The history of India begins with evidence of human activity of Homo sapiens, as

long as 75,000 years ago, or with earlier hominids includingHomo erectus from
about 500,000 years ago.
[1]

The Indus Valley Civilization, which spread and flourished in the northwestern
part of the Indian subcontinent from c. 3300 to 1300 BCE in present-day Pakistan
and northwest India, was the first major civilization in South Asia.
[2]
A
sophisticated and technologically advanced urban culture developed in
the Mature Harappan period, from 2600 to 1900 BCE.
[3]
This civilization
collapsed at the start of the second millennium BCE and was later followed by
the Iron Age Vedic Civilization, which extended over much of the Indo-Gangetic
plain and which witness the rise of major polities known as the Mahajanapadas.
In one of these kingdoms, Magadha, Mahavira and Gautama Buddha were born
in the 6th or 5th century BCE and propagated their Shramanic philosophies.
Most of the subcontinent was conquered by the Maurya Empire during the 4th
and 3rd centuries BCE. Various parts of India were ruled by numerous Middle
kingdoms for the next 1,500 years, among which the Gupta Empire stands out.
This period, witnessing a Hindu religious and intellectual resurgence, is known as
the classical or "Golden Age of India". During this period, aspects of Indian
civilization, administration, culture, and religion (Hinduism and Buddhism) spread
to much of Asia, while kingdoms in southern India had maritime business links
with the Roman Empire from around 77 CE. During this period Indian cultural
influence spread over many parts of Southeast Asia which led to the
establishment of Indianized kingdoms in Southeast Asia.
[4]

7th-11th centuries saw the Tripartite struggle between the Pala
Empire, Rashtrakuta Empire, and Gurjara Pratihara Empire centered
aroundKannauj. Southern India saw the rule of the Chalukya Empire, Chola
Empire, Pallava Empire, Pandyan Empire, and Western Chalukya Empire. The
early medieval period Indian mathematics influenced the development of
mathematics and astronomy in the Arab world and theHindu numerals were
introduced.
[5]

Muslim rule started in some parts of north India in the 13th century when
the Delhi Sultanate was established in 1206 CE.
[6]
The Delhi Sultanate ruled the
major part of northern India in the early 14th century, but declined in the late 14th
century, which saw the emergence of several powerful Hindu states like
the Vijayanagara Empire, Gajapati Kingdom, Ahom Kingdom and Mewar
dynasty. In the 16th centuryMughal rule came from Central Asia to cover most of
the northern parts of India. The Mughal Empire suffered a gradual decline in the
early 18th century, which provided opportunities for the Maratha Empire, Sikh
Empire and Mysore Kingdom to exercise control over large areas in the
subcontinent.
[7][8]

Beginning in the late 18th century and over the next century, large areas of India
were annexed by the British East India Company. Dissatisfaction with Company
rule led to the Indian Rebellion of 1857, after which the British provinces of India
were directly administered by the British Crown and witnessed a period of both
rapid development of infrastructure and economic stagnation. During the first half
of the 20th century, a nationwide struggle for independence was launched with
the leading party involved being the Indian National Congress which was later
joined by Muslim League as well.
The subcontinent gained independence from the United Kingdom in 1947, after
the British provinces were partitioned into the dominions of India and Pakistan
and the princely states all acceded to one of the new states.
Contents
[hide]
1 Prehistoric era
o 1.1 Stone Age
o 1.2 Bronze Age
2 Vedic period (1750 BCE - 500 BCE)
o 2.1 Vedic society
o 2.2 Sanskritization
o 2.3 Sanskrit Epics
3 "Second urbanisation" (800-200 BCE)
o 3.1 Mahajanapadas (600-300 BCE)
o 3.2 Upanishads and Shramana movements
o 3.3 Magadha Empire
o 3.4 Persian and Greek conquests
o 3.5 Maurya Empire (322185 BCE)
4 Epic and Early Puranic Period - Early Classical Period & Golden Age (ca. 200 BCE
700 CE)
o 4.1 Southern India
o 4.2 Sunga Empire
o 4.3 Northwestern hybrid cultures
o 4.4 Satavahana Dynasty
o 4.5 Kushan Empire
o 4.6 Roman trade with India
o 4.7 Gupta rule - Golden Age
o 4.8 Vakataka Dynasty
o 4.9 Empire of Harsha
o 4.10 Chalukya Empire
5 Medieval and Late Puranic Period - Late-Classical Age (5001500 CE)
o 5.1 Northern India
o 5.2 Southern India
o 5.3 Rashtrakuta Empire (8th-10th century)
o 5.4 Pala Empire (8th-12th century)
o 5.5 Chola Empire (9th-13th century)
o 5.6 Western Chalukya Empire
o 5.7 The Islamic Sultanates
o 5.8 Delhi Sultanate
o 5.9 Vijayanagara Empire (14th-16th century)
6 Mughal Empire
o 6.1 Post-Mughal period
6.1.1 Maratha Empire
6.1.2 Sikh Empire (North-west)
6.1.3 Other kingdoms
7 Colonial era (1500-1947)
o 7.1 Company rule in India
o 7.2 The rebellion of 1857 and its consequences
o 7.3 British Raj (1858-1947)
7.3.1 Reforms
7.3.2 Famines
o 7.4 The Indian independence movement
8 Independence and partition (1947-present)
9 Historiography
10 See also
11 Gallery
12 Notes
13 References
14 Sources
o 14.1 Published sources
o 14.2 Web-sources
15 Further reading
o 15.1 Historiography
16 Online sources
17 External links
Prehistoric era[edit]
Stone Age[edit]
Main article: South Asian Stone Age
Further information: Peopling of India, Mehrgarh, Bhimbetka rock
shelters and Edakkal Cave


Bhimbetka rock painting,Madhya Pradesh, India (c. 30,000 years old)


Stone age (5000 BCE) writings of Edakkal Caves in Kerala, India.
Isolated remains of Homo erectus in Hathnora in the Narmada Valley in central
India indicate that India might have been inhabited since at least the Middle
Pleistocene era, somewhere between 500,000 and 200,000 years ago.
[9][10]
Tools
crafted by proto-humans that have been dated back two million years have been
discovered in the northwestern part of the subcontinent.
[11][12]
The ancient history
of the region includes some of South Asia's oldest settlements
[13]
and some of its
major civilisations.
[14][15]
The earliest archaeological site in the subcontinent is the
palaeolithic hominid site in the Soan River valley.
[16]
Soanian sites are found in
the Sivalik region across what are now India, Pakistan, and Nepal.
[17]

The Mesolithic period in the Indian subcontinent was followed by
the Neolithic period, when more extensive settlement of the subcontinent
occurred after the end of the last Ice Age approximately 12,000 years ago. The
first confirmed semipermanent settlements appeared 9,000 years ago in
the Bhimbetka rock shelters in modern Madhya Pradesh, India. Early Neolithic
culture in South Asia is represented by theBhirrana findings (7500 BCE)
in Haryana, India & Mehrgarh findings (7000 BCE onwards) in Balochistan,
Pakistan.
[18][19]

Traces of a Neolithic culture have been alleged to be submerged in the Gulf of
Khambat in India, radiocarbon dated to 7500 BCE.
[20]
However, the one dredged
piece of wood in question was found in an area of strong ocean currents.
Neolithic agriculture cultures sprang up in the Indus Valley region around 5000
BCE, in the lower Gangetic valley around 3000 BCE, and in later South India,
spreading southwards and also northwards into Malwa around 1800 BCE. The
first urban civilisation of the region began with the Indus Valley Civilisation.
[21]

Bronze Age[edit]
Main article: Indus Valley Civilisation


"Priest King" of Indus Valley Civilisation
The Bronze Age in the Indian subcontinent began around 3300 BCE with the
early Indus Valley Civilisation. It was centred on the Indus Riverand its tributaries
which extended into the Ghaggar-Hakra River valley,
[14]
the Ganges-Yamuna
Doab,
[22]
Gujarat,
[23]
and southeastern Afghanistan.
[24]

The civilisation is primarily located in modern-day India
(Gujarat, Haryana, Punjab and Rajasthan provinces) and Pakistan
(Sindh, Punjab, andBalochistan provinces). Historically part of Ancient India, it is
one of the world's earliest urban civilisations, along
with Mesopotamia and Ancient Egypt.
[25]
Inhabitants of the ancient Indus river
valley, the Harappans, developed new techniques in metallurgy and handicraft
(carneol products, seal carving), and produced copper, bronze, lead, and tin.
The Mature Indus civilisation flourished from about 2600 to 1900 BCE, marking
the beginning of urban civilisation on the subcontinent. The civilisation included
urban centres such as Dholavira, Kalibangan, Ropar, Rakhigarhi, and Lothal in
modern-day India, and Harappa, Ganeriwala, and Mohenjo-daro in modern-day
Pakistan. The civilisation is noted for its cities built of brick, roadside drainage
system, and multistoried houses.
During the late period of this civilisation, signs of a gradual decline began to
emerge, and by around 1700 BCE, most of the cities were abandoned. However,
the Indus Valley Civilisation did not disappear suddenly, and some elements of
the Indus Civilization may have survived, especially in the smaller villages and
isolated farms.
Vedic period (1750 BCE - 500 BCE)[edit]


Scheme of Indo-European migrations from ca. 4000 to 1000 BCE according to theKurgan
hypothesis.
[note 1]



Archaeological cultures associated withIndo-Iranian migrations (after EIEC).
[note 2]



