Unit 3

Magnetic Materials
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Magnetic materials are substance which upon being

introduced into an external magnet field, they themselves become source of an additional magnetic field.

Magnetic Materials

Materials without Materials with permanent permanent mag moments mag moments
Para
Weak

Dia

Ferro
Strong
2

Magnetic Field

Space around the magnet or current carrying conductor where the magnetic effect is felt. (Amp/m).

Magnetic Lines of Force

Magnetic filed is assumed to consists of lines of magnetic forces. These lines of forces seems to travel externally from North to South poles of the Magnet. This lines of forces are called as the magnetic lines of forces.

Magnetic Flux ()

=BA

Total number of magnetic lines of force passing through a surface. (Weber).

Magnetic induction or Magnetic flux density (B)

The number of magnetic lines of force passing perpendicularly through a unit area. (Wb/m2 or Tesla). [1 Weber = 108 magnetic lines]. B= A

Magnetic Field Intensity (H)

Force experienced by a unit north pole placed at that point in a magnetic field. (Amp/m). B H= Ratio between the magnetic induction (B) and the permeability of the medium in which magnetic field exists.

Magnetic Dipoles

Two equal and unlike poles separated by a distance.

Dipole Moment (m)

The product of magnetic pole strength (m) and length of the magnet (l). (Amp/m2). m = m l m = I A
4 Dr Selvakumar, Dept of Physics, R.M.D Engineering College

Intensity of Magnetization (I)

The measure of the magnetization in any magnetic material.

The magnetic moment per unit volume. (Wb/m2).

m
V

Magnetic Susceptibility (m)

Ratio of the intensity of magnetization (I) produced to the applied magnetic field intensity (H). m of a material is a measure of the ease with which the material can be magnetised.

m =

I H

Bohr Magneton (B)

The orbital magnetic moment and the spin magnetic moment of an electron in an atom is expressed in terms of atomic unit called Bohr magneton.

Electron charge x Plancks constant e B = = 2 x electron charge 2 me

B = 9.27 x10 24 Am 2
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Magnetic Permeability ()

The ratio between the magnetic flux density (B) and the applied magnetic field intensity (H).

The measure of degree at which the lines of force can penetrate through the material. B = or = H

Magnetic induction (B) due to magnetic field intensity (H) are directly proportional to each other. BH where 0 - permeability of free space (vacuum) 4 x 107 H/m. B = o H

If the field is applied in any medium of permeability () then

Relative Permeability (r)

The ratio between the permeability of the medium to the permeability of free space. r = o

Relation between r and m

When a magnetic material is placed in a magnetic field (H), then two types of lines of induction passes through the material. viz., (i) Due to magnetizing field (H) (ii) Due to material itself being magnetized by induction (M)
B = 0 ( H + M )

total flux density

We know,

B = H

Equating equations (1) and (2), we get

B = H
H = 0 ( H + M )
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Since
0 r H = 0 ( H + M )
0 r H = 0 H ( +
M ) H

= 0 r

Since
0 r H = 0 H (1 + m )
r = (1 + m )

m =

M H

8 Dr Selvakumar, Dept of Physics, R.M.D Engineering College

Retentivity

When an external field is applied to the specimen it is magnetised and when the field is removed it is demagnetised. But some materials do not completely demagnetise when field is removed. There is some magnetism left out in the specimen. The residual magnetism which is left out even after the removal of the external magnetic field - Retentivity or Remanence.

Coercivity

The residual magnetism can be removed completely from the material by applying a reverse magnetic field. The reverse magnetic field which is used to completely remove the residual magnetism - Coercivity.

Origin of Magnetic Moments

Macroscopic magnetic properties of a substance are a consequence of magnetic moments associated with individual electrons. Each electron in an atom has magnetic moments that originate from the following two sources. i. Orbital magnetic moment of electrons. ii. Spin magnetic moment of electrons.

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Three contributions for the magnetic dipole moment of an atom.

i.

Orbital magnetic moment:

Orbital motion of electrons (i.e., the motion of electrons in the closed orbits around the nucleus). Its magnitude is always small.

ii.

Spin magnetic moment:

Spin motion of the electrons (i.e., due to electron spin angular in momentum).

iii. Nuclear magnetic moment:

Contribution from the nuclear spin (i.e., due to nuclear spin angular momentum). It is nearly 103 times smaller than that of electron spin, it is not taken into consideration.

For all practical purposes - magnetic moment arises due to the electron spin ignoring the orbital and the nuclear magnetic moments as their magnitudes are small.
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i)

Orbital angular momentum of the es

e - revolving nucleus - circular orbit.

Current carrying circular coil produce magnetic field r to its plane.

Thus the electronic orbits are associated with a magnetic moment.

Orbital magnetic moment of an e in an atom can be expressed in terms of atomic unit of magnetic moment called Bohr Magnetron.
Electron charge x Plancks constant = 2 x electron m ass

B =

e 2 me

ii) Electron spin magnetic moment

Introduced in order to explain the details of atomic spectra - refer spin of the e.

