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LABORATORY MANUAL
GENERAL CHEMISTRY 120


























NINTH EDITION
FALL 2013

Dr. Steven Fawl



Adapted from General Chemistry Experiments, Musker, Allen, and Keefer

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LABORATORY MANUAL

CHEMISTRY 120

NINTH EDITION
FALL 2013


Dr. Steven Fawl


Science, Mathematics, and Engineering Division
Napa Valley College
Napa, California









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TABLE OF CONTENTS

Preface 5

Laboratory Safety Rules 6

Lab Reports 7

Sample Lab Report 8

EXPERIMENT 1
BASIC LABORATORY TECHNIQUES AND TREATMENT OF DATA 13

BASIC LABORATORY TECHNIQUES (WORKSHEET) 20

EXPERIMENT 2
THE SCIENTIFIC METHOD 24

THE SCIENTIFIC METHOD (WORKSHEET) 26

EXPERIMENT 3
THE SYNTHESIS OF COPPER SULFIDE 32

THE SYNTHESIS OF COPPER SULFIDE (WORKSHEET) 34

EXPERIMENT 4
TITRATION OF AN UNKNOWN ACID 39

TITRATION OF AN UNKNOWN ACID (WORKSHEET) 42

EXPERIMENT 5
THE ASSAY OF ASPIRIN 45

THE ASSAY OF ASPIRIN (WORKSHEET) 49

EXPERIMENT 6
DETERMINATION OF THE IDEAL GAS LAW CONSTANT R 55

DETERMINATION OF THE IDEAL GAS LAW CONSTANT - R (WORKSHEET) 57


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EXPERIMENT 7
THE IDEAL GAS LAW AND DENSITIES 61

THE IDEAL GAS LAW AND DENSITIES (WORKSHEET) 63

EXPERIMENT 8
DETERMINATION OF THE PERCENTAGE OF OXYGEN IN THE AIR 67

DETERMINATION OF THE PERCENT OF OXYGEN IN AIR (WORKSHEET) 69

EXPERIMENT 9
THE STANDARDIZATION OF THIOSULFATE SOLUTIONS AND
ANALYSIS FOR COBALT IN AN UNKNOWN COBALT COMPOUND 72

THE STANDARDIZATION OF THIOSULFATE SOLUTIONS AND
ANALYSIS FOR COBALT IN AN UNKNOWN COBALT COMPOUND 75

EXPERIMENT 10
THE SPECTROPHOTOMETRIC DETERMINATION OF COBALT IN
COBALT IN AN UNKNOWN COBALT COMPOUND 77

THE SPECTROPHOTOMETRIC DETERMINATION OF COBALT IN
COBALT IN AN UNKNOWN COBALT COMPOUND WORKSHEET 80

EXPERIMENT 11
ELECTRONIC ABSORPTION SPECTROSCOPY;
APPLICATION TO STUDIES OF LIGAND FIELD THEORY 82

ELECTRONIC ABSORPTION SPECTROSCOPY;
APPLICATION TO STUDIES OF LIGAND FIELD THEORY 85

EXPERIMENT 12
COVALENT BONDING AND MOLECULAR MODELS 87

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PREFACE

Chemistry is an experimental science. Thus, it is important that students of chemistry do
experiments in the laboratory to more fully understand applications of the theories they study
in lecture and how to critically evaluate experimental data. The laboratory can also aid the
student in the study of the science by clearly illustrating the principles and concepts involved.
Finally, laboratory experimentation allows students the opportunity to develop techniques and
other manipulative skills that students of science must master.

The faculty of the Napa Valley College clearly understands the importance of laboratory work
in the study of chemistry. The Department is committed to this component of your education
and hopes that you will take full advantage of this opportunity to explore the science of
chemistry.

A unique aspect of this laboratory program is that a concerted effort has been made to use
environmentally less toxic or non-toxic materials in these experiments. This was not only done
to protect students but also to lessen the impact of this program upon the environment. This
commitment to the environment has presented an enormous challenge, as many traditional
experiments could not be used due to the negative impact of the chemicals involved. Some
experiments are completely environmentally safe and in these the products can be disposed of
by placing solids in the wastebasket and solutions down the drain. Others contain a very
limited amount of hazardous waste and in these cases the waste must be collected in the proper
container for treatment and disposal. The Department is committed to the further development
of environmentally safe experiments which still clearly illustrate the important principles and
techniques.

The sequence of experiments in this Laboratory Manual is designed to follow the lecture
curriculum. However, instructors will sometimes vary the order of material covered in lecture
and thus certain experiments may come before the concepts illustrated are covered in lecture or
after the material has been covered. Some instructors strongly feel that the lecture should lead
the laboratory while other instructors just as strongly believe that the laboratory experiments
should lead the lecture, and still a third group feel that they should be done concurrently. While
there is no "best" way, it is important that you carefully prepare for each experiment by reading
the related text material before coming to the laboratory. In this way you can maximize the
laboratory experience.

In conclusion, we view this manual as one of continual modification and improvement. Over
the past few years many improvements have come from student comments and criticisms. We
encourage you to discuss ideas for improvements or suggestions for new experiments with
your instructor. Finally, we hope you find this laboratory manual helpful in your study of
chemistry.
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LABORATORY SAFETY RULES

Your participation in this laboratory requires that you follow safe laboratory practices. You are required to adhere
to the safety guidelines listed below, as well as any other safety procedures given by your instructor(s) in charge
of the course. You will be asked to sign this form certifying that you were informed of the safety guidelines and
emergency procedures for this laboratory. Violations of these rules are grounds for expulsion from the laboratory.

Note: You have the right to ask questions regarding your safety in this laboratory, either directly or anonymously,
without fear of reprisal.

- Goggles must be worn at all times while in lab. You must purchase a pair of goggle for yourself and
you may store them in your locker. You will be advised of the appropriate goggles to be purchased.

- Locate the emergency evacuation plan posted by the door. Know your exit routes!

- Locate emergency shower, eyewash station, fire extinguisher, fire alarm, and fire blanket.

- Dispose of all broken glassware in the proper receptacle. Never put broken glass in the trashcan.

- Notify you instructor immediately if you are injured in the laboratory; no matter how slight.

- Never pipette fluids by mouth. Check odors cautiously (i.e. wafting). Never taste a chemical.

- Shoes must be worn in the laboratory. These shoes must fully enclose your foot.

- Long hair must be tied up in a bun during lab work. Loose long sleeves should be avoided in the lab.

- Children and pets are not allowed in the laboratory.

- Eating or drinking in the lab is prohibited. Do not drink from the laboratory taps.

- Wash your hands before and after working in the lab.

- Turn off the Bunsen burner when you are not using it.

- If any reagents are spilled, notify your instructor at once.

- Follow the instructors directions for disposal of chemicals.

- Only perform the assigned experiment. No unauthorized experiments are allowed.

- Every chemical in a laboratory must be properly labeled. If a label is unclear, notify your instructor.

- Use the proper instrument (eye-dropper, scoopula, etc.) to remove reagents from bottles. Never return
unused chemicals to the original container. Do not cross contaminate reagents by using the same
instrument for 2 different reagents. (e.g. dont use the mustard knife in the mayonnaise jar)

- Material Safety Data Sheets (MSDS) are available for your reference. These contain all known health
hazards of the chemicals used in this course. In addition, there is information concerning protocols for
accidental exposure to the chemical. You are advised to inspect this binder.
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LAB REPORTS

Every lab has a lab report worksheet for you to fill in and give to your instructor. A more
detailed explanation of what is expected in a lab report will be given to you by your instructor
but some general considerations are given below.

- Only turn the lab worksheets into your instructor, not the entire lab.

- Make sure that your name and date is on every page of the lab.

- Write in pen and never erase or white-out a result. A simple line through bad data is
sufficient.

- Do not write in pencil and then copy the information into your lab in pen.

- Always write every digit given to you by a balance. DO NOT ROUND.

- Pay attention to significant figures. It is usually safe to report an answer to 4 sig.figs.

- When drawing graphs, always use Guggenheim notation.

- Never connect the dots or label points when drawing the line on a graph. A best fit line
should be drawn to indicate the trend in the data.

- Labs should be formatted with your name, date, title, objective, procedure, data,
calculations, results, conclusions, sources of error and any questions found at the end of
a lab must be answered.

- A more detailed view of what a lab report should look like follows on the next page.


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NAME (on each page) DATE (on each page)
TITLE

OBJECTIVES- One or two sentences about the purpose of the experiment. Cute remarks will
not be tolerated.

PROCEDURE- This is to be a CONCISE OUTLINE of the experimental procedure. It is not
necessary to restate your handout. You do not need to write out concentrations and amounts
used of reagents or types of glassware and other equipment used. The exception to this rule is
whenever you do something not written in the lab instructions then (and only then) you must
give a complete description of everything you did.

DATA- Must be written in non-erasable ink. It is especially important that your data be written
neatly and directly into the table. DO NOT write on scratch or any other paper with the
intention of transferring the information your data table later. Any mistakes you make should
be corrected by drawing a single line through the incorrect information and the correct
information written above. Put your data in tabular form (in tables). There is only one
exception to this rule and that is when a single piece of data is taken and it applies to all the rest
of the data. It is very important that your data be written neatly and logically and in a table, an
example follows from you first experiment

Beaker Measurements:
Beaker size/mL Circumference/cm
(y axis)
Diameter/cm
(x axis)







Your data section should also include any Constants that you plan on using in your calculations
examples include R (the gas law constant) and atomic mass.

CALCULATIONS- This includes one set of every calculation done to go from your raw data
to your final result. The last number you get is usually your result. Every single calculation
must be shown even if all you do is a simple addition. Also be very careful with your units.
They should be written every time they apply. It is not necessary to show every repeated
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calculation. Calculations must be neat and easy to follow; units must be used every time they
apply. You may add paper to your report, if you need additional room for your calculations.
(Hint: do your calculations on scratch paper first, and then copy to report.) It is very important
that you do not use a number in your calculations that is not explained in your data section or
in an earlier calculation.

GRAPHS- Graphs are frequently needed for a proper interpretation of your data and are often
an integral part of your calculations. There is a standard method for making graphs that will be
outlined here. Always use a separate 8 1/2 x 11 sheet of graph paper for each graph. Always
draw your graph such that the x-axis is along the 11 inch side of the paper (turn the paper side-
ways). Draw in the axes using a pen and mark the axes so that your graph will fill the page. It
is not necessary to start at zero on every axis. Label the axes accordingly giving the units that
were used. When labeling the axes use the following format (Guggenheim Notation),

Time/sec or Temperature/K or Distance/cm

This notation will be explained further in class. Always give a title to your graph., This title
should tell you what the axes are and which system was used. For example for your first lab
you could label your graph,

Circumference vs. Radius for Several Beakers

Always include your name and date on your graph. Perhaps the two most common problems
when dealing with graphs are in the drawing of the best line and measurement of the slope
which represents your data. NEVER CONNECT DOTS. Always draw a smooth line through
the data putting as many dots above as below the line. NEVER FIND A SLOPE USING
YOUR DATA POINTS. Always use points on your line, as far apart as they can be, to measure
your line. Do not indicate the slope and intercept right on your graph. These belong in your
calculations section. You may indicate the points along the line that you used to determine the
slope on the graph, but make sure they are also in the Calculations section. Look at the graph
on the next page as an example of what your graph should look like.

RESULTS- A result differs from a conclusion in that a result usually reports numbers, but it
may also require reporting the presence or absence of chemical compounds based on the
outcome of some qualitative reactions. Do not assume that your data table suffices as a report
for your results. Every lab should have a separate result section indicating any unknown
number (if required), and the final answers obtained from your data tables, calculations, or
graphs. Most labs indicate what you need to have in your results. A result should look like,

- The formula of unknown #5 was ZnS.
- The tablets contained 85.5 0.3% aspirin
- The percentage of oxygen in the air was 20.7%

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.
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Sample Graph

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CONCLUSIONS This is an extension of what you have learned. It is a general statement
related to your experiment but giving a large view of what happened.