A map of North India in the late Vedic period.
Main articles: Indo-Aryans, Indo-Aryan migration, Vedic period, Vedic
Civilisation and Historical Vedic religion
See also: Proto-Indo-Europeans, Proto-Indo-European religion, Indo-
Iranians and Proto-Indo-Iranian religion
The Vedic period is characterised by Indo-Aryan culture associated with the texts
of Vedas, sacred to Hindus, which were orally composed in Vedic Sanskrit.
The Vedas are some of the oldest extant texts in India.
[26]
The Vedic period,
lasting from about 1750 to 500 BCE,
[27][28]
contributed the foundations
of Hinduism and other cultural aspects of Indian subcontinent. In terms of culture,
many regions of the subcontinent transitioned from the Chalcolithic to the Iron
Age in this period.
[29]

Vedic society[edit]
Historians have analysed the Vedas to posit a Vedic culture in the Punjab
region and the upper Gangetic Plain.
[29]
Most historians also consider this period
to have encompassed several waves of Indo-Aryan migration into the
subcontinent from the north-west.
[30][31]
Vedic people believed in the
transmigration of the soul, and the peepul tree and cow were sanctified by the
time of theAtharva Veda.
[32]
Many of the concepts of Indian philosophy espoused
later like Dharma, Karma etc. trace their root to the Vedas.
[33]



The swastika is a major element of Hindu iconography.
Early Vedic society is described in the Rigveda, the oldest Vedic text, believed to
have been composed c. 15001200 BCE in the northwestern region of the Indian
subcontinent.
[34]
At this time, Aryan society consisted of largely tribal and pastoral
groups, distinct from the Harappan urbanisation which had been
abandoned.
[35]
The early Indo-Aryan presence probably corresponds, in part, to
theOchre Coloured Pottery culture in archaeological contexts.
[36][37]

At the end of the Rigvedic period, the Aryan society began to expand from the
northwestern region of the Indian subcontinent, into the western Ganges plain. It
became increasingly agricultural and was socially organised around the hierarchy
of the four varnas, or social classes. This social structure was characterized both
by syncretising with the native cultures of northern India,
[38]
but also eventually by
the excluding of indigenous peoples by labelling their occupations
impure.
[39]
During this period, many of the previous small tribal units and
chiefdoms began to coalesce into monarchical, state-level polities.
[40]

Sanskritization[edit]
Main article: Sanskritization
Since Vedic times, "people from many strata of society throughout the
subcontinent tended to adapt their religious and social life to Brahmanic norms",
a process sometimes called Sanskritization.
[41]
It is reflected in the tendency to
identify local deities with the gods of the Sanskrit texts.
[41]

The Kuru kingdom was the first state-level society of the Vedic period,
corresponding to the beginning of the Iron Age in northwestern India, around
1000 BCE, as well as with the composition of the Atharvaveda (the first Indian
text to mention iron, as yma ayas, literally "black metal").
[42]
The Kuru state
organized the Vedic hymns into collections, and developed the
orthodox srauta ritual to uphold the social order.
[43]
When the Kuru kingdom
declined, the center of Vedic culture shifted to their eastern neighbours,
thePanchala kingdom.
[44]
The archaeological Painted Grey Ware culture, which
flourished in the Haryana and western Uttar Pradeshregions of northern India
from about 1100 to 600 BCE,
[36]
is believed to correspond to
the Kuru and Panchala kingdoms.
[45][46]

During the Late Vedic Period, the kingdom of Videha emerged as a new center of
Vedic culture, situated even farther to the East (in what is
today Nepal and Bihar state in India).
[47]
The later part of this period corresponds
with a consolidation of increasingly large states and kingdoms,
called mahajanapadas, all across Northern India.
Sanskrit Epics[edit]
Main articles: Mahabharata and Ramayana
In addition to the Vedas, the principal texts of Hinduism, the core themes of the
Sanskrit epics Ramayana and Mahabharata are said to have their ultimate
origins during this period.
[48]
The Mahabharata remains, today, the longest single
poem in the world.
[49]
Historians formerly postulated an "epic age" as the milieu of
these two epic poems, but now recognize that the texts (which are both familiar
with each other) went through multiple stages of development over centuries. For
instance, the Mahabharata may have been based on a small-scale conflict
(possibly about 1000 BCE) which was eventually "transformed into a gigantic
epic war by bards and poets."
[50]
The existing texts of these epics are believed to
belong to the post-Vedic age, between c. 400 BCE and 400 CE.
[50][51]
There is no
conclusive proof from archaeology as to whether the specific events described
therein have any historical basis.
[50]

"Second urbanisation" (800-200 BCE)[edit]
During the time between 800 and 200 BCE the Shramana-movement formed,
from which originated Jainism and Buddhism. In the same period the
first Upanishads were written. After 500 BCE, the so-called "Second
urbanisation" started, with new urban settlements arising at the Ganges plain,
especially the Central Ganges plain.
[52]
The Central Ganges Plain,
where Magadha gained prominence, forming the base of the Mauryan Empire,
was a distinct cultural area,
[53]
with new states arising after 500 BCE
[web 1]
during
the so-called "Second urbanisation".
[54][note 3]
It was influenced by the Vedic
culture,
[55]
but differed markedly from the Kuru-Panchala region.
[53]
It "was the
area of the earliest known cultivation of rice in South Asia and by 1800 BCE was
the location of an advanced neolithic population associated with the sites of
Chirand and Chechar".
[56]
In this region theShramanic movements flourished,
and Jainism and Buddhism originated.
[52]

Mahajanapadas (600-300 BCE)[edit]


The Mahajanapadas were the sixteen most powerful kingdoms and republics of the era, located
mainly across the fertile Indo-Gangetic plains, there were a number of smaller kingdoms
stretching the length and breadth of Ancient India.
Main articles: Mahajanapadas and Haryanka dynasty
In the later Vedic Age, a number of small kingdoms or city states had covered the
subcontinent, many mentioned in Vedic, early Buddhist and Jaina literature as far
back as 500 BCE. sixteen monarchies and "republics" known as
theMahajanapadasKashi, Kosala, Anga, Magadha, Vajji (or
Vriji), Malla, Chedi, Vatsa (or Vamsa), Kuru, Panchala,Matsya (or
Machcha), Shurasena, Assaka, Avanti, Gandhara, and Kambojastretched
across the Indo-Gangetic Plain from modern-day Afghanistan
to Bengal and Maharastra. This period saw the second major rise of urbanism in
India after the Indus Valley Civilisation.
[57]

Many smaller clans mentioned within early literature seem to have been present
across the rest of the subcontinent. Some of these kings were hereditary; other
states elected their rulers. Early "republics" such as the Vajji (or Vriji)
confederation centered in the city of Vaishali, existed as early as the 6th century
BCE and persisted in some areas until the 4th century CE. The educated speech
at that time was Sanskrit, while the languages of the general population of
northern India are referred to as Prakrits. Many of the sixteen kingdoms had
coalesced to four major ones by 500/400 BCE, by the time of Gautama Buddha.
These four were Vatsa, Avanti, Kosala, and Magadha.
[57]

This period corresponds in an archaeological context to the Northern Black
Polished Ware culture.
Upanishads and Shramana movements[edit]


Nalanda is considered one of the first great universities in recorded history. It was the centre
ofBuddhist learning and research in the world from 450 to 1193 CE.
Main articles: History of Hinduism, History of Buddhism and History of Jainism
See also: Gautama Buddha and Mahavira
Further information: Upanishads, Indian Religions, Indian philosophy and Ancient
universities of India
The 7th and 6th centuries BCE witnessed the composition of the
earliest Upanishads.
[58][59]
Upanishads form the theoretical basis of classical
Hinduism and are known as Vedanta (conclusion of the Vedas).
[60]
The older
Upanishads launched attacks of increasing intensity on the ritual. Anyone who
worships a divinity other than the Self is called a domestic animal of the gods in
the Brihadaranyaka Upanishad. The Mundaka launches the most scathing attack
on the ritual by comparing those who value sacrifice with an unsafe boat that is
endlessly overtaken by old age and death.
[61]

Increasing urbanisation of India in 7th and 6th centuries BCE led to the rise of
new ascetic or shramana movements which challenged the orthodoxy of
rituals.
[62]
Mahavira (c. 549477 BCE), proponent of Jainism, and Buddha (c.
563-483), founder of Buddhism were the most prominent icons of this movement.
Shramana gave rise to the concept of the cycle of birth and death, the concept
of samsara, and the concept of liberation.
[63]
Buddha found a Middle Way that
ameliorated the extreme asceticism found in the Sramana religions.
[64]

Around the same time, Mahavira (the 24th Tirthankara in Jainism) propagated a
theology that was to later become Jainism.
[65]
However, Jain orthodoxy believes
the teachings of the Tirthankaras predates all known time and scholars
believe Parshva, accorded status as the 23rd Tirthankara, was a historical figure.
The Vedas are believed to have documented a few Tirthankaras and an ascetic
order similar to the shramana movement.
[66]

