EXPERIMENT NO.

01

Name of Experiment: Thickness of wire

Objective: To find the thickness of thin wire using laser.
Apparatus used: He-Ne laser with stand, twist of wire, power supply and measuring scale.
Formula used:
When a thin wire is introduced in the path of the laser beam, the beam experiences the diffraction
from the wire. If λ is wavelength of laser source, thickness of the wire is d, then the angular
position () for the 1st minima on either side is given by
d Sin = 
Now, if the distance between the wire and the screen is D, and the half width of the central
maxima is b, assuming the angle  to be small, we can write
Sin    b/D,
D
this gives the thickness of wire as d
b

Figure 1: Schematic of single slit diffraction pattern

Procedure:
1. Switch on the laser and wait till the beam stabilizes. Align the laser beam horizontally so
that it may fall on wire properly.
2. Place the wire symmetrically in the path of the beam. Keep the distance between screen
and the wire sufficiently large (≈1m).
3. Place graph paper on the wall and mark the points corresponding to the ends of central
maxima.
4. Then carefully measure the half width of central maxima.
5. Repeat the experiment for three different distances between wire and screen.
6. Calculate the thickness in each case using the formula and find the mean.

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Observation:
Wavelength of laser λ = 6328 Å
Half width of The thickness of
Distance of the the Central wire as
Sr. No. wire from the Maxima D Mean Thickness
screen D(mm) b (mm) d (mm)
b

Result:
The thickness of the wire is….………….mm.

Precautions:
1. The position of the laser and the wire is not to be disturbed throughout the experiment.
2. Avoid direct eye exposure to the laser radiation.

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 Experiment No: 2
Name of Experiment: Newton’s Rings
Objective: To determine the wavelength of sodium light using Newton’s ring setup.
Apparatus Required: Sodium lamp with transformer, traveling microscope, Newton’s ring
apparatus consisting of an optically plane glass plate, convex lens, and a glass plate
movable at angle 450.
D n2+ p  D 2
Formula Used: = n
4p R

Where λ = wavelength of light source Dn = Diameter of nth ring, Dn+p = Diameter of (n+p)th
ring, p= difference between two rings, R= Radius of curvature of lens
Principal of Working:
The experimental arrangement of obtaining Newton’s ring is shown in Figure 1. L is a Plano-
convex lens of large radius of curvature. This lens with its convex surface is placed on a plane
glass plate P. The lens makes contact with the plate at C. Light from an extended monochromatic
source (sodium vapor lamp) falls on the glass plated G which is kept at 450 with the vertical. The
glass plate G reflects a part of light normally on the air film enclosed by the lens L and the glass
plate P.

Figure 1: Newton’s ring arrangement

The formation of Newton’s rings can be explained with the help of Figure 2. AB is a
monochromatic ray of light which falls normally on the Plano convex lens. Newton’s rings are
observed due to the interference of two rays one which is partially reflected from the bottom
curved surface of the Plano convex lens (ray 1) and other ray which is partially transmitted and
then reflected back from the top of the plane glass sheet (ray 2). The ray 1 and 2 both obtained
from the same incident ray by the division of amplitude which makes them coherent as well. Ray
1 undergoes no phase change while ray 2 experience a phase change of π upon reflection, since
it is reflected from air-to glass boundary and follows Stoke’s law.

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 Figure 2: Formation of Newton’s ring

Procedure:
1. First the glass plate G, Plano convex lens L and the plate P are cleaned to ensure that there
are no dust particles.
2. Now the light from monochromatic source falls on the glass plate G which is to be kept at
450. This ensures that light is falling normally on the system of Plano convex lens and
plane glass plate in contact beneath the glass plate G.
3. Move the eye piece to and fro inside the tube so as to adjust it such that cross wires are
distinctly seen.
4. Focus the microscope to obtain distinct Newton’s rings in the field of view by lowering or
rising up the microscope by rack and pinion arrangement.
5. The microscope is moved horizontally with the help of tangential screw and counting the
rings, the cross wire is made tangential on the 16th bright circular ring. The reading of
microscope is noted. Now the microscope is gradually moved towards left and the readings
of 16th, 14th, 12th, 10th, 8th and 6th rings are noted. Since it is difficult to adjust the cross wire
tangential to the rings nearer to center hence the readings are taken only up to 6 th ring.
6. Now keep on moving the tangential screw of the microscope in the same direction till the
6th ring on the right hand side is reached. Again note the readings of 6 th, 8th, 10th, 12th, 14th
and 16th rings. The difference in readings on the two sides of a ring gives its diameter.
Measurement of Radius of Curvature of Plano Convex lens:
Usually lens of known radius of curvature is taken. But if the radius of curvature is unknown, the
same can be calculated using spectrometer by the formula.
2
l h
R= +
6 h 2 where the symbols have their usual meanings
Observation table:
Value of one division on the main scale of microscope x = ------------------
Total no of divisions on the Vernier scale n = -------------------------
value of one division of main scale  x 
Least count of microscope = = mm
total no. of division on vernier scale (n)

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For the diameter of rings:

Diameter
Readings of microscope of Rings Dn2
No of Dn = a - b
S.No Dn2+ p  Dn2
Rings On the left side On the right side
TOTAL TOTAL
M.S.R V.S.R M.S.R V.S.R
(a) (b)
1 16 D162  D122
2 14
D142  D102
3 12
4 10 D122  D82
5 8
D102  D62
6 6

Calculations:
Radius of curvature of lens = 2000 mm (given)

Results: The value of wavelength λ = …………. Å

The standard value of wavelength = 5890 Å.

