Ay 1 - Lecture 2: Starting The Exploration

Ay 1 Lecture 2
Starting the Exploration

2.1 Distances and Scales
Some Commonly Used Units
Distance:
Astronomical unit: the distance from the Earth to the
Sun, 1 au = 1.496!10
13
cm ~ 1.5!10
13
cm
Light year: c !1 yr, 1 ly = 9.463 !10
17
cm ~ 10
18
cm
Parsec: the distance from which 1 au subtends an
angle of 1 arcsec,
1 pc = 3.086 !10
18
cm ~ 3 !10
18
cm
1 pc = 3.26 ly ~ 3 ly
1 pc = 206,264.8 au ~ 2!10
5
au
Mass and Luminosity:
Solar mass: 1 M
"
= 1.989 !10
33
g ~ 2 !10
33
g
Solar luminosity: 1 L
"
= 3.826!10
33
erg/s ~ 4!10
33
erg/s
The Scale of the Solar System
Major planets:
Up to ~ 50 au
The Oort cloud: ~ 1000 au
Not to scale!
Stellar Distances
Nearest stars ~ a few pc
Naked eye visible stars
~ up to a kpc
Globular clusters ~ few kpc
Distances in the Galaxy
Milky Way diameter ~ 50 - 100 kpc
Our Extragalactic Neighborhood
Magellanic
Clouds ~ 50 kpc
Virgo cluster
~ 16 Mpc
Andromeda galaxy
(M31) ~ 700 kpc
The Deep Universe: ~ 1 10 Gpc
Distances and Parallaxes
Distances are necessary in order to convert apparent,
measured quantities into absolute, physical ones (e.g.,
luminosity, size, mass)
Stellar parallax is the only direct
way of measuring distances in
astronomy! Nearly everything
else provides relative distances
and requires a basic calibration
Small-angle formula applies:
D [pc] = 1 / ! [arcsec]
Limited by the available
astrometric accuracy (~ 1 mas,
i.e., D < 1 kpc or so, now)
!
How Far Can We Measure Parallaxes?
Since nearest stars are > 1 pc away, and ground-based
telescopes have a seeing-limited resolution of ~1 arcsec,
measuring parallaxes is hard.
1838: Bessel measured
! = 0.316 arcsec for
star 61 Cyg (modern
value ! = 0.29 arcsec)
Current ground-based: best errors of ~ 0.001 arcsec
How Far Can We Measure Parallaxes?
Hipparcos satellite: measured ~10
5
bright stars with
errors also of ~0.001 arcsec
GAIA satellite: will measure positions of ~10
9
stars with
an accuracy of micro-arcsecs - this is a reasonable
fraction of all the stars in the Milky Way!
Currently: measure D accurately to ~ a few !100 pc
2.2 Keplers Laws, Newtons Laws,
and Dynamics of the Solar System
Keplers nested Platonic solids
Keplers Laws:
1. The orbits of planets are
elliptical, with the Sun at
a focus
2. Radius vectors of planets
sweep out equal areas
per unit time
3. Squares of orbital
periods are proportional
to cubes of semimajor
axes:
P
2
[yr] = a
pl

3
[au]
Derived empirically from Tycho de Brahes data
Explained by the Newtons theory of gravity
Newtons Laws
1. Inertia
2. Force: F = m a
3. F
action
= F
reaction

e.g., for a circular motion in grav. eld:
centifugal force = centripetal force
The law of gravity:
m V
2
m M
= G
R R
2
}
Conservation
laws (E, p, L)
Energy: E
total
= E
kinetic
+ E
potential
m V
2

2
G m M
R

(gravitational)
Angular momentum: L = m V R
(point mass)
Motions in a Gravitational Field
Motions of two particles interacting according to the
inverse square law are conic sections:
Keplers 1
st
law is a direct consequence
Unbound:
E
kin
> |E
pot
|
Marginally
bound:
E
kin
= |E
pot
|
Bound:
E
kin
< |E
pot
|
Why Ellipses?
A rigorous derivation (in polar coordinates) is a bit tedious, but
we can have a simple intuitive hint:
v = v
t
,
v
r
= 0
v
v = v
t
,
v
r
= 0
v
r
v
t
Decompose the
total velocity v
into the radial (v
r
)
and tangential (v
t
)
components
Consider the total motion as
a synchronous combination
of a radial and circular
harmonic oscillator
(recall that the period does
not depend on the amplitude)
Orbit Sizes and Shapes
For bound (elliptical) orbits, the size (semimajor axis) depends
on the total energy:
The shape (eccentricity) of the orbit depends on the angular
momentum:
m
1
m
2
m
1
m
2
E
kin
= 0, R = 0

E
kin
= |E
pot
|, R !"

v
E
kin
! |E
pot
|

Circular orbit:
maximum
angular
momentum for
a given energy
Radial orbit:
zero angular
momentum
L
max
> L # 0

L = 0

L
max
Keplers 2nd Law: A quick and simple derivation
Angular momentum, at any time: L = M
pl
V r = const.
Thus: V r = const. (this is also an adiabatic invariant)
Element of area swept: dA = V r dt
Sectorial velocity: dA/dt = V r = const.
Independent of M
pl
!
It is a consequence of
the conservation of
angular momentum.