According to quantum theory, the spin angular momentum along a given dir is either

+h h (or ) 4 4

e + h = +1 Bohr magnetron m 4

e h = - 1 Bohr magnetron. m 4
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Dr Selvakumar, Dept of Physics, R.M.D Engineering College

iii)

Nuclear magnetic momentum

Angular momentum associated with nuclear spin is also measured in units of h/2.

Mass of the nuclear is larger than that of an e by a factor of the order of 103. Hence nuclear spin magnetic moment is of the order of 103 Bohr magnetrons.

Magnetic Materials

Materials without Materials with permanent permanent mag moments mag moments
Para
Weak Strong
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Dia

Ferro

Faraday's Law of Magnetic Induction.

When a material is placed within a magnetic field, the magnetic forces of the material's electrons will be affected. This effect is known as Faraday's Law of Magnetic Induction.

However, materials can react quite differently to the presence of an external magnetic field. This reaction is dependent on a number of factors, such as the atomic and molecular structure of the material, and the net magnetic field associated with the atoms. Magnetic moments associated with atoms have three origins.

In most atoms, electrons occur in pairs. Electrons in a pair spin in opposite directions. So, when electrons are paired together, their opposite spins cause their

magnetic fields to cancel each other. Therefore, no net magnetic field exists.

Alternately, materials with some unpaired electrons will have a net magnetic field and will react more to an external field.

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Parameter

Diamagnetic

Paramagnetic

Ferromagnetic

Definition

It is a material in which there is no permanent dipole moment. e-s will align parallel to the field direction, hence the material is magnetized. Strong magnets.

It is a material in which there is permanent dipole moment in each atom.

It is a material in which there is enormous permanent dipole moment. e-s which are already aligned parallel will reorient itself along the field direction, will be very easily magnetized. Very strong magnets.

Behaviour of material in the presence of external magnetic field.

e-s will align opposite to the field direction, hence it reduces the magnetic induction. Weak magnets.

Dipole orientation with & w/o field

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Movement of repelled away magnetic from the material flux lines and hence Bout > Bi

attracted towards the centre of material and hence Bin>Bout.

highly attracted towards the centre of material and hence Bin >> Bout.

Temperature dependence

Independent of temperature.

It is inversely proportional absolute temperature.

It depend on temperature in a complex manner

Spin alignment (or) Magnetic moment alignment.

No spin (or) Magnetic Moment.

All spins ort magnetic All spins or magnetic moments are randomly moment are orderly oriented. oriented.
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Dr Selvakumar, Dept of Physics, R.M.D Engineering College

Larmor Precession
(electromagnetism)

A common rotation superposed upon the motion of a system of charged particles, all having the same ration of charge to mass, by a magnetic field.

In physics, Larmor precession (named after Joseph Larmor) is the precession of the magnetic moments of electrons, atomic nuclei, and atoms about an external magnetic field.

The magnetic field exerts a torque on the magnetic moment, where is the torque, is the magnetic dipole moment, is the angular momentum vector, is the external magnetic field, is the cross product, and is the gyromagnetic ratio which gives the proportionality constant between the magnetic moment and the angular momentum.

The angular momentum vector precesses about the external field axis with an angular frequency known as the Larmor frequency.
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Origin

A rises from the Arises from the Arises from the mag spontaneous magnetization larmor precession moments origination along due to local molecular of electronic the external mag field magnetic field which arises orbits in the direction and mag moments from exchange interaction presence of orientation is largely between unpaired electrons applied mag determined by temperature & adjacent atoms in the field. and mag field. crystal lattice. When the temperature greater than its curie temperature, it is converted in to a diamagnetic substance. When the temperature is greater than its curie temperature it is converted into paramagnetic.

When the temperature is less than the critical Magnetic temperature, the phase transition diamagnetism suddenly disappears and becomes a normal material.

Permeability

Very less (r<1) (Since mag. lines diverge away from it)

High (r>1) (Since mag. lines pass through it)

Very high (r >>1) (Since mag. lines pass through it)

Susceptibility

Negative.

Positive & small.

Positive & large.

This implies that the susceptibility decreases with increase in temperature. It is observed that the susceptibility varies inversely with temperature. i.e., 1 C

This is known as the Curie Law of Paramagnetism and C is a constant called Curie constant.

Example

Au, Ge, Ag, Pb, Cu,

Mg, Mo, Li, tantalum, CuSo4, Pt, Cr, MnSo4, NiSo4,

Ni, Co, Fe,

Weiss Theory of Ferromagnetism

1907 - P.Weiss - Molecular field theory - explain - salient features of F.M

Internal molecular field sets up spontaneous magnetisation.

Entire ferromagnetic volume splits into a large number of small regions called

Domains.

Size of a domain varies from 106 m to the entire size of the crystal.