"Models are used in science to propose workable, testable methods from which information
can be obtained. These models are considered valid until more information reveals errors
whereupon the original model is either modified or completely abandoned for a new model
which describes the system more fully."

Or,

"When two elements combine the product has properties which are different from either of the
reactants. This indicates that a new compound has been formed."

DO NOT repeat your results or data here. There is always a conclusion that can be formed
from your data. A conclusion describes what were you supposed to learn from your
experiment? The answer should not be, I learned that my unknown was CaCl
2
(which is a
result), rather, you might have learned that compounds can be identified by determining how
each of the ions reacts with other known compounds.

SOURCES OF ERROR- In all experiments there are probable sources of error. In this portion
of the lab write up you may discuss the possible reasons why the result differs from the
expected result. Note- "Human Error" or "I did not weigh out enough sulfur" are not
acceptable. It is assumed that you did the experiment properly. If you can identify error that
you could not control it belongs in this section.

QUESTIONS- Most experiments will include some questions which must be answered. Not
all of the questions will be graded, but all of them must be done. All work must be shown and
yes/no or multiple choice answers must be explained.

OTHER CONSIDERATIONS- Neatness does not count, but neither will excessive eye-strain
be tolerated. In most cases suggestions will be made on how to improve the quality of the lab
report as the quarter progresses. Do not write on the back of your report, anything written there
will not be graded. When you are finished collecting your data, the I.A. or Instructor will sign
it. Data must not be altered.

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LABORATORY MANUAL
GENERAL CHEMISTRY 120

NINTH EDITION
FALL 2013


15

EXPERIMENT
BASIC LABORATORY TECHNIQUES AND TREATMENT OF DATA


Introduction

In the following experiment you will be required to use a Bunsen burner, balance, a pipet,
graduated cylinder, flask, pipet bulb and a burette in order to measure the density of water.
You will also prepare a graph from a set of experimental data and interpret that graph using
basic mathematical techniques. Your results will depend on your ability to use these
instruments and to properly manipulate the data you receive. What follows is a short
explanation of the use of significant figures, and the proper use of the instruments that you will
need in this lab. Please read the instructions carefully and follow the experimental procedure
found at the end.

Reporting the Accuracy of a Measurement

Scientific measurements must be as precise as possible, which often means estimating between
the smallest scale divisions on the instrument being used. Suppose we are measuring a piece of
wire, using a metric ruler calibrated in tenths of centimeters (millimeters). One end of the wire
is placed at exactly zero cm and the other end falls somewhere between 6.3 cm and 6.4 cm.
Since the distance between 6.3 and 6.4 cm is very small, it is difficult to determine the next
digit exactly. We might estimate the length of the wire as 6.34 cm, though a more precise
instrument might show it was 6.36 cm. If the wire had come to exactly 6 cm, reporting the
length as 6 cm would be an error, for it would indicate only that the length is closer to 6 cm
than to 5 or 7 cm. What we really mean is that, as closely as we can read it, it is exactly 6 cm.
But "exactly" implies perfection; that is 6.000...cm. So we must write the number in such a
way that it tells how closely we can read it. On this scale we can estimate to 0.01 cm, so our
length should be reported as 6.00 cm.

Precise versus Approximate Values

In conducting an experiment it is often unnecessary to measure an exact quantity of material.
For instance, directions might state, "Weigh about 2 g of sodium sulfite," This instruction
indicates that the measured quantity of salt should be approximately 2 g; for example,
somewhere between 1.8 and 2.2 g. To weigh exactly 2.00 g only wastes time, since the
directions call for weighing "about 2 g."

Suppose the directions read, "Weigh about 2 g of sodium sulfite to the nearest 0.001 g." This
instruction does not imply that the amount is 2.000 g but only about 2 g and that it should be
weighed accurately to 0.001 g. Therefore four different students might weigh their samples
and obtain 2.141 g, 2.034 g, 1.812 g, and 1.937 g respectively, and each would have
satisfactorily followed the directions.
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Significant Figures

The result of multiplication, division, or other mathematical manipulation cannot be more
precise than the least precise measurement used in the calculation. For instance, suppose we
have as object that weighs 3.62 lb and we want to calculate the mass in grams. If there are
453.6 grams/lb then multiplication by 3.62 lb yields 1,642.032 grams. To report 1,642.032 g
as the mass is absurd, for it implies a precision far beyond that of the original measurement.
Although the conversion factor has four significant figures, the weight in pounds has only three
significant figures. Therefore the answer should have only three significant figures; that is,
1,640 g. In this case the zero cannot be considered significant, it is a place holder. Using
scientific notation this value can be expressed as 1.64x10
3
g.

EXPERIMENTAL TECHNIQUES: The Bunsen Burner

Almost all laboratory burners used today are
modifications of a design by the German chemist
Robert Bunsen. In Bunsen's fundamental design gas
and air are premixed by admitting the gas at
relatively high velocity from a jet in the base of the
burner. This rapidly moving stream of gas causes air
to be drawn into the barrel from side air ports and to
mix with the gas before entering the combustion zone
at the top of the burner.

The burner is connected to a gas valve by a short
length of rubber tubing.

With some burners the gas cock is turned to the fully
on position when the burner is in use, and the amount
of gas admitted to the burner is controlled by
adjusting a needle valve in the base of the burner. In
burners that do not have this needle valve, the gas
flow is regulated by partly opening or closing the gas
cock. With either type of burner the gas should
always be turned off at the gas valve when the burner
is not in use.

Figure 1: A Bunsen burner showing a
properly adjusted flame.
Outer Cone
Inner Cone
Base of Flame
Air Ports
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OPERATION OF THE BUNSEN BURNER

Examine the construction of your burner and familiarize yourself with its operation. A burner
is usually lit with the air ports nearly closed. The ports are closed by rotating the barrel of the
burner in a clockwise direction. After the gas has been turned on and lit, the size and the
quality of the flame is adjusted by admitting air and regulating the flow of gas. Air is admitted
by rotating the barrel; gas is regulated with the needle valve, if present, or the gas valve.
Insufficient air will cause a luminous yellow, smoky flame; too much air will cause the flame
to blow out. A Bunsen burner flame that is satisfactory for most purposes is shown in Figure
1; such a flame is said to be "nonluminous."

EXPERIMENT: After properly adjusting the flame of a Bunsen burner determine the
temperature of the various regions of the flame. This can be done in a qualitative way by
placing metals of differing melting points into the flame and noting whether the metal melts.
The metals to be used are iron, copper, and aluminum. Using these metals determine the
temperature of each region of the flame. The melting points of these metals can be found in
the inorganic section of the CRC handbook. Draw the flame of a bunsen burner and indicate
the approximate temperature of each portion of the flame.

MASS MEASUREMENTS

General Instructions: The following precautions should be observed when using the balances.

1. Never place chemicals directly on the weighing pan; first place them on a weighing boat
or in a container.

2. CLEAN up any materials you spill on or around the balance.

3. Never try to make adjustments on a balance. If it seems out of order, tell your instructor
or the instructional assistant.

Balances can vary widely in instructions for use and applications. For specific instructions of
the use of the balances in the lab consult your instructor or instructional assistant.

VOLUME MEASUREMENTS

Beakers and flasks are marked to indicate only approximate volumes. You will usually make
measurements of volume in a graduated cylinder. When observing a volume in a graduated
cylinder, read the point on the graduated scale that coincides with the bottom of the curved
surface - called the meniscus - of the liquid (see Figure 2). Volumes measured in your
graduated cylinder should be estimated and recorded to the nearest 0.1 mL.


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More accurate measurements
may be made with burets and
pipets. Each of these pieces of
glassware are meant to contain
very accurate volumes. You
may notice that at the top of
some containers the initials TC
or TD may be found. These
initials mean "to contain" and "to
deliver" respectively. The
difference in these two terms is
in the ability of the glassware to
accurately deliver a given
volume. Containers marked TC
may contain an accurately
measured volume but that
volume cannot be poured out of
that container. The reason for
this is that a significant amount
of liquid may adhere to the sides
of the container thus reducing
the volume delivered.


Containers marked TD account for the volume which adheres to the container and therefore
deliver an accurate amount of liquid. Burets and pipets are both TD and should be used when
very accurate volumes are required.

THE USE OF PIPETS AND BURETS

Burets and pipets require special mention in order for them to be used properly. There are two
types of pipets, volumetric and graduated. On volumetric pipets there is a mark to which the
pipet must be filled in order for it to deliver the correct volume. Graduated pipets (Mohr) will
deliver almost any volume accurately since it is marked with various volumes. Your mouth
should never be used to fill a pipet, pipet pumps are available for your use in the lab. Anyone
found mouth pipetting will receive an automatic zero on the lab.

Pipet pumps are placed onto the end of the pipet, and the wheel rotated to fill the pipet. Once
the pipet is filled, press the release lever on the side of the pump until the proper amount of
liquid has been dispensed. Do not control the pump's delivery of liquid with the plunger on top
of the pump.


Figure 2: A buret showing the meniscus.
Meniscus
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Buret
Volumetric
Pipet
Mohr
Pipet
Graduated
Cylinder
Erlenmeyer
Flask
Burets and pipets should ALWAYS be rinsed with a small amount of the liquid to be pipetted
or buretted before the instrument is used. Burette tips are notorious sources of error. These
tips hold relatively large amounts of air whose volume cannot be accounted for. It is therefore
necessary to rid the tip of air by allowing a portion of liquid to flow from the buret forcing the
air out of the tip of the burette. The burette should be refilled and is now ready for use.

Pipets and burets are both read by measuring the volume at the bottom of the meniscus. This is
the bottom of the curved surface formed by the liquid near the top of the pipet or buret.

EXPERIMENT: Weigh a 125 mL Erlenmeyer flask to the nearest 0.001 g. Fill the flask to
the 50 mL mark and reweigh the flask. Record the mass of the empty flask and the mass of the
flask filled with 50 mL of water in the data section of the lab report which is included at the
end of this experiment.

Empty the flask and reweigh it (dry the outside of the flask but do not attempt to dry the
inside). Record this new mass. Now fill a 25 mL graduated cylinder with 25 mL of water and
























pour this water into the flask. Reweigh the flask with the water and record their mass. Be sure
to include all further weighings in the lab report.

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Empty the flask and reweigh it. Now take the 10 mL graduated pipet from your locker and fill
the pipet with water to the 10.0 mL point using a pipet pump. Empty the pipet into the flask
and reweigh the flask.

Empty the flask and reweigh it. Take a 10 or 25 mL volumetric pipet and fill it with water
using a pipet pump. Empty the water from the pipet into the weighed flask and reweigh the
flask. Empty the flask and reweigh it. Obtain a 50 mL buret and fill it with water (make sure
there are no bubbles in the tip.) Adjust the volume until the buret reads 0.00 mL. Empty
exactly 25.00 mL of water from the buret into the flask and record the new mass for the flask.

Complete the data table found at the end of this lab. Finish filling in the table by dividing the
mass of the water by its volume. The result of this calculation gives the density of the water in
grams/mL. The actual density of water is 0.99707 g/mL at 25C. Do not be concerned if your
density does not match the actual density exactly. You will notice that the TD glassware is
much more accurate than the TC glassware; it delivers more accurate volumes which produce
more accurate densities.

GRAPHS AND GRAPHING

Learning how to make proper graphs is an acquired skill that takes a lot of practice. In this
section you will obtain data and plot this data on graph paper in an acceptable format. You
will also interpret this data by calculating the slope and intercept of your plot. You may not use
a computer-generated plot or equation for this experiment.