Percentage error:
Standard Value  Expected Value
% error =  100 =
Standard Value
Precautions:
1. The glass plate and the lens must be perfectly clean.
2. The glass plate should be kept at 450.
3. The radius of curvature of the Plano convex lens must be large so that the large diameter
rings may be obtained.
4. The source must be monochromatic and extended.
5. The tangential screw of the microscope must be moved in the same direction to avoid back
lash error.
6. While measuring the diameter the cross wire should be tangential to the bright ring.

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 Experiment No. 3

Name of the Experiment: - Characteristics of Laser beam

Objective: - To measure the Beam divergence and Beam waist of Laser beam.
Apparatus Required: - He-Ne laser, measuring tape, and graph paper.
Theory: -
Divergence is defined as the spread of laser beam i.e. how much angle is subtended by the laser
spot at the point of origin. It is measured in radians. This means that the diameter of the beam
( 2 w) expands over distance (z ) at an angle. As this angle increases, the diameter of the beam
increases. The divergence of the laser beam is extremely small as compared to the conventional
light sources. A laser beam traveling the distance upto moon spreads only 2km across while this
much spread takes place by torch light only when light travels a few kilometer distance. This is
because of the low divergence of the laser beam. The typical divergence of a He-Ne laser is of
the order of 1 milliradian.
Another characteristic of the beam is called waist diameter. The beam waist of a Laser beam is
the location along the propagation direction where the Beam Radius has a minimum. The waist
radius ( w0 ) is the beam radius at this location.
It can be located anywhere with respect to the laser but it often at the output window. A laser
beam whose divergence approaches the minimum divergence and maximum power in the
prescribed area of the beam is referred to as a Gaussian beam.
r= r= r=
w1 w2 w3
He-Ne
Laser
z D D
Figure:1 Diagrammatical view of beam divergence measurement

We shall assume that the laser beam is oscillating in TEM00 mode; its output is a Gaussian beam.
It can be shown that the radius w(z ) of the beam varies with ' z ' as

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 1
  z 
2
2
w( z )  w0 1     (1)
   w0 
2


 is the wavelength of laser radiation.

The gradient
dw( z )
  ( z ) of the laser beam radius locus at a distance ‘z’ is given by
dz
1

z   z 
2 2
    2

 ( z )    1     (2)
  w0  w0    w02 
 


The angle  (z ) varies with ‘z’. However, when z  ,  ( z )   ()   0 , where


0  (3)
 w0

0 w0
The determination of requires the measurement of . Eq. (1) can be expressed as

w 2 ( z )  w 20   02 z 2 (4)

For measuring w0 and  0 from Eq. (4), we will measure w(z ) at some arbitrary planes distant z , z  D

and z  2 D from the laser. Let the radius of the beam at this points are w1 , w2 and w3 respectively then

w12 ( z )  w 20   02 z 2 (5.1)

w22 ( z )  w 20   02  z  D 
2
(5.2)

w32 ( z )  w 20   02  z  2 D 
2

(5.3)
From Eq. (5),  0 can be calculated by
1
1
0  ( w32  2 w22  w12 ) 2 (6)
2D

Thus ( 0 ) is measured in terms of experimentally measured beam radii.

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The waist size w0 can be calculated by


w0  (7)
 0

Procedure: -
1. Mount the laser in a fixed position and level the laser.
2. Attach a graph paper on the screen.
3. Place the screen at the distances z , z  D and z  2 D three planes and carefully
draw the outside dimension of the laser beam spot on graph paper at each
observation point.
4. Measure the radius of the spot at each observation point and note down in the
observation table.
Observation: -
First observation point from the laser (z) = …….cm.
Distance (D) =……..cm.
The wavelength of He- Ne Laser =6328 Å
S. No. Observation point Distance (cm) Radius of the laser spot (in cm)
1 z w1 =
2 zD w2 =
3 z  2D w3 =
1
1
Calculations: 0  ( w32  2 w22  w12 ) 2
2D

w 
 
0
0

Result: -
Half divergence angle of the beam ( 0 ) = ………..miliradian

Waist size w0 = ………..Cm

Standard Result: -
Half divergence angle of the beam ( 0 ) = ………..miliradian

Waist size w0 = ………..Cm

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 Percentage Error:
Std value  Expt value
% error=  100
Std value

Precautions:
1. The observation points should be equally spaced.
2. Draw the beam spot carefully.
3. Avoid direct viewing of laser.

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 Experiment No. 04
Name of the Experiment: Diffraction grating.
Objective: To determine wavelength of spectral lines of mercury vapor lamp with the help of
grating and spectrometer.
Apparatus required: Plane transmission grating, mercury lamp, reading lens, reading lamp.
e sin 
Formula used:  
n
2.54
Here, e is the grating element = , where N is the number of lines on the grating (N).
N
n = order of spectrum.

