right side
The heart is further divided into four chambers namely:
i) right atrium/ auricle, right ventricle, left atrium/auricle and left ventricle
Upper chambers are atrium while lower chambers are ventricles.

Table below shows functions of the parts of the heart.

25
 LEFT SIDE OF THE HEART RIGHT SIDE OF THE HEART

Pulmonary vein: It brings oxygenated blood to the heart Vena Cava: It brings deoxygenated blood to the heart

Left auricle/ atrium: It contains blood before it is released Right auricle/ atrium: It contains blood before it is released
to the ventricle. into the ventricle.
It contract a little to empty blood from it. It contract a little to empty blood from it
Valves ( bicuspid valves): It controls the flow of blood by Valves ( tricuspid valves): They avoid back flow of blood
avoiding back flow They close as the ventricle contract
Left ventricle: It is responsible for pumping oxygenated Right ventricle: It contract and relax to pump deoxygenated
blood from the heart. blood from the heart.
It contract to pump up blood and it relaxes to accommodate
incoming blood.
Aorta: It transport oxygenated blood to the whole body. Pulmonary artery: It transport deoxygenated blood to the
lungs.
( NB Pulmonary artery is the only artery which contains
deoxygenated blood)
BLOOD VESSELS

There are 3 main kinds of blood vessels – arteries, veins and capillaries
• Arteries carry blood away from the heart. They divide again and again, and
eventually form very tiny vessels called capillaries.
• The capillaries gradually join up with one another to form large vessels called
veins.
• Veins carry blood towards the heart.

The comparison of blood vessels structure and functions

Blood Vessel Structure Function

Arteries -Have thick elastic muscular Carry oxygenated blood except
walls without valves pulmonary artery, ie blood flows at
high pressure.

-Have thinner, less elastic walls Carry deoxygenated blood except

and one way valves the pulmonary vein,
blood flows at low pressure.

Veins

26
 Capillaries Have walls that are one cell Provide cells with nutrients and
thick and no valves oxygen from the blood cells.

The transfer of materials between capillaries and tissue fluid

As blood enters capillaries from arterioles (small arteries), it slows down. This allows substances in the
plasma, as well as oxygen from red blood cells, to diffuse through the capillary wall into the surrounding
tissues (the capillary wall is thin and permeable).

Liquid in the plasma also passes out. This forms tissue fluid, bathing the cells. Waste products from
the cells, e.g. carbon dioxide, diffuse back through the capillary walls into the plasma. Some of the tissue
fluid also passes back.

COMMON DISEASES OF THE CIRCULATORY SYSTEM

i) Heart attack ii) Stroke

iii) High blood pressure (it’s a condition)
iv) Anemia

1. HEART ATTACK
Heart attack is the failure of the heart to pump blood due to a blockage in the coronary artery.

Cause: +
• Too much fat which blocks the artery, which leads to atherosclerosis.
• Blockage due to clots, which leads to coronary thrombosis
• Arteries can rapture or break, this is called aneurysm

HOW HEART ATTACK AFFECT THE CIRCULATORY SYSTEM

The blood will not be pumped around the body due to a blockage of the coronary artery.

Prevention of heart attack

• Avoiding eating fatty food

27
 • Exercise regularly

2) ANAEMIA
Anaemia is the failure of the red blood cells to supply enough oxygen to the body.

Causes of Anaemia

• Lack of haemoglobin
• Having few red blood cells. Red blood cells are mainly lost during bleeding.
• The shape of the red blood cells changing to a sickle-shape.
Prevention of Anaemia

• Enriching the diet with iron. This improves haemoglobin formation.

• Avoid bleeding.

Cure for Anaemia

• Use iron tablets, also known as ferrous tablets.

3) STROKE: This is the blockage of the artery supplying brain with oxygenated blood.

Causes of Stroke

• Blockage of an artery supplying brain with oxygen.

Effects/ results of Stroke

• Sudden death
• Mental illness
• Paralysis
Coma ( unconsciousness )

Causes of circulatory diseases

-Smoking: contributes to the narrowing of blood vessels.
-Raised levels of cholesterol in the body: cholesterol can end up blocking the blood vessels.
-High blood pressure caused by high level of salt in the diet. It can lead to a strain on arteries.
-Diabetes: high levels of sugar in the blood may not be tolerable to the blood vessels.
-Inheritances: there is an observed trend whereby those from families with circulatory diseases tend to end up having
them.
-Old age: as organs and tissues age, their effectiveness lowers.
-Stress: individuals with high stress levels have reportedly been associated with circulatory problems.