EXPERIMENT: Using a piece of string, measure the circumference of five or six different
sizes of beakers. Draw the string snugly around the beaker and mark the overlapped ends of
the string with a fine-tipped pen. Measure the distance between the marks on the string to the
nearest millimeter using a ruler. Record this value in the data section. Now measure the
diameter of the beaker using the ruler or calipers. Fill in the data table. Make a plot of
circumference versus diameter (y vs. x) using the graph paper provided. Draw the axes in such
a way that the data will cover the ENTIRE sheet of paper. Label the axes circumference/cm,
and diameter/cm. This method of axis labeling can be understood in the following example.
Suppose that one of your data points had an x value of 10 cm. When you plot this point on
your graph it would be 10 units along the x axis. The label indicates that,

circumference/cm = 10

or by multiplying through by the cm unit,

circumference = 10 cm

which is what you meant when you plotted your data point.


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Now provide your graph with a title which indicates the axes units and the source of the data.
The source of the data in this case came from the measurement of beakers. A proper title for
this graph would be Circumference vs. Diameter of Various Beakers. The data must be plotted
and labeled in ink. Your name and the date must be located in the upper right-hand corner of
the graph.

TREATMENT OF GRAPHICAL DATA

After the data are plotted, the slope and the intercept of the plot must be found. The slope is
calculated by finding the change in the y coordinate as a function of the change in the x
coordinate. Mathematically this is represented by,

slope = change in y/change in x

= change in circumference/change in diameter

This is sometimes expressed as,

slope = rise/run

Experimental data points should NEVER be used to calculate the slope of a graph!!!!
The data obtained in your experiment are only a representation of the true values of the
circumference and diameter of a beaker. A line can be drawn which will come close to passing
through all of your data points. This line has the benefit of being determined by many points
and is a better representation of your data than any two arbitrarily chosen data points.
Therefore pick two new points, one at each end of the line and calculate the slope of your plot.
Use the equation y = mx + b. Where m is the slope and b is the y-intercept. The intercept is
the point where your line crosses the y-axis. Report both values in your results.

Please see the last page of this lab for an example of a properly drawn graph for this lab.
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Name Date_____________________

BASIC LABORATORY TECHNIQUES AND TREATMENT OF DATA

OBJECTIVE: The purpose of this experiment was to learn the proper use of basic laboratory
equipment, to generate some simple data in the laboratory, and to learn how to analyze this
data for specific results.

PROCEDURE: Determine approximate temperatures of a Bunsen burner flame by using
different metals. Use different types of volumetric glassware to determine the density of water.
Graph circumference vs. diameter of several sizes of beakers.

DATA: Bunsen Burner Flame:
Melting Point
Temperature C
From CRC
Observations
Outer Cone Inner Cone Base of Flame
Fe


Cu


Al


Temperature
Range







Volumetric Glassware:
Density of water at 25C (don't forget units- look this up in the CRC Handbook)
Glassware
Sig.
Figs.
Volume
of Water
(mLs)
Mass of
Empty Flask
(grams)
Mass of
Flask and
Water (g)
Mass of
Water (g)
Density
of Water
(g/mL)
Flask 1
Grad. Cylinder 3
Mohr Pipet 4
Vol. Pipet 4
Buret 4
23


Beaker Measurements:
Beaker size/mL
Circumference/cm
(y axis)
Diameter/cm
(x axis)







New points from graph (x,y) (do not use any data points)

Point 1 ( , )

Point 2 ( , )

CALCULATIONS:

1) Sample Calculation for density of water (flask)

Mass of flask and water - Mass of empty flask = Mass of water


g - g = g

Mass of water volume of water = density of water


g mL = g/mL

2) Calculation of slope:

slope = m = (y
2
- y
1
) (x
2
- x
1
)

m = ( - ) ( - ) =
24

RESULTS: Flame Temperatures

Greater than _____________ and less than _____________

Greater than _____________ and less than _____________

Less than _____________





Volumetric glassware with most accurate density = _________________________
(4 sig. figs and closest to CRC value)

Slope of Graph = ________________________
(from calculations)

Y-Intercept = ________________________

CONCLUSION:

From this lab we can conclude that different regions of a flame have different temperatures,
this may be important in further labs if we need to use the cooler or perhaps the hotter region of
the flame. Some types of measuring glassware are more accurate than others. We can use this
information to determine the most appropriate lab equipment and technique for each lab. It can
also be concluded that we can graphically represent our data to gain further information, such
as the slope and y-intercept and that these points may provide important information as in this
lab where our slope should be pi.

SOURCES OF ERROR:

Stretch in the string prevents an accurate measurement of circumference. In all measurements
there is some error due to imprecision of the measuring device.

25

C
i
r
c
u
m
f
e
r
e
n
c
e

v
s
.

D
i
a
m
e
t
e
r

f
o
r

S
e
v
e
r
a
l

B
e
a
k
e
r
s
5
1
0
1
5
2
0
2
5
3
0
3
5
4
0
4
5
5
0
2
.
5
4
.
5
6
.
5
8
.
5
1
0
.
5
1
2
.
5
1
4
.
5
D
i
a
m
e
t
e
r
/
c
m
C i r c u m f e r e n c e / c m
N
a
m
e
D
a
t
e
Sample Graph



























26

EXPERIMENT
THE SCIENTIFIC METHOD

PART I THE CIGAR BOX EXPERIMENT

This experiment is designed to introduce you to what is called "the scientific method". The
scientific method is the procedure one uses to develop models that can be used to predict the
behavior of other systems. Generally these models are developed by close observation of a
"test case", which is a representative of the problem under consideration. To properly apply the
scientific method one must be willing to abandon preconceived notions about a proposed
model as more information becomes available. This frequently manifests itself as a refinement
of the current theory, but will sometimes cause the construction of a new theory.

In this experiment you will be asked to develop a model for the contents of a sealed box. This
box, frequently called a "black box", contains a tinker toy object of some unknown shape and
size. It is up to you to devise a means of determining the shape and size of this object without
ever opening the box. Your picture of the contents of the box is not invalid even if it looks
nothing like the actual contents. As long as your picture is consistent with the observed
behavior of the object within the box, your model is valid. The only way to invalidate your
model is to discover some property of the object for which your procedure or picture does not
account.

Some procedures that you may consider in evaluating the contents of the box could be,

a) the sound it makes as it rolls around.

b) the total mass of the box and contents.

c) does it have a flat side?

d) is there more than one object in the box?

You can probably think of others.

Scientists frequently use a principle called "Ockhams Razor" to determine the validity of a
model. Ockhams Razor states that; given two competing theories, the simplest one is
probably the correct one. Using this principle we could, for example, rule out the possibility
that our boxes contain tiny men that use miniature hammers to imitate the sounds of a tinker
toy as it moves inside your box.

Your manipulations cannot determine all of the properties of the object inside the box.
Properties such as color and density can only be determined by direct observation or if you are
able to take the object out of the box. I am sure that you can think of other properties that
2
27

cannot be determined by simply shaking the box.
EXPERIMENT: Obtain a cigar box containing a tinker toy object. Using the empty cigar
boxes and tinker toys available in the lab derive a reasonable model of the contents of the
unknown cigar box.

WRITE-UP: In this lab it is important that you write down the assumptions that you made in
evaluating the contents of the box. These sets of procedures should be applicable to ALL of the
unknown cigar boxes thereby producing a consistent set of experimental methods by which
ALL of the unknowns could be evaluated. Label these procedures Procedure #1, #2, etc. and
label the information that should be obtained with each procedure. Label your observations
concerning the object after each manipulation. ANY procedure which does not destroy or in
some way open the box is permissible. A data table and an example of possible observations
has been given to you.

After you have completed all of your observations and have an idea of what the object looks
like, draw a picture of the object on your worksheet.

PART II THE MATCHBOX EXPERIMENT

This experiment is very similar to Daltons law of multiple proportions. In this experiment you
will receive a set of sealed matchboxes containing varying numbers and sizes of paperclips.
These paperclips will be linked to make "compounds" and it will be your task to discover the
mass of one paper clip for each different size of clip, and the number of paper clips in each
matchbox. You can do this by determining the smallest "mass unit" in each box which
represents a single paperclip. Multiple paper clips simply add mass units to the box, and larger
paperclips can be discovered by the presence of fractional mass units (other than rounding
errors).

EXPERIMENT: In the lab you will find a set of matchboxes containing varying numbers of
two different sizes of paperclips. Each box contains at least one large clip and one small clip,
but there may be multiples of each. You will also find a number of empty matchboxes, these
are reference boxes, weigh at least three to determine the average mass of an empty box. Using
only a balance calculate the average mass of each of the different sizes of paper clips and the
number of smaller paper clips in each box. I know that this sounds like an impossible task, but
with proper assumptions and good ol' detective work, it can be done.


28

Name Date____________________

THE SCIENTIFIC METHOD
(WORKSHEET)

OBJECTIVE: The purpose of this experiment is to use the scientific method and Dalton's law
of multiple proportions to develop a working theory.

PROCEDURE: Perform as many experiments as possible on a cigar box including weighing
and shaking, and use tinker toys to develop a model of the contents of the box. Weigh
matchboxes and use Dalton's law to determine the smallest ratios of paperclips.

DATA: Cigar box letter ___________

Question Procedure Observation Assumption
Example: Is the
object round?
rotate the box the object slides but
doesn't roll.
the object is not
round.



























29


Box set color ________________

Box Number Mass (g) Mass of Reference Boxes





Average Mass of reference boxes = ___________________________

CALCULATIONS: Matchbox

Mass of box #1 - reference box =

Mass of box #2 - reference box =

Mass of box #3 - reference box =

Mass of box #4 - reference box =

The difference in mass between all boxes

Box #1
Box #2 Box #2
Box #3 Box #3
Box #4

Mass of large clip =

Mass of small clip =



30

RESULTS: The following model appears to explain the observed behavior of the object in
cigar box . (Draw a picture.)
Box Letter
















Matchbox color _________

Whole number ratio of paperclips (Big : Small)

box 1 : box 2 :


box 3 : box 4 :


CONCLUSION:







SOURCES OF ERROR:

Paper clips which appear to be identical, will still have slightly different masses, therefore, we
cannot achieve exactly whole number ratios with paperclips.
31

QUESTIONS
[Show all Work]

1) Do your manipulations account for all of the possible properties of the object in the box? If
not explain which properties might not be included in your evaluation.









2) Suggest other manipulations or procedures that you could not perform or that were after-
thoughts which might provide additional information for refining your concept of the contents
of the box or for testing the validity of your assumptions.









3) Based on your evidence you proposed a model for the contents of the cigar box. While it is
not possible to open the box, what if its contents differed significantly from your drawing? Is
your model of the boxes contents invalid? Explain.









4) If there is NO evidence for a proposed model is it valid? Explain.





32

5) If two or more models are found to explain the same set of evidence how do you choose
between them? (Hint: you cannot gather any more information, and you must pick one.)






6) When you calculate the number of paper clips in each box what did you assume about the
mass of each paper clip?







7) There are two different sizes of paperclips and they have been connected into clusters by
linking them together. The person who weighed the three different clusters recorded the total
mass and the percentage of the mass that was due to each size of clip, but failed to record the
number of paperclips in each cluster.

CLUSTER A B C

Total Mass 2.242 g 2.870 g 5.112 g
% Small Clip 28.01 % 43.76 % 36.85 %
% Large Clip 71.99 % 56.24 % 63.15 %

a) Using these data you should be able to determine both the mass of each type of clip and
determine the number of clips in each cluster. Show all work.










