RUSSIAN OPEN SCHOOL

ASTRONOMICAL OLYMPIAD BY CORRESPONDENCE 2008

PROBLEMS WITH SOLUTIONS
1. Problem. Observer is situated in the definite point on the Earths surface. One definite moment he
noticed that each point of ecliptic had met the mysterious property: the angular distance between this
point and North Celestial Pole had been equal to the zenith distance of the same ecliptic point.
Disregarding the refraction, please find the latitude of the observation point. (O.S. Ugolnikov)
1. Solution. The conditions described above are always met on the North Pole of the Earth (latitude
+90) where the North Celestial Pole coincides with the zenith and the angular distance from the
North Celestial Pole is equal to the zenith distance not only for the points of the ecliptic, but for all
points of the celestial sphere. But this is not the only solution.
If we observe somewhere far from the North Pole of the Earth, than the North Celestial Pole
and the zenith are two different points of the celestial sphere. The problems conditions will be met if
these two points are symmetric relatively the ecliptic line. It is seen in the figure for the example
ecliptic point E.

South
Celestial Pole

Zenith

Hor
izon

Ecliptic

E
r
ato
u
q
E

North
Celestial Pole

Nadir

Ecliptic is inclined to the equator by the angle equal to 23.4. The angle between the northern polar
direction (which is perpendicular to the equator) and the ecliptic plane is equal to
= 90 = 66.6.
Symmetry of North Celestial Pole and the zenith relatively the ecliptic means that the angle between
the zenith direction and the ecliptic plane is the same. The ecliptic plane must be perpendicular to the
plane containing the zenith and northern polar directions. Thus, the zenith distance of North Celestial
Pole is equal to

Russian Open School Astronomical Olympiad by Correspondence 2008

zP = 2 = 133.2.
Northern Celestial Pole is below the horizon, and the observation point is in the Southern hemisphere
of the Earth. The latitude is negative, its module is equal to the depth of Northern Celestial Pole:
= (zP 90) = 90 2 = 90 + 2 = 43.2.
Finally, the problem condition can take place at the latitudes +90 (it always takes place there) and
43.2.
2. Problem. The artificial satellite of the Earth has the mass equal to 100 kg and moves along the
elliptical orbit with perigee altitude equal to 200 km and apogee altitude equal to 10000 km. Being
close to perigee, the satellite is decelerated by the Earths atmosphere. Please estimate the time, during
which the satellites orbit will become circular. The decelerating force of the atmosphere can be
considered to be constant with the value 0.01 Newton, the path length of the satellite through the
atmosphere each revolution is equal to the radius of the Earth. (O.S. Ugolnikov)
2. Solution. Lets explain why the orbit of the satellite will turn to circle. Being close to the apogee,
the satellite is far from the Earth, it is not decelerated by the atmosphere and moves by the elliptical
trajectory according to the Second Kepler law. Approaching the perigee, the velocity of the satellite
increases and exceeds the circular velocity for this distance to the Earth. But here the satellite is being
decelerated by the atmosphere. As we will see below, this deceleration is not too strong to lead the
satellite to fall down or burn up in the atmosphere during the first revolution. But each revolution the
satellite will loose the velocity and energy before the escape from the atmosphere.

A
Atmosphere

L
Earth

Let L will be the distance from the center of the Earth to the upper border of the dense atmosphere
layers, the atmosphere deceleration above this border can be neglected. The satellite velocity on this
border is equal to
2 1
v 2 = GM ,
L a
where M is the Earth mass and a is orbit large semi-axis. Each revolution the values of v and a are
decreasing. While the orbit is elliptical and satellite escapes from the atmosphere, its perigee altitude is
changing slowly. Thus, the orbit of the satellite turns to the circle with the radius close to the perigee
distance of the initial orbit. When the satellite does not escape the atmosphere, its trajectory will turn
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Russian Open School Astronomical Olympiad by Correspondence 2008

to spiral. The satellite will go down to the Earth increasing its velocity until it burn or fall down. But
this stage of orbit evolution is not considered in this problem.
The following solution is the simplified method of the calculation of the time of orbit
evolution, that is quite complicated problem in general. Lets consider two consecutive moments of
the satellites escape from the dense layers of atmosphere (the point A in the figure). Of course, the
escape points are different, but their distances from the center of the Earth, L, are the same. Lets draw
the relations between the velocities of the satellite at these moments and the values of major semi-axes
of the orbit at (i) and (i+1) revolutions:
2 1
vi2 = GM ,
L ai
2
1
,
vi2+1 = GM
L
a