Prevention of circulatory diseases

*Make exercise a habit.

*Eat a correct diet.
*Avoid eating too much salt to avoid the risk of hypertensive disease.
*Avoid taking drugs, including the smoking of cigarettes.
*Have your blood pressure checked regularly.
*Have your cholesterol levels checked regularly.
*Do not take drugs during pregnancy so that the unborn child can develop tissues and organs fully.
*Try to avoid high stress situations

Breathing System
GASEOUS EXCHANGE IN MAN

Respiratory system plays an important role in gaseous exchange in Human beings. It involves
inspiration/inhaling (breathing in) and expiration/expiring (breathing out). Breathing is brought by the

28
movement of the ribs and the diaphragm which alters/changes the volume of the chest cavity and
changes the pressure of the air in the lungs. Air breathed in is known as inspired or inhaled air and air
breathed out is known as exhaled/expired air.

Mechanisms of breathing

Breathing is the mechanism that pumps air into and out of the lungs of a mammal. It occurs in two
phases; Inspiration and expiration. Action of breathing occurs the following

Inhalation/breathing in/inspiration Exhalation/breathing out/expiration

. Inspiration/breathing in: when one breathes in, the 1. Expiration/breathing out: when one breathes out
diaphragm contracts and flattens the diaphragm relaxes and domes upwards the thorax

- Ribcage moves downwards and

-Ribcage/thorax moves up and outwards. inward.
- Diaphragm muscles contract - Diaphragm muscles relax thus
making it flat pushing it up
- Air pressure in the lungs decreases - Air pressure rises inside the lungs
resulting in air being drawn into the lungs.
and air is expelled out.
- Volume of the chest cavity
- Volume of the chest cavity
increases.
decreases.

Role of exchange surface of the alveoli in gaseous exchange

The alveoli are the functional units for the respiratory system. This is where gaseous exchange takes
place. The alveoli are formed through the branching of the bronchioles. They are sac like structures and
sometimes referred to as air sacs.

diagram from integrated science book 1

29
How alveoli are adapted for function

 There are many alveoli in the lungs which creates a large surface area for gas
exchange.
 The wall/epithelium wall of the alveolus is one cell thin to allow easy diffusion of gases
in and out of the alveolus.
 Alveolus secretes a solution called surfactant solution, which eases the wall tension
hence minimizing lung inflation efforts.
 The alveoli are elastic, to increase inspirational capacity.
 Alveoli are surrounded by a network of blood vessels (capillaries) which deliver
deoxygenated blood from the pulmonary artery and collect oxygenated blood from
the alveoli.
 There is also a thin film of water to dissolve oxygen for them to diffuse faster into the
blood stream/capillaries

What happens during the breathing process (summary)?

 During breathing, air rich in oxygen enters the alveoli from the bronchiole.
 Oxygen diffuses through the epithelium with the capillaries.
 Then transported through the pulmonary vein to the heart before being transported around
the whole body.
 Carbon dioxide leaves the alveoli and is expelled out through the nose.
 The diffusion of gases is facilitated by the difference in the concentration gradient.

Comparing inspired and expired air

Inspired air Expired air

- Dry or less moist (depends on - Very moist
humidity). - Rich in oxygen - Less oxygen content
- Less carbon dioxide. - Rich in carbon dioxide.
-usually cool and below body temperature. - it is usually warm

Effect of physical activity on the breathing rate

Average breathing rate of a human being ranges between 12-16 breaths/minute. During exercise it
increase and the increase is brought about by the following
1. More oxygen is needed to release energy for the muscle contraction and relaxation.
2. Increased energy requirement result in increase in the rate of respiration which increases
the demand for oxygen and this increases breathing to meet the oxygen demand.
3. Blood circulation in and out of the lungs must take place faster therefore the pulse rate
and heart beat increases.