Diffraction and Fraunhofer Diffraction: The spreading-out (bending or deviation from its
original path) of a wave when is passes through a narrow opening is usually referred to as
diffraction and the intensity distribution on the screen known as the diffraction pattern.
In the Fraunhofer diffraction, the source and the screen are at infinite distance from the
aperture or slit, this is easily achievable by placing the source on the focal plane of a convex lens
and placing the screen on the focal plane of another convex lens.

Figure 1: Diffraction of a plane wave incident normally on a multiple slits.

The two lenses effectively moved the source and screen to infinity because the first lens makes
the light beam parallel and second lens effectively makes the screen receives a parallel beam of
light. Further, the Fraunhofer diffraction pattern is not difficult to observe; all that one need is
laboratory spectrometer. The collimator renders a parallel beam of light and the telescope
receives parallel beam of light on its focal plane. When the value of N is very large, one obtains
intense maxima, when

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 d sin  = m  (m=0, 1, 2)
When N is very large the principal maxima will be much more intense in comparison to the
secondary maxima. A particular principal maximum may be absent if it corresponds to the angle
which also determines the minimum of the single slit diffraction pattern. This will happen when
d sin  = m  (m=0, 1, 2) and
b sin  =  , 2  , 3 
are satisfied simultaneously and is referred to as a missing order.
Diffraction Grating:
An arrangement which essentially consists of a large number of equidistant slits is known as a
diffraction grating; the corresponding diffraction pattern is known as the grating spectrum. The
principal maxima corresponding to different spectral lines will correspond to different angles of
diffraction. Thus the grating spectrum provides us with an easily obtainable experimental set up
for determination of wavelengths.
Spectrometer:
The spectrometer is an instrument which is usually employed for the study of the composition of
light and the measurement of refractive indices of solids and liquids. It consists essentially of
three parts.
(i) Prism table
(ii) collimator and
(iii) telescope.
Adjustment: Before using the spectrometer, the following adjustments must be made.
A) The axis of the telescope and that of the collimator must intersect the principal vertical
axis of rotation of the telescope.
This adjustment is already been done by the manufacturer and can only be tested in the
laboratory. For this purpose a pin is mounted vertically in the centre of prism table and its image
is observed in the telescope tube without eyepiece and for a wide slit in the collimator. If the
image appears in the middle, at every position of telescope then the adjustment is perfect.
Otherwise the image is made in the centre by using the screws supporting the telescope and
collimator till the pins appear in the middle.
B) Prism table should be leveled

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1. The prism table is leveled with help of three screws supporting the prism table. This is
done with the help of spirit level.
2. The second method which is generally used is optical leveling of the prism table.
C) Telescope and collimator are adjusted for parallel light by Schuster’s method.
First of all prism is placed on the prism table and then adjusted approximately for minimum
deviation position (see procedure). The spectrum is now seen through the telescope. Now the
refracting edge of the prism is slightly turned towards the collimator and the collimator is
adjusted with the help of its rack and pinion arrangement such that spectrum is distinctly seen.
Then the refracting edge of the prism is slightly turned towards the telescope and telescope is
adjusted with the help of its rack and pinion arrangement such that again the spectrum is
distinctly seen.
The process is repeated till the slight rotation of the prism table does not make the image to go
out of focus. This means that both collimator and telescope are now individually set for parallel
rays.
Procedure:
1. Before the actual measurement of the angle of diffraction, the adjustment of spectrometer is
made as given above.

Figure 2: Grating spectrometer.

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2. Collimator and telescope are arranged in a line such that directs image of slit is visible.
Coincide the vertical cross wire on the direct image of slit and note the reading of the
vernier scale.
3. Rotate the telescope by 900.
4. Rotate the grating table such that the slit image is visible in the telescope. Coincide the
vertical cross wire on the image and note the reading of vernier.
5. Turn the prism table by 450 or 1350. In this situation grating is normal to the incident beam.
6. Slit should be adjusted parallel to the lines of the grating. For this setting, the slit is rotated
in its own plane till the spectral lines become very sharp and bright.
7. Rotate the telescope to the left side of direct beam image and see the 1 st order spectrum.
Adjust and superimpose the vertical cross wire on different spectral lines (i.e. red, yellow
and violet). Note the reading of Vernier for different spectral lines.
8. Find the diffraction angle for colours.

90
Mercury collimator Telescop
lamp e

Figure 3: Measurement of angle of diffraction

Observation Table:
For the determination of the angle of diffraction
Number of lines on the grating (N) =………….
Value of the one division on the main scale of spectrometer = ……….
Total number of divisions on the vernier scale of spectrometer =…........

Value of the 1 division on the main scale

Least Count  =……..degree
Total Number of divisions on the vernier scale

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 Spectrum on the Spectrum on the
right of direct Difference
Order left of direct of the two Avg. Diffractio
Colour image image
of the (in degree) readings of Valu n angle for
of the (in degree)
spectr the same e of colour
line
um (n) (2  ) (2  ) ( )
MS V Total MS VS Total
(a-b)
S (a) (b)
Violet V
V1
V2

Yellow Y
n=1
V1

V2
Red R
V1
V2

Calculations:
e sin   n .