Magadha Empire[edit]
Main article: Magadha
Magadha (Sanskrit: ) formed one of the sixteen Mah-Janapadas (Sanskrit:
"Great Countries") or kingdoms in ancient India. The core of the kingdom was the
area of Biharsouth of the Ganges; its first capital was Rajagriha (modern Rajgir)
then Pataliputra (modern Patna). Magadha expanded to include most of Bihar
and Bengal with the conquest ofLicchavi and Anga respectively,
[67]
followed by
much of eastern Uttar Pradesh and Orissa. The ancient kingdom of Magadha is
heavily mentioned in Jain and Buddhist texts. It is also mentioned in
the Ramayana, Mahabharata, Puranas.
[68]
A state of Magadha, possibly a tribal
kingdom, is recorded in Vedic texts much earlier in time than 600BCE.
The earliest reference to the Magadha people occurs in the Atharva-Veda where
they are found listed along with the Angas, Gandharis, and Mujavats. Magadha
played an important role in the development of Jainism and Buddhism, and two
of India's greatest empires; two of India's greatest empires, the Maurya
Empire and Gupta Empire, originated from Magadha. These empires saw
advancements in ancient India's science, mathematics, astronomy, religion, and
philosophy and were considered the Indian "Golden Age". The Magadha
kingdom included republican communities such as the community of
Rajakumara. Villages had their own assemblies under their local chiefs called
Gramakas. Their administrations were divided into executive, judicial, and
military functions.
Persian and Greek conquests[edit]
See also: Achaemenid Empire, Greco-Buddhism, Indo-Greek
Kingdom, Alexander the Great, Nanda Empire and Gangaridai


Asia in 323 BCE, the Nanda Empire and Gangaridai Empirein relation to Alexander's Empire
and neighbors.
In 530 BCE Cyrus the Great, King of the Persian Achaemenid Empire crossed
the Hindu-Kush mountains to seek tribute from the tribes of Kamboja, Gandhara
and the trans-India region (modern Afghanistan and Pakistan).
[69]
By 520 BCE,
during the reign of Darius I of Persia, much of the northwestern subcontinent
(present-day eastern Afghanistan and Pakistan) came under the rule of the
Persian Achaemenid Empire. The area remained under Persian control for two
centuries.
[70]
During this time India supplied mercenaries to the Persian army
then fighting in Greece.
[69]

Under Persian rule the famous city of Takshashila became a centre where both
Vedic and Iranian learning were mingled.
[71]
The impact of Persian ideas was felt
in many areas of Indian life. Persian coinage and rock inscriptions were adopted
by India. However, Persian ascendency in northern India ended with Alexander
the Great's conquest of Persia in 327 BCE.
[72]

By 326 BCE, Alexander the Great had conquered Asia Minor and the
Achaemenid Empire and had reached the northwest frontiers of the Indian
subcontinent. There he defeated King Porus in the Battle of the Hydaspes (near
modern-day Jhelum, Pakistan) and conquered much of
the Punjab.
[73]
Alexander's march east put him in confrontation with the Nanda
Empire of Magadha and the Gangaridai Empire of Bengal. His army, exhausted
and frightened by the prospect of facing larger Indian armies at the Ganges
River, mutinied at the Hyphasis (modern Beas River) and refused to march
further East. Alexander, after the meeting with his officer, Coenus, and learning
about the might of Nanda Empire, was convinced that it was better to return.
The Persian and Greek invasions had important repercussions on Indian
civilisation. The political systems of the Persians were to influence future forms of
governance on the subcontinent, including the administration of the Mauryan
dynasty. In addition, the region of Gandhara, or present-day eastern Afghanistan
and northwest Pakistan, became a melting pot of Indian, Persian, Central Asian,
and Greek cultures and gave rise to a hybrid culture, Greco-Buddhism, which
lasted until the 5th century CE and influenced the artistic development
of Mahayana Buddhism.
Maurya Empire (322185 BCE)[edit]
Main article: Maurya Empire
Further information: Chandragupta Maurya, Bindusara and Ashoka the Great


The Maurya Empire under Ashoka the Great.


Ashokan pillar at Vaishali, 3rd century BCE.
The Maurya Empire (322185 BCE), ruled by the Mauryan dynasty, was a
geographically extensive and powerful political and military empire in ancient
India.It was the first empire to unify India into one state. The empire was
established by Chandragupta Maurya in Magadha, which is now Bihar.
[74]
The
empire flourished under the reign ofAshoka the Great.
[75]

At its greatest extent, it stretched to the north to the natural boundaries of
the Himalayas and to the east into what is now Assam. To the west, it reached
beyond modern Pakistan, annexing Balochistan and much of what is now
Afghanistan, including the modern Herat and Kandahar provinces. The empire
was expanded into India's central and southern regions by the emperors
Chandragupta and Bindusara, but it excluded extensive unexplored tribal and
forested regions near Kalinga which were subsequently taken by
Ashoka.
[76]
the Maurya Empire is regarded largest empire ruled by any Indian
Ruler.
Ashoka ruled the Maurya Empire for 37 years from 268 BCE until he died in 232
BCE.
[76]
During that time, Ashoka pursued an active foreign policy aimed at
setting up a unified state.
[77]
However, Ashoka became involved in a war with the
state of Kalinga which is located on the western shore of the Bay of
Bengal.
[78]
This war forced Ashoka to abandon his attempt at a foreign policy
which would unify the Maurya Empire.
[77]

During the Mauryan Empire slavery developed rapidly and a significant amount
of written records on slavery are found.
[79]
The Mauryan Empire was based on a
modern and efficient economy and society. However, the sale of merchandise
was closely regulated by the government.
[80]
Although there was no banking in
the Mauryan society, usury was customary with loans made at the recognized
interest rate of 15% per annum.
Ashoka's reign propagated Buddhism. In this regard Ashoka established many
Buddhist monuments. Indeed, Ashoka put a strain on the economy and the
government by his strong support of Buddhism. towards the end of his reign he
"bled the state coffers white with his generous gifts to promote the promulgation
of Buddha's teaching.
[77]
As might be expected, this policy caused considerable
opposition within the government. This opposition rallied around Sampadi,
Ashoka's grandson and heir to the throne.
[81]
Religious opposition to Ashoka also
arose among the orthodox Brahmanists and the adherents of Jainism.
[82]

Chandragupta's minister Chanakya wrote the Arthashastra, one of the greatest
treatises on economics, politics, foreign affairs, administration, military arts, war,
and religion produced in Asia. Archaeologically, the period of Mauryan rule in
South Asia falls into the era of Northern Black Polished Ware (NBPW).
The Arthashastra and the Edicts of Ashoka are primary written records of the
Mauryan times. The Lion Capital of Asoka at Sarnath, is the national emblem of
India.
Asokha pillar is in Nepal.
Epic and Early Puranic Period - Early Classical Period &
Golden Age (ca. 200 BCE700 CE)[edit]
Main article: Middle Kingdoms of India

Ancient India during the rise of the Sunga andSatavahana empires.

The Kharavela Empire, now in Odisha.

Kushan Empire andWestern Satraps ofAncient India in the north along
with Pandyans andEarly Cholas in southern India.

Gupta Empire
The time between 200 BCE and ca. 1100 CE is the "Classical Age" of India. It
can be divided in various sub-periods, depending on the chosen periodisation.
The Gupta Empire(4th-6th century) is regarded as the "Golden Age" of Hinduism,
although a host of kingdoms ruled over India in these centuries.
The Satavahana dynasty, also known as the Andhras, ruled in southern and
central India after around 230 BCE. Satakarni, the sixth ruler of the Satvahana
dynasty, defeated theSunga Empire of north India. Afterwards, Kharavela, the
warrior king of Kalinga,
[83]
ruled a vast empire and was responsible for the
propagation of Jainism in the Indian subcontinent.
[83]

The Kharavelan Jain empire included a maritime empire with trading routes
linking it to Sri Lanka, Burma, Thailand, Vietnam,
Cambodia, Borneo, Bali, Sumatra, and Java. Colonists from Kalinga settled in Sri
Lanka, Burma, as well as the Maldives and Maritime Southeast Asia.
The Kuninda Kingdom was a small Himalayan state that survived from around
the 2nd century BCE to the 3rd century CE.
The Kushanas migrated from Central Asia into northwestern India in the middle
of the 1st century CE and founded an empire that stretched from Tajikistan to the
middle Ganges. The Western Satraps (35-405 CE) were Saka rulers of the
western and central part of India. They were the successors of the Indo-
Scythians and contemporaries of the Kushans who ruled the northern part of the
Indian subcontinent and the Satavahana (Andhra) who ruled in central and
southern India.
Different dynasties such as the Pandyans, Cholas, Cheras, Kadambas, Western
Gangas, Pallavas, and Chalukyas, dominated the southern part of the Indian
peninsula at different periods of time. Several southern kingdoms formed
overseas empires that stretched into Southeast Asia. The kingdoms warred with
each other and the Deccan states for domination of the south. The Kalabras, a
Buddhist dynasty, briefly interrupted the usual domination of the Cholas, Cheras,
and Pandyas in the south.
Southern India[edit]
During this period the southern peninsular of India was at first ruled by
the Satavahana dynasty and by the 3 Tamil kingdoms the Chola
dynasty, Pandyan Dynasty and Chera dynasty. The Tamil Sangam
literature flourished during this period. After the collapse of the Satavahana
Dynasty in the 3rd century the Vakataka dynasty, the Pallava dynasty,
theWestern Ganga dynasty and the Kadamba dynasty emerged and dominated
the major part of southern peninsular of India until the 6th century. In the 6th
century the famousChalukya dynasty was established and dominated the major
part of southern India until the 8th century.
Sunga Empire[edit]
Main article: Sunga Empire
The Sunga Empire(Sanskrit:

) or Shunga Empire was an ancient

Indian dynasty from Magadha that controlled vast areas of the Indian
Subcontinent from around 187 to 78 BCE. The dynasty was established
by Pusyamitra Sunga, after the fall of the Maurya Empire. Its capital
was Pataliputra, but later emperors such as Bhagabhadra also held court
at Besnagar, modern Vidisha in Eastern Malwa.
[84]
Pushyamitra Sunga ruled for
36 years and was succeeded by his son Agnimitra. There were ten Sunga rulers.
The empire is noted for its numerous wars with both foreign and indigenous
powers. They fought battles with the Kalingas, Satavahanas, the Indo-Greeks,
and possibly the Panchalasand Mathuras. Art, education, philosophy, and other
forms of learning flowered during this period including small terracotta images,
larger stone sculptures, and architectural monuments such as the Stupa
at Bharhut, and the renowned Great Stupa at Sanchi. The Sunga rulers helped to
establish the tradition of royal sponsorship of learning and art. The script used by
the empire was a variant of Brahmi and was used to write the Sanskrit language.
The Sunga Empire played an imperative role in patronizing Indian culture at a
time when some of the most important developments in Hindu thought were
taking place.
Northwestern hybrid cultures[edit]


The founder of the Indo-Greek Kingdom, Demetrius I "the Invincible"(205171 BCE).
See also: Indo-Greek kingdom, Indo-Scythians, Indo-Parthian Kingdom and Indo-
Sassanids
The northwestern hybrid cultures of the subcontinent included the Indo-Greeks,
the Indo-Scythians, the Indo-Parthians, and the Indo-Sassinids. The first of
these, the Indo-Greek Kingdom, was founded when the Greco-
Bactrian king Demetrius invaded the region in 180 BCE, extending his rule over
various parts of present-day Afghanistan and Pakistan. Lasting for almost two
centuries, the kingdom was ruled by a succession of more than 30 Greek kings,
who were often in conflict with each other.
The Indo-Scythians were a branch of the Indo-European Sakas (Scythians) who
migrated from southern Siberia, first into Bactria, subsequently
intoSogdiana, Kashmir, Arachosia, and Gandhara, and finally into India. Their
kingdom lasted from the middle of the 2nd century BCE to the 1st century BCE.
Yet another kingdom, the Indo-Parthians (also known as the Pahlavas), came to
control most of present-day Afghanistan and northern Pakistan, after fighting
many local rulers such as the Kushan ruler Kujula Kadphises, in the Gandhara
region. The Sassanid empire of Persia, who was contemporaneous with the
Gupta Empire, expanded into the region of present-day Balochistan in Pakistan,
where the mingling of Indian culture and the culture of Iran gave birth to a hybrid
culture under the Indo-Sassanids.
Satavahana Dynasty[edit]
Main article: Satavahana Dynasty
The tavhana Empire (Telugu: , tavhana
Smrjya
?
, Maharashtri: , livhana
[85]
) was a royal Indian dynasty
based from Amaravati inAndhra Pradesh as well as Junnar (Pune) and
Prathisthan (Paithan) in Maharashtra. The territory of the empire covered much
of India from 230 BCE onward. Stavhanas started out as feudatories to
the Mauryan dynasty, but declared independence with its decline. They are
known for their patronage of Hinduism and Buddhism which resulted in Buddhist
monuments from Ellora (a UNESCO World Heritage Site) to Amaravati. The
Stavhanas were one of the first Indian states to issue coins struck with their
rulers embossed. They formed a cultural bridge and played a vital role in trade as
well as the transfer of ideas and culture to and from the Indo-Gangetic Plain to
the southern tip of India. They had to compete with the Sunga Empire and then
the Kanva dynasty of Magadha to establish their rule. Later, they played a crucial
role to protect a huge part of India against foreign invaders like
the Sakas, Yavanas and Pahlavas. In particular their struggles with the Western
Kshatrapas went on for a long time. The great rulers of the Satavahana
DynastyGautamiputra Satakarni and Sri Yajna Stakarni were able to defeat the
foreign invaders like the Western Kshatrapas and to stop their expansion. In the
3rd century CE the empire was split into smaller states.
Kushan Empire[edit]
Main article: Kushan Empire
The Kushan Empire expanded out of what is now Afghanistan into the northwest
of the subcontinent under the leadership of their first emperor, Kujula Kadphises,
about the middle of the 1st century CE. By the time of his grandson, Kanishka,
(whose era is thought to have begun c. 127 CE), they had conquered most of
northern India, at least as far asSaketa and Pataliputra, in the middle Ganges
Valley, and probably as far as the Bay of Bengal.
[86]

They played an important role in the establishment of Buddhism in India and its
spread to Central Asia and China. By the 3rd century, their empire in India was
disintegrating; their last known great emperor being Vasudeva I (c. 190-225 CE).
Roman trade with India[edit]
Main article: Roman trade with India


Coin of the Roman emperorAugustus found at the Pudukottai, South India.
Roman trade with India started around 1 CE, during the reign of Augustus and
following his conquest of Egypt, which had been India's biggest trade partner in
the West.
The trade started by Eudoxus of Cyzicus in 130 BCE kept increasing, and
according to Strabo (II.5.12.
[87]
), by the time of Augustus, up to 120 ships set sail
every year from Myos Hormos on the Red Sea to India. So much gold was used
for this trade, and apparently recycled by the Kushans for their own coinage,
that Pliny the Elder (NH VI.101) complained about the drain of specie to India:
"India, China and the Arabian peninsula take one hundred million sesterces from
our empire per annum at a conservative estimate: that is what our luxuries and
women cost us. For what percentage of these imports is intended for sacrifices to
the gods or the spirits of the dead?"
Pliny, Historia Naturae 12.41.84.
[88]

The maritime (but not the overland) trade routes, harbours, and trade items are
described in detail in the 1st century CE Periplus of the Erythraean Sea.
Gupta rule - Golden Age[edit]
Main article: Gupta Empire
See also: Chandra Gupta I, Samudragupta, Chandra Gupta II, Kumaragupta
I and Skandagupta
Further information: Kalidasa, Aryabhata, Varahamihira, Vishnu
Sharma and Vatsyayana
Further
information: Meghadta, Abhijnakuntala, Kumrasambhava, Panchatantra,
Aryabhatiya, Indian numerals and Kama Sutra


Queen Kumaradevi and KingChandragupta I, depicted on a coin of their son Samudragupta,
335380 CE.
Classical India refers to the period when much of the Indian subcontinent was
reunited under the Gupta Empire (c. 320550 CE).
[89][90]
This period has been
called the Golden Age of India
[91]
and was marked by extensive achievements
in science,
technology, engineering, art,dialectic, literature, logic, mathematics, astronomy, r
eligion, and philosophy that crystallized the elements of what is generally known
asHindu culture.
[92]
The Hindu-Arabic numerals, a positional numeral system,
originated in India and was later transmitted to the West through the Arabs. Early
Hindu numerals had only nine symbols, until 600 to 800 CE, when a symbol for
zero was developed for the numeral system.
[93]
The peace and prosperity created
under leadership of Guptas enabled the pursuit of scientific and artistic
endeavors in India.
[94]

The high points of this cultural creativity are magnificent architecture, sculpture,
and painting.
[95]
The Gupta period produced scholars such
as Kalidasa, Aryabhata, Varahamihira, Vishnu Sharma, and Vatsyayana who
made great advancements in many academic fields.
[96]
Science and political
administration reached new heights during the Gupta era. Strong trade ties also
made the region an important cultural centre and established it as a base that
would influence nearby kingdoms and regions in Burma, Sri Lanka, Maritime
Southeast Asia, andIndochina.
The Gupta period marked a watershed of Indian culture: the Guptas performed
Vedic sacrifices to legitimize their rule, but they also patronized Buddhism, which
continued to provide an alternative to Brahmanical orthodoxy. The military
exploits of the first three rulersChandragupta I (c. 319335), Samudragupta (c.
335376), and Chandragupta II (c. 376415) brought much of India under their
leadership.
[97]
They successfully resisted the northwestern kingdoms until the
arrival of the Hunas, who established themselves in Afghanistan by the first half
of the 5th century, with their capital at Bamiyan.
[98]
However, much of
the Deccan and southern India were largely unaffected by these events in the
north.
[99][100]

Vakataka Dynasty[edit]
Main article: Vakataka Dynasty
The Vkaka Empire(Marathi: ) was a royal Indian dynasty that
originated from the Deccan in the mid-third century CE. Their state is believed to
have extended from the southern edges of Malwa and Gujarat in the north to
the Tungabhadra River in the south as well as from the Arabian Sea in the
western to the edges of Chhattisgarh in the east. They were the most important
successors of the Satavahanas in the Deccan and contemporaneous with
the Guptas in northern India.
Empire of Harsha[edit]
Main article: Empire of Harsha
Harsha Vardhana (Sanskrit: ) (c. 590647), commonly called Harsha, was
an Indian emperor who ruled northern India from 606 to 647 from his
capital Kannauj. He was the son of Prabhakara Vardhana and the younger
brother of Rajya Vardhana, a king of Thanesar, Haryana. At the height of his
power his kingdom spanned the Punjab, Rajasthan,Gujarat, Bengal, Odisha and
the entire Indo-Gangetic plain north of the Narmada River.
After the downfall of the prior Gupta Empire in the middle of the 6th
century, North India reverted to small republics and small monarchical states
ruled by Gupta rulers. Harsha was a convert to Buddhism.
[101]
He united the small
republics from Punjab to central India, and their representatives crowned Harsha
king at an assembly in April 606 giving him the title of Maharaja when he was
merely 16 years old. Harsha belonged to Kanojia.
[102]
He brought all of northern
India under his control.
[103]
The peace and prosperity that prevailed made his
court a center of cosmopolitanism, attracting scholars, artists and religious
visitors from far and wide.
[103]
The Chinese traveler Xuan Zang visited the court of
Harsha and wrote a very favorable account of him, praising his justice and
generosity.
[103]

Chalukya Empire[edit]
Main article: Chalukya dynasty
The Chalukya Empire (Kannada: [taukj]) was an Indian royal dynasty
that ruled large parts of southern and central India between the 6th and the 12th
centuries. During this period, they ruled as three related yet individual dynasties.
The earliest dynasty, known as the "Badami Chalukyas", ruled from Vatapi
(modern Badami) from the middle of the 6th century. The Badami Chalukyas
began to assert their independence at the decline of the Kadamba kingdom
of Banavasi and rapidly rose to prominence during the reign of Pulakesi II. The
rule of the Chalukyas marks an important milestone in the history of South
India and a golden age in the history of Karnataka. The political atmosphere in
South India shifted from smaller kingdoms to large empires with the ascendancy
of Badami Chalukyas. A Southern India based kingdom took control and
consolidated the entire region between the Kaveri and the Narmada rivers. The
rise of this empire saw the birth of efficient administration, overseas trade and
commerce and the development of new style of architecture called "Chalukyan
architecture".
Medieval and Late Puranic Period - Late-Classical Age
(5001500 CE)[edit]
Main articles: Middle Kingdoms of India, Badami
Chalukyas, Rashtrakuta, Eastern Ganga dynasty, Western Chalukyas, Rajput
kingdoms and Vijayanagara Empire


Chola Empire under Rajendra Chola c. 1030 C.E.