30
 RESPIRATORY DISEASES
The common respiratory diseases include the following;
1. Bronchitis
2. Lung cancer
3. Emphysema
4. Asthma

1. Bronchitis: it is the inflammation of the bronchial tubes.

Caused by Sulphur dioxide and cigarette smoke which damages the cilia and as a result mucus
accumulates in the lungs and has to be cleared through coughing. The mucus collecting in the lungs
provides an ideal breeding ground for micro-organisms resulting in bronchitis. Bronchitis can also be
contracted after heavy cold. There are two forms of bronchitis; acute (resulting after influenza and
common cold and can be treated) and chronic (caused by smoking and is very dangerous because it has
complex symptoms).
Prevention by avoiding smoking and dusty areas and also by steam inhalation.

2. Lung cancer:
 Caused by tar that comes from cigarettes, high exposure to radiation, nicotine in
cigars can also result in uncontrolled cell division to form unspecialized cells
known as tumour. The cells invade other parts (malignant) of the lung, reducing
its capacity to exchange gases efficiently.
 Symptoms the condition does not have symptoms visible except common
coughing in smokers.
 Treatment at early stages of the disease x-ray radiation can be used to destroy the
tumour or by the surgical removal of the lung  Prevention quit
smoking.
3. Emphysema:
 Caused cigarette smoking, irritants, asbestos carried by air into the lungs and old
age (but irritants play a minor role compared to cigarette smoking)
 The disease can lead to the destruction of the walls the alveolus which are
thickened hence difficulties in diffusion of substances. Lungs lose their elasticity
and cannot expand in each breath. The cavities may be formed in the lungs due to
the broken alveoli, and then filled with contaminated mucus.
 Symptoms: there is shortness of breath, in severe cases death may occur as early
as two years if not severe an individual may carry the condition up to ten years.
 Treatment: no treatment or cure
 Prevention avoid smoking

4. Asthma:
 A condition where airflow through the bronchi and bronchioles is restricted.
 Symptoms include wheezing (being out of breath), difficulty in breathing and a
feeling of tightness of the chest.
 This can be caused by breathing in pollen; dust mites, hair from dogs and cats,
eating certain foods such as milk or nuts, poor air quality and inhaling fumes such
as cars and also exercising.
 A spray is usually used to open up the bronchi and bronchioles to allow airflow.

Other diseases include; TB, Pleurisy, whooping cough, flu, laryngitis, pharyngitis.

Smoking and pregnancy

If an expectant mother is a smoker, this has an effect on the unborn baby. This results from nicotine and
carbon monoxide which is passed to the unborn child. The carbon monoxide reduces oxygen content of
the blood and forms carbon dioxide
This has the following effects to the unborn baby;
-Reduced cell division due to insufficient oxygen supply to respiring cells and may lead to the baby
having physical handicaps.
- Slow growth of the unborn baby.
-Low birth weight
-Low oxygen supply to brain cells which can to mental retardation.

31
- Mother may have a miscarriage/still birth.
-Child may be born with breathing problems

EXCRETION
Excretion is the way in which the body gets rid of non-useful chemicals and toxins that are produced by
the chemical processes that take place in cells.
Egestion is the removal of undigested food as solid waste (feaces) from the alimentary canal.
EXCRETORY ORGANS

Excretory organ Product of excretion

Lungs Urine ( contains unwanted water, minerals, and chemical waste especially urea)
Skin (sweat glands) Sweat contains small amount of urea
Kidneys Carbon dioxide exhaled from the lungs

COMMON PROBLEMS OF THE EXCRETORY SYSTEM

 Urinary tract infections(UTI) – these are infection of the bladder and
urethra that are usually caused by bacteria that also appear in the faeces.
Serious UTIs may cause blockage of the excretory system and this can be
relieved by inserting a tube (a catheter) into the excretory system so that
urine can flow freely until the infection is treated.
 Kidney stones – these are crystals of salts and minerals such as calcium
that form in the urinary tract. Kidney stones can also form after an
infection. If kidney stones are large enough to block the kidney or ureter,
they can also cause severe abdominal pains. The stones usually pass
through the excretory system on their own and pass out in the urine but in
some cases they may need to be removed by surgery.
 Kidney failure – kidney failure is a term used to describe many different
types of diseases that result in one or both kidneys not functioning
properly. Some of the causes of kidney failure include:
- infection
- poisoning or an overdose of drugs
- a sudden drop in blood pressure (shock)
- heart failure
One treatment for kidney failure is to filter the toxins out of the blood artificially using a machine. This
is known as dialysis. If the kidney do not function at all then the person will die unless they receive new
kidney in a kidney transplant.
 HIV/AIDS- It is a virus which has the following effects on the circulatory
system:-destruction of white blood cells
-poor immunity
-vulnerability to different diseases

 Irregular heart rhythm:This occurs when the atria contract abnormally.