2.54
Here, e is the grating element = , where N is the number of lines on the grating (N).
N
Result:
The wavelength of violet line=…………..Å
The wavelength of Yellow line=………….. Å
The wavelength of Red line=…………. Å

Standard values of color’s for Mercury (Mercury Lamp)

Violet - 4078 Å
Yellow - 5790 Å
Red - 6800 Å

Percentage error:

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 Std value  Expt value
% error =  100
Std value

Precautions:
1. Both the telescope and the collimator should be focused for parallel rays.
2. The eye-piece should be focused on the cross-wires.
3. The Prism table should be properly leveled.
4. While taking observations, slit should be made narrow and the cross-wires as a multiplication
mark should be adjusted at the centre of the image.

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 Experiment No. 5
Name of Experiment: Numerical aperture of an optical fiber.
Objective: To measure the numerical aperture of an optical fiber by Scanning method.
Formula used:
Numerical Aperture (NA) = sin θa = sin [tan-1 (x/r)]
List of Equipment: Diode Laser (2 mW), 10 X microscopic objective, Optical fiber, Power
meter, Detector, Fiber optics chucks, Optical bread board / Optical Bench
Theory:
Numerical aperture (NA) is a basic descriptive characteristic of specific fiber. It can be thought
of as representing the size of “degree of openness” of the input acceptance cone (fig.-1)
Mathematically numerical aperture is defined as sine of half angle of acceptance cone (Sin θ).
The light gathering power or flux carrying capacity of fiber is numerically equal to the sequence
of the aperture, which is the ratio between the area of a unit sphere with the acceptance cone and
the area of the hemisphere (2θ solid angle).
Snell’s law can be used to calculate the maximum angle within which light will be accepted into
and conducted through a fiber.

NA = sin θa = n12  n22

Where sin θa is numerical aperture.

Figure 1. Numerical Aperture Figure 2. ray propagation in fibre

n1 and n2 are the refractive indices of the core and the cladding. The semi angle θ a of the
acceptance core for a step index fiber is determined by the critical angle θc (= Sin-1(n2//n1)) for
total internal reflection to take place at core cladding interface (Fig.-2). For a ray with incident

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angle θ > θa, the ray undergoes only partial refection at core-cladding interface and is radiate out
into the cladding.
In short length of straight fiber, ideally a ray launched at an angle θ, at the input end
should come out at the same angle θ from output end (Fig.-2). Therefore the far field at the
output end will also appear as a cone of semi angle θ a emanating from the fiber end. It is then
simpler to make measurements on this far field to determine the NA if the fiber.
Procedure:
1. Mount both the ends of the optical fiber on the fiber optic chucks.
2. The 10X microscopic objective is used to effective coupling of light onto one of the fiber
ends using a 10X microscopic objective.
3. Couple the light into the fibre to obtain maximum power.
4. Note the distance between the output fibre tip and the detector. Let it be ‘r’
5. Place the detector at some distance from the output end (end other than at which light is
coupled) of the fiber such that it is perpendicular to the axis of the fiber.
6. Move the detector on the extreme left or right to obtain minimum power.
7. Now move the detector in step of 0.5 mm (x) and note the corresponding output power.
8. Proceed the above step again till the min. power is reached
9. Use the formula to obtain θ= tan-1(x/r) for different value of x & r.
10. Plot a graph between θ and output power P (μW) taking θ on x axis and power on y axis.
11. Calculate 5% of max. power from the graph paper,
12. Draw a line parallel to x axis at 5% of max. Power.
13. Drop two perpendiculars from point of intersection on x axis
14. Difference of these two readings on x axis gives 2θ a
15. Calculate NA by the formula

Observation Table:
Least count of the scale graduated on the translational mount = ……. mm
Distance between the detector and output end of the fiber (r) = …….mm

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S. x (mm) Power x x S. x Power x x
r θ=tan-1( r ) r θ = tan-1( r )
No. (µW) No. (mm) (µW)
1 16
2 17
3 18
4 19
5 20
6 21
7 22
8 23
9 24
10 25
11 26
12 27
13 28
14 29
15 30
Calculation:Plot a graph between angle (θ) and power. Draw a horizontal line parallel to x-axis
at 5% of the maximum power and find θ1 and θ2 by dropping perpendiculars on x-axis.
|θ 2 −θ 1|
Acceptance angle θa =
2
x
Numerical aperture (NA) = Sin θa = Sin [tan-1 ( r )]

Results:
NA of the given fiber = …………….
Precaution:
1. Coupling of LASER light to the fiber should be very proper.
2. Fiber should be kept straight.
3. Light should fall normally on the fiber.
4. Observation of power meter should be measured accurately.
5. Direct viewing of LASER light should be avoided.