33

b) Is it possible to have a cluster of paper clips that has a total mass of 3.228 grams and is 100
% of one type of paperclip?


















c) Is it possible to have a cluster of paperclips that is 16.29% small clips and 83.71% large
clips? Show your work. Begin by assuming that you have 100 grams of these clusters.
34

EXPERIMENT
THE SYNTHESIS OF COPPER SULFIDE


INTRODUCTION

When heated together, copper and sulfur combine to form a sulfide of copper. In this
assignment, you will heat a known mass of copper with excess sulfur in a covered crucible to
produce the nonvolatile copper sulfide. The excess sulfur vaporizes to form gaseous sulfur,
which escapes from the crucible. When the hot sulfur gas reaches the air, it reacts with oxygen
to produce gaseous oxides of sulfur (mainly sulfur dioxide, SO
2
). Thus only the copper sulfide
remains in the crucible.

From the measured mass of the product and the mass of copper used, you may determine the
mass of sulfur in the product. Then you will use the known masses of the copper and sulfur
and their atomic masses to calculate the simplest formula of the copper sulfide.

EXPERIMENT: Place a wire triangle on your ring stand and put a clean crucible in it. Adjust
the support ring so that the bottom of the crucible is about 6 cm above the top of the Bunsen
burner. Do not heat or weigh the cover. Adjust the burner until the flame is at its hottest. Heat
the crucible with your bunsen burner until the bottom of the crucible is a bright red. After five
minutes of heating allow the crucible to cool on the triangle (about 15 minutes). While the
crucible cools, obtain a piece of copper wire (already cut), clean the wire with a piece of steel
wool and weigh the wire to the nearest mg (0.001g). Record the mass of the copper wire in
your notebook. Coil the wire and place it into the bottom of your cool crucible. Using your
tongs transfer the crucible containing the wire coil to the balance and record the mass of the
crucible and wire to the nearest mg.

Add just enough powdered sulfur to cover the coil of copper, but do not make the crucible
more than half full of sulfur. Place a crucible cover slightly askew on the top of the crucible,
and very slowly heat the crucible on a wire triangle IN THE HOOD. UNDER NO
CIRCUMSTANCES SHOULD YOU HEAT THE MIXTURE AT YOUR LAB BENCH,
THE GASES GIVEN OFF ARE POISONOUS! Never remove the cover while the crucible
is hot. As the sulfur escapes it will burn in the atmosphere to produce a blue flame. When the
sulfur ceases to burn along the edge of the crucible heat the crucible strongly for 3 to 4
minutes. Allow the crucible to cool for 15 minutes and then reweigh the crucible with its
contents (but without the cover) to the nearest mg. Record this mass.

To insure that all of the copper has reacted, add a little more sulfur to the crucible and reheat
the mixture as directed above. Reweigh the product and record this mass. Continue this
process until two consecutive weighings agree within 10 mg (0.010g). Use your last mass as
the total mass. Be sure to use the same balance for all of your weighings.

3
35


CALCULATIONS

Record in your data table the following information:

1) Mass of the copper

2) Mass of crucible and copper

3) Mass of crucible and product after each heating

4) Mass of sulfur in product (subtract (2) from (3))

Calculate the moles of copper used from (1). Calculate the moles of sulfur in the final product
from (4). Record these values in the table (Watch out for significant figures!). Calculate the
moles of copper per mole of sulfur in the final product. Report the formula of the copper
sulfide as your result. You should have 3 significant figures. DO NOT ROUND YOUR
CALCULATED RATIO TO ONE DIGIT WHEN REPORTING THE FORMULA OF
YOUR PRODUCT.

36

Name Date__________________

THE SYNTHESIS OF COPPER SULFIDE
(WORKSHEET)

OBJECTIVE: To synthesize and calculate the simplest formula of a sulfide of copper.

PROCEDURE:




DATA:

mass (g)
Mass of copper
Mass of crucible and copper
1st heating
2nd heating
3rd heating
4th heating
5th heating
Mass of sulfur in product


OBSERVATIONS: Include observations about the product color and texture

1)




2)




37

CALCULATIONS:

Mass of Sulfur








Moles of Copper:








Moles of Sulfur:









Mole ratio of copper to sulfur:


moles copper / moles sulfur



Ratio of copper to sulfur = : 1

38

RESULTS:

The simplest formula for copper sulfide is: Cu

S


(Do not round off to a whole number)

CONCLUSION:















SOURCES OF ERROR:
39

QUESTIONS
[Show all Work]

1) Round the formula of your compound to the nearest whole numbers (for example, Cu
1.65
S
becomes Cu
2
S) and then write the reaction of copper and sulfur to produce copper sulfide.
Interpret this reaction in terms of, a) atoms and molecules, b) moles, and c) grams.

Example: 2 atoms of Copper + 1 atom of Sulfur 1 molecule of Cu
2
S






2) What conclusions can you draw from each of the following observations?

a) The properties of the product differ from the properties of either copper or sulfur.





b) The mass of the product did not increase when additional sulfur was added and the
crucible and contents were reheated.







3) Iron pyrite has the formula FeS
2
. Calculate the percent by mass of sulfur in this compound.









40

4) A sample of zinc sulfide contains 0.563 g of zinc and 0.276 g of sulfur. How many moles of
zinc are there in the sample? How many moles of sulfur? What is the simplest formula of zinc
sulfide?











5) The formula of silver sulfide is Ag
2
S. How many grams of sulfur are required to convert
1.00 g of silver to silver sulfide?















6) The formula of a compound of an unknown metal (M) is M
3
S
4
. It contains 23.4% sulfur by
mass. Calculate the atomic mass of M. (Hint: Assume 100 grams of M
3
S
4
)






41

EXPERIMENT
THE TITRATION OF AN UNKNOWN ACID


INTRODUCTION

The reaction of an acid and a base to form a salt and water is known as neutralization. In this
experiment you will titrate an known amount of KHP with an unknown molarity of NaOH.
You will then be able to determine the molarity of the NaOH. Once it is confirmed that this
initial titration was done correctly you will be asked to titrate a known mass of an unknown
acid. The reaction of an acid and a base forms water according to the following reaction,

HCl + NaOH Na
+
+ Cl
-
+ H
2
O

When the number of moles of acid equal the number of moles of base the solution is said to be
neutralized. This does not always mean that the solution is neutral (pH = 7), except for the
special case where we are using strong acids and bases. For weak acids and bases the solution
will be either slightly basic or acidic.

EXPERIMENT: Make 500 mL of approximately 0.10 M NaOH by taking pouring about 10
mL of 6 M NaOH into a Florence flask and adding about 500 mL of water. Exact amounts are
not important. You will titrate this solution to determine the exact concentration.

Save this solution! You will need it for the next experiment.

Rinse a buret with two 5-10 mL portions of NaOH, and then fill the buret with NaOH. Open
the tip of the buret and allow some of the NaOH to flow through it. This will fill the tip and
remove bubbles that might be present. Make sure there are no bubbles in the tip. Add more
NaOH if necessary and adjust the volume until the BOTTOM of the meniscus is at or just
under the 0.00 mL mark at the top of the buret. Record this as the starting volume (s).

Place 0.600 to 0.700 grams of KHP in a 125 or 250 mL flask and add about 30 mL of distilled
water and swirl to dissolve the KHP. Do not be concerned if all of the KHP does not initially
dissolve. Add three drops of phenolphthalein to the flask and titrate KHP with your
standardized NaOH to the pink phenolphthalein endpoint. Near the end-point the pink color of
the indicator will begin to persist longer and longer while you swirl the flask. The end-point is
found when the solution remains pink for at least 30 seconds. This pink color should be barely
detectable. Allow a minute or so to elapse, then record the final volume of the NaOH.

Repeat the titration. Your two values of NaOH concentration should agree to within +/- 0.005
M. If they do not, repeat the experiment until two values agree to within +/- 0.005 M.
4
42

CALCULATIONS PART I

Calculate the molarity of the NaOH. This is done by first calculating the number of moles of
KHP used in the titration. In all neutralizations the number of moles of acid must equal the
number of moles of base,

1) moles KHP = moles NaOH

Begin by calculating the mole of KHP use in your titration by dividing the mass you used the
the formula weight of the KHP (204.227 g/mol). Once you have determined the moles of
NaOH, the moles of HCl present is automatically known. The molarity of the HCl can now be
determined by the definition of molarity.

2) Moles of KHP = Grams of KHP/ 204.227 g/mol KHP

The molarity of the NaOH is determined by dividing the moles of KHP by the volume of
NaOH used.

3) Moles = (mole/liter) x (liters) = Molarity x Volume

now since the moles of KHP and NaOH must be equal we can write,

4) Moles KHP = Molarity NaOH x Volume NaOH so that,

5) Moles KHP/Volume NaOH = Molarity NaOH

Using this final formula to calculate the concentration of your NaOH (make sure you convert
your volume to liters by dividing by 1000 mL/L). Report the value for the molarity of NaOH
to the instructor to verify that you have correctly titrated the NaOH. If you have done this
correctly, you will then receive your unknown acid.

Mark your flask with the concentration of NaOH you have just determined and save it for next
weeks experiment.

THE TITRATION OF AN UNKNOWN SOLID ACID EQUIVALENT MASS

EXPERIMENT: Rinse the two 125 mL flasks used in the first part of the experiment with de-
ionized water and refill your buret with NaOH. Place 0.3-0.35 grams of your solid unknown
acid in each flask, weighing it to the nearest mg. Weigh the acid directly into the flask. Now
add 30 mL of distilled water and swirl. Add three drops of phenolphthalein to each flask and
titrate the unknown acid with your standardized NaOH to the pink phenolphthalein endpoint.
Record the starting and final volumes of NaOH used in your titration.
43

CALCULATIONS PART II

The equivalent mass is similar to the molecular mass except that instead of measuring
grams/mole it measures grams/moles of H
+
. For example lets take a look at some common
acids,

ACID # H
+
MOLECULAR MASS EQUIVALENT MASS

HCl 1 36.45 g/mole 36.45 g/mole H
+


H
2
SO
4
2 98.0 g/mole 49.0 g/mole H
+


H
3
PO
4
3 98.0 g/mole 32.6 g/mole H
+


Here we see that the equivalent mass is the molecular mass divided by the number of moles of
H
+
present in the acid. This means that 36.45 g of HCl, 49.0 g H
2
SO
4
, and 32.6 g H
3
PO
4
all
contain 1 mole of H
+
(hence the term equivalent mass). In this experiment you can calculate
the equivalent mass of your unknown acid by calculating the moles of H
+
present per gram of
unknown acid.

6) Mole of H
+
in Unknown = Molarity NaOH x Volume NaOH (see 1 - 5 above)

7) Eq. Mass of Unknown = Grams of Unk./Moles of H
+
in Unk.

Calculate the equivalent mass of the acid in each reaction flask. In your results report the
average equivalent mass of your acid.

Read This!

Significant figures are particularly important in this lab. A buret can be read to within 0.01 mL
so instead of writing 0 mL as your starting point it should be 0.00 mL. When you read the
buret you should always write down all the digits even if they are zeros. For example 25.1 mL
should be written as 25.10. This gives you four significant numbers in the volume.

The same is true for the mass. The balance gives you numbers to within 0.001 gram so all of
these numbers should be written down. Therefore if you weigh out 0.326 grams of unknown
acid you know the mass to three significant figures.

Since you know the volume to four significant figures and the mass to three significant figures,
all of the math that you do on these numbers should be reported to three significant figures.
Do not round. And remember, if you get an equivalent mass that is less than 1 g/eq, you have
done something wrong (if you dont know why, ask me).
44

Name Date_____________

TITRATION OF AN UNKNOWN ACID
(WORKSHEET)

OBJECTIVE:



PROCEDURE: Standardize a solution of NaOH by titrating it with a known amount of KHP.
Use this NaOH to titrate a sample of an unknown acid and calculate its equivalent mass.