A domain acts as a single magnetic dipole.

Within domain, all the spin mag moments are oriented in one specific dir.

Because of the random orientation of the domains, the net-magnetisation of the ferromagnetic material in the absence of the field is zero.

Within each domain, the magnetic moments (spin) are oriented parallel to the another and energy of each domain is characterised by a definite value and direction of the magnetic field.
20 Dr Selvakumar, Dept of Physics, R.M.D Engineering College

All domains are separated from the domains by the Domain wall (or) Block wall.

Material is subjected to an external magnetic field, the domains rotate and attempt to align their magnetic moments with the field direction.

Spontaneous magnetization of each domain is due to the presence of an exchange field BE which tends to produce a parallel alignment of the atomic dipoles.

According to Weiss Thoery the field BE is assumed to be proportional to the magnetization M of each domain, i.e.,
where is a constant called Weiss-field constant and is independent of temp.

BE = M

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Domain Theory of Ferromagnetism

When external magnetic field is applied, there are two possible ways of alignment of a random domain.

(i) By the movement of domain walls - weak magnetic field - domains grows.

(ii) By rotation of domains - strong magnetic field - fully grown domains tend to rotate.

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Domain Energies and Explanation for Origin of Domains

Total internal energy of the domain structure in a ferromagnetic material is made up

i.

Exchange energy (or) Magnetic field energy

ii. Crystalline energy (or) Anisotropy energy.

iii. Domain wall energy (or) Bloch wall energy.

iv. Magnetostriction energy.

i. Exchange energy (or) Magnetic field energy

The interaction energy which makes the adjacent dipoles align themselves is the called exchange energy (or) magnetic field energy.

It arises from interaction of electron spins. It depends upon the inter-atomic distance. This exchange energy also called magnetic field energy, the energy required in assembling the atomic magnets into a single domain.
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ii.

Anisotropy (or) Crystalline Energy

Excess energy required to magnetize a specimen in particular direction over that required to magnetize it along the easy direction is called the crystalline anisotropy energy.

In ferromagnetic materials there are two types of directions of magnetisation namely, easy direction of magnetisation, weak field can be applied and in hard direction of magnetisation, strong field should be applied.

For example, in BCC iron the easy direction is [100], the medium direction is [110], and the hard direction is [111]. The energy difference between hard and easy direction to magnetise the material is about 1.4x104 Jm-3.

This energy is very important in determining the characteristic domain boundaries.

24 Dr Selvakumar, Dept of Physics, R.M.D Engineering College

iii. Domain wall energy or Bloch wall energy

The size of the bloch walls are about 200 to 300 lattice constant thickness.

Going from one domain to another domain, the electron spin changes gradually.

Energy of domain wall is due to both exchange energy and anisotropic energy.

Based on the spin alignments, (i) Thick Wall : When the spins at the boundary are misaligned and if the direction of the spin changes gradually, it leads to a thick bloch wall.

(ii) Thin Wall : When the spins at the boundaries changes abruptly, then the anisotropic energy becomes very less.

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iv.

Magnetostriction energy

When a material is magnetized, it is found that it suffers a change in dimensions.

This phenomenon is known as Magnetostriction.

This deformation is different along different crystal directions. So if the domains are magnetized in different directions, they will either expand or shrink.

This means that work must be done against the elastic restoring forces.

The work done by the magnetic field against these elastic restoring forces is called the magneto-elastic energy or magnetostrictive energy.

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Hysteresis

The word hysteresis literally means lagging behind.

When a ferromagnetic material is taken through a cycle of magntisation, the variation of B (magnetic induction) with respect to H (applied field) can be represented by a closed loop (or) curve (hysteresis loop or curve) is called hysteresis.

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1. B increases along the curve OA with the H. Beyond the point A, even if the H is increased, B does not increase and it remains constant - specimen is saturated with magnetisation.

2. When H is decreased, B does not decrease at the

rate at which it is increased. When H=0, B0, the magnetic induction has a definite value represented by

OB and it is known as Retentivity.

3. The applied H is reversed and increased gradually

till the point C is reached. B=0 at point C and

negative H strength applied to remove residual

magentism is denoted by OC and it is known as Coercivity.

4. Further increase of H, B increases along CD in the reverse direction.

If the magnetic field is varied backwards, the magnetic induction follows a curve DEFA.
28 Dr Selvakumar, Dept of Physics, R.M.D Engineering College

Hysteresis Loop

From the above fact, it is clear that the magnetic induction B will not become zero, when the magnetic field strength H is zero. It shows that the magnetic induction lags behind the applied magnetic field strength.

This lagging of magnetic induction behind the applied field strength is called Magnetic Hysteresis.

Retentivity or Residual magnetism

the amount of magnetic the magnetising field.

induction retained in the material after removing

Coercivity or Coercive force

the amount of magnetising field applied in the reverse direction the residual magnetism completely from the material.

to remove

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Hysteresis loss

When the specimen is taken through a cycle of magnetization, there is a loss of energy in the form of heat. This loss of energy is known as Hysteresis Loss.