 Blood leaking back into atria:This occurs as a result of the valves not
functioning effectively.

 Spasm: This is an uncontrolled, repeated contraction of the heart muscles in

the coronary artery walls.

32
Causes of circulatory diseases
-Smoking: contributes to the narrowing of blood vessels.
-Raised levels of cholesterol in the body: cholesterol can end up blocking the blood vessels.
-High blood pressure caused by high level of salt in the diet. It can lead to a strain on arteries.
-Diabetes: high levels of sugar in the blood may not be tolerable to the blood vessels.
-Inheritances: there is an observed trend whereby those from families with circulatory diseases tend to end up having
them.
-Old age: as organs and tissues age, their effectiveness lowers.
-Stress: individuals with high stress levels have reportedly been associated with circulatory problems.

Prevention of circulatory diseases

*Make exercise a habit.

*Eat a correct diet.
*Avoid eating too much salt to avoid the risk of hypertensive disease.
*Avoid taking drugs, including the smoking of cigarettes.
*Have your blood pressure checked regularly.
*Have your cholesterol levels checked regularly.
*Do not take drugs during pregnancy so that the unborn child can develop tissues and organs fully.
*Try to avoid high stress situations.

ELECTRICITY AND MAGNETISM: ELECTRICAL ENERGY

Magnetism
Is a property of matter which produces a field of attractive (bringing together) or repulsive (forcing apart) forces.
Magnetism is the force that causes a nail or paper clip to be pulled toward a magnet.When we change something from
being non-magnetic to being magnetic, we say that magnetism is induced in the material.

Methods of Magnetisation
There are two main ways that we can induce magnetism in non-magnetic materials:
 Electrically
 Stroking an object with a magnet

Inducing Magnetism Electrically (electromagnatisim)

A coil of wire is wrapped around a piece of iron or steel and an electric current is passed through it. The iron or steel
only act as a magnet when the electric current flows, the molecules become arranged in one direction. This is known as
polarization. Polarization is what makes something magnetic. When the electricity is switched off, they lose their
magnetic properties. This kind of magnet is called an electromagnet.

Inducing Magnetism by Stroking

There are two kinds of stoking: Single stroke and double stroke method

33
  Single stoke method: a piece of iron or steel is stroked in one direction with a strong magnet.

 Double stoke method: a piece of iron or steel is stroked by two strong magnets using opposite ends of the
magnets. This produces a stronger magnet.

Magnetic properties of Iron and Steel

Magnetic properties of iron Magnetic properties of steel

Iron gets magnetized quickly Steel gets magnetized slowly.
Iron loses its magnetism quickly Steel loses its magnetism slowly
Iron is used to make temporary electromagnets. Steel is used for making permanent magnets

Uses of Magnetic Materials

- Magnetic recording media ( video and audio tapes contain a reel of magnetic tape. The information is
encoded onto a magnetic coating on the tape)
- Computer floppy disks and hard disks
- Credit cards, debit cards and ATM cards
- Some television and computer screens
- Speakers and microphones
- Electric motors and generators
- Magnetic compasses
- Magnetic levitation transport (Maglev)
- Magnets can pick up magnetic items

Proper care for magnets

Proper care of a magnet means taking the following steps:

 Don’t ever drop or hit a magnet. Most magnets are brittle and can break easily.
 Don’t ever place a magnet in a flame.
 When you store a horseshoe magnet, you must place a keeper plate on the end of the magnet to protect the
poles.
 Store magnets so that the south pole of one magnet is facing the north pole of another. Never store magnets
with the same poles facing each other.

ELECTROSTATIC CHARGING
Static electricity is electricity which does not move. When we charge objects by friction, and they retain their charge,
the charged object is said to be static electricity. An object can become charged as a result of friction. Friction between
two objects causes electrons (carry electrical charges) to move from one object to another.