i +1
According to the constant energy law,

m 2
(v v 2 ) = F D ,
2 i +1 i
Here m is the satellite mass, F is the deceleration force, D is the length of the satellite path through the
atmosphere. According to the problem condition, the values of F and D are constant. Their
multiplication is equal to 64 kJ, that is many times less than the kinetic energy of the satellite in
perigee. Thus, the orbit will turn to circle slowly, during the large number of revolutions. The change
values of major semi-axis ai and orbital period Ti are many times less than the values ai and Ti
themselves.
From the formulae above we obtain:

2 FD ai2
2 FD
1
1 ai
=

;
=

.
a

i
GMm
GMm ai +1 ai
ai2
Major semi-axis and orbital period are related with each other by the III Kepler law:

ai3 = Ti2

GM
4 2

Mean change value of major semi-axis during (i)-revolution is the value of ai divided by orbital
period:
FD ai
ai
i1 =
=
.
Ti
m GM
We can assume, that the change of major semi-axis in time will have a power law, we can find the
number n, for which:
(ain )
in =
= consti .
Ti
Our aim is to find the number n. The parameter in the numerator of the last formula is equal to
(ain ) = ain+1 ain = (ai + ai ) n ain n ai ain 1 .

Here we had used the mathematical property of small value :

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Russian Open School Astronomical Olympiad by Correspondence 2008

(1 + ) n 1 + n .
Finally, the change of value ain per unit of time is equal to
in

(ain ) ai n 1
FD na ( n1 2)
nai =
=
=
.
Ti
Ti
m GM

We see that if n=1/2 than this value will not depend on time. Since the orbit evolution is much longer
than the orbital period, we can assume the major semi-axis decrease as continuous process. The value
of square root of major semi-axis will decrease by the linear law:
a = a0

FD
t.
2m GM

Here a0 is the initial major semi-axis equal to

a0 = R +

hP + h A
= 11470 km.
2

Here R is the radius of the Earth, hP and hA are the altitude values in the perigee and apogee. During
the orbit evolution the value of hP is changing a little. The radius of circular orbit will be equal to
aC = R + hP = 6570 km.

With account of D=R, the time of orbit evolution is equal to

TC =

2m GM
( a0 aC ) = 1.6 10 8 sec
FD

or about 5 years.
3. Problem. The magnitude of total umbral lunar eclipse is equal to 1.865. Please find the duration of
totality. The expansion of the umbra caused by atmosphere can be disregarded. (O.S. Ugolnikov)
3. . The value of eclipse magnitude is too high. We have to define the distances between the
Sun and the Earth (L) and between the Earth and the Moon (l) for which that value is possible. Lets
assume that the eclipse is central and all three bodies are situated along one line. Their position is
shown in the figure.

S
R

Earth

Sun

l
r
Moon


Russian Open School Astronomical Olympiad by Correspondence 2008

Lets define the umbra radius depending on L and r. The edge of umbra cone tangent to Sun and
Earth is inclined to the line Sun-Earth by the angle
=

R
L

This angle is close to the angular radius of the Sun, being quite small (it is equal to 0.26) and we can
use the trigonometric properties of small angle. In particular, we can state that its cosine is equal to
unity. The umbra radius is equal to
= R l =

R (L l ) S l
.
L

d
r
Moon

Umbra

As we can see in the figure, the central eclipse magnitude is equal to

F =1+

d
r
+r
= 1+
=
.
2r
2r
2r

Here r is the radius of the Moon. It is clear that the more the distance between the Sun and the Earth L,
and the less the distance between the Sun and the Moon, l, the more the eclipse magnitude. We can see
it using two initial formulae of solution. Lets assume that the value of L is maximal (1.017 a.u.), so
the Earth reaches the aphelion point of the orbit. If we also assume that the value of l is average
(384,400 km) than the eclipse magnitude will not exceed 1.832, that will not met the condition of the
problem.
Substituting the minimal value of l (356,400 km) we obtain the maximal magnitude of the
lunar eclipse (without account of atmospheric expansion) equal to 1.868. It nearly coincides with the
one given in this problem. So, during the eclipse considered here the Moon was near the perigee point
of the orbit and crossed the umbra along its diameter. The radius of the umbra is turned out to be
equal to 4757 km.
The lunar spatial velocity at the distance l is equal to