Area of the loop represents energy loss per cycle per unit volume of the specimen.

Explanation of Hysteresis on the basis of Domain theory

When a ferromagnetic material is subjected to an external field, there is an increase in the value of the resultant magnetic moment of the specimen. This is due to 1. Movement of domain walls (low field) 2. Rotation of domain (large field).

When a small external field is applied, the domain walls are displaced slightly in the easy direction of magnetisation. This gives rise to small magnetisation corresponding to the initial portion of the hysteresis curve (OA). When the applied field is removed then the domains return to its original state and is known as reversible domains.

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If field is increased, large number of domains contribute to the magnetisation. Now, even when the field is removed, because of the displacement of domain wall to a very large distance the domain boundaries do not come back to their original position. This process is indicated as AB and are called irreversible domains.

When the field is further increased, the domains start rotating along the field direction and the anisotropic energy is stored in the hard direction represented by BC. Specimen is said to have attained the maximum magnetisation. At this position, even after the removal of external field the material posses maximum magnetisation called residual magnetism (or) retentivity represented by OD

On the removal of the external field, the speci`men will try to attain the original configuration . But this movement is stopped due to the presence of impurities, lattice imperfections etc. Therefore to overcome this, a large amount of reverse magnetic field is applied to the specimen to reduce the magnetisation to zero is called coercivity represented by OE
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Classification of Magnetic materials Based on the area of the hysteresis loop,

1 Soft Magnetic materials These are materials which are easily magnetised and demagnetised. They are also called as temperory magnets. Magnetic materials which do not retain the alignment of magnetic domains after the removal of the external magnetic field are known as soft magnetic materials.

Examples: Pure iron, Cast iron, Carbon steel, Silicon steel, manganese and nickel steel, soft ferrites.

2 Hard Magnetic materials These are materials which are easily magnetised but are difficult to demagnetise. They are called as permanent magnets. Materials which retain permanently the alignment of the magnetic domains even after the removal of the external magnetic field are known as hard magnetic materials.

Examples: Tungsten steel, Cobalt steel, Hypernic (contains 50% nickel and 50% iron).
32 Dr Selvakumar, Dept of Physics, R.M.D Engineering College

S.No Easily magnetised & difficult to demagnetise.

Soft Magnetic materials (Temporary magnet)

Hard Magnetic materials (Permanent magnet)

Easily magnetised & demagnetised.

Low permeability and susceptibility.

High permeability and susceptibility. Magnetic energy stored is high. Large hysteresis losses due to large hysteresis loop area. Hysteresis loop is very broad. Coercivity and Retentivity are large. The eddy current loss is more due to its smaller resistivity.

Magnetic energy stored is not high.

Low hysteresis losses due to small hysteresis loop area.

Hysteresis loop is very narrow.

Coercivity and Retentivity are small.

The eddy current loss is small due to its higher resistivity.

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S.No

Soft Magnetic materials (Temporary magnet) Movement of domain wall - not easy. due to the presence of impurities and hence large field is required. Materials have large amount of impurities and lattice defects.

Hard Magnetic materials (Permanent magnet)

Movement of domain wall easy. and hence even for a small applied field large magnetization occurs.

Materials are free from irregularities like strain or impurities.

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They are produced by heating them into sufficient temperature & then allowed to cool slowly connecting process.

These are produced by heating them into sufficient temperature & then plunging it suddenly into cold oil. Examples: Tungsten steel, Cobalt, Steel, Alini, Alnico, Cunife.

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Examples: Iron silicon alloy, Nickel, Iron alloy, Silicon steels, Ferrites.

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Applications Electric motor, generators, transformers, relays, telephone receivers, RADAR and SONAR equipments.

Applications They are used in loud speakers and electrical measuring instruments.

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Curies Law

Susceptibility of paramagnetic materials varies inversely with temp.

1 T C T

where

C is Curie constant.

holds good only for paramagnetic materials at high

temp.

Curies - Wies Law

C = T

holds good only for paramagnetic materials at low

temp.
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Classification of Ferromagnetic materials

Based on permanent magnetic dipoles, materials are further classified into

a) Antiferromagnetic materials

a) Antiferromagnetism

In this the spins are aligned in antiparallel manner due to unfavourable exchange interaction among them, resulting in zero magnetic moment.

The susceptibility increases with increasing temperature and reaches a maximum at a certain temperature called Neel temperature, TN. With further increase in temperature, the material goes into paramagnetic state.

36 Dr Selvakumar, Dept of Physics, R.M.D Engineering College

In the paramagnetic state, the variation of inverse susceptibility (1/ ) with temperature is linear fig (b). The extrapolation of the paramagnetic line in Fig. (b) to 1/ = 0 yields a negative . The variation of susceptibility with temperature obeys Curie-Weiss Law. Therefore Curie - Weiss Law is modified as.

af =
when T > TN

C C = T ( ) T +

Where is called Paramagnetic Curie temperature and C is Curie constant.