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The two types of charging: positive and negative
There are two types of charges, namely the negative charge and the positive charge. Objects that gain
electrons become negatively charged and those that lose electrons become positively charged.
To measure the size of an electric charge we have to use standard units. The SI unit of charge is the Coulomb (C). One
coulomb is the amount of charge accumulated in one second by a current of one ampere.

Repulsion and Attraction between charges

Repulsion: like charges repels

+ + - -

Repulsion is a force that pushes two objects apart. Two positive or negative charges will repel each other.

Attraction : unlike charges attracts

+ -

Attraction is a force that pulls two objects together. A positive charge will attract a negative charge.

Sources of electrical Energy

- solar cells - geothermal power

- car batteries - hydroelectric power
- dynamos - wind power
- dry cells - nuclear power
- generators

HOW A BYCYCLE DYNAMO GENERATES ELECTRICITY

ENERGY CHANGES AT A POWER STATION

Energy: this is the ability to do work.

N.B. The law of energy conservation states that “energy” cannot be created nor destroyed, it can
only be converted (changed) from one state to another”.

Power station: this is where electricity is being produced, using different energy changes.

The following are some of the power stations:

i) hydro-electric power station ii) thermal power station iii) petrol/diesel

power station

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 Electrical conductors and electrical insulators

Electrical conductor
These are materials with low resistivity. It allows current to easily pass through it. Electrons easily
pass through it.

Examples of electrical conductors

Silver, Copper,Constantan, Mercury, Graphite/Carbon, Iron, Aluminum N.B most metals are good
conductors of electricity.

conductotors are used to conduct electricity in:

- cars
- houses
- national grid lines
- radios etc

Electrical insulator
This is a material with high electrical resistivity. They do not allow electricity to easily pass
through them. Electrons do not easily pass through them.

Examples of electrical insulators

- glass
- wood
- polythene - quartz
- sulphur
- rubber
- cork
- paper

electrical insulators are used to avoid electric shock when working with electricity, e.g. plastic gloves for
electricians, screwdriver handles made of plastic, electrician pliers handles made of plastic.

Effects of electricity

Electricity has the following effects:

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 1) heating effect
2) magnetic effect
3) chemical effect

1) Heating effect of electricity

The heating effect is caused by high resistance of a conductor as electricity pass through it. During
electric heating, electrical energy is changed to heat energy.

Demonstrating effects of heat energy

- when the switch is on, the nichrome coil get hot, water get warmer and the
temperature recorded will be higher.
- When the switch is off, nichrome coil cools down, water get cooler and the
temperature recorded is lower.
Conclusion
This shows that electrical energy is changed to heat energy, hence the heating effect of electricity.

Some applications/ uses of the heating effect of electricity

- electric heater
- electric kettle
- electric stove
- electric bulb
- fuse, strip switch
- electric toaster etc

2) The Magnetic Effect of Electricity

When ever current flows through a conductor, a magnetic field is formed.

Demonstrating magnetic effect of electricity

As the current flows the compass needle swings away and points at an angle. This proves that there
is a magnetic field since only a magnetic pole will repel a pole of a magnet.

Application/ uses of magnetic effect of electricity

- Electromagnet: this is a soft iron coiled with a conductor and electricity passes
through it, it turns into a magnet but if electricity is switched off, it loses its magnetism.
An electro magnet is used as: -lifting magnets
-telephone ear piece -electric bell/buzzer
-magnetic switches

3)The Chemical Effect of Electricity

Electrical energy can be converted to chemical energy.

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A solution of copper sulphate is able to conduct electricity. You will have seen some of the signs of a chemical
reaction;
- Bubbles of gas were made at the carbon rod connected to the positive side of the battery.
- The carbon rod connected to the negative terminal of the power supply became covered with copper.

Applications of the Chemical Effect of Electricity

- mining of copper (electrolysis)

- electroplating
- decomposing water into hydrogen gas and oxygen gas
- electrical cells (batteries)

Using electrical appliance

Apart from cells, another supply of electricity can be from mains. Mains electricity has sockets in
which a plug is inserted to get electricity to the mains.

Live, neutral and earth wires in an electric cable

Three –core electric cable contains three insulated (plastic coated) wires. The table below describes
these wires:

COLOUR NAME FUNCTION

Brown Live wire Carries the electric current
Green and yellow Earth wire Gives a route for the current to earth if the live wire touches the outer casing.
Blue Neutral wire Carries electricity from an outlet back to the service panel.