2 1
v = GM ,
l a
where a is the major semi-axis of the lunar orbit. Substituting the numbers, we obtain 1.095 km/sec.
The umbra also moves relatively the Earth, its velocity is equal to

l
,
L
5

u = v0


Russian Open School Astronomical Olympiad by Correspondence 2008

where v0 is the aphelion orbital velocity of the Earth (equal to 29.3 km/s). The value of u is equal to
0.069 km/s, the direction is the same with the velocity of the Moon v. During the total eclipse the
Moon covers the distance
D = 2 ( r ),

and the total eclipse duration is equal to

T=

2 ( r)
D
=
,
v u
v u

or 5885 seconds or 1 hour and 38.1 minutes. Here we should notice that it is not the maximal duration
of the total lunar eclipse that is reached during the apogee eclipses with smaller magnitude.
Note. In the ephemeredes of the lunar eclipses published in astronomical calendars and
handbooks you can find the eclipses with magnitudes higher than 1.868. This fact is due to the account
of atmospheric expansion of the umbra, which size is considered to be more than the geometrical
value.
4. Problem. The grazing occultation of the star by the Moon is observed in the zenith at the Earths
equator. The Moon is exactly in the first quarter. Please find the maximum possible angular distance
between the star being occulted and the closest horn of the Moon (the crossing point of limb and
terminator) in the grazing moment. The orbit of the Moon can be considered to be circular.
(O.S. Ugolnikov)
4. Solution. Lets draw the positions of Sun, Moon, star and ecliptic line during the occultation event.
The cusps of the Moon are directed along the major circle of the celestial sphere connecting the Sun
and the Moon. This circle is shown as the arc in the figure. We have to note that due to the inclination
of the lunar orbit this circle does not coincide (in general) with ecliptic and visual path of the Moon on
the celestial sphere.

Moon
r
Star

90

Ecliptic
Visual path of the Moon

Sun

Since the Sun is always situated on the ecliptic and the angular distance between the Sun and the
Moon in the first quarter is equal to 90, cusps of the Moon are directed parallel to the ecliptic, not
depending on the position of the Moon relatively the ecliptic. If the lunar visual motion relatively the
star is directed parallel to the ecliptic, than the grazing occultation will be observed exactly at the
horn point, the crossing of limb and terminator.
The angular distance between the star and the horn depends on the inclination of the lunar
path to the ecliptic . So we have to define the maximal value of this angle. If we had observed from
the center of the Earth, the problem would be much simpler. The value would be equal to the
inclination of the lunar orbit, i, equal to 5.15. It would be reached, when the Moon had crossed the
node of its orbit. But really we observe from the surface of rotating Earth and the value of can
exceed the value of i.
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Russian Open School Astronomical Olympiad by Correspondence 2008

According to the problem, the occultation is observed in the zenith at the equator of the Earth. Since
we have to find the maximal value of angle , we assume that the Moon is situated on the ecliptic
crossing the orbit node. Let it be the ascending node.

Earth
y

Eq
ua

tor
R

Ecliptic
plane

v0

Moon
Figure shows the configuration of the Earth and the Moon on the ecliptic plane. The Moon crosses this
plane by the angle i and moves northwards. We denote its velocity as v. Considering the orbit as
circular, we find this velocity:
GM
v=
.
L
Here M is the mass of the Earth, L the distance between the Earth and the Moon. The velocity is
equal to 1.02 km/sec. The observer is situated on the equator and moves with it by the angle (23.4)
to the ecliptic. The velocity is equal to
2 R
.
v0 =
T
Here R is the radius of the Earth, T is the duration of sidereal day. The value is equal to 0.465 km/s.
The velocity of the Moon relatively the observer is the vector difference of two velocities above:
u = v v0 .
The angle to find is the angle between vector u and the ecliptic plane. This angle is maximal if the
vertical components of vectors v and v0 are opposite and the observer moves southwards. It is if the
Moon is seen in the vernal equinox point. The situation is the same if the Moon is in descending angle
and is seen in the autumn equinox point.
We define the coordinate system (x, y) as shown in the figure and make a projection of vector
difference above on the axes of the system:

Russian Open School Astronomical Olympiad by Correspondence 2008

u x = v cos i v0 cos ,
u y = v sin i + v0 sin .