Properties of anti-ferromagnetic materials

i. Electron spin - aligned anti-parallel - net magnetisation is zero. ii. Susceptibility depends greatly on temperature. iii. Susceptibility of material is small and positive. It is given by
C T +

When T > TN

iv. Initially susceptibility increases slightly with temperature and beyond Neel temperature the susceptibility decreases with the temperature.
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Ferrimagnetic Materials (or) Ferrites

Ferrites or Ferrimagnetic materials are the modified structure of iron without carbon. In Ferrites the spins of adjacent ions in the presence of a magnetic field are in opposite directions with different magnitudes.

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Ferrimagnetic Materials (or) Ferrites

There are substances in which the magnetic moments of the two sub lattices are opposite in direction but not exactly equal in magnitude (because of the two types of ions in the lattices). Such crystals possess a spontaneous magnetization and exhibit most of the properties of ferromagnets. This uncompensated antiferro-magnetism is known as Ferrimagnetism. Materials which exhibit ferrimagnetism are called ferrimagnetic

materials or ferrites.

Structure of ferrites

Ferrites are the magnetic compounds consisting of two or more different

kinds of atoms. Generally ferrites are expressed as X2+ Fe23+ O4 where X2+ stands for divalent metals ions such as Mg2+, Zn2+, Fe2+, Mn2+, Ni2+ etc. Normally, there are two types of structures present in the ferrites Mg2+ Fe3+
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i.

ii.

Regular spinal Inverse spinal

Regular Spinal X2+ Fe23+ O4

In the regular spinal, each trivalent metal ion occupies an octahedral site [OHS] and each divalent ion occupies a tetrahedral site [THS] of FCC oxygen lattice.

FCC 3+ 2+

oxygen OHS THS

Ex : Ferrous ferrite (Fe2+ Fe2 3+ O4)

In the above structure, the divalent metal ion is tetrahedrally surrounded by four oxygen ions and it is called as Tetrahedral Site [Site A] and the trivalent metal ion is octahedrally by six oxygen ions and it is called Octahedral Site [Site B].
40 Dr Selvakumar, Dept of Physics, R.M.D Engineering College

Regular Spinal

In the regular spinal type, each metal atom (divalent) is surrounded by four O2 ions in a tetragonal fashion. For example in Mg2+ Fe3+ , the structure of Mg2+ is given in the Fig. and it is called A site. Totally in an unit cell, there will be 8 tetrahedral (8A) sites.

Each Fe3+ (trivalent) is surrounded by 6 O2 ions and forms an octahedral fashion as shown in Fig. Totally there will be 16 octahedral sites in the unit cell. This is indicated by B site. Thus in a regular spinel, each divalent metal ion (Mg2+) exists in a tetrahedral form (A site) and each trivalent metal ion (Fe3+) exists in a octahedral form (B site). Hence, the sites A and B combine together to form a regular spinel ferrite structure

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Inverse Spinal

In this type, we consider the arrangement of dipoles of a single ferrous ferrite molecule Fe3+ [Fe2+ Fe3+], Fe3+ ions (trivalent) occupies

all A sites (tetrahedral) and half of the B sites (octahedral) also.

Thus the left inverse spinal structure.

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Properties of ferri-magnetic materials

i. Posses net magnetic moment. ii. Above Curie temperature, it becomes paramagnetic while it behaves as ferrimagnetic material below Curie temperature. iii. Susceptibility is very large and positive. It is temperature dependent and is given by C af = for T > TN T

iv. Beyond Neel temperature, decreases v. Spin alignment is antiparallel of different magnitudes. vi. Mechanically, it has pure ion character. vii. High permeability and high resistivity. viii. Low eddy current losses and low hysteresis.

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Magnetic recording and readout mechanism

44 Dr Selvakumar, Dept of Physics, R.M.D Engineering College

Magnetic Tapes

Magnetic Tape Record Block

Recording and Reproducing in Magnetic Tape

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Hard Disk

Floppy disk
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Superconductivity

Superconductivity - Kammerlingh Onnes - 1911.

First theoretical explanation for this phenomenon was given by Bardeen, Cooper and Shrieffer in 1957 and came to be known as the BCS theory.

Superconductivity is the phenomenon of exhibiting zero electrical resistance by certain material when it is cooled below a certain temperature (critical temperature Tc).

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Temperature dependence of Resistance

Superconductivity is the phenomenon of exhibiting zero electrical resistance by certain material when it is cooled below a certain temperature (critical temperature Tc).

Superconductors

The materials which exhibit the property of superconductivity at very low temperatures are called Superconductors.

Example: Mercury (Hg), Tin (Sn), Zinc (Zn), Vanadium (V) etc.,
48 Dr Selvakumar, Dept of Physics, R.M.D Engineering College

Critical Temperature (or) Transition Temperature

The temperature at which the transition from normal state to super conducting state takes place on cooling in the absence of magnetic field.