The Kanauj Triangle was the focal point of empires - the Rashtrakutas of Deccan, theGurjara
Pratiharas of Malwa, and the Palasof Bengal.
The "Late-Classical Age"
[104]
in India began after the end of the Gupta
Empire
[104]
and the collapse of the Harsha Empire in the 7th century CE,
[104]
and
ended with the fall of the Vijayanagara Empire in the south in the 16th century,
due to pressure from Islamic invaders
[105]
to the north.
This period produced some of India's finest art, considered the epitome of
classical development, and the development of the main spiritual and
philosophical systems which continued to be in Hinduism, Buddhism and
Jainism. King Harsha of Kannauj succeeded in reuniting northern India during his
reign in the 7th century, after the collapse of the Gupta dynasty. His kingdom
collapsed after his death.
North Western Indian Buddhism weakened in the 6th century after the White
Hun invasion, who followed their own religions such asTengri,
and Manichaeism. Muhammad bin Qasim's invasion of Sindh(modern Pakistan)
in 711 CE witnessed further decline of Buddhism. The Chach Nama records
many instances of conversion of stupas to mosques such as at Nerun
[106]

In 7th century CE, Kumrila Bhaa formulated his school of Mimamsa philosophy
and defended the position on Vedic rituals against Buddhist attacks. Scholars
note Bhaa's contribution to the decline of Buddhism.
[107]
His dialectical success
against the Buddhists is confirmed by Buddhist historian Tathagata, who reports
that Kumrila defeated disciples of Buddhapalkita, Bhavya, Dharmadasa,
Dignaga and others.
[108]

Ronald Inden writes that by 8th century CE symbols of Hindu gods "replaced the
Buddha at the imperial centre and pinnacle of the cosmo-political system, the
image or symbol of the Hindu god comes to be housed in a monumental temple
and given increasingly elaborate imperial-style puja worship".
[109]
Although
Buddhism did not disappear from India for several centuries after the eighth,
royal proclivities for the cults of Vishnu and Shiva weakened Buddhism's position
within the sociopolitical context and helped make possible its decline.
[110]

Northern India[edit]
From the 8th to the 10th century, three dynasties contested for control of
northern India: the Gurjara Pratiharas of Malwa, the Palas ofBengal, and
the Rashtrakutas of the Deccan. During this period, Indian rulers in spite for
internal struggle, were able to avert the Islamic conquest of India, for example:
In Battle of Rajasthan, alliance of Gurjar Emperor Nagabhata I of the Pratihara
Dynasty with the south Indian Emperor Vikramaditya II of the Chalukya dynasty
and many small kingdoms defeated armies of Umayyad Caliphate, thus
maintaining kingdom of Hindu rulers till the end of millennium in India
The Sena dynasty would later assume control of the Pala Empire, and the
Gurjara Pratiharas fragmented into various states. These were the first of
the Rajput states, a series of kingdoms which managed to survive in some form
for almost a millennium, until Indian independence from the British. The first
recorded Rajput kingdoms emerged in Rajasthan in the 6th century, and small
Rajput dynasties later ruled much of northern India. OneGurjar
[111][112]
Rajput of
the Chauhan clan, Prithvi Raj Chauhan, was known for bloody conflicts against
the advancing Islamic sultanates. The Shahi dynasty ruled portions of eastern
Afghanistan, northern Pakistan, and Kashmir from the mid-7th century to the
early 11th century.
Southern India[edit]
The Chalukya dynasty ruled parts of southern and central India
from Badami in Karnataka between 550 and 750, and then again
from Kalyani between 970 and 1190. ThePallavas of Kanchipuram were their
contemporaries further to the south. With the decline of the Chalukya empire,
their feudatories, the Hoysalas of Halebidu, Kakatiyas ofWarangal, Seuna
Yadavas of Devagiri, and a southern branch of the Kalachuri, divided the vast
Chalukya empire amongst themselves around the middle of 12th century.
The Chola Empire at its peak covered much of the Indian
subcontinent and Southeast Asia. Rajaraja Chola I conquered all of peninsular
south India and parts of Sri Lanka in the 11th century. Rajendra Chola I's navies
went even further, occupying coasts from Burma to Vietnam,
[113]
the Andaman
and Nicobar Islands, the Lakshadweep (Laccadive) islands,Sumatra, and
the Malay Peninsula in Southeast Asia and the Pegu islands. Later during the
middle period, the Pandyan Empire emerged in Tamil Nadu, as well as the Chera
Kingdom in parts of Kerala and Tamil Nadu. By 1343, last of these dynasties had
ceased to exist, giving rise to the Vijayanagar empire.
The ports of south India were engaged in the Indian Ocean trade, chiefly
involving spices, with the Roman Empire to the west and Southeast Asia to the
east.
[114][115]
Literature in local vernaculars and spectacular architecture flourished
until about the beginning of the 14th century, when southern expeditions of the
sultan of Delhi took their toll on these kingdoms. The Hindu Vijayanagar
Empire came into conflict with the Islamic Bahmani Sultanate, and the clashing of
the two systems caused a mingling of the indigenous and foreign cultures that
left lasting cultural influences on each other.
Rashtrakuta Empire (8th-10th century)[edit]
Main article: Rashtrakuta dynasty
At its peak the Rashtrakuta Empire ruled from the Ganges River and Yamuna
River doab in the north to Cape Comorin in the south, a fruitful time of political
expansion, architectural achievements and famous literary contributions.
[116]
The
early kings of this dynasty were Hindu but the later kings were strongly
influenced by Jainism.
[117]
During their rule, Jain mathematicians and scholars
contributed important works in Kannada and Sanskrit.
[118]
Amoghavarsha was the
most famous king of this dynasty and wrote Kavirajamarga, a landmark literary
work in the Kannada language.
[118]
Architecture reached a milestone in the
Dravidian style, the finest example of which is seen in the Kailasanath Temple at
Ellora. Other important contributions are the sculptures of Elephanta Caves in
modern Maharashtra as well as the Kashivishvanatha temple and the Jain
Narayana temple at Pattadakal in modern Karnataka, all of which are UNESCO
World Heritage Sites. The Arab traveler Suleiman described the Rashtrakuta
Empire as one of the four great Empires of the world.
[119]
The Rashtrakuta period
marked the beginning of the golden age of southern Indian mathematics. The
great south Indian mathematicianMahvra (mathematician) lived in the
Rashtrakuta Empire and his text had a huge impact on the medieval south Indian
mathematicians who lived after him.
[120]

Pala Empire (8th-12th century)[edit]
Main article: Pala Empire

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The Pala Empire (Bengali: Pal Samrajy) was an Indian imperial
power, during the Classical period of India, that existed from 7501174 CE. It
was ruled by a Buddhist dynasty from Bengal in the eastern region of the Indian
subcontinent, all the rulers bearing names ending with the suffix Pala (Modern
Bengali: pl), which means protector. The Palas were often described by
opponents as the Lords of Gauda. The Palas were followers of the Mahayana
and Tantric schools of Buddhism. Gopala was the first ruler from the dynasty.
The empire reached its peak under Dharmapala and Devapala. Dharmapala
extended the empire into the northern parts of the Indian Subcontinent. The Pala
Empire can be considered as the golden era of Bengal. Never had the Bengali
people reached such height of power and glory to that extent. The rulers of the
Pala Empire supported the Universities of Vikramashila and Nalanda which
became the premier seats of learning in Asia. The Nalanda University which is
considered one of the first great universities in recorded history, reached its
height under the patronage of the Pala Empire.
Chola Empire (9th-13th century)[edit]
Main article: Chola dynasty
Medieval Cholas rose to prominence during the middle of the 9th century C.E.
and established the greatest empire South India had seen.
[121]
They successfully
united the South India under their rule and through their naval strength extended
their influence in the Southeast Asian countries such as
Srivijaya.
[122]
Under Rajaraja Chola I and his successorsRajendra Chola
I, Rajadhiraja Chola, Virarajendra Chola and Kulothunga Chola I the dynasty
became a military, economic and cultural power in South Asia and South-East
Asia.
[123][124]
The power of the new empire was proclaimed to the eastern world by
the expedition to the Ganges which Rajendra Chola I undertook and by the
occupation of cities of the maritime empire of Srivijaya in Southeast Asia, as well
as by the repeated embassies to China.
[125]
They dominated the political affairs of
Lanka for over two centuries through repeated invasions and occupation. They
also had continuing trade contacts with the Arabs in the west and with the
Chinese empire in the east.
[126]
Rajaraja Chola I and his equally distinguished
son Rajendra Chola I gave political unity to the whole of Southern India and
established the Chola Empire as a respected sea power.
[127]
Under the Cholas,
the South India reached new heights of excellence in art, religion and literature.
In all of these spheres, the Chola period marked the culmination of movements
that had begun in an earlier age under the Pallavas. Monumental architecture in
the form of majestic temples and sculpture in stone and bronze reached a
finesse never before achieved in India.
[128]