The angle is equal to

= arctan

uy
ux

= arctan

v sin i + v0 sin
= 25.1o .
v cos i v0 cos

We have to note that this angle is almost 5 times larger than for the case of geocentric observations.
The angular distance between the star and horn is equal to

= 2 sin

r
= 2 sin .
2
2
L

Here is the angular radius of the Moon. Transforming this angle to the degree scale, we obtain
0.113 or 6.8. If the grazing occultation occurs at the dark edge of the Moon (as shown in the first
figure of solution), that angular distance will be enough to observe the event using the binocular or
telescope even in the case of faint star.
5. Problem. The minor planet moves around the Sun in the ecliptic plane, never coming inside the
orbit of the Earth. The conditions of its observations exactly repeat in 2 years, and its visible
magnitude changes on 8m with the same period. Please find the minimum possible value of the
eccentricity of the asteroids orbit. The asteroid is the smooth spherical uniform ball with constant
surface albedo. Orbit of the Earth can be considered to be circular. (O.S. Ugolnikov)
5. Solution. In two years the Earth completes two revolutions around the Sun returning to the same
point of the orbit. Since the conditions of asteroid observations are the same, it also returns to the same
orbit point in two years. Since it does not come inside the orbit of the Earth, its orbit major semi-axis
is not less than 1 a.u. and orbital period is not less than 1 year. The number of completed revolutions
in 2 years is one or two.
But if this number was two and orbital period was equal to 1 year, asteroid would come inside
the orbit of the Earth (in the case of elliptical orbit) or would be in the fixed position relatively the line
Sun-Earth not changing the magnitude (in the case of circular orbit). Possible axial rotation of the
asteroid does not change the picture, since the asteroid has the uniform surface. Finally, the orbital
period of asteroid is equal to 2 years. According to Third Kepler law, the major semi-axis of the orbit
is equal to 22/3 or 1.587 a.u.
Asteroid is the uniform ball with smooth surface. This case its magnitude does not depend on
the phase angle (the angle between the directions from the asteroid to the Sun and the Earth). The
magnitude changes are related with the changes of distances between the Sun and asteroid and
between the asteroid and the Earth. The asteroid brightness is reverse-proportional to the squares of
both distances and the magnitude can be expressed as follows:
m = m0 + 5 lg d + 5 lg r.
Here d and r are the distances from the asteroid to the Earth and to the Sun expressed in astronomical
units, m0 is the asteroid absolute magnitude (the magnitude for the case d = r = 1 a.u.).
Let e be the eccentricity of asteroid orbit. In the case of definite values of e and orbital period
(two years) maximal amplitude of brightness changes will be reached in the case shown in the figure.
During the opposition asteroid is in the orbit perihelion, position 1 in the figure. The values of d and r
reach the minimum simultaneously:
d1 = a (1 e) a0,
r1 = a (1 e).

Russian Open School Astronomical Olympiad by Correspondence 2008

Earth
2

Sun

Here a0 is the radius of Earths orbit. The brightness of the asteroid reaches the maximal possible
value. In one year the Earth returns to the same point, but asteroid is in aphelion and in the conjunction
with the Sun. The values of d and r reach the maximum simultaneously:
d2 = a (1 + e) + a0,
r2 = a (1 + e).
The brightness of asteroid reaches the absolute minimal value. Since the amplitude increases with the
eccentricity, to find the minimal value of e, we have to find for the configuration described above for
given amplitude 8m:
5 lg d2 + 5 lg r2 5 lg d1 5 lg r1 = 8,

d2 r 2 (a(1 e) a 0 ) a (1 e)
=
= K = 101.6 = 39.8.
d1r1 (a (1 e) a0 ) a (1 e)
The solution of square equation gives the answer:

e=

2 ( K + 1) a ( K 1) a 0 ( K 1) 2 a02 + 16 Ka 2
2 ( K 1) a

Just one of two solutions (with the sign ) has the physical sense (0<e<1). The eccentricity is equal
to 0.284, the perihelion distance is equal to 1.137 a.u. We see that the asteroid really does not come
inside the orbit of the Earth. If the eccentricity was less than 0.284, the amplitude (even in the case of
opposition in perihelion and conjunction in aphelion) would be also less than 8m. Thus, we had found
the minimal possible value of eccentricity.
6. Problem. The observer on the Earth had measured the angular distance between the stars X and Y,
both situated on the ecliptic, and obtained 30 with exactness 0.1. The star X is situated westwards
from the star Y, so it has less ecliptic longitude. During the observation moment both stars were
situated westwards from the Sun, the ecliptic longitude difference of the Sun and star X was equal to
100. Please find the angular distance between stars X and Y after three months. How will this
distance change if we observe from the Sun? The parallax values of the stars X and Y are equal to 0.5
and 0.2, respectively. Please disregard the eccentricity of the Earths orbit, self motions of the stars
and all atmospheric effects. (E.N. Fadeev)
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Russian Open School Astronomical Olympiad by Correspondence 2008