(i) If the transition temperature is low, then the super conductors are known as Low Temperature Super Conductors.

(ii) If the transition temperature is high (even 30 Kelvin) then it is known as High Temperature Super Conductors. Tc (K) 0.39 90
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Element / Compound Ti

Y Ba2 Cu3 O7

(1) Meissner Effect Diamagnetic Property

When a weak magnetic field is applied to a superconducting specimen at a temperature below transition temperature (Tc), the magnetic flux lines are expelled. The specimen acts as an ideal diamagnet. This effect is called Meissner effect.

T > Tc H > Hc

T < Tc H < Hc

(a) Normal state (b) Superconducting state

(2) Effect of Magnetic Field

In the superconducting state, a material possesses zero electrical resistance and behaves as a diamagnetic material. Below Tc if sufficiently strong magnetic field is applied, the superconducting property of the material is destroyed and the material reverts back to its normal state.

The minimum field required to destroy the superconducting property is known as the critical magnetic field (Hc) .
2

Hc
c

H0

LM F T I MN1 GH T JK

OP PQ

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(3) Silbee rule (or) Effect of current

When a current passes through a superconductor which is in the form of a wire, a magnetic field is setup around the wire.

If the current is large enough so that the magnetic field produced is equal to the critical magnetic field, then the superconducting

property is destroyed.

Thus a current passing through the superconducting wire can destroy its own superconducting property.

The minimum current required for this happen is known as the critical current, given by,

Ic = 2 r Hc
52 Dr Selvakumar, Dept of Physics, R.M.D Engineering College

(4) Effect of Pressure

When pressure is applied to a superconducting material, transition temperature increases. Thus it is quite possible that the Tc of a material can be made to approach room temperature by the application of high pressures.

Tc of cesium is 1.5 K, but by the applying large pressure cesium becomes a superconductor even at a temperature as high as 110 K.

(5) Isotope Effect

In superconducting materials, the Tc varies with the average isotopic mass of their constituents. Ma Constant
M - atomic mass a - isotopic effect coefficient.
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Tc

Ma Tc

(6) Heat Capacity

During the transition from normal state to superconducting state, specific heat decreases exponentially.

For normal conducting material, the specific heat varies smoothly at low temperatures. bT CV = exp C
T

(7) Josephson Effect

Josephson found that Cooper pair of electrons could tunnel through an insulating layer of 1 mm thickness, which separates two super conductors.
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(8) London penetration depth

The applied magnetic field (H) does not vanishes suddenly at the surface of super conducting material but delays according to the relation. H (x) = H (0) e
x

H (0) is the field applied at the surface at x = 0 and x is the distance from the surface and the length is called the London penetration depth.

It may be defined as the effective depth to which a magnetic field penetrates through a super conductor.
(o)

(T)
=

F FTI GG1 GH T JK H
c

I JJ K
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Types of Superconductors

Divided in to two categories depending on the way in which the transition from superconducting to normal state proceeds when the internally applied magnetic field exceeds (HC).

Type I S.C (Soft Superconductors)

Type II S.C (Hard Superconductors)

56 Dr Selvakumar, Dept of Physics, R.M.D Engineering College

S.C. State Normal State M Normal State

S.C S

Vortex State

H
HC1 HC

Type I S.C Hard S.C

Type II S.C Has two critical fields. i.e., lower critical field (HC1) and upper critical field (HC2) Vertex (or) Mixed state is present. do not strictly follow the Meissner effect.

Soft S.C

Has only one critical field.

No mixed state

Strictly follow the Meissner effect.

Low Mag Field Strength (0.1 Tesla) High Mag Field Strength (10 Tesla)
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S.C. State Normal State M Normal State

S.C S

Vortex State

H
HC1 HC

Type I S.C

Type II S.C Phase change occurs gradually. Niobium, Vanadium, Certain CuO, etc

Phase change occurs abruptly.

Lead, Aluminium, Mercury, Tin, etc

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BCS Theory

John Bardeen, Leon Cooper, and John Schrieffer - BCS Theory - 1957.

BCS theory deals with the behaviour of electrons in superconducting materials at very low temperatures. Low temperatures minimize the vibrational energy of individual atoms in the crystal lattice.

59

Two Principle Features of BCS Theory

1) Electrons form pairs called Cooper pairs, at low temperature by overcoming repulsive force. They propagate throughout the lattice.

2) Such propagation is without scattering (without any resistance), because electrons move in resonance with phonons. Now the material becomes a super conductor .

60 Dr Selvakumar, Dept of Physics, R.M.D Engineering College

1)

Two electrons propagate along a single lattice row.

2) Imagine a metal as a lattice of positive ions, which can move as if attached by stiff springs.

3) Each electron experiences an attraction towards its nearest +ve

ion.