DATA:
Standardization of NaOH
Mass of KHP Volume
of NaOH (mL)
Moles of
KHP
Moles of
NaOH
Molarity
of NaOH
#1
#2
#3

Average Concentration of NaOH ______________

Titration of Unknown Acid #

Mass of unknown
acid (g)
Volume of
NaOH (mL)
Moles of H
+

in acid
Equivalent mass
of acid


finish
start


f
s


f
s


f
s

45


46

CALCULATIONS:











RESULTS:

The average equivalent mass of unknown acid # = g acid/mole H
+


CONCLUSION:








SOURCES OF ERROR:






QUESTIONS
[Show all Work]

1) Why doesn't it matter how much water you put into the reaction flask?





47

2) If a bubble of air goes through the tip of the buret which contains NaOH will the reported
molarity of HCl be too high or too low? Why?







3) Why is it necessary to titrate to a faint pink, rather than a dark pink endpoint?





4) Calculate the molarity of an H
2
SO
4
solution if 20 mL of 0.50 M NaOH exactly neutralizes
40 mL of the H
2
SO
4
solution.








5) If 20 mL of a 0.100 M NaOH solution are required to titrate 0.25 grams of an unknown acid,
what is the equivalent mass of the acid? If the acid actually contains 3 moles of H
+
per mole of
acid what is the molecular mass of the acid?








6) If 20 mL of NaOH solution are required to neutralize 15 mL of 0.40 M HCl, and 20 mL of
the same NaOH solution are required to neutralize 30 mL of a sulfuric acid solution. What is
the molarity of the H
2
SO
4
?
48

EXPERIMENT
THE ASSAY OF ASPIRIN PROPAGATION OF ERROR


INTRODUCTION

Aspirin is made by combining two acids, salicylic acid and acetic acid, to make a new
compound acetylsalicylic acid (aspirin). When aspirin is titrated, first the salicylic acid is
titrated and then, as the bond breaks between the salicylic acid and the acetic acid, the acetic
acid is also titrated, but this breakdown of the aspirin is slow. In theory, both titrations should
take equal amounts of base since one mole of aspirin is made from one mole of salicylic acid
(neutralized in the first titration), and one mole of acetic acid (neutralized in the second
titration). Unfortunately this is not the case. The breakdown of aspirin requires an excess of
base to ensure that the reaction is complete. So when aspirin is titrated it is done in steps.
First, enough base is added to titrate the salicylic acid to a phenolphthalein end point. Next, an
equal amount of base is added to titrate the acetic acid that will be released, but since this
reaction requires excess base for the reaction to occur, extra base is added. Finally, after
breakdown of the aspirin is complete, the extra base is removed by back titration with a strong
acid to the light pink phenolphthalein end point.

In this experiment you will be given a sample of aspirin to titrate and determine the percentage
of aspirin in the sample. In addition you will calculate the random error involved in each step
of the titration, the overall error, and you will report the percentage of aspirin its associated
error for your sample.

MEASUREMENT OF ERRORS

Every procedure has an error associated with it. These errors have three possible sources,

1) Personal error
2) Method error
3) Random errors

Personal errors are never reported because they can be fixed. If you make a mistake, correct
the mistake and continue the experiment. Method errors are errors inherent in the way in
which an experiment is done. For example, it is not possible to scrape all of the solid off of a
piece of filter paper to weigh the solid. This would be an example of method error. Method
errors are non-random, they are always either positive or negative (In the case of the solid, the
real mass of the solid will always be larger than the amount you scrape off. Therefore this
error is always positive).


5
49

RANDOM ERRORS

Unlike personal and method errors, random errors do not have a particular value nor can they
be fixed. Random errors arise because of the equipment we use is not perfect. You have noted
by now that the balances "flicker" between two mass values when you read them. This is due
to random error.

When you read a buret sometimes your eye will be a little low, and sometimes a bit high. If
your are always low or high this is personal error for which you can account. But if you have
done everything you can to assure that you are reading the buret correctly, you still have to
decide what that last digit is in your measurement and if you are doing everything right,
sometimes you will guess high, and sometimes low. This is random error.

Random error is always written as a plus and a minus. For example you might read the mass
of a sample as 2.456 +/- 0.002 grams. This means that the real mass of the sample is
somewhere between 2.454 and 2.458 grams, but due to fluctuations in the sensitivity of the
balance you do not know which value exactly. The plus/minus values are determined by the
best estimate that one can make when READING an instrument (not when adding or
subtracting errors). Our burets can be read to within +/- 0.02 mL and the balances can be read
to within +/- 0.002 grams.

PROPAGATION OF ERROR

Once an error is known for an individual measurement, these measurements can be added,
subtracted, multiplied, and divided and the errors associated with the results of these
mathematical manipulations can be reported.

Adding and Subtracting Errors

When two numbers are added or subtracted and each of them has an error associated with them
then you take the square root of the sum of the squares of the errors.

Example: Addition

Add 1.2 +/- 0.02 and 2.5+/- 0.03

Answer: 1.2 + 2.5 = 3.7 +/- ?

To get the error you do the following,

? = ((0.02)
2
+ (0.03)
2
)
1/2
= 0.0361 = 0.04 (sig.figs)

You would therefore report your answer as 3.7 +/- 0.04.

50

Example: Subtraction

Subtract 1.2 +/- 0.02 from 2.5+/- 0.03

Answer: 2.5 - 1.2 = 1.3 +/- ?

To get the error you do the following,

? = ((0.02)
2
+ (0.03)
2
)
1/2
= 0.0361 = 0.04 (sig.figs)

You would therefore report your answer as 1.3 +/- 0.04.

Multiplying and Dividing Errors

When two numbers are multiplied or divided then you take the square root of the sum of the
squares of the relative errors. The answer is then multiplied by the result of the multiplication
or division.

Example: Multiplication

Multiply 3.60 +/- 0.020 by 4.00 +/- 0.030

Answer 3.60 x 4.00 = 14.4 +/- ?

To get the error do the following,

? = ((0.02/3.6)
2
+ (0.03/4)
2
)
1/2
= 0.00933

0.00933 x 14.4 = 0.134

You would therefore report your answer as 14.4 +/- 0.134 = 14.4 +/- 0.1 (sig.figs)

Example: Division

Divide 3.60 +/- 0.020 by 4.00 +/- 0.030
Answer 3.60/4.00 = 0.90 +/- ?

To get the error do the following,

? = ((0.02/3.6)
2
+ (0.03/4)
2
)
1/2
= 0.00933

0.00933 x 0.90 = 0.0084

You would therefore report your answer as 0.90 +/- 0.0084= 0.900 +/- 0.008(sig.figs)
51

EXPERIMENT: You will be given 4 aspirin with which to do your experiment and no more.
Do not ask your instructor for more aspirin and do not ask any of the other students in the class
for extra aspirin in case you run out. Points will be deducted if you do so.

Grind up the aspirin using a mortar and pestle and weigh out three samples of 0.40 - 0.45 g
each into 150 or 250 mL Erlenmeyer flasks. Working with one sample at a time, dissolve a
sample 15 mL of absolute alcohol, add 4 drops phenolphthalein indicator, and titrate the
sample quickly to the first persistent faint pink color with standard 0.1 M NaOH. Record this
volume and then add, from your buret, the same volume again + 5 mL excess (for example, if
you added 20 mL of base and your solution is pink, then add another 20 mL plus and extra 5
mL for a total of 45 mL). When finished your solution should be a dark pink/magenta color.

Refill your buret with NaOH and, following the same procedure, dissolve and titrate your other
samples. Once complete, place the flasks on a hot plate until the solution boils for 2 minutes.
This causes the aspirin to break down and the acetic acid that is released is neutralized. After
boiling the flasks for 2 minutes remove them from the heat and take them back to your
workstation. Allow them cool or speed the cooling by running the flasks under cold water.
Once cool, back-titrate the excess base with the 0.1000 M HCl provided in lab. Back titrate to
the pale pink phenolphthalein end point. DO NOT back titrate while the solutions are warm.
When finished, you may discard your solutions in the sink.

From the total titration volumes you may calculate the percentage aspirin in your sample, and a
comparison of the first and second titration values will give you a qualitative measure of the
decomposition which has occurred. Perform a complete error analysis for this experiment.
52

Name Date _______________
THE ASSAY OF ASPIRIN
(WORKSHEET)
OBJECTIVE:


PROCEDURE: Quickly titrate a sample of aspirin with a portion of NaOH using
phenolphthalein as the indicator. Add an equivalent amount of NaOH plus excess. Titrate the
excess NaOH with standardized HCl. Use these values to calculate the percentage of aspirin in
the sample and propagate the errors involved in the titration.

DATA:

Molarity of NaOH = Molarity of HCl =

Mass of
Aspirin Used
Trial #1 Volume
NaOH
Volume
NaOH
Volume HCl
Finish
Start
Total

Mass of
Aspirin Used
Trial #2 Volume
NaOH
Volume
NaOH
Volume HCl
Finish
Start
Total

Mass of
Aspirin Used
Trial #3 Volume
NaOH
Volume
NaOH
Volume HCl
Finish
Start
Total
53

Aspirin Assay: Sample Calculations

1) Sample mass sample wt. 0. (= A)

2) First base titration final reading 0.02

initial reading 0.02

first volume 0.

3) Second base increment final reading 0.02

total added base 0. ( = B - convert to liters)

4) Back titration final reading 0.02

initial reading 0.02

volume of HCl 0. ( = C - convert to liters)

5) Molarity of NaOH 0. 0. (from bottles) ( = D)

6) Molarity of HCl 0. 0. (from bottles) ( = E)

7) Total moles of base consumed (B x D) - (C x E ) = ( = F)

8) % Aspirin = [ x 180.15 x 100] x F / A =

9) Second sample: Repeat calculations in step 8

10) Third sample: Repeat calculations in step 8

11) Average % aspirin = (8 + 9 + 10) / 3 =


RESULTS:

The percent of aspirin is +/- .

CONCLUSION:




54

SOURCES OF ERROR:




PROBLEMS:

1) If a portion of your aspirin sample had broken down, how would that effect the total
amount of base used? What would the effect be on the percentage of aspirin in your sample?





2) Proprogate the error for the following:

a) (1.51 0.03) + (4.93 0.05) + (2.47 0.02)




b) (1.51 0.03) (4.93 0.05) (2.47 0.02)




3) In your own words describe the difference between random and method error. Include at
least one example of each. Your examples do not need to be from the aspirin experiment.

55

Aspirin Assay: Sample Worksheet

1) Sample mass sample wt. 0.409 0.002g (= A)

2) First base titration final reading 22.00 0.02

initial reading 0.40 0.02

first volume 21.60 0.03 mL

3) Second base increment final reading 26.60 0.02

total added base 48.2 0.03 mL ( = B - convert to liters)

4) Back titration final reading 13.30 0.02

initial reading 10.00 0.02

volume of HCl 3.30 0.03 mL ( = C - convert to liters)

5) Molarity of NaOH 0.0993 0.0002 M (from bottles) ( = D)

6) Molarity of HCl 0.1847 0.0003 M (from bottles) ( = E)

7) Total moles of base consumed (B x D) - (C x E ) = 0.00418 0.00001 mole ( = F)

8) % Aspirin = [ x 180.15 x 100] x F / A = 92.1 0.5% Aspirin

RESULTS:

The percent of aspirin is 92.1 +/- 0.5% .