How to correctly wire a three pin plug

- Cut the outer insulation off the cable, about 2 cm. Make sure that you do not cut the
insulation inside the inner wires.
- Cut the wires such that the earth wire (green and yellow) is a little longer than the
other two.

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 - Cut the insulation off the ends of each wire to leave about 5 mm of each wire
uncovered. Twist the ends of each copper wire together.
- Connect the wires to the pins of the plug as shown above.
- Grip the cable using the cable grip as shown above.
- Re-check your connections before you plug into the socket, or better still, ask for
confirmation from the other person, e.g. your teacher.

N.B
Wrong connections can lead to damage of equipment, electrocution and house fire.

Role of the earth wire

Its main purpose is for safety against electrocution. If the live wire accidentally touches the
appliance body, huge amount of current would pass from the live wire to the ground, through the
earth wire. This leaves the appliance safe to touch.

Role of fuse

Its main function is to melt and break so as to break the circuit in case of the wires become too hot.
This avoids fire. A fuse contains a strip of metal that will easily melt when it is heated or
overloaded with current.Once broken, a fuse needs to be replaced with a new one of the same
rating. A fuse must not be rated too much below the current passing through the appliance since it
will break during normal working supply. A fuse must not be rated too much above the current
passing through the appliance since it will let too much current flow hence it will not protect the
appliance that is, the appliance can be damaged even if that fuse is in use.

The table below shows some appliances and their correct fuse rating

Appliance Power (Watts) Normal Current (A) Correct Fuse (A)

Lamp 100 0.5 3
TV set 120 0.6 3
Hair Dryer 500 2.1 5
Toaster 1200 5 13
Kettle 2800 12 13

Role of the Strip Switch

A strip switch trips off if there is an overload of current flow so as to open the circuit. This is a
safety device since it avoids the damage of equipment and avoids fire due to overheating of electric
cables. Advantages of strip switch is that It can be switched back to complete the circuit unlike a
fuse that need to be replaced every time it is blown out!

Short Circuit
This is a situation whereby a large current flow by-passing large resistance through a conductor of
low resistance. This causes very high heat intensity and this can lead to flash of light with some
harsh sound.

Electrical Hazards
These are dangers people may be exposed to when they use electricity. These dangers are:

1) Damaged insulation
2) Overheating of cables
3) Damped conditions

1) Damaged insulation
Electrical wires in appliances are insulated so as to avoid electrical leakage. If the insulation gets damaged, the
wires may touch each other or the body of the appliance leading to short circuit. The wires get too hot and this
can result in a fire or electrocution or damage the appliance.

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 2) Overheating cables
This is caused by wires being too thin to carry the required current hence the cables get too hot and
damaged/melts the insulation resulting in a short circuit and fire. Overheating may be caused by
using too many adapters on a single plug socket.

3) Damp conditions

Since water conducts electricity, touching electrical appliances with damp hands may lead to
electrocution or electrical shock.

POWER CONSUMPTION

Power consumption is the use of electrical energy. Electrical energy used is being paid for. You
either receive a bill for electrical energy consumption or you buy it before use. Power is the rate at
which energy is being transformed. Power can also be defined as the rate at which work is done.

S.I units of power is Watts (W)

Other units of Power

1 kW = 1000 W (1 kilo Watt)

1 MW = 1000 000 W (1 Mega Watt)

Electrical Energy: This is the electrical power used within a given time.
Electrical energy (kwh) = power (kw) x time (h)

Watt-seconds are too small for realistic use of electrical energy. Other large units are used which are kilo Watt –
hour.

Electrical energy is normally referred to as electrical units.ie 1kwh= 1 unit

Cost of Electricity : This is the charge for use of electrical energy.

Cost of using electrical energy is calculated using the formulae below:

Cost = electrical energy used (units) x cost per unit

Calculations on Electrical Consumption and its Cost

Electrical appliances are normally rated e.g. a heater may be rated 3kW. This means that the heater
will use 3 kW of electrical energy every hour.