4) When electron get close to each other in the region between ions, they repel each other due to Coulomb force.

5)

In an equilibrium condition, a balance between attraction and repulsion is established and the two electrons combine to form Cooper pair.

6) At normal temperature, attractive force is too small, pairing of e-s does not take place.

7) At low temperature, attractive force is strong, pairing of e-s take place energitically.
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Cooper Pairs

The region of increased positive charge density propagates through the crystal as a quantized sound wave called a phonon. The passing electrons emit a phonon.

The pair of electrons formed due to electron - lattice (phonos) - electron interaction (forces of attraction) by overcoming the electron-electron interaction (forces of repulsion) with equal and opposite momentum and spins (i.e.,) with wave vector and are called also called as

Cooper Pairs. electron

This

is

phononelectron interaction.
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7) Thus dense cloud of cooper pairs form a collective state and the motion of all the cooper pairs is correlated.

8) Such cooper pairs drift co-operatively through the material.

9) Since density of cooper pair is very high, electrons move with low velocity.

10) Small velocity of ordered cooper pairs minimize collision process and leads to zero resistivity.

11) When the temperature (T) is less than critical temperature (Tc), the resistivity due to lattice vibrations will be less.

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Electrons of Cooper pair have a lower energy than two unpaired e-s.

This theory predicted the existence of an energy gap between the ground state (S.C. State) and first excited state.

The energy gap represents the energy required to break up a cooper pair.

Larger energy gap corresponds to more stable S.Conductors.

According to BCS theory, energy gap at 0 K is given by

Energy gap is generally of order 10-3 eV.

Electrons in a cooper pair possess anti-parallel spin, resulting in a total spin of zero for the pair.
64 Dr Selvakumar, Dept of Physics, R.M.D Engineering College

R V B Theory (Resonance Valence Bond Theory)

1) It is applicable for high temperature superconductors.

2) It is based on the idea of existence of short range repulsive force between the electrons in a narrow band.

3) Superconductivity occurs when the material is doped to create holes in it.

4) These holes then form pairs and undergo Bose condensation.

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High Temperature Superconductors (HTS)

Any superconductor with a transition temperature above 100K is in general called High Tc superconductor. Year 1974 1975 1986 1987 1988 LiTi2O4 Ba(PbBi)O3 La2x Srx CuO4 YBa2Cu3O7 Tl2 Ca2Ba2Cu3O10 Material Tc / K 13 13 38 92 125

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High Tc superconductors developed so far belong to five chemical system having the following general formulae.

1. 2. 3. 4. 5.

Ba Pb1x Bix O3 La2x Mx Cu O4x (M = Ba, Sr) Ba2 M Cu3 O7x (M = Y or rare earth metals such as Gd, Eu, etc.,) Ba2x La1+x Cu3 O8 Bi2 Ca Sr2 Cu2 O8

It has been realized that the role of oxygen is essential for high Tc oxide superconductors.

Unit cell of high Tc superconductors have complicated structure.

If the cell contains one atom of rare earth metal, two barium atoms, three copper atoms and seven oxygen atoms, then such compounds = 1-2-3 superconductors.

Most of the compounds are layered copper oxide materials.

Properties of HTS

1. They are oxides of copper in combination with other elements.

2. They have perovskite (i.e., layered) crystal structure.

3. They are direction dependent.

4.

They are ceramics (brittle) they cannot be easily formed.

5.

They have high Tc.

6.

They are referred as 1 - 2 - 3 system (a) Compound.

68 Dr Selvakumar, Dept of Physics, R.M.D Engineering College

Crystal Structure of Y Ba2 Cu3 O7

It is prepared by heating Y2O3, BaCO3 and CuO in the correct proportion at a very high temperature say 1100C.

At this temperature, BaCO3 decomposes into BaO and CO2, which gives rise to perovskite crystal structure.

The X-ray and neutron powder diffraction techniques revealed that Y Ba2 Cu3 O7 is tetragonal perovskite structure with tripled cell.

Lattice constants a = 3.82 , b = 3.86 and c = 11.681 .

Unit cell contains one atom of rare earth metal (i.e., yittrium), two barium atoms, three copper atoms and seven oxygen atoms

1-2-3 superconductors.
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Distribution of the atoms in the unit cell

Y Ba2 Cu3 O7

Yttrium atoms

One Yttrium atom in one unit cell.

1/1th of the atoms is shared by that unit cell.

No of yttrium atoms per unit cell

1 = x T otal no . of Yttrium atom s x N o . of cells 1 1 = x1 x1 1

(Yttrium atom) = 1 atom/unit cell

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Distribution of the atoms in the unit cell

Y Ba2 Cu3 O7

Barium atoms

One Barium atom in one unit cell.

1\1th of the atom is shared by that

particular unit cell.