6. Solution. The coordinates of the stars change by two reasons: light aberration and parallax of the
stars. We will analyze these effects separately.
Light aberration is caused by orbital motion of the Earth and the finite value of the speed of
light. It moves the star towards the apex of the Earths motion. The ecliptic longitude of the apex is
90 less than the one of the Sun. For the stars on the ecliptic the change of ecliptic longitude is equal
to:
v
lA = sin(a l ) = k cos(l 0 l ).
c
Here v is the velocity of the Earth, c is the light velocity, k is the aberration constant, equal to 20.5 in
degree scale, a is the apex ecliptic latitude, l0 is the ecliptic latitude of the Sun, l is the ecliptic latitude
of the star.
Parallax shift of the star is always directed towards the Sun. The change of ecliptic longitude is
equal to
l P = . sin(l0 l ).
Here is the parallax of the star. Since the both shift values are too small, the common shift is the sum
of these values, and we can us the observed values of star ecliptic longitude in these formulae.

lA

lP

lA l
P

Apex
Earth 2

Apex
lP
Y

lA lA lP
X

Sun
Earth 1
According to the problem formulation, in the moment 1:
l01 lX = 100,
l01 lY = 70.
The values of ecliptic longitude shifts owing to aberration and parallax are equal to:
l X 1 = k . cos(l01 l X ) + X . sin (l01 l X ) = + 3.6' '+ 0.5' ' = + 4.1' '.
lY 1 = k . cos(l 01 lY ) + Y . sin(l01 lY ) = 7.0' '+ 0.2' ' = 6.8' '.

The difference of ecliptic longitudes (lY lX)1 in the moment 1 is equal to 30 and 10.9 less than
heliocentric difference (lY lX). Thus, the heliocentric difference of longitudes is equal to 300010.9.
This is the answer for the second question of the problem.
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Russian Open School Astronomical Olympiad by Correspondence 2008
To answer on the first question, we see that in three months

l02 lX = 190,
l02 lY = 160.
According to this,
l X 2 = k . cos(l02 l X ) + X . sin (l02 l X ) = +20.2' '0.1' ' = + 20.1' '.
lY 2 = k . cos(l 02 lY ) + Y . sin(l02 lY ) = +19.3' '+ 0.1' ' = + 19.4' .

The ecliptic longitude difference (lY lX)2 is 0.7 less than the heliocentric value (lY lX) and equal to
300010.2.
7. Problem. In March 1997 we saw the bright comet Hale-Bopp with magnitude 1.5m. Being
observed from Earth, the brightest inner part of the comets tail had the length about 10 and width
about 1. Imagine that the same time the spaceship with astronauts arrived to the comet and landed on
its core at the side opposite relatively the Sun. Will the astronauts see the stars in the sky when they
come to the surface of the core? (O.S. Ugolnikov)
7. Solution. To answer on the question, we have to look how do the brightness characteristics of
expanded objects change when we fly to them or from them. If we approach to comet Hale-Bopp in 2
times for example, it will be brighter in 4 times and will have the angular square 4 times more than
before. The surface brightness (or the magnitude of the angular square unit) will not change. If we
come inside the expanded object, its emission will be seen from the major part of the sky, but the
surface brightness will not be higher (actually it will be lower) than the one observed from large
distance.
The surface brightness of the tail of comet Hale-Bopp is equal to 1.5m per 10 square degrees.
Each square degree contains 36002 square angular seconds. The magnitude of one square second is
equal to
m = 1.5 + 2.5 lg (1036002) = 18.8.
When we land on the comet surface at the side where the tail is visible, its surface brightness will be
the same. But it is just 4-5m brighter than the moonless night sky on the Earth. The comet night sky
will be like evening sky during the nautical twilight. The human eye will see the stars up to 4m in
these conditions. Finally, the astronauts will see the stars from the surface of the core of comet HaleBopp.
8. Problem. The star has the surface temperature 15000 K and the radius equal to 10 radii of the Sun.
During the last 100 years this star produces the uniform stellar wind blowing with the velocity 20
km/s. This substance created the shell of gas and dust around the star with optical depth equal to 0.2.
Please calculate the radii of inner and outer visible edges of the shell, find the dependence of the dust
density in the shell on the distance from the star. Please find the temperature at the outer edge of the
shell, mass of the shell and the mass loss rate of the star. The dust particles have the radius equal to 1
mkm, density equal to 3 g/cm3 and fusion temperature equal to 1500 K. Consider that the mass of the
gas is 200 times larger than the mass of the dust, but light absorption is caused only by dust.
(A.M. Tatarnikov)
8. Solution. We know that the mass loss rate M is constant. Lets divide the shell into the thin layers
with the thickness r. Masses of each layer are the same, we denote is as M. The number of particles
is also the same for all layers. If the layer radius is R, than the density of the layer will be equal to