Western Chalukya Empire[edit]
Main article: Western Chalukya Empire
The Western Chalukya Empire (Kannada: pachima
chlukya smrjya) ruled most of the western Deccan, South India, between the
10th and 12th centuries.
[129]
Vast areas between the Narmada River in the north
and Kaveri River in the south came under Chalukya control.
[129]
During this period
the other major ruling families of the Deccan, the Hoysalas, the Seuna Yadavas
of Devagiri, the Kakatiya dynasty and the Southern Kalachuri, were subordinates
of the Western Chalukyas and gained their independence only when the power
of the Chalukya waned during the later half of the 12th century.
[130]
The Western
Chalukyas developed an architectural style known today as a transitional style,
an architectural link between the style of the early Chalukya dynasty and that of
the later Hoysala empire. Most of its monuments are in the districts bordering the
Tungabhadra River in central Karnataka. Well known examples are
the Kasivisvesvara Temple at Lakkundi, the Mallikarjuna Temple at Kuruvatti,
the Kallesvara Temple at Bagali and the Mahadeva Temple at Itagi.
[131]
This was
an important period in the development of fine arts in Southern India, especially
in literature as the Western Chalukya kings encouraged writers in the native
language of Kannada, and Sanskrit like the philosopher and
statesman Basava and the great mathematician Bhskara II.
[132][133]

The Islamic Sultanates[edit]
Main articles: Muslim conquest of India, Islamic Empires in India, Bahmani
Sultanate and Deccan Sultanates
See also: Rajput resistance to Muslim conquests and Growth of Muslim
Population in Medieval India


Gol Gumbaz at Bijapur, has the second largest pre-modern dome in the world after the
ByzantineHagia Sophia.
After conquering Persia, the Arab Umayyad Caliphate incorporated parts of what
is now Afghanistan and Pakistan around 720. The Muslim rulers were keen to
invade India,
[134]
a rich region with a flourishing international trade and the only
known diamond mines in the world.
[135]
In 712, Arab Muslim general Muhammad
bin Qasim conquered most of the Indus region in modern day Pakistan for the
Umayyad empire, incorporating it as the "As-Sindh" province with its capital at Al-
Mansurah, 72 km (45 mi) north of modern Hyderabad in Sindh, Pakistan. After
several wars, the Hindu Rajas defeated the Arabs at the Battle of Rajasthan,
halting their expansion and containing them at Sindh in Pakistan.
[136]
The north
Indian Emperor Nagabhata of the Pratihara Dynasty and the south Indian
Emperor Vikramaditya II of the Chalukya dynasty defeated the Arab invaders in
the early 8th century and protected whole India. Many short-lived Islamic
kingdoms (sultanates) under foreign rulers were established across the north
western subcontinent (Afghanistan and Pakistan) over a period of a few
centuries. Additionally, Muslim trading communities flourished throughout coastal
south India, particularly on the western coast where Muslim traders arrived in
small numbers, mainly from the Arabian peninsula. This marked the introduction
of a third Abrahamic Middle Eastern religion, following Judaism and Christianity,
often in puritanical form. Later, the Bahmani Sultanate and Deccan sultanates,
founded by Turkic rulers, flourished in the south.
The Vijayanagara Empire rose to prominence by the end of the 13th century as a
culmination of attempts by the southern powers to ward off Islamic invasions.
The empire dominated all of Southern India and fought off invasions from the five
established Deccan Sultanates.
[137]
The empire reached its peak during the rule
of Krishnadevaraya when Vijayanagara armies were consistently
victorious.
[138]
The empire annexed areas formerly under the Sultanates in the
northern Deccan and the territories in the eastern Deccan, including Kalinga,
while simultaneously maintaining control over all its subordinates in the
south.
[139]
It lasted until 1646, though its power declined after a major military
defeat in 1565 by the Deccan sultanates. As a result, much of the territory of the
former Vijaynagar Empire were captured by Deccan Sultanates, and the
remainder was divided into many states ruled by Hindu rulers.
Delhi Sultanate[edit]


Qutub Minar is the world's tallest brick minaret, commenced by Qutb-ud-din Aybak of the Slave
dynasty.
Main article: Delhi Sultanate
In the 12th and 13th centuries, Turks and Afghans invaded parts of northern
India and established the Delhi Sultanate in the former Hindu holdings.
[140]
The
subsequent Slave dynasty of Delhi managed to conquer large areas of northern
India, approximately equal in extent to the ancient Gupta Empire, while the Khilji
dynasty conquered most of central India but were ultimately unsuccessful in
conquering and uniting the subcontinent. The Sultanate ushered in a period of
Indian cultural renaissance. The resulting "Indo-Muslim" fusion of cultures left
lasting syncretic monuments in architecture, music, literature, religion, and
clothing. It is surmised that the language of Urdu (literally meaning "horde" or
"camp" in various Turkic dialects) was born during the Delhi Sultanate period as
a result of the intermingling of the local speakers of Sanskritic Prakrits with
immigrants speaking Persian, Turkic, and Arabic under the Muslim rulers. The
Delhi Sultanate is the only Indo-Islamic empire to enthrone one of the few female
rulers in India, Razia Sultana (12361240).


Timur defeats the Sultan of Delhi, Nasir Al-Din Mahmum Tughluq, in the winter of 1397-1398
A Turco-Mongol conqueror in Central Asia, Timur (Tamerlane), attacked the
reigning Sultan Nasir-u Din Mehmud of the Tughlaq Dynasty in the north Indian
city of Delhi.
[141]
The Sultan's army was defeated on 17 December 1398. Timur
entered Delhi and the city was sacked, destroyed, and left in ruins, after Timur's
army had killed and plundered for three days and nights. He ordered the whole
city to be sacked except for the sayyids, scholars, and the other Muslims;
100,000 war prisoners were put to death in one day.
[142]

Vijayanagara Empire (14th-16th century)[edit]
Main articles: Vijayanagara Empire
The Empire was established in 1336 by Harihara I and his brother Bukka Raya I
of Sangama Dynasty.
[143]
The empire rose to prominence as a culmination of
attempts by the southern powers to ward off Islamic invasions by the end of the
13th century.
[144]
The empire is named after its capital city of Vijayanagara,
whose ruins surround present day Hampi, now a World Heritage Site in
Karnataka, India.
[145]
The empire's legacy includes many monuments spread over
South India, the best known of which is the group at Hampi. The previous temple
building traditions in South India came together in the Vijayanagara Architecture
style. The mingling of all faiths and vernaculars inspired architectural innovation
of Hindu temple construction, first in the Deccan and later in the Dravidian idioms
using the local granite. South Indian mathematics flourished under the protection
of the Vijayanagara Empire in Kerala. The south Indian mathematician Madhava
of Sangamagrama founded the famousKerala school of astronomy and
mathematics in the 14th century which produced a lot of great south Indian
mathematicians like Parameshvara,Nilakantha Somayaji and Jyehadeva in
medieval south India.
[146]
Efficient administration and vigorous overseas trade
brought new technologies such as water management systems for
irrigation.
[147]
The empire's patronage enabled fine arts and literature to reach
new heights in Kannada, Telugu, Tamil and Sanskrit, while Carnatic music
evolved into its current form.
[148]
The Vijayanagara Empire created an epoch in
South Indian history that transcended regionalism by promoting Hinduism as a
unifying factor. The empire reached its peak during the rule of Sri
Krishnadevaraya when Vijayanagara armies were consistently victorious. The
empire annexed areas formerly under the Sultanates in the northern Deccan and
the territories in the eastern Deccan, including Kalinga, while simultaneously
maintaining control over all its subordinates in the south.
[149]
Many important
monuments were either completed or commissioned during the time of Krishna
Deva Raya.


Extent of the Mughal Empire in 1700.


Taj Mahal, built by the Mughals
Mughal Empire[edit]
Main article: Mughal Empire
In 1526, Babur, a Timurid descendant of Timur and Genghis Khan from Fergana
Valley (modern day Uzbekistan), swept across the Khyber Pass and established
the Mughal Empire, covering modern day Afghanistan, Pakistan, India and
Bangladesh.
[150]
However, his son Humayun was defeated by the Afghan
warrior Sher Shah Suri in the year 1540, and Humayun was forced to retreat
to Kabul. After Sher Shah's death, his son Islam Shah Suri and the Hindu
king Samrat Hem Chandra Vikramaditya, who had won 22 battles against Afghan
rebels and forces of Akbar, fromPunjab to Bengal and had established a
secular Hindu rule in North India from Delhi till 1556. Akbar's forces defeated and
killed Hemu in the Second Battle of Panipat on 6 November 1556.