No of Barium atoms per unit cell

1 = x T otal no . of B arium atom s x N o . of cells 1 1 = x1x 2 1

(Barium atom) = 2 atoms/unit cell

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Distribution of the atoms in the unit cell

Y Ba2 Cu3 O7

Copper atoms

8 Copper atoms in one unit cell. [Since copper is the corner atom].

1/8th of the atom is shared by one unit cell.

Number of Copper atoms per unit cell

1 = x T otal no . of C opper atom s x N o . of cells 8 1 = x8x3 8

(Copper atoms) = 3 atoms/unit cell

Distribution of the atoms in the unit cell

Y Ba2 Cu3 O7

Oxygen atoms

4 Oxygen atom in one unit cell. [Since oxygen atoms are situated at midpoints between two corner atoms].

1/4th of the atom is shared by one unit cell.

Number of O2 atoms per unit cell

1 = x T otal no . of O xygen atom s x N o . of cells 4 1 = x 12 x 3 4

(Oxygen atoms) = 9 atoms/unit cell

Oxygen defect modification

It is found that actual formula should be Y1 Ba2 Cu3 O9. But the crystal formed is Y1 Ba2 Cu3 O7.

Hence the crystal structure of these materials are oxygen defect modification of the Perovskite structure, with about one-thrid of the oxygen positions vacant.

Therefore we can say, the number of oxygen atoms per unit cell = 7.

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The positive and negative ion vacancies are based on Y+3 Ba+2 Cu+2 O2

Positive ion vacancy = Vacancy x Number of atoms / unit cell (i.e.,) for Y+3 Ba+2 Cu+2 we have + 3 x 1 + 2 x 2 + 2 x 3 positive ion vacancy = + 13 vacancies.

Negative ion vacancy = vacancy x number of atoms/unit cell i.e., for O2 we have 2 x 7 negative ion vacancy = - 14 vacancies.

The oxygen content per cell can be changed reversibly from 7 to 6 atoms, simply by pumping oxygen in and out of the parallel chains of CuO.

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Application of superconductors

Cryotron (or) Fasi electrical switching

Josephson devices

Superconducting Quantum Interference Device (SQUID)

Magnetic levitation

76 Dr Selvakumar, Dept of Physics, R.M.D Engineering College

(A)
Superconducting property disappears when the magnetic field is greater than critical field (Hc).

Principle :

HCA < HCB

(B)

Cryotron (or) Fasi Electrical Switching

Current in B - magnetic field produced is greater than HCA of A - superconducting state of A is destroyed - does not allow a current to pass.

Thus a current

flowing in B controls the current in A.

Switch - equivalent to a switch in the ON state - equivalent to a switch in the OFF state.

Tantalum (Tc = 4.5 K) is the gate and niobium (Tc = 9.5 K) is the control.
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Josephson Devices
Principle: Persistent current in d.c. voltage is the principle used in Josephson devices. Superconductor - insulator - superconductor layer. Insulator acts as a barrier to the flow of conduction electrons from one super conductor to the other.

If a voltage V is applied across the super conductors, then current starts flowing between the super conductors by tunneling effect.

i.

D.C. Component: This current component persists even after the external voltage is cutoff.

ii. A.C. Component: This current component persists only upto which the external voltage is applied.

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Magnetic levitation

A superconducting material behaves as a diamagnetic material. Hence when a superconductor is placed over a magnetic field, the material floats. This effect is known as magnetic levitation.

Principle Electro-magnetic induction is used as the principle (i.e.,) when there is a relative motion of a conductor across the magnetic field, current is induced in the conductor and vice versa.

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Train consists of super conducting magnets placed on each side.

Initially when the train starts, they slide on the rails.

When the train moves faster, the super conducting magnets on each side of the train will induce current.

Induced current generates a magnetic force in the coils in such a way that the lower half coil has the same magnetic pole as that of the superconducting magnet in the train, while the upper half has the opposite magnetic pole.

Therefore the total upward magnetic force acts on the train and hence the train is levitated (or) rised above the wheels (i.e.,) the train now floats above the air.

Now, by alternatively changing the poles of the super conducting magnet in the train alternating current can be induced. Thus, alternating series of north and south magnetic poles are produced in the coils, which pulls and pushes the super conducting magnets in the train and hence the train is further moved.

Travel a speed of 500 km/hour, which is double the speed of existing fastest train.

80 Dr Selvakumar, Dept of Physics, R.M.D Engineering College

Superconducting Quantum Interference Device (SQUID)

A SQUID is a double junction quantum interferometer formed from two Josephson junction mounted on a superconducting ring.

Magnetic field is applied normal to the plane of the ring and results in the inducement of current, at the two junctions.

Detection coils, connecting wires and the SQUID input coils form a closed superconducting ring, so any change produced is detected, and is proportional to the change in magnetic flux.

Therefore SQUIDS are used to detect the variation in very minute magnetic signals in term of quantum flux.

They are also used in the study of earth quakes, removing paramagnetic impurities, detection of magnetic signals from the brain, heart etc.

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