Planets move slower at the
aphelion and faster at the perihelion

V
r
Keplers 3rd Law: A quick and simple derivation
F
cp
= G M
pl
M
!
/ (a
pl
+ a
!
)
2

$ G M
pl
M
!
/ a
pl

2

(since M
pl
<< M
!
, a
pl
>> a
!
)
F
cf
= M
pl
V
pl
2
/ a
pl

= 4 !
2
M
pl
a
pl
/ P
2
(since V
pl
= 2 ! a
pl
/ P )
F
cp
= F
cf
! 4 !
2
a
pl
3
= G M
!
P
2
(independent of M
pl
!)

Another way: E
kin
= M
pl
V
pl
2
/ 2 = E
pot
$ G M
pl
M
!
/a
pl
Substitute for V
pl
: 4 !
2
a
pl
3
= G M
!
P
2

! It is a consequence of the conservation of energy
It Is Actually A Bit More Complex
Keplers laws are just an approximation: we are treating the
whole system as a collection of isolated 2-body problems
There are no analytical solutions for a general problem with
> 2 bodies! But there is a good perturbation theory, which
can produce very precise, but always approximate solutions
Discovery of Neptune (1846)
Comet impacts on Jupiter
Relativistic effects
can be used to test
theory of relativity
(e.g., precession of
Mercurys orbit
It Is Actually A Bit More Complex
If you wait long enough,
more complex dynamics
can occur, including
dynamical chaos
(Is Solar System stable?)
Dynamical resonances can develop (rotation/revolution periods,
asteroids; Kirkwood gaps; etc.)
2.3 Celestial
Coordinate Systems,
Time Systems, and
Earths Rotation
The Celestial Sphere
Think of it as an
outward projection
of the terrestrial
long-lat coordinate
system onto the sky
! the Equatorial System
The Equatorial
System
The coordinates are
Right Ascension
(RA, or ") and
Declination (Dec,
or #), equivalent to
the georgaphical
longitude and
latitude
RA = 0 dened by
the Solar position at
the Vernal Equinox
The Seasonal Change of the Solar
Declination
Annual Solar Path
The Alt-Az Coordinate System
It is obviously
location-dependent
Most telescopes
nowadays are built
with Alt-Az
mounts
Other Common Cellestial
Coordinate Systems
Ecliptic: projection of the Earths orbit plane denes the
Ecliptic Equator. Sun denes the longitude = 0.
Galactic: projection of the mean Galactic plane is close
to the agreed-upon Galactic Equator; longitude = 0
close, but not quite at the Galactic center. (",#) $ (l,b)
Ecliptic (Blue) and Galactic Plane (Red)
Synodic and Sidereal Times
Synodic = relative to the Sun
Sidereal = relative to the stars
As the Earth goes around the Sun, it makes an extra turn. Thus:
Synodic/tropical year = 365.25 (solar) days
Sidereal year = 366.25 sidereal days = 365.25 solar days
Universal time, UT = relative to the Sun, at Grenwich
Local Sidereal Time (LST) = relative to the celestial sphere
= RA now crossing the local meridian (to the South)
The Earths rotation axis
precesses with a period of
~ 26,000 yrs, caused by the
tidal attraction of the Moon
and Sun on the the Earths
equatorial bulge
There is also nutation
(wobbling of the Earths
rotation axis), with a period
of ~ 19 yrs
Coordinates are specied
for a given equinox (e.g.,
B1950, J2000) and
sometimes epoch
The Precession of the Equinoxes
Earths Orbit, Rotation, and the Ice Ages
Milankovich Theory: cyclical variations in Earth-Sun
geometry combine to produce variations in the amount
of solar energy that reaches Earth, in particular the ice-
forming regions:
1. Changes in obliquity (rotation axis tilt)
2. Orbit eccentricity
3. Precession
These variations
correlate well with
the ice ages!

Ay 1 - Lecture 2: Starting The Exploration

Uploaded by

Copyright:

Available Formats

Ay 1 - Lecture 2: Starting The Exploration

Uploaded by

Document Information

Original Description:

Original Title

Copyright

Available Formats

Share this document

Share or Embed Document

Sharing Options

Did you find this document useful?

Is this content inappropriate?

Copyright:

Available Formats

Ay 1 - Lecture 2: Starting The Exploration

Uploaded by

Copyright:

Available Formats

Ay 1 Lecture 2

Starting the Exploration

You might also like