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 Experiment No. 6
Name of the experiment: Planck’s constant
Objective: Determination of Planck’s constant (h) using light emitting diode (LED) of
various colors.
Apparatus Required: Planck’s constant apparatus, connecting wires.
c E
Formula Used: f  , Energy E = eV, h
 f
Where c is the velocity of light, λ is the wavelength of source, e is the electronic charge
V is the Turn On Voltage and f is frequency of emitted photon.
Theory:
The Planck’s constant (h) is given by Max Planck to explain the concept of fundamental unit of
energy, a quantum, to explain the spectral distribution of black body radiation. In order to
explain the black body radiation, Planck proposed that atoms absorb and emit radiation in
discrete quantities given by E=n h ν
Where n is an integer known as quantum number, ν is the frequency, h is Planck’s
constant. In this experiment, we will use light emitting diode (LED) which is semiconductor
device. This device emits radiations in visible and Infra-Red (IR) frequencies when a suitable
voltage is applied to them. The symbol of LED as shown in Figure 1:

Figure 1: LED and symbol

LED emits light only when the voltage is forward biased and above a minimum threshold value.
These combinations of condition create an electron hole pair in a diode. Electron hole pairs are
charge carriers and move when placed in an electrical potential. Thus many electron hole pairs
are producing current when placed in an electric field. The commercially used LED’s have a
typical voltage drop between 1.5 Volt to 2.5 Volt or current between 10 to 50 mA. The exact
voltage drop depends on the LED current, color, tolerance, and so on.

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 When LED is forward - biased, the current is carried (mostly) by electrons in the
higher energy conduction band of the N type material and by holes moving in the opposite
direction in the lower energy p-material. At the p-n junction, electrons meet and “fall into”
the conduction band to the valence band, giving up a quantum of energy in an LED type
diode; this energy is emitted as a photon in the visible or infrared spectrum. The training board
circuit diagram is shown in Figure 2 (a).

Figure. 2(a): Training board diagram

The circuit diagram of forward biasing of LED is shown in Figure 2 (b):

Figure 2 (b): Circuit diagram of forward biasing of LED

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Each photon of light is emitted with energy equal to the energy difference between the
bands. In application, the light emitted can be used as a substitute for a small incandescent
bulb, for example as an indicator light on an instrument, or as part of a digital display. The
color (frequency) of the light emitted by an LED is determined during its manufacture by
making a choice among materials with various band energies. A semiconductor diode requires
a certain minimum forward bias voltage before it will conduct much current. If it is an LED,
at least this minimum voltage is required before it will light up.
As explained later; this “turn on” voltage (V) is related to the Planck’s constant as:
h f =e V + Δ ( 1)
where Δ is current from one LED to another of the same type(which is very less so
neglected), e is the electric charge, eV represents the energy received from the power supply
by each electron crossing the junction.
We use several LED’s that emit light of different colours (frequencies). We measure the turn-
on voltage for each and make a graph of frequency (f) vs Energy (eV) according to Eq.
(1). The slope of the graph is Planck’s constant (h).
Procedure:
1. Make the connections as shown in Figure 2(b) for Red LED.
2. Connect the voltmeter, ammeter and preferred LED at appropriate place in the circuit.
3. Vary the DC supply voltage and note down corresponding voltmeter and ammeter readings.
4. Plot the graph of voltage V (on X axis) versus current I (on Y axis) for given LED and
draw tangent to the curve the point of intersection of tangent with X axis gives the value of
turn on voltage. The turn on Voltage is the minimum voltage required for glow of LED.
5. Repeat the same procedure for other LEDs (Yellow, green and violet).
6. Calculate the frequency (f) and Energy (E) using formula f= c/λ and E= eV, respectively.
7. Substitute the value of frequency and Energy in Table.
8. Calculate the Planck’s constant using h= E/f

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Observation Table:

S. RED LED VIOLET LED YELLOW LED GREEN LED

Voltage Current Voltage Current Voltage Current Voltage Current
No. (in V) (mA) (in V) (mA) (in V) (mA) (in V) (mA)
1

10

Plot the graph between voltage V (on X axis) vs current I (on Y axis) for all colour LED and
calculate the Turn on Voltage by drawing tangent to the curve for each colour LED. The point
of intersection of tangent and X axis gives you the value of turn on voltage.
The Turn “ON” voltages of: Red LED ……… volts, V i o l e t LED……… volts, Yellow
LED ………. volts, Green LED ……. Volts

S. No. Colour λ f= c/λ Turn On Energy E in (Joules) Planck’s Constant

of LED (Å) (in Hz) Voltage h=E/f
(eV)
V ( Volt) (joule sec)
1 RED 6600 h1=

2 VIOLET 4285 h2=

3 YELLOW 6100 h3=
4 GREEN 5580 h4=

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c =3.00 × 108 m/s e= 1.6021765 × 10−19 coulomb

Calculations: Calculate the mean value of Planck’s constant

Result: The Planck’s constant is found to be …………….