56

Sample Calculation

For 1), 2), 3), and 4) the error is,




The error for 7) is,

For B x D






Absolute error = 0.002108 x 0.0482 L x 0.0993 M = .00001009 = 0.00001 mole

Therefore the answer is = 0.00479 +/- 0.00001 mole of NaOH added

For C x E





Absolute error = 0.009235 x 0.0033 L x 0.1847 M = 0.00000563 = 0.000006 mole

Therefore the answer is 0.000610 +/- 0.000006 mole HCl added

Total moles base = 0.00479 moles NaOH 0.000610 moles HCl = 0.00418 moles NaOH

The error is;



Therefore the Total moles of base consumed is = 0.00418 +/- 0.00001 mole

The error for 8) is,




\
0.03
48.2
+
2
0.0002
0.0993
2
= 0.002108 is the relative error
\
0.03
3.30
+
2
0.0003
0.1847
2
= 0.009235 is the relative error
(0.00001)
2
+ (0.000006)
2
= 0.0000116
\
\
0.002
+
2
0.00001
0.00418
2
= 0.005444 is the relative error
0.409
(0.02)
2
+ (0.02)
2
\
= 0.0028 = 0.03
57

Absolute error = 0.00544 x 0.00418 / 0.0409 = 0.0000556

So, the percent Aspirin in the sample is,

( x 180.15 x 100) x 0.00418 / 0.409 = 92.06 %

You must scale the error also, so the error on this number is,

( x 180.15 x 100) x 0.0000556 = 0.5008 = 0.5

So, the final answer is,

Percent aspirin in the sample = 92.1 +/- 0.5% Aspirin
58



EXPERIMENT
Determination of the Ideal Gas Law Constant - R

INTRODUCTION
Magnesium metal reacts with hydrochloric acid according to the following reaction,

Mg + 2 HCl MgCl
2
+ H
2
(g)

In this experiment you will use this reaction to produce a known number of moles of hydrogen
gas. The gas is collected in a eudiometer and its volume determined.
By measuring the pressure in the room and the ambient temperature, a
value for the gas law constant R can be calculated using the Ideal Gas
Law, PV = nRT.

Rearranging,

n
R

Your instructor will tell you the temperature and pressure in the room at
the time of the experiment.

In the second part of this experiment you will use the same process to
determine the molar mass of an unknown metal. In this case you will
use the metal to produce a measured quantity of hydrogen gas and use
the idea gas law to determine the number of moles. Knowing the moles
of hydrogen gas produced and the grams of unknown metal used, you
will be able to calculate the molar mass of the metal.

Part I -Determination of the Ideal Gas Law Constant - R

EXPERIMENT: Weigh out a sample of magnesium that weighs
between 0.040 g and 0.050 g. Record the mass of the magnesium and in
your table. Put a piece of copper wire through the hole of a rubber
stopper and secure the magnesium ribbon to the copper wire on the
narrow portion of the stopper. Make sure the magnesium is
approximately 2 cm from the end of the stopper so that it protrudes far
enough into the solution during the experiment. Bend the end of the
copper wire in the stopper to secure the wire and magnesium ribbon to
it. The eudiometer must be supported by a clamp so place a clamp onto
a ring stand at your station.

Eudiometer setup.
6
59

Fill a 600 mL (or larger) beaker with tap water and place it under the clamp. Now, pour
approximately 10 mL of 6M HCl into the eudiometer and then gently fill the entire eudiometer
with water, taking care not to disturb the HCl on the bottom of the tube. Put the stopper with
the copper wire and your sample into the eudiometer and invert the tube into the beaker of
water. Secure it inside the beaker using the test tube clamp.

When the magnesium has fully reacted, try to equalize the liquid heights between the
eudiometer and the beaker by raising or lowering the tube within the beaker. This will
minimize pressure differences between the atmosphere and the tube. Record the volume of the
gas inside the tube, the mass of magnesium used, along with the current temperature and
pressure of the room. Using the table below, subtract the pressure of the water vapor from the
atmospheric pressure to get the pressure of just the hydrogen gas.

Repeat the experiment a second time. Note: Save the copper wire. Everything else can be
thrown down the sink.

Water Vapor Pressure Table
Temperature Pressure
(C) (mmHg)
Temperature Pressure
(C) (mmHg)
18.0 15.5
18.5 16.0
19.0 16.5
19.5 17.0
20.0 17.5
20.5 18.1
21.0 18.6
21.5 19.2
22.0 19.8
22.5 20.4
23.0 21.1
23.5 21.7
24.0 22.4
24.5 23.1
25.0 23.8
26.0 25.2

Part II - Determination of the mass of an unknown metal

EXPERIMENT: In this part of the experiment you will use the methods outlined above to
determine the formula weight of an unknown metal. Repeat the experimental setup as outlined
previously but use your assigned unknown metal instead of the magnesium ribbon. Collect the
hydrogen gas the same as before and record the volume of the gas produced. Record the mass
of unknown metal used.

Using the Ideal Gas Law, calculate the number moles of hydrogen produced but make sure you
subtract out the vapor pressure of the water from the atmospheric pressure. From the mass of
unknown metal and the moles of hydrogen, calculate the molar mass of your unknown metal.

60

Name Date_________________

CALCULATION OF THE GAS LAW CONSTANT, R
(WORKSHEET)

OBJECTIVE:





PROCEDURE:









DATA: Part I

Temperature: __________ Atmospheric Pressure: __________Vapor Pressure:___________

Mass of
Magnesium used
(g)
Moles of Mg =
Moles of H
2

(moles)
Volume of
Hydrogen
collected (mL)
R Constant
R = PV/nT














61



DATA: Part II

Unknown Metal # _______________

Mass of
Unknown Metal
used
(g)
Volume of
Hydrogen
collected (mL)
Moles of H
2

(moles)
n = PV/RT
R = 0.08205 Latm/molK
Molar Mass of
Unknown Metal














CALCULATIONS:

















62

RESULTS:

Average Value of R = __________________

Molar Mass of Unknown _____ = _____________

CONCLUSIONS:










SOURCES OF ERROR:








PROBLEMS

1. The water used in this experiment has a vapor pressure that contributes to the pressure in
your eudiometer. At 25C, water has a vapor pressure of 23.8 torr. Will the presence of water
vapor make your experimentally determined value of R too high, or too low? Explain.













63

2. A 0.069 gram sample of a metal reacted with HCl and produced 45.31 mL of H
2
gas at
25C and 1 atm pressure. The metal is known to react with HCl according to the following
reaction,

2 M + 6 HCl > 2 MCl
3
+ 3 H
2


What is the molar mass of the metal? Which metal is it?

















3. How would the value you obtained for the gas law constant R have changed had the
temperature in the room been 5C hotter than actually reported? Is this a potential source of
error for this lab (using the wrong temperature)?

64

EXPERIMENT
THE IDEAL GAS LAW AND DENSITY

INTRODUCTION

In this experiment you will determine the average molecular mass of air using two different
methods; first by measuring the density of air with the density of several different gases and
secondly by using the Ideal Gas Law.

To determine density of a gas, you will fill a syringe with a gas and find it's mass. The volume
of the gas will be determined by weighing a equal volume of water then dividing it by the
density of water. Plots of density vs. molecular wt. should be linear, therefore if the density of
air is determined experimentally, the average molecular mass of air can be found by using the
slope intercept equation for a line.

Secondly, if you know the volume of the gas and the ambient temperature and pressure, you
can use the Ideal Gas Law to calculate the moles of gas in the syringe. The mass and moles
can then be used to calculate the average molecular mass of air.

Finally you should compare the results of the two methods with the known average molecular
mass of air.

EXPERIMENT: Obtain a 50 mL syringe and make sure that it is clean and dry. Close the
open end with a stopper and pull the plunger until the hole in the plunger is showing. Put a nail
in the hole to hold the plunger in place and weigh the evacuated syringe. Record the mass as
the mass of the empty syringe.

In the lab you will find bags containing different gases. Record the names of these gases in
your data table and include their molecular masses as determined from a periodic table.

Remove the nail and push the plunger all the way into the syringe. Attach a needle to the
syringe and insert the needle through the stopper attached to a bag of one of the gases and pull
the plunger to expose the nail hole in the plunger. Put the nail into the hole and push the
plunger against the nail (so that the volume of the gas is the same as the volume in the
evacuated syringe). Remove the needle, close off the end of the syringe with the stopper and
weigh it. Record the mass. Repeat for the other gases.

Next fill the syringe with a sample of air. Weigh the syringe. Repeat for a total of three trials.

Measure the volume of the syringe by filling it with water making it sure there is no air in the
syringe. Put the nail in the hole as before, seal the open end, and weigh the syringe. Record
the mass of the water in your data table. The volume can be calculated by assuming that the
density of the water is 1.000 gram/mL.
7
65


66

CALCULATIONS - You must do the calculations for part 2 before you leave lab. If you get a
mass of less than 2 g/mole for any gas (hydrogen is the lightest gas and has a mass of 2 g/mol)
then you must do that gas over again. You can graph the data later.

1) Calculate the density of each of the known gases and the average density of your sample of
air. Make a graph of density vs. molecular mass for the five known gases. Using the slope and
intercept of this plot and the density of air calculate the average molecular mass of air.

2) Using the Ideal Gas Law calculate the moles of gas in the syringe. Use this and the mass of
the air in the syringe to determine the molecular mass of air. Report the average molecular
mass in the result section of your lab report.

3) How does the graphing method compare to the average molecular mass of air as determined
by the Ideal Gas Law? Which method is better for determining the molecular mass of an
unknown? Why do you think that this is so?
67

Name Date______________

THE IDEAL GAS LAW AND DENSITY
(WORKSHEET)

OBJECTIVE:




PROCEDURE:





DATA:

Known Gases

Mass of evacuated syringe Room Temperature
Mass of syringe and water Barometric Pressure
Volume of syringe Density of water
Avg. Molecular mass of air (From CRC)_____________________

Gas Mwt (from table)
(g/mole)
Mass of gas and
syringe (g)
Mass of gas
(g)
Density of gas
(g/L)

















68

Air:
Trial #1 Trial #2 Trial #3
Mass of gas
and Syringe



Mass of gas
(g)


Density of gas
(g/L)




CALCULATIONS:
(add paper if necessary)
69

RESULTS:

Average molecular mass of air based on the Ideal Gas Law =


Average molecular mass of air based on gas densities =


CONCLUSION:










SOURCES OF ERROR:












QUESTIONS

1. If the temperature in the room had been hotter than what you had measured the density of
the gases would have been smaller than what you measured. Would you have gotten a
different molecular mass for your unknown gas had the temperature in the room been very
much hotter than what you recorded? Explain.



70

2. If the temperature in the room had actually been much hotter how would that have effected
your graph?







3. What is the expected value for the intercept of your graph? Explain.







4. Arrange the following gases in order of increasing gas density.

CH
4
, O
2
, He, Ar, N
2
, H
2
O, CO
2
, and H
2







71

EXPERIMENT
DETERMINATION OF THE PERCENTAGE OF OXYGEN IN THE AIR

INTRODUCTION

To measure the amount of oxygen in air we will use the same principle employed by the
pneumatic chemists--a sample of air will be trapped in a test tube along with something that
uses up all of the oxygen in the tube, allowing the water to rise in the tube. Rather than use a
candle or a mouse, we will employ the reaction of oxygen with iron in the form of steel wool.
When conditions are arranged properly, oxygen reacts rapidly and completely with the iron, as
described by the following (unbalanced) reaction (the balancing of this reaction will be left as
an exercise for you):
Fe + O
2
Fe
2
O
3


This reaction is more complex than just the direct combination of oxygen with iron. It also
requires the presence of water and is accelerated by acids. However, the solution in contact
with the iron must not be allowed to become too acidic; otherwise some hydrogen will form by
the reaction
Fe + 2 H
+
Fe
2+
+ H
2


EXPERIMENT:

Avoid breathing the acetone vapor or spilling it on your skin. Acetone is a flammable solvent.
There must be no open flames in the hood.