The Maharana of Mewarsubmitting to Prince Khurram, later known as Mughal EmperorShah
Jahan, c. 1615.
The Mughal dynasty ruled most of the Indian subcontinent by 1600; it went into a
slow decline after 1707. The Mughals suffered several blows due to invasions
from Marathas and Afghans, causing the Mughal dynasty to be reduced to
puppet rulers by 1757. The remnants of the Mughal dynasty were finally defeated
during the Indian Rebellion of 1857, also called the 1857 War of Independence.
This period marked vast social change in the subcontinent as the Hindu majority
were ruled over by the Mughal emperors, most of whom showed religious
tolerance, liberally patronising Hindu culture. The famous emperor Akbar, who
was the grandson of Babar, tried to establish a good relationship with the Hindus.
However, later emperors such as Aurangazeb tried to establish complete Muslim
dominance, and as a result several historical temples were destroyed during this
period and taxes imposed on non-Muslims. During the decline of the Mughal
Empire, several smaller states rose to fill the power vacuum and themselves
were contributing factors to the decline. In 1737, the Maratha general Bajirao of
the Maratha Empire invaded and plundered Delhi. Under the general Amir Khan
Umrao Al Udat, the Mughal Emperor sent 8,000 troops to drive away the 5,000
Maratha cavalry soldiers. Baji Rao, however, easily routed the novice Mughal
general and the rest of the imperial Mughal army fled. In 1737, in the final defeat
of Mughal Empire, the commander-in-chief of the Mughal Army, Nizam-ul-mulk,
was routed at Bhopal by the Maratha army. This essentially brought an end to
the Mughal Empire. In 1739, Nader Shah, emperor of Iran, defeated the Mughal
army at the huge Battle of Karnal. After this victory, Nader captured and sacked
Delhi, carrying away many treasures, including the Peacock Throne.
[151]

The Mughals were perhaps the richest single dynasty to have ever existed.
During the Mughal era, the dominant political forces consisted of the Mughal
Empire and its tributaries and, later on, the rising successor states - including
the Maratha Empire - which fought an increasingly weak Mughal dynasty. The
Mughals, while often employing brutal tactics to subjugate their empire, had a
policy of integration with Indian culture, which is what made them successful
where the short-lived Sultanates of Delhi had failed. Akbar the Great was
particularly famed for this. Akbar declared "Amari" or non-killing of animals in the
holy days of Jainism. He rolled back the jizya tax for non-Muslims. The Mughal
emperors married local royalty, allied themselves with local maharajas, and
attempted to fuse their Turko-Persian culture with ancient Indian styles, creating
a unique Indo-Saracenic architecture. It was the erosion of this tradition coupled
with increased brutality and centralization that played a large part in the dynasty's
downfall after Aurangzeb, who unlike previous emperors, imposed relatively non-
pluralistic policies on the general population, which often inflamed the majority
Hindu population.
Post-Mughal period[edit]
Main articles: Maratha Empire, Kingdom of Mysore, Hyderabad State, Nawab of
Bengal, Sikh Empire, Rajputs and Durrani Empire
Further information: Shivaji, Tipu Sultan, Nizam, Nawab of Oudh, Ranjit
Singh and Ahmad Shah Abdali


Political map of Indian subcontinent in 1758. The Maratha Empire (orange) was the
last Hinduempire of India.
Maratha Empire[edit]
Main article: Maratha Empire
The post-Mughal era was dominated by the rise of the Maratha suzerainty as
other small regional states (mostly late Mughal tributary states) emerged, and
also by the increasing activities of European powers (see colonial era below).
There is no doubt that the single most important power to emerge in the long
twilight of the Mughal dynasty was the Maratha Empire.
[152]
The Maratha kingdom
was founded and consolidated by Shivaji, a Maratha aristocrat of
the Bhonsle clan who was determined to establish Hindavi Swarajya (self-rule
of Hindu people). By the 18th century, it had transformed itself into the Maratha
Empire under the rule of the Peshwas (prime ministers). Gordon explains how
the Maratha systematically took control over the Malwa plateau in 1720-1760.
They started with annual raids, collecting ransom from villages and towns while
the declining Mughal Empire retained nominal control. However, in 1737, the
Marathas defeated a Mughal army in their capital, Delhi itself, and as a result, the
Mughal emperor ceded Malwa to them. The Marathas continued their military
campaigns against Mughals, Nizam,Nawab of Bengal and Durrani Empire to
further extend their boundaries. They built an efficient system of public
administration known for its attention to detail. It succeeded in raising revenue in
districts that recovered from years of raids, up to levels previously enjoyed by the
Mughals. The cornerstone of the Maratha rule in Malwa rested on the 60 or so
local tax collectors (kamavisdars) who advanced the Maratha ruler '(Peshwa)' a
portion of their district revenues at interest.
[153]
By 1760, the domain of the
Marathas stretched across practically the entire subcontinent.
[154]
The defeat of
Marathas by British in three Anglo-Maratha Wars brought end to the empire by
1820. The last peshwa, Baji Rao II, was defeated by the British in the Third
Anglo-Maratha War.
Sikh Empire (North-west)[edit]


Harmandir Sahib or The Golden Temple is culturally the most significant place of worship for
theSikhs.
Main article: Sikh Empire
See also: History of Sikhism
The Punjabi kingdom, ruled by members of the Sikh religion, was a political entity
that governed the region of modern-day Punjab. The empire, based around
the Punjab region, existed from 1799 to 1849. It was forged, on the foundations
of the Khalsa, under the leadership ofMaharaja Ranjit Singh (17801839) from
an array of autonomous Punjabi Misls. He consolidated many parts of northern
India into a kingdom. He primarily used his highly disciplined Sikh army that he
trained and equipped to be the equal of a European force. Ranjit Singh proved
himself to be a master strategist and selected well qualified generals for his
army. In stages, he added the central Punjab, the provinces of Multan and
Kashmir, the Peshawar Valley, and the Derajat to his kingdom. This came in the
face of the powerful British East India Company.
[155][156]
At its peak, in the 19th
century, the empire extended from the Khyber Pass in the west, to Kashmir in the
north, to Sindh in the south, running along Sutlej river to Himachal in the east.
This was among the last areas of the subcontinent to be conquered by the
British. The first and second Anglo-Sikh war marked the downfall of the Sikh
Empire.
Other kingdoms[edit]
There were several other kingdoms which ruled over parts of India in the later
medieval period prior to the British occupation. However, most of them were
bound to pay regular tribute to the Marathas.
[154]
The rule of Wodeyar
dynasty which established the Kingdom of Mysore in southern India in around
1400 CE by was interrupted by Hyder Ali and his son Tipu Sultan in the later half
of 18th century. Under their rule, Mysore fought a series of wars sometimes
against the combined forces of the British and Marathas, but mostly against the
British, with Mysore receiving some aid or promise of aid from the French.
The Nawabs of Bengal had become the de facto rulers of Bengal following the
decline of Mughal Empire. However, their rule was interrupted by Marathas who
carried six expeditions in Bengal from 1741 to 1748 as a result of which Bengal
became a vassal state of Marathas.
Hyderabad was founded by the Qutb Shahi dynasty of Golconda in 1591.
Following a brief Mughal rule, Asif Jah, a Mughal official, seized control of
Hyderabad and declared himself Nizam-al-Mulk of Hyderabad in 1724. It was
ruled by a hereditary Nizam from 1724 until 1948. Both Mysore and Hyderabad
became princely states in British India.
Around the 18th century, the modern state of Nepal was formed
by Gurkha rulers.
Colonial era (1500-1947)[edit]
Main article: Colonial India

Rabindranath Tagore is Asia's first Nobel laureateand composer of India's national anthem

Swami Vivekananda was a key figure in introducingVedanta and Yoga in Europe and
USA,
[157]
raising interfaith awareness and makingHinduism a world religion.
[158]

In 1498, Vasco da Gama successfully discovered a new sea route from Europe
to India, which paved the way for direct Indo-European commerce.
[159]
The
Portuguese soon set up trading posts in Goa, Daman, Diu and Bombay. The next
to arrive were the Dutch, the Britishwho set up a trading post in the west coast
port of Surat
[160]
in 1619and the French. The internal conflicts among Indian
kingdoms gave opportunities to the European traders to gradually establish
political influence and appropriate lands. Although these continental European
powers controlled various coastal regions of southern and eastern India during
the ensuing century, they eventually lost all their territories in India to the British
islanders, with the exception of the French outposts
of Pondichry and Chandernagore, the Dutch port of Travancore, and the
Portuguese colonies of Goa, Daman and Diu.
Company rule in India[edit]
Main articles: East India Company and Company rule in India


