SatComm Lec5

SATELLITE COMMUNICATION SYSTEMS
Dr. Mehmood Alam

Email: Mehmood.alam@mcs.edu.pk
NASA two-line elements
NASA two-line elements
Example
Orbit Perturbations
The keplerian orbit described so far is ideal in the sense that it assumes that the earth is a uniform spherical
mass and that the only force acting is the centrifugal force resulting from satellite motion balancing the
gravitational pull of the earth.
In practice, other forces which can be significant are
a) Asymmetry of earth's gravitational fields( due to nonspherical earth)
b) The gravitational forces of the sun and the moon
c) Atmospheric drag
Orbit Perturbations
All these interfering forces cause the true orbit to be different from Keplerian ellipse.
The gravitational pulls of sun and moon have negligible effect on low-orbiting satellites, but they
do affect satellites in the geostationary orbit.
Atmospheric drag, on the other hand, has negligible effect on geostationary satellites but does
affect low orbiting earth satellites below about 1000 km.
Effects of a Nonspherical Earth
For a spherical earth of uniform mass, Kepler’s third

law gives the nominal mean motion n0 as
However, it is known that the earth is not perfectly

spherical  equatorial bulge and a flattening at the poles, Oblate spheroid
The mean motion, denoted in this case by symbol n, is modified to
K1 is a constant = 66,063.1704 km2

The orbital period taking into account the earth’s oblateness is termed the anomalistic period
If the known quantity is n, a can be determined by finding the root of the following equation:
The oblateness of the earth also produces two rotations

of the orbital plane.
1. Regression of the nodes
• Nodes appear to slide along the equator. In effect, the
line of nodes, which is in the equatorial
plane, rotates about the center of the earth.
• Thus Ω, the right ascension of the ascending node,
shifts its position.
• If the orbit is prograde, the nodes slide westward, and if

retrograde, they slide eastward.
• The nodes therefore move in a direction opposite to the
direction of satellite motion, hence the term regression of
the nodes.
• For a polar orbit (i = 90°), the regression is zero.
2. Rotation of apsides in the orbital plane
Line of apsides. The line joining the perigee and

apogee through the center of the earth.
 Both effects (1 and 2) depend on the mean motion n, the semimajor axis a, and the eccentricity e.
These factors can be grouped into one factor K given by
 K will have the same units as n. Thus, with n in rad/day, K will be in rad/day, and with n in degrees/day,
K will be in degrees/day. An approximate expression for the rate of change of Ω with respect to time is
 where i is the inclination. The rate of regression of the nodes will have the same units as n.
 when the rate of change given by the above equation is negative, the regression is westward, and when
the rate is positive, the regression is eastward.

 The line of apsides rotates in the orbital plane, resulting in the argument of perigee changing with time.
The rate of change is given by
 The units for the rate of rotation of the line of apsides will be the same as those for n
 When the inclination i is equal to 63.435°, the term within the parentheses is equal to zero, and hence no
rotation takes place
Denoting the epoch time by t0, the right ascension of the ascending node by Ω0, and the
argument of perigee by w0 at epoch gives the new values for Ω and w at time t as
The orbit is not a physical entity, and it is the forces resulting from an oblate earth, which act on the
satellite to produce the changes in the orbital parameters.
Thus, rather than follow a closed elliptical path in a fixed plane, the satellite drifts as a result of the
regression of the nodes, and the latitude of the point of closest approach (the perigee) changes as a
result of the rotation of the line of apsides.
With this in mind, it is permissible to visualize the satellite as following a closed elliptical orbit but with
the orbit itself moving relative to the earth as a result of the changes in Ω and ω .
So, The period PA is the time required to go around the orbital path from perigee to perigee, even
though the perigee has moved relative to the earth.
If the inclination is 90°
• The regression of the nodes is zero
• The rate of rotation of the line of aspides is

Change in perigee =
=K(2-2.5 sin2 (60))
After one period, perigee would be at an angle K(2-2.5 sin 2 (60))*PA relative to the ascending node
Imagine the situation where the perigee at the start of observations is exactly over the ascending node.
One period later the perigee would be at an angle −KPA/2 relative to the ascending node or, in other
words, would be south of the equator.
The time between crossings at the ascending node would be PA (1+ K/2n), which would be the period
observed from the earth.
HomeWork Example 2.5 and 2.6

Atmospheric drag
For near-earth satellites, below about 1000 km, the effects of atmospheric drag are significant.
Because the drag is greatest at the perigee, the drag acts

to reduce the velocity at this point, with the result that the
satellite does not reach the same apogee height on successive
revolutions.
The result is that the semimajor axis and the eccentricity are both reduced.
Drag does not noticeably change the other orbital parameters, including perigee height.
Atmospheric drag
An approximate expression for the change of major axis is
where the “0” subscripts denote values at the reference time t0, and n0‘ is the first derivative of the
mean motion.
The mean anomaly is also changed, an approximate value for the change being

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SATELLITE COMMUNICATION SYSTEMS

Dr. Mehmood Alam

For a spherical earth of uniform mass, Kepler’s third

However, it is known that the earth is not perfectly

K1 is a constant = 66,063.1704 km2

The oblateness of the earth also produces two rotations

• If the orbit is prograde, the nodes slide westward, and if

2. Rotation of apsides in the orbital plane

Line of apsides. The line joining the perigee and

the rate is positive, the regression is eastward.

• The regression of the nodes is zero

• The rate of rotation of the line of aspides is

=K(2-2.5 sin2 (60))

HomeWork Example 2.5 and 2.6

Because the drag is greatest at the perigee, the drag acts

An approximate expression for the change of major axis is

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