Standard Value: The standard value of Planck’s constant is 6.6x10 -34 Js

Percentage error:
Std value  Expt value
% error=  100
Std value

Precautions:
1. Connections should be made properly and tightly.
2. At least five readings should be taken

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 Experiment No. 07
Name of the Experiment: - Melde’s Experiment
Objective: To find the frequency of AC Mains using Melde’s method in longitudinal/transverse
arrangement.
Apparatus required: Electrical vibrator attached with Bulb and thread, pan, weight box, meter
scale.
Formula Used:
1. For longitudinal arrangement:

p T
The frequency n is given by n
L m
p Mg
n ;
L m
Where
P = Number of loops formed, L= Effective length of the string,
T =Tension applied to string, M = Total mass suspended (mass of pan+ mass applied),
m = mass per unit length of the string
2. For Transverse arrangement:

p T p Mg
The frequency n is given by n  ,
2L m 2L m
Where symbols have meaning same as explained above.
Description of Apparatus:
An electric vibrator consists of a solenoid whose coil is connected to AC mains. The circuit
includes a high resistance in the form of an electrical bulb as shown in Figure. A soft iron rod is
placed along the axis of the solenoid, clamped at one end with two screws X and Y while the end
B is free to move. The rod is placed between the pole pieces of a permanent magnet NS. One end
of the string is attached to the end B and other passes over a frictionless pulley and carries a
weight.

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 Fig 1: Longitudinal Arrangement of Melde’s Experiment

Figure- 2: Transverse Arrangement of Melde’s Experiment

When an alternating current is passed in the coil of the solenoid, it produces an alternating
magnetic field along the axis. The rod gets magnetized with its polarity changing with the same
frequency as that of the alternating current. The rod vibrates n times per second due to its
interactions with the permanent magnet.
Procedure:
For longitudinal Mode
1. Take a uniform string and attach its one end to the point B of the rod and the other to the
light pan by passing it over a frictionless pulley.

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2. Connect the AC mains to the rod.
3. Adjust electrical vibrator in the longitudinal mode arrangement: (Figure- 1)
4. Form the loops in string by adding appropriate weights to the pan and adjusting the length of
string.
5. Note down number of loops in string (p) and the length of strings (L) between pulley and rod.
6. Perform experiment for different masses and length.
7. Put the value of length of string, no of loops and mass in given formula and calculate the
frequency of A.C. mains.
Transverse Mode: (Fig2)
In this case the vibrator is adjusted such that the motion of rod is perpendicular to the
direction of the length of the string. The procedure remaining the same as described in the
case of longitudinal arrangement.

Observations: -
Mass per unit length of the string (m) =0.00387 gm/cm
g = 980 cm/sec2

Total
Mass Mass of No. of effective
Total Tension Frequency
S. No. applied Pan loops length
Mass(M) (M x g) (n)
(gm) (gm) (p) L
(in cm)
1
2
3
4
5
6

Calculations:- Mass of the string = ……….. gm

Mass per unit length m = ……….. gm/cm
Mass of pan = 6 gm

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In longitudinal arrangement:

p T p Mg
The frequency n is given by n  ;
L m L m

In transverse arrangement:

p T p Mg
The frequency n is given by n  ;
2L m 2L m
Result:
The frequency of AC Mains is using
Transverse arrangement = ….......Hz
Longitudinal arrangement = …...... Hz

Standard value of frequency of AC mains = 50 Hz.

Standard Value  Expected Value
% error =  100 =
Standard Value

Precautions:
1. Pulley should be frictionless.
2. The string should be thin, uniform and inexpensive.
3. The loops formed in the string should appear stationary.
4. Do not put too much load in the pan.

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 Experiment No. 8
Name of Experiment: Bi quartz Polarimeter.
Objective: To determine the specific rotation of sugar solution with the help of bi quartz
Polarimeter.
Apparatus Required: Biquartz polarimeter, Light source, beaker, reading lense, cylindrical
flask, sugar (optically active substance).
Principle:
A polarimeter is a laboratory instrument used to determine the angle of optical rotation of plane-
polarized light passing through a sample of material.

Figure 1: Typical Polarimeter setup with bi quartz.

Here N1, N2 are polarizer and analyzer, T is the polarimeter tube and E is the eye-piece. In this
polarimeter, bi quartz plate B is used as a detection device which consists of two semi-circular
plates of quartz one made of right-handed while the other of left-handed quartz; see Figure 2.
Bi Quartz Polarimeter:
Bi quartz Polarimeter is an accurate instrument which is more sensitive than a half shade
Polarimeter used by finding the angle of rotation produced by an optically active substance. The
experimental parts of bi quartz are the same as that of Half Shade Polarimeter except that the half
shade device is replaced by bi quartz plate and monochromatic light (sodium light) is replaced by
white light.
Action of Bi Quartz Plate:
It consists of two semicircular plates of quartz (one of left handed quartz L and other of right
handed quartz R) each of thickness 3.75 mm. Both are cut perpendicular to the optic axis and
joined together along the diameter plate which thickness of each plate rotates the plane
polarization for yellow light by 900.