How many units (electrical energy) will it use in?

a) 2 hours
b) 3 hours
Solutions
a) Units used (Electrical energy) = Power (kW) x Time (hours)
= 3 kW x 2 h = 6 kWh
b) Units used (Electrical energy) = Power (kW) x Time (hours)
= 3 kW x 3 h
= 9 kWh

Examples

If the cost of electrical energy is P 0.75 per unit, calculate the cost of using a heater in the above
example.

cost = consumption x unit price

= 6kW x 0.75
= P4.50

calculate others;

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How much would it cost to use equipment rated 9kW for:

Ai) 5 h ii) a week ii)8 hours every day for 31 days?

Solution

Ai) find out the total units used first

Units used (Electrical energy) = Power (kWh) x Time (hours)

= 9 kW x 5h
= 45 kWh

WHAT IS GEO-SCIENCE

Geo science is the study of the earth and its systems. It includes any of the sciences related to
earth.

Everything insystem can be placed into one of four major subsystems: land, water,
living things, or air. These four subsystems are called "spheres." Specifically, they are the
"lithosphere" (land), "hydrosphere" (water), "biosphere" (living things), and "atmosphere"
(air). -

Lithosphere
The lithosphere contains all of the cold, hard solid land of the planet's crust (surface), the
sem-solid land underneath the crust, and the liquid land near the center
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The solid, semi-solid, and liquid land of the lithosphere form layers that are physically and
chemically different. If someone were to cut through Earth to its center, these layers would be
revealed like the layers of an onion (see image above). The outermost layer of the lithosphere
consists of loose soil rich in nutrients, oxygen, and silicon. Beneath that layer lies a very thin, solid
crust of oxygen and silicon. Next is a thick, semi-solid mantle of oxygen, silicon, iron, and
magnesium. Below that is a liquid outer core of nickel and iron. At the center of Earth is a solid
inner core of nickel and iron.

Hydrosphere
The hydrosphere contains all the solid, liquid, and gaseous water of the planet.It ranges from 10 to
20 kilometers in thickness. The hydrosphere extends from Earth's surface downward several
kilometers into the lithosphere and upward about 12 kilometers into the atmosphere.
Ninety-seven percent of Earth's water is salty. The salty water collects in deep valleys along Earth's
surface. These large collections of salty water are referred to as oceans. Water near the poles is very
cold (shown in dark purple), while water near the equator is very warm (shown in light blue). The
differences in temperature cause water to change physical states. Extremely low temperatures like
those found at the poles cause water to freeze into a solid such as a polar icecap, a glacier, or an
iceberg. Extremely high temperatures like those found at the equator cause water to evaporate into a
gas. Note: Some scientists place frozen water--glaciers, icecaps, and icebergs--in its own sphere
called the "cryosphere."

Biosphere
The biosphere contains all the planet's living things. This sphere includes all of the microorganisms,
plants, and animals of Earth. Within the biosphere, living things form ecological communities
based on the physical surroundings of an area. These communities are referred to as biomes.
Deserts, grasslands, and tropical rainforests are three of the many types of biomes that exist within
the biosphere.
Note: Some scientists place humans in their own sphere called the "anthrosphere."

Atmosphere
The atmosphere contains all the air in Earth's system. It extends from less than 1 m below the
planet's surface to more than 10,000 km above the planet's surface. The upper portion of the
atmosphere protects the organisms of the biosphere from the sun's ultraviolet radiation. It also
absorbs and emits heat. When air temperature in the lower portion of this sphere changes, weather
occurs. As air in the lower atmosphere is heated or cooled, it moves around the planet. The result
can be as simple as a breeze or as complex as a tornado.

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 INTERACTION BETWEEN THE SPHERES
The spheres do not function separately, there is interaction between them all the time. For example:
the water cycle.

The earth’s spheres are interdependent.

- Water moves between different spheres in a system known as water cycle.
- Water (hydrosphere) is found in the clouds (atmosphere) and flows through the soil into underground
aquifers (lithosphere).
- A layer of air in the atmosphere shields plants and animals (biosphere) from radiation.
- Birds (biosphere) fly through the air (atmosphere) and fish (biosphere) swim in the sea (hydrosphere).
- Nutrients flow between different spheres.
- Atmosphere provides oxygen to biosphere for respiration and carbon dioxide for photosynthesis.

CAREERS RELATED TO THE STUDY OF GEO-SCIENCE

- Economic and mining geologist

- Geologist
- Climatologist
- Mineralogist - Soil scientist
- Paleontologist

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