Attach a strip of masking tape (on which to mark the water level) to two large culture tubes
(lipless test tube). Attach a set of clamps to your ring stand so that the test tubes can be
mounted, inverted, in a 1L beaker filled nearly to the brim with tap water. Weigh two 1.0 g
portions of fine (size 00) steel wool. Do not compress the material. Obtain 100 mL each of
acetone, l.0 M acetic acid and 0.1 M acetic acid. To save materials, please arrange with a
nearby student to share your acetone and 1.0 M acetic acid, as these materials may be used by
two students to clean their steel wool pieces. However, each student should obtain their own
0.1 M acetic acid.

Using forceps, rinse a piece of steel wool in acetone for about 30 seconds to remove any oily
material from the surface of the steel wool. Shake off the excess acetone, drain the steel wool
briefly on a paper towel, and transfer it to the 1.0 M acetic acid solution. With your forceps,
agitate the steel wool occasionally for about a minute. Then shake off the excess, drain on a
paper towel briefly, and put the steel wool in the beaker containing 0.1 M acetic acid, agitating
it for about 30 s. Using forceps, remove the steel wool and shake it vigorously to remove as
much solution as possible. Then insert the steel wool in the 20 x 150 mm culture tube, pushing
it to the bottom half of the tube. Do not compress the steel wool. It should be spread over most
of the bottom half of the test tube.
8
72

Immediately invert the test tube and carefully lower it into the beaker of water and clamp it in
position. The mouth of the test tube must be below the water level throughout the experiment.
The initial volume of air is assumed to be the total volume of the test tube (minus the volume
of steel wool and adhering solution, which will be determined later). Rinse the forceps in tap
water and dry. At 5 to 10 min intervals, mark the
rising water level on the masking tape. Using a
second test tube, prepare the remaining piece of
steel wool and carry out a duplicate run. While
you are waiting for the reaction to be completed,
weigh a clean dry 250 mL beaker to the nearest
0.1 g. Record its mass. When no further change
in water level can be detected (usually 20 to 30
min are required), wait 5 min longer, then adjust
the height of the test tube so that the water levels
inside and outside the tube are the same. (When
the levels are the same, the pressure inside the
tube will be equal to the atmospheric pressure.)
Now trap the water that has risen in the tube by
pressing a rubber stopper firmly against the
mouth of the tube. (The stopper should be larger
than the mouth of the tube so that it does not
enter the tube.) Ask a laboratory neighbor to
unclamp the tube while you are holding the
stopper against the mouth of the tube. Carefully
transfer the water you have trapped into the
previously weighed 250 mL beaker. Reweigh and
record the mass of the beaker plus water. The
volume of this water corresponds to the volume
of oxygen that has reacted with the steel wool.
With forceps, remove the steel wool and put it in
the same previously weighed beaker containing
the water. Reweigh and record the mass. Finally,
fill the empty test tube to the brim with water and
add it to the same beaker and reweigh and record
the mass again. The initial mass of the empty beaker and the subsequent three weighings will
provide data from which you can calculate the total volume of the test tube, correcting for the
volume occupied by the steel wool and adhering acetic acid solution.

Alternative method: Instead of attaching tape to the side, you may use a ruler submerged in the
water to follow the progress of the rising water. You will need to record the rulers
measurements at 5-10 minute intervals

73

Name __________________ Date___________________

DETERMINATION OF THE PERCENTAGE OF OXYGEN IN THE AIR
(WORKSHEET)

OBJECTIVE:




PROCEDURE:





DATA:
Density of water = 0.997 g/mL Density of steel wool = 7.70 g/mL

Run #
Mass of
Steel
wool
Mass of
Beaker
Mass of Beaker
+ Water
Mass of Beaker +
Water + Wet Steel
Wool
Mass of Beaker +
Water + Wet Steel
Wool + Test Tube
of Water
Volume of Test
Tube
(mass/density)





CALCULATIONS:

Volume of oxygen in moist air: (mass of beaker and water - mass of beaker)/density of water





Volume of steel wool: (mass of Fe/density of Fe)



74

Volume of adhering solution: (mass of beaker, water and steel wool - mass of beaker and water
- mass of Fe) / density of water




Volume of test tube: (mass of water, beaker, steel wool and water to fill test tube - mass of
water, beaker and steel wool) / density of water




Volume of air in tube (volume of test tube - volume of steel wool - volume of adhering
solution)




Percent Oxygen in the Air (volume of oxygen / volume of air in tube) x 100 = _____________

Results

Run # Percent Oxygen




Avg =


Conclusions



Sources of Error



75

PROBLEMS

1. Consider the reactions given on the first page of this handout. How many grams of iron are
required to convert 80 mL of oxygen at STP?










2a. Calculate the total pressure in the flask after all of the oxygen has been removed from the
air in the flask. Assume that the temperature is 25C, the initial barometric pressure is 760 torr
and that air is 21% oxygen by volume.










2b. Actually, the air inside the flask was in contact with water. Water vapor accounted for 23.6
torr of the total 760 torr of "wet" air inside the flask. If the O
2
was removed from this air,
would the pressure be higher or lower than in 2a?



76

EXPERIMENT
THE STANDARDIZATION OF THIOSULFATE AND DETERMINATION OF COBALT

INTRODUCTION The Standardization of Thiosulfate

In general, thiosulfate solutions are standardized by indirect methods, Primary-standard
oxidizing agents such as KIO
3
, As
2
O
3
, or K
2
Cr
2
O
7
are used to liberate an equivalent amount of
I
2
from fairly concentrated I
-
solutions. The resulting I
3
-
is then titrated with thiosulfate to a
starch endpoint. In this course we shall use potassium dichromate as the oxidizing agent.

Iodine is liberated according to the equation

(1) Cr
2
O
7
2-
+ 6I
-
+ 14H
+
2Cr
3+
+ 3I
2
+ 7H
2
O

For this reaction to be quantitative the H
+
and I
-
concentrations, and the time must all be
controlled. The equilibrium in reaction (1) lies well to the right at all pH's < 4, but the rate of
the oxidation is very low unless the hydrogen ion is greater than 0.2 M and the iodide greater
than 0.05 M. Under these conditions the reaction is quantitatively complete in 5 minutes.

If the H
+
concentration exceeds 0.4M, air oxidation of iodide can also occur by the reaction,

(2) O
2
+ 4I
-
2I
2
+ 2H
2
O

Up to 0.4 M acid the rate of reaction (2 ) is low enough that solutions can stand in air up to 10
minutes without appreciable amounts of iodine appearing. Reaction (2) is, however, catalyzed
by light and various metal ions, including Cr
3+
. For this reason tartaric acid as added to the
system to complex the Cr
3+
formed by reaction (1).

In the presence of excess iodide ion the reaction

(3) I
2
+ I
-
I
3
-


whose equilibrium constant is 710, is used to increase the solubility of I
2
in water. Saturated
solutions of I
2
in pure water are only 1.3x10
-3
M, and the vapor pressure above these solutions
ia so great that large amounts of iodine escape. Triiodide solutions, on the other hand, are
reasonably stable. Moreover, the starch-triiodide complex is much more intensely colored that
its I
2
counterpart so that the end point in the titration is sharpened.

The soluble fraction of vegetable starches, B-amylose, is believed to hold I
3
-
inside the helical
chains of its polymeric (mol. wt. 10,000-50,000) structure. The formation of the blue complex
is reversible provided the I
3
-
concentration is rather low, otherwise a red-violet complex is
formed irreversibly and the end point may be obscured. Starch solutions are usually prepared
with traces of mercuric iodide or boric acid to impede bacterial decomposition of the solutions.
9
77

PROCEDURE

Weigh triplicate 0.20-0.23 gram portions (weigh to 0.1 mg) of K
2
Cr
2
O
7
into 500 mL
Erlenmeyer flasks. Dissolve each sample in 50 mL water. Then add a freshly prepared
solution containing 3.0 grams KI, 5 mL of 6 M HCl, and 50 mL of water (Notes 1 and 2).
Swirl gently, cover with a watch glass, and let stand 5 minutes in your closed locker. Add 10
mL of a 10% solution of tartaric acid, wash down the sides of the flask with 200 mL water, and
titrate with your thiosulfate solution until the brown iodide color becomes indistinct. Then add
5 mL starch indicator and titrate until the deep blue color abruptly changes (to the pale blue-
grey color produced by the Cr
3+
present in the solution).

From the known masses of dichromate and the titration volume compute the normality of your
thiosulfate solution.

Note 1. Each determination should be made separately. That is, do not add KI solution to all
the flasks at once or the last flask will have stood well over the allowable 5 minutes, with the
attendant errors from air oxidation.

Note 2. Commercial KI may contain KIO
3
which also may oxidize I
-
,

(4) IO
3
-
+ 5I
-
+ 6H
+
3I
2
+ 3H
2
O

Accordingly if the acidified KI solution has the slightest yellow tint, then you should pour out
this solution, clean your flask, and make a new solution. Even so, some oxidation is expected.
To account for oxidation you must carry out the entire procedure once omitting K
2
Cr
2
O
7
to
determine the reagent blank to be subtracted from each titration volume obtained when the
dichromate is present.

INTRODUCTION Analysis for Co in an Unknown Cobalt Compound

To analyze cobalt we will again use indirect methods similar to those employed when your
thiosulfate solutions were standardized. The cobalt compound is first converted to the
hydrated oxide.
(5) 2 Co
3+
+ 6 OH
-
Co
2
O
3
+ 3 H
2
O

The oxide is dissolved in dilute acid in the presence of iodide to produce Co
2+
and I
3
-
.

(6) Co
2
O
3
+ 6 H
+
+ 3 I
-
2 Co
2+
+ I
3
-
+ 3 H
2
O


78

The triiodide is then titrated with your standard thiosulfate solution

(7) 2 S
2
O
3
2-
+ I
3
-
S
4
O
6
2-
+ 3 I
-


The net result of all these operations shows that 1 mole of thiosulfate reacts with 1 mole of
Co
3+
initially present

(8) 2 Co
3+
+ 2 S
2
O
3
2-
2 Co
2+
+ S
4
O
6
2-


PROCEDURE

In this procedure, as in the standardization of thiosulfate, samples should be treated
individually rather than en masse. Air oxidation may be severe in this procedure so that the
final titrations should be done as quickly as possible. To this end you should calculate an
expected titration volume based on the formula of the complex and the known normality of
your thiosulfate, and add 90% of this volume in a single, rapid dose.

1) Accurately weigh triplicate samples of unknown cobalt compound of 0.40-0.45 g each
into each of three 250 mL Erlenmeyer flasks. Dissolve each sample in 25mL distilled
water.

2) To each sample in turn add 5 mL of 6% hydrogen peroxide and 10mL of 6 M sodium
hydroxide. Swirl the flask to mix then boil the solution very gently for 7-10 minutes to
expel NH
3
and decompose the excess peroxide. Cool the flask to room temperature in
an ice bath.

3) Dissolve 2 g KI in 10 mL water and add it to the cooled solution. Then wash down the
walls of the flask with 17 mL 6 M HCl. Cover the flask with a watch glass and swirl
the flask gently to dissolve all the cobalt oxide. Then place the covered flask in the
dark for 5 minutes.

4) Add 100 mL of water which has been boiled then cooled to room temperature. Titrate
this final solution with standard thiosulfate until the brown color is faded, add 5 mL
starch indicator, and continue to the end point. You will frequently notice that 3-5
minutes after the titration is complete the blue starch color will return, which is direct
confirmation that air oxidation of iodide occurs in acid solution.

5) Report % Co.
79

Name Date____________

THE STANDARDIZATION OF THIOSULFATE
AND DETERMINATION OF COBALT

OBJECTIVE:




PROCEDURE:




PRELIMINARY QUESTIONS:

As an oxidizing agent, K
2
Cr
2
O
7
is reduced to ?