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 Figure 2: Action of bi quartz Plate.
When white light, rendered plane polarized with a polarizer, travels through bi quartz normally,
the phenomenon of rotatory dispersion occurs in both bi quartz plates because the plane
polarized light is travelling along the optic axis. The planes of vibration of different color are
rotated through different angles. The rotation of yellow color is 90 o and hence YOY is a straight
line.
If the principal plane of the analyzer is parallel to POQ, the yellow light will not be transmitted
through the analyzer and the appearance of the two halves is similar. The two halves have a
grayish violet tint, called the sensitive tint or tint of passage. When the analyzer is rotated to one
side from this position, one half on the field of view appears blue while the other appears red. If
the analyzer is rotated in the opposite direction the colors are changed i.e., the first which was
blue earlier now appears red and the second half which was red earlier now appears blue. The
position of sensitive tint is very sensitive and is used for accurate determination of optical
rotation.
Optical Rotation:
It is observed that certain substances like quartz, sugar crystals etc rotate the plane of vibration of
a plane polarizied light passing through them.This property of rotating the plane of vibration of
plane polarizied light about the direction of travel by some crystal is known as optical activity.
This phenomenon is known as optical rotation and the angle through which the plane of
polarization is rotated is known as angle of rotation.
The amont of rotation (θ) produced by an optically active substance is proportional to its
thickness traversed (l), the concentration (c) and on temperature. It generally decreases with the
rise in temperature. However, this variation is negligibly small.
For a particular wavelength at constant temperature, the rotation is given by θ
Θ l
θ c
θ = α lc

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Here, α is the specific rotation which is the number of degrees of rotation observed if a 1-dm (10
cm) tube is used, and the compound being examined is present to the extent of 1g/mL. Therefore,

θV
α=
lx
l being measured in decimeter, V is the volume of water; x is the mass of sugar). The specific
rotation is as much a property of a compound as its melting point, boiling point, density and
refractive index.
Procedure:
1. The slit is illuminated by white light and the eyepiece is focused until a vertical line in the
field of view is sharp. Different colors will be seen in the two halves of the field of view.
2. The polarimeter tube is filled with distilled water in such a way that no air bubble remains
inside the tube and placed in the proper position. The analyzer is rotated till the two
portions of the view appear grayish-violet. The reading of the analyzer is noted on the
graduated circular scale. The analyzer is rotated again for the second position of the same
view appears (grayish-violet).
3. Now, let us place the optically active substance (sugar solution) to be tested in the tube.
The procedure is repeated and the scale readings are noted for grayish-violet.
4. The differences between the 2 and 3 readings separately for each position are determined.
The difference these two readings give the angle of rotation of the plane of polarization.
θV
Observations: Specific Rotation α = degree cm3 decimeter-1 gm-1
lx
Where V = Volume of solvent (water) =………………….. cm3
l = Length of solution (or tube) =…………………. decimeter
x = Mass of solute (sugar) =………………………. gm
θ = Angle of rotation = ………………………….. degree
Observation Table:
L. C. of the apparatus = …………..degree

Position of analyzer in degree Mean angle Angle of

S. Concentration First position Second Position (in 0 ) rotation
No. (C) Total Total (θ = θ1 ~ θ2)
MSR VSR MSR VSR
(a) (b)
θ1=(a+b)/2
1. Dist. Water

θ2=(a+b)/2
2. Sugar Soln.
Calculation:

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Mean angles θ1=(a+b)/2; θ2=(a+b)/2
Angle of rotation (θ = θ1 ~ θ2) = …………
Calculations:
θV
α= Degree cm3 decimeter-1 gm-1
lx

Result:
The specific rotation of cane sugar solution at ... °C corresponding to the =......degree per unit
concentration per decimeter.
Precautions: -
1. There should be no air-bubble in the tube while filling it with solution or distilled water.
2. While taking one set of observations, the polarizer should not be disturbed.
3. The cap of the tube should not be tightened beyond a limit as it may strain the glass.

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 Experiment No. 9
Name of Experiment: Bar Pendulum
Objective: To determine the radius of gyration with respect to the centre of gravity and to
determine the value of acceleration due to gravity g using compound (bar
Pendulum).
Apparatus Required: Bar pendulum, stopwatch and meter scale, knife edge fixed to rigid
support and spirit lamp.
2K
FORMULA USED: Acceleration due to gravity g=4π2 T 2
min

Where,T min =Time period of bar pendulum,

L=Effective length of equivalent simple pendulum. L= l+ (k2/l)
K= Radius of gyration of the bar pendulum relative to its center of gravity.
Description of Apparatus: A bar pendulum is the simplest form of compound pendulum. It is
in the form of a rectangular bar (with its length much larger than the breadth and the thickness)
with holes (for fixing the knife edges) drilled along its length at equal separation

FIG: 1. Bar pendulum apparatus Fig 2. Experimental result for radius of gyration
THEORY: If the point of suspension is at a distance l from the centre of gravity, then the bar
pendulum behaves like a simple pendulum of effective length L=l+ (k2 /l) where k2/l is the
distance of point of oscillation from the centre of gravity and K is the radius of gyration of the
bar pendulum relative to its centre of gravity. Hence time period of oscillation of bar pendulum
is
2K
T2min=4π2 g
The pendulum is allowed to oscillate about the horizontal knife edge passing through successive
holes from one end to the other end and time period is determined for each case .Then a graph is