11

Russian Open School Astronomical Olympiad by Correspondence 2008

( R) =

R
= in in .
R
4R r
2

Here Rin is the radius of the inner border of the shell and in is the density there. Last formula is the
dependency of the density on the distance from the star. To find the temperature dependency, we
denote dust particle radius as a. The energy falling to the particle is equal to the energy emitting by the
particle to the surrounding space. If we denote the radius and temperature of the star as R* T*, than
we will have
4 T*4 R*2
a 2 = 4 a 2T 4 .
2
4 R
The temperature of particle is equal to
T = T*

R*
.
2R

At the inner border of the shell the temperature must be equal to the dust fusion temperature. This case
the dust will not reflect the emission closer to the star. Denoting the fusion temperature as T0, we
obtain
2
R* T*
Rin =
.
2 T
It is equal to 500 solar radii or 50 radii of the star. The outer border radius is more simple to calculate:

Rout

v . t,

Here v is the stellar wind velocity (20 km/sec), t is the time of wind outflow (100 years). The radius is
equal to 6.31010 km or 90000 solar radii or 9000 radii of the star. We see that outer border radius is
many times more than the inner border radius. Physically it shows that the shell does create at the time
t. The temperature of the outer border is equal to

Tout = T*

R*
= 110 K.
2 Rout

To find the mass of the shell, we have to express the optical depth of the shell. We assume that the
particles absorb the emission as the black balls with radius a. The probability of the photon to be
absorbed in the layer with radius R and thickness R, or the optical depth of the layer, is equal to
2

R
( R ) = n ( R )R a 2 = nin in a 2 R.
R
Here n(R) is the particle concentration at the distance R, nin is their concentration at the inner border of
the shell. Total optical depth is the sum of the optical depths of all layers. It is expressed as the integral
=

Rout

Rout

Rin

Rin

d ( R ) =

1
1
R
nin in a 2 dR = a 2 nin Rin2

R
Rin Rout

a 2 nin Rin .

Here we take into account that the outer radius of the shell is sufficiently larger than the inner radius.
The value of optical depth is known, and we can use this formula to calculate the concentration nin.
The number of particles in thin layer with radius R and thickness R is equal to
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Russian Open School Astronomical Olympiad by Correspondence 2008

4R
N ( R ) = n ( R ) 4 R 2 R = nin 4 Rin2 R = 2in R.
a

This value does not depend on radius, since the mass outflow is constant. Taking it into account and
knowing that outer radius is many times less than the inner one, we obtain
N=

4 Rin Rout
a2

To find the total mass, we remember that the mass of gas is K times more than the mass of dust. If 0
is the dust density, than the shell mass can be expressed as follows:

M =

16 Rin Rout a 0 K
4 3
a 0 NK =
.
3
3

It is equal to 41025 kg or 2105 of the solar mass. This mass was released in 100 years, so the mass
loss rate is equal to 41023 kg or 2107 solar masses per year.
9. Problem. The gamma-ray bursts sometimes happen in the distant galaxies. These are the short
(about several seconds) bursts of gamma-ray emission with average energy of the photon equal to 1
MeV. To be registered on the Earth, the flux of such photons must be not less than 50 phot/(cm2s).
The luminosity of the burst is equal to 1049 ergs per second, this energy is released inside two opposite
cones with angle at the top equal to 10. The gamma-ray bursts are registered on the Earth once a
week. What is the frequency of gamma-ray bursts in one definite galaxy? How much times more or
less bursts we would see, if the cones of their emission were two times narrower? (M.E. Prokhorov)
9. Solution. Lets find which part of the sphere is covered by two cones of gamma-ray emission.
These cones draw two circles with radius 5 or 0.087 radians. We denote this angle as . This angle is
quite small and we consider the circles as plane figures. The part of the sphere covered by cones is
equal to the ratio of circles and sphere squares:

2 2 2
b=
=
= 0.004.
4
2
The energy of gamma-ray photon is equal to 1 MeV or 1.6106 ergs. Thus, the gamma-ray source
emits 61054 photons. We denote this value as J0. We find the maximal distance to the source to be
observed by the device with sensitivity E:

E=

J0
4bR

; R=

1 J0
1
=
2 bE

J0
.
2E

Here we assume that the Earth is situated inside one of two emission cones. Thus, we can detect the
gamma-ray burst at the distance up to 500 Mpc. The change of flux due to the Universe expansion is
not sufficient at this distance.
The average concentration of galaxies in the Universe is equal to 0.01 pc3. We can obtain
this value from the total number of galaxies in the Universe (1010) and the size of the Universe (10
Gpc). The number of galaxies inside the sphere with radius R is equal to
4
n J0
N = R 3n =

3
6 bE
13

32

~ 5 10 6.


Russian Open School Astronomical Olympiad by Correspondence 2008

We see the bursts with the frequency F equal to 1 burst per week or 50 bursts per year in this number
of galaxies. But we cannot see all the bursts in these galaxies as we cannot always be inside the
emission cones. Total frequency of burst in these galaxies is equal to

F0 =

F
b

or 12500 bursts per year. The bursts frequency in one galaxy is equal to

F
6 b E

F1 = 0 = F
N
n J 0

32

3 2
=F
n

32

E
.
J0

or once in 400 years. We will see 1/250 of these bursts, so the frequency of observable bursts in one
galaxy is once in 100,000 years.
We see that this value in the formula is proportional to the square root of b or proportional to
the cone angular radius . If the radius was two times less, the total frequency of the bursts in one
galaxy would be two times less. But the value of F0 is reverse proportional to the square root of b, so
the total number of observable bursts would increase in two times!
It is easy to explain. If the cone radius was two times less, we could see two times more distant
gamma-ray bursts. They would fulfill 8 times larger volume in the Universe. The probability to be
inside the cones would be 4 times less. So, the frequency of gamma-ray burst observations would
increase in two times.
10. Problem. We know that the temperature of Cosmic Microwave Background in the direction with
Galactic coordinates l = 264 and b = 48 is maximal, being by T = 3.35 mK more than average
value. Please find the velocity of our Galaxy as a whole relatively the Cosmic Microwave
Background. (E.N. Fadeev)
10. Solution. Firstly we have to find the velocity of Sun relatively the Cosmic Microwave Background
(CMB). The temperature change is related with the Doppler effect:

0
v
= .

c
Here 0 is the average (through the sky) wavelength of the CMB maximum, is the one for the
direction described above, v is the velocity of the Sun relatively CMB. Since the CMB emission is
thermal, the wavelength of maximal emission is reverse proportional to the temperature:
(cm) =

0.29
T

The velocity is equal to

v = c

T T0
T
=c
.
T
T

Thus, the Sun moves relatively CMB with the velocity 368 km/sec in the direction with galactic
coordinates l = 264 and b = 48. But the Sun moves relatively the center of the Galaxy with the
velocity v0 equal to 220 km/sec and directed to the point with galactic coordinates l0 = 90 and b0 = 0.
The vector of common Galaxy velocity relatively CMB is equal to
u = v v0 .
14

Russian Open School Astronomical Olympiad by Correspondence 2008

u
v
b
l = 270

v0

Sun

Galactic
plane

l = 90

We see that the galactic longitude l corresponding the vector v is close to 270, and we can assume
that all three vectors are in the figure plane perpendicular to the galactic plane. This case the value of
the velocity u can be calculated as follows:

u = v 2 + v02 2vv0 cos(180 o b) .

It is equal to 540 km/sec. If we take into account the difference of l and 270, the answer will be the
same with the exactness of 1 km/sec.

15