Map of India in 1857 at the end of Company rule.
In 1617 the British East India Company was given permission by Mughal
Emperor Jahangir to trade in India.
[161]
Gradually their increasing influence led
the de jure Mughal emperor Farrukh Siyar to grant them dastaks or permits for
duty-free trade in Bengal in 1717.
[162]
The Nawab of Bengal Siraj Ud Daulah,
the de facto ruler of the Bengal province, opposed British attempts to use these
permits.
The First Carnatic War extended from 1746 until 1748 and was the result of
colonial competition between France and Britain, two of the countries involved in
the War of Austrian Succession. Following the capture of a few French ships by
the British fleet in India, French troops attacked and captured the British city
of Madras located on the east coast of India on 21 September 1746. Among the
prisoners captured at Madras was Robert Clive himself. The war was eventually
ended by the Treaty of Aix-la-Chapelle which ended the War of Austrian
Succession in 1748.
In 1749, the Second Carnatic War broke out as the result of a war between a
son, Nasir Jung, and a grandson, Muzaffer Jung, of the deceased Nizam-ul-
Mulk of Hyderabad to take over Nizam's throne in Hyderabad. The French
supported Muzaffer Jung in this civil war. Consequently, the British supported
Nasir Jung in this conflict.
Meanwhile, however, the conflict in Hyderabad provided Chanda Sahib with an
opportunity to take power as the new Nawab of the territory of Arcot. In this
conflict, the French supported Chanda Sahib in his attempt to become the new
Nawab of Arcot. The British supported the son of the deposed incumbent Nawab,
Anwaruddin Muhammad Khan, against Chanda Sahib. In 1751, Robert Clive led
a British armed force and captured Arcot to reinstate the incumbent Nawab. The
Second Carnatic War finally came to an end in 1754 with the Treaty of
Pondicherry.
In 1756, the Seven Years' War broke out between the great powers of Europe,
and India became a theatre of action, where it was called the Third Carnatic War.
Early in this war, armed forces under the French East India Company captured
the British base of Calcutta in north-eastern India. However, armed forces under
Robert Clive later recaptured Calcutta and then pressed on to capture the French
settlement of Chandannagar in 1757. This led to the Battle of Plassey on 23 June
1757, in which the Bengal Army of the East India Company, led by Robert Clive,
defeated the French-supported Nawab's forces. This was the first real political
foothold with territorial implications that the British acquired in India. Clive was
appointed by the company as its first 'Governor of Bengal' in 1757.
[163]
This was
combined with British victories over the French
at Madras, Wandiwash and Pondichry that, along with wider British successes
during the Seven Years War, reduced French influence in India. Thus as a result
of the three Carnatic Wars, the British East India Company gained exclusive
control over the entire Carnatic region of India.
[164]
The British East India
Company extended its control over the whole of Bengal. After the Battle of
Buxar in 1764, the company acquired the rights of administration in Bengal from
Mughal Emperor Shah Alam II; this marked the beginning of its formal rule, which
within the next century engulfed most of India and extinguished the Moghul rule
and dynasty.
[165]
The East India Company monopolized the trade of Bengal. They
introduced a land taxation system called thePermanent Settlement which
introduced a feudal-like structure in Bengal, often with zamindars set in place. By
the 1850s, the East India Company controlled most of the Indian sub-continent,
which included present-day Pakistan and Bangladesh. Their policy was
sometimes summed up as Divide and Rule, taking advantage of the enmity
festering between various princely states and social and religious groups.
[166]

The Hindu Ahom Kingdom of North-east India first fell to Burmese invasion and
then to British after Treaty of Yandabo in 1826.
The rebellion of 1857 and its consequences[edit]
Main article: Indian rebellion of 1857


Viceroy Lord Canning meets Maharaja Ranbir Singh of Jammu and Kashmir, 9 March 1860
The Indian rebellion of 1857 was a large-scale rebellion by soldiers employed by
the British East India in northern and central India against the Company's rule.
The rebels were disorganized, had differing goals, and were poorly equipped,
led, and trained, and had no outside support or funding. They were brutally
suppressed and the British government took control of the Company and
eliminated many of the grievances that caused it. The government also was
determined to keep full control so that no rebellion of such size would ever
happen again.
[167]

In the aftermath, all power was transferred from the East India Company to
the British Crown, which began to administer most of India as a number of
provinces. The Crown controlled the Company's lands directly and had
considerable indirect influence over the rest of India, which consisted of
the Princely states ruled by local royal families. There were officially 565 princely
states in 1947, but only 21 had actual state governments, and only three were
large (Mysore, Hyderabad and Kashmir). They were absorbed into the
independent nation in 1947-48.
[168]

British Raj (1858-1947)[edit]
Main article: British Raj


The British Indian Empire at its greatest extent (in a map of 1909). Theprincely states under
British suzerainty are in yellow.
Reforms[edit]
Lord Curzon (Viceroy 1899-1905) took control of higher education and then split
the large province of Bengal into a largely Hindu western half and "Eastern
Bengal and Assam," a largely Muslim eastern half. The British goal was efficient
administration but the people of Bengal were outraged at the apparent "divide
and rule" strategy. When the Liberal party in Britain came to power in 1906 he
was removed. The new Viceroy Gilbert Minto and the new Secretary of State for
India John Morley consulted with Congress leader Gopal Krishna Gokhale.
The Morley-Minto reforms of 1909 provided for Indian membership of the
provincial executive councils as well as the Viceroy's executive council. The
Imperial Legislative Council was enlarged from 25 to 60 members and separate
communal representation for Muslims was established in a dramatic step
towards representative and responsible government. Bengal was reunified in
1911.
[169]
Meanwhile the Muslims for the first time began to organise, setting up
the All India Muslim League in 1906. It was not a mass party but was designed to
protect the interests of the aristocratic Muslims, especially in the north west. It
was internally divided by conflicting loyalties to Islam, the British, and India, and
by distrust of Hindus.
[170]

Famines[edit]
During the British Raj, famines in India, often attributed to failed government
policies, were some of the worst ever recorded, including the Great Famine of
187678 in which 6.1 million to 10.3 million people died
[171]
and the Indian famine
of 18991900 in which 1.25 to 10 million people died.
[171]
The Third Plague
Pandemic in the mid-19th century killed 10 million people in India.
[172]
Despite
persistent diseases and famines, the population of the Indian subcontinent, which
stood at about 125 million in 1750, had reached 389 million by 1941.
[173]

The Indian independence movement[edit]
Main articles: Indian independence movement and Pakistan Movement
See also: Mohandas Karamchand Gandhi and Indian independence activists


Mohandas Karamchand Gandhiand Muhammad Ali Jinnah, Bombay, 1944.
The numbers of British in India were small, yet they were able to rule two-thirds
of the subcontinent directly and exercise considerable leverage over the princely
states that accounted for the remaining one-third of the area. There were 674 of
the these states in 1900, with a population of 73 million, or one person in five. In
general, the princely states were strong supporters of the British regime, and the
Raj left them alone. They were finally closed down in 1947-48.
[174]

The first step toward Indian self-rule was the appointment of councillors to advise
the British viceroy, in 1861; the first Indian was appointed in 1909. Provincial
Councils with Indian members were also set up. The councillors' participation
was subsequently widened into legislative councils. The British built a
large British Indian Army, with the senior officers all British, and many of the
troops from small minority groups such as Gurkhas from Nepal and Sikhs. The
civil service was increasingly filled with natives at the lower levels, with the British
holding the more senior positions.
[175]

From 1920 leaders such as Mohandas Karamchand Gandhi began highly
popular mass movements to campaign against the British Raj using largely
peaceful methods. Some others adopted a militant approach that sought to
overthrow British rule by armed struggle;revolutionary activities against the
British rule took place throughout the Indian sub-continent. The Gandhi-led
independence movement opposed the British rule using non-violent methods
like non-cooperation, civil disobedience and economic resistance. These
movements succeeded in bringing independence to the new dominions of India
and Pakistan in 6 August 1947.
Independence and partition (1947-present)[edit]
Main articles: Partition of India, History of the Republic of India, History of
Pakistan and History of Bangladesh
Along with the desire for independence, tensions between Hindus and Muslims
had also been developing over the years. The Muslims had always been a
minority within the subcontinent, and the prospect of an exclusively Hindu
government made them wary of independence; they were as inclined to mistrust
Hindu rule as they were to resist the foreign Raj, although Gandhi called for unity
between the two groups in an astonishing display of leadership. The British,
extremely weakened by the Second World War, promised that they would leave
and participated in the formation of an interim government. The British
Indian territories gained independence in 1947, after being partitioned into
the Union of India and Dominion of Pakistan. Following the controversial division
of pre-partition Punjab and Bengal, rioting broke out between Sikhs, Hindus and
Muslims in these provinces and spread to several other parts of India, leaving
some 500,000 dead.
[176]
Also, this period saw one of the largest mass migrations
ever recorded in modern history, with a total of 12 million Hindus, Sikhs and
Muslims moving between the newly created nations of India and Pakistan (which
gained independence on 15 and 14 August 1947 respectively).
[176]
In 1971,
Bangladesh, formerly East Pakistan and East Bengal, seceded from Pakistan.
Historiography[edit]
In recent decades there have been four main schools of historiography regarding
India: Cambridge, Nationalist, Marxist, and subaltern. The once common
"Orientalist" approach, with its the image of a sensuous, inscrutable, and wholly
spiritual India, has died out in serious scholarship.
[177]

The "Cambridge School," led by Anil Seal,
[178]
Gordon Johnson,
[179]
Richard
Gordon, and David A. Washbrook,
[180]
downplays ideology.
[181]

The Nationalist school has focused on Congress, Gandhi, Nehru and high level
politics. It highlighted the Mutiny of 1857 as a war of liberation, and Gandhi's
'Quit India' begun in 1942, as defining historical events. More recently, Hindu
nationalists have created a version of history for the schools to support their
demands for "Hindutva" ("Hinduness") in Indian society.
[182]

The Marxists have focused on studies of economic development, landownership,
and class conflict in precolonial India and of deindustrialization during the colonial
period. The Marxists portrayed Gandhi's movement as a device for the bourgeois
elite to harness popular, potentially revolutionary forces for its own ends.
[183]

The "subaltern school," was begun in the 1980s by Ranajit Guha and Gyan
Prakash.
[184]
It focuses attention away from the elites and politicians to "history
from below," looking at the peasants using folklore, poetry, riddles, proverbs,
songs, oral history and methods inspired by anthropology. It focuses on the
colonial era before 1947 and typically emphasizes caste and downplays class, to
the annoyance of the Marxist school.
[185]