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plotted with the distance of knife edge from one end of the bar on X- axis and the corresponding
time period on Y-axis, we get two symmetrical curves as shown in Fig 2.
Thus, for minimum time period of a bar pendulum the distance of centre of gravity of the
pendulum from its point of suspension is equal to its radius of gyration with respect to its centre
of gravity
2K
g=4π2 T 2
min
Procedure:
(1) Using spirit level and the adjusting screw, the rigid support of the knife edge is made
horizontal.
(2) Place the knife-edges at the first hole of the bar.
(3) Suspend the pendulum through rigid support with the knife-edge.
(4) Note the time taken for 10 oscillations and measure the distance of the hole from the centre
of gravity of the bar.
(5) Repeat the above procedure by suspending the bar from the successive holes. On reaching
the centre of gravity, the bar is turned upside down .Continue till last hole at the other end
is reached.
(6) Now measure and note the distance from one fixed end to those points in successive holes
from which the knife edge supports the bar.
(7) Plot the graph between time period T on Y axis and the distance l of the knife edge from
one end of bar on X -axis.

OBSERVATIONS:

Least count of the stop watch = ...................sec

(i) when bar pendulum is hanged on first hole from centre gravity

Number of Distance of Suspension point Time (t) Time Period

S. No. Holes on or knife edge from center of (for 10 Oscillations) T= t/10
Pendulum gravity in sec in sec
1
2
3
4
5
6
7

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(ii) When bar pendulum is moved upside down

Number of Distance of Suspension point or Time (t) Time Period

S. No. Holes on knife edge from center of (for 10 Oscillations) T= t/10
Pendulum gravity in sec in sec
1
2
3
4
5
6
7

Graphical Calculations: From graph, Fig (2) it is clear that we get two symmetrical curves
about the axis passing through centre of gravity. Draw a straight line AE parallel to X-axis and
join the lowest points P and R of the two branches by a straight line PR.
From graph,
L= (AD+EB)/2=....,.....cm
T=GC=...........sec,
Radius of gyration, K= PR/2=............cm
T min= GQ=...........sec
2K
Hence, Acceleration due to gravity g = 4π2 x
T min 2
Result: The acceleration due to gravity (g) = ..........m/s 2
Radius of gyration of a given bar pendulum K=…………
Percentage Error:
StdValue  ExptValue
Percentage error  100 = ………%
StdValue

Precautions:
1. The motion of the pendulum should be in a vertical plane.
2. The amplitude of oscillation should be small.
3. The knife edge must be sharp.
4. To keep the position of centre of gravity of the bar unchanged ,another knife edge is put
into the hole from the lower end of the bar at a distance equal to the distance of hole from
the upper end at which knife edge is put to suspend it.

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 Experiment No: 10

Aim: To determine the Standard deviation of given result, of any one of the following, by
algebraic formula and histogram
(i) Thickness of the given scale by Vernier calipers
(ii) Diameter of the wire by Screw gauge
Apparatus Required:
A. Vernier calipers
B. Screw gauge
Theory:
Standard Deviation: The Standard deviation is a measure that is used to quantify the amount of
variation or dispersion of a set of data values. A standard deviation close to 0 indicates that the
data points tend to be very close to the mean (also called the expected value) of the set, while a
high standard deviation indicates that the data points are spread out over a wider range of values.
It is represented by the Greek letter sigma ' σ' or s’.
By algebraic method
Not all measurements are done with instruments whose error can be reliably estimated. There
will be a read-off error. However, that error will be negligible compared to the dominant error,
the one coming from the fact that we, human beings, serve as the main measuring device. Since
humans don't have built-in digital displays or markings, how do we estimate this dominant error?
The solution to this problem is to repeat the measurement many times. Then the average of our
results is likely to be closer to the true value than a single measurement would be
The average of the measured values:
1
´χ= ∑ χ i =..... Units
N
Here, N is the general formula stands for the number of values If we take the difference between
the most extreme value and the average, then it overestimates the error. After all, we are not
interested in the maximum deviation from our best estimate. We are much more interested in the
average deviation from our best estimate. If we just average the differences from our measured
values to our best estimate, then
1
d  di  0units
N
clearly, the average of deviations cannot be used as the error estimate, since it gives us zero. In
fact, the definition of the average ensures that the average deviation is always zero for any set of
measurements. It is so because the deviations with positive sign are always canceled by the

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deviations with negative sign. If we square our deviations, all numbers will be positive, so we'll
never get zero. We should then not forget to take the square root since our error should have the
same units as our measured value.
Formula Used:
 di 2
x 
N
The standard deviation tells us what is the average spread of experimental results is about the
mean value. Therefore final result

Procedure:
1. Write the values in a vertical column.
2. Sum the values and divide by the number of measurements N to find the mean.
3. Subtract this mean from each value and square the result.
4. Sum the squared deviations.
5. Take the square root of the result to get the standard deviation.

Observation Table:
For instance, suppose we measure a physical quantity with the help of an instrument-

S.no. MSR VSR TR(Measured value) di=Xi -X di2

1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.
8.
9.
10.

Precautions:

1. Take the readings carefully.

2. Write the results upto two numeric place after the decimal

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