1 mol of K
2
Cr
2
O
7
can take mole of electrons.

As a reducing agent, Na
2
S
2
O
3
be oxidized to ?

1 mol of Na
2
S
2
O
3
can release mole of electrons.

1 equivalent of K
2
Cr
2
O
7
will react with equivalents of Na
2
S
2
O
3


Part I - Standardization of Thiosulfate

DATA:
Mass of Moles of Moles of Vol. of Conc. of
K
2
Cr
2
O
7
K
2
Cr
2
O
7
Na
2
S
2
O
3
Na
2
S
2
O
3
Na
2
S
2
O
3



1 _______


2 _______


3 _______


80

Average _______
Part II - Analysis for Cobalt in Unknown Cobalt Compound

Concentration of Na
2
S
2
O
3
solution M

Mass. of Vol. of Moles Mass of Mass % Cobalt
Unknown Na
2
S
2
O
3
of Cobalt Cobalt in Sample


1 ________


2 ________


3 ________


Average = ________

Results





Conclusions






Sources of Error





81

EXPERIMENT
Spectrophotometric Determination of Co in an Unknown

INTRODUCTION

Cobalt (II) reacts with the thiocyanate ion (NCS
-
) to forms an intensely colored tetrahedral
complex, Co(NCS)
4
2-
. In water solution the complex is not very stable, but in 50% (v/v)
aqueous acetone the complex forms quantitatively. We will use a UV-Visible
Spectrophotometer to measure the intensity of these colored solutions. The UV-Visible
Spectrophotometer is calibrated using solutions of CoCl
2
.
6H
2
O that are treated in the same way
as the solutions of your unknown cobalt compound.

In order to figure out the cobalt content of an unknown, we must make a standard curve using
CoCl
2
.
6H
2
O. Analysis of this sort depends on the light absorption properties of colored
solutions which follow the Beer-Lambert Law; A c

Where A = Absorbance
= extinction coefficient
= path length (1 cm)
c = concentration in g/mL

According to the Beer-Lambert Law there is a direct relationship between concentration and
absorbance. Therefore a plot of absorbance vs. concentration should yield a straight line that
passes through zero. Using this plot it now becomes possible to determine the amount of
cobalt in an unknown sample.

To measure absorbance, we will use a Perkin-Elmer UV-Visible spectrophotometer for this
lab. Since high quality spectrophotometer cells and instruments are available to you, you
should use volumetric pipets and flasks in all the operations.

EXPERIMENT: PART A Preparation of the standard curve.

1) From a weighing boat weigh out into a clean, dry 125 mL Erlenmeyer flask a sample of
CoCl
2
.
6H
2
O weighing 0.12-0.14 gm. (Weigh to the nearest 0.1 mg. Choose dry, well-
formed crystals rather than moist clumps).

2) Add four 25-mL pipet loads of distilled water and mix thoroughly to dissolve the solid.

3) Take a 50 mL graduated cylinder and add a measured 1.0 mL sample of the cobalt
solution using your 10 mL transfer pipet. (You need not hit exactly 1 mL - record the
volume you actually delivered.) Using your pipets add 1 mL of 6 M NaOH and then 2 mL
of 6 M HCl to the graduated cylinder and then add 1 mL of a stock solution containing 75
mg of hydroxylamine hydrochloride per mL.
10
0
82

4) Finally add 10 mL of 4 M KSCN solution to your 50 mL graduated cylinder and then add
distilled water to the 50 mL mark. Pour this solution into a 100 mL volumetric flask.

5) Now add acetone to just below the 100 mL mark of the volumetric flask and mix the
contents of the flask thoroughly and then fill the flask with acetone to the 100 mL mark,
then again mix the contents of the flask thoroughly.

6) Fill a cuvette three-fourths full with the blue solution and measure both the absorbance
and the transmittance at 625 nm. All measurements should be made with the Perkin-
Elmer UV-Visible Spectrophotometer.

7) Discard the blue solution in a sink in the hood with a strong water flow.

8) Repeat steps 3-7 with two more samples prepared as follows:
2 mL Co
2+
solution + 2 mL NaOH + 3 mL HCl + 1 mL H
2
NOH
.
HCl; and
3 mL Co
2+
solution + 3 mL NaOH + 4 mL HCl + 1 mL H
2
NOH
.
HCl.

9) Using Excel, plot absorbance versus the number of grams of Co
2+
contained in one mL of
each of the blue solutions. If the Beer-Lambert law is strictly obeyed this plot will be a
straight line passing through the origin. Determine the slope and intercept of this plot.

EXPERIMENT Analysis of cobalt in an unknown cobalt compound

1) Weigh out a sample of unknown cobalt compound weighing 0.13-0.15 g and dissolve it in
a measured 100 mL volume of distilled water.

2) Place a measured 1 mL volume of this solution into a 50 mL graduated cylinder and add 1
mL of 6M NaOH.

3) Now add two mL of 6 M HCl, 1 mL of hydroxylamine hydrochloride solution, into the
graduated cylinder and swirl to mix.

4) Add 10 mL of 4 M KSCN solution to your 50 mL graduated cylinder and then add
distilled water to the 50 mL mark. Pour this solution into a 100 mL volumetric flask.

5) Now add acetone to just below the 100 mL mark of the volumetric flask and mix the
contents of the flask thoroughly and then fill the flask with acetone to the 100 mL mark,
then again mix the contents of the flask thoroughly.

6) Fill a cuvette three-fourths full with the blue solution and measure both the absorbance
and the transmittance at 625 nm. All measurements should be made with the Perkin-
Elmer UV-Visible Spectrophotometer.

7) Discard the solution in a sink in the hood with a strong water flow.
83


8) Repeat the experiment with 2 mL of unknown cobalt solution using 2 mL of NaOH
followed by 3 mL of HCl + 1 mL hydroxylamine, and again with 3 + 3 + 4 + 1.

9) Measure the absorbance of each of these solutions and, using your standard curve,
determine the number of grams of cobalt in each of your three unknown cobalt solutions.

10) Report % Co in your unknown. You should report the 3 separate values for the amount of
cobalt in the sample, their average, and the average percent cobalt in your unknown
sample.
84

Name Date____________________

Spectrophotometric Determination of Cobalt in Unknown Compound

OBJECTIVE:




PROCEDURE:




DATA: Standard Curve for Co
2+


Mass of CoCl
2
-6H
2
O used Concentration of Co
2+
g/mL

Standard # Vol. CoCl
2
Conc. Co
2+
Absorbance

#1

#2

#3

Linear Regressed Standard Curve:

Slope = Intercept = ______________

Mass of Unknown used = ___________________

g/mL of grams of Co
2+

Solution # Vol. of Absorbance Co
2+
from in orig. sample
Unknown Std. Curve

#1 ____________

#2 ____________

#3 ____________


85

Average ____________
Results:

The percentage of Co
2+
in the unknown sample was _________________%

Conclusions







Sources of Error



86

OH
2
Ni
OH
2
H
2
O
H
2
O
H
2
O
OH
2
H
3
N
Ni
H
3
N
NH
3
NH
3
NH
3
H
3
N
HN
Ni
HN
H
N
N
H
NH
NH
A
o


EXPERIMENT
ELECTRONIC ABSORPTION SPECTROSCOPY;
APPLICATION TO STUDIES OF CRYSTAL FIELD THEORY

INTRODUCTION

In this experiment you will see how different ligands affect the color of a transition metal
complex. You will make three complex ions, Ni(OH
2
)
6
2+
, Ni(NH
3
)
6
2+
, and Ni(en)
3
2+
, and take
the spectrum of each of them. According to Crystal Field Theory, the hexaaqua complex will
have the smallest A
o
splitting, the amine complex will be larger, and the ethylenediamine
complex will have the largest A
o
splitting. These changes in A
o
manifest themselves as a
change in color of each solution.










Ni(OH
2
)
6
2+
Ni(NH
3
)
6
2+
Ni(en)
3
2+


As the A
o
increases, it takes more energy to excite an electron from its lower energy level to its
higher energy level. As the energy increases, the wavelength of the light absorbed decreases,
and this light is removed from the visible spectrum. The color that we see is what remains of
the light that was not absorbed by the electrons in the octahedral complex.








White light contains the three major colors, red, yellow, and blue. If, for example, red light is
absorbed we would observe a green color (blue + yellow = green). If yellow light were
absorbed we would see a purple color (red + blue = purple) and if blue light were absorbed we
would see orange (red + yellow = orange). Our nickel complexes are more complicated
because each of them absorbs three colors of light (ROYGBIV) rather than just one. Even so,
11
Nickel (II) is a d8 ion. In an
octahedral field it splits according
to the diagram on the left. The
difference in energy, o, is in the
visible region and causes the
complex to be colored
87

the color that we see will be what remains of the spectrum once these three colors are removed.
When we take our spectrum we will see that each compound will absorb in three regions of the
visible spectrum (has three peaks). The lowest energy peak (the peak at the largest
wavelength) corresponds to the A
o
for the compound. We will measure the position of all three
peaks for all three compounds and use the lowest energy peak to determine the A
o
for each of
our compounds. If these A
o
s are put in order of increasing energy, they should be in the order
predicted by the spectrochemical series.

I
-
< Br
-
< Cl
-
< F
-
< OH
-
< H
2
O < NH
3
< en < NO
2
-
< CN
-
, CO
weak-field ligands strong-field ligands


Absorbance vs. Wavelength for Complexes of Nickel

o
region
88

EXPERIMENT

You should work in pairs on this experiment. When your complexes are prepared inform the
Instructional Assistant for instructions on the use of the spectrophotometer. Make sure all your
test tubes will hold 20 mL comfortably.

Preparation of the Octahedral Complexes:

a) Aqua complex- Ni(OH
2
)
6
2+


Dilute 10.00 mL of 0.50 M of Ni(NO
3
)
2
(stock solution) with 10.00 mL of H
2
O to
prepare a solution of 0.25 M Ni(OH
2
).

b) Amine complex- Ni(NH
3
)
6
2+


Prepare a solution of 0.25 M Ni(NH
3
)
6
2+
by mixing 15.00mL of 0.50 M of Ni(NO
3
)
2

with 15.00 mL of 12 M NH
4
OH (in the hood). Then dilute the solution to 0.125 M
by adding 10.00 mL of 2 M NH
4
NO
3
to 10.00 mL of the 0.25 M amine complex.
Save the remaining 20 mL of 0.25 M for the next part of the experiment.

c) Ethylenediamine complex- Ni(en)
3
2+


Prepare a solution of 0.15 M Ni(en)
3
2+
by mixing 3 mL of 0.50 M of Ni(NO
3
)
2
with
7mL of 1 M ethylenediamine. Dilute this solution to 0.075 M with 10 mL of water.

Run a scan on each of the solutions above between the wavelengths of 1100 nm to 300 nm.
Each of the spectra will contain three peaks. Peaks found on the right are low energy
absorption peaks and are a measure of the A
o
while those on the left are high energy absorption
peaks. Find the wavelength of all three peaks in each solution. In the result section, put the
calculated values of
o
in ascending order.

89

Name Date____________________

ELECTRONIC ABSORPTION SPECTROSCOPY;
APPLICATION TO STUDIES OF CRYSTAL FIELD THEORY

OBJECTIVE:




PROCEDURE:





DATA:

Complex
Peak 1
(nm)
Peak 2
(nm)
Peak 3
(nm)

o

(Joules)
Ni(OH
2
)
6
2+

Ni(NH
3
)
6
2+

Ni(en)
3
2+


CALCULATIONS:
(Use this space to calculate the
o
for each compound and to find the missing peak)










Results: (rank
o
in ascending order)



90

Conclusions:






Sources of Error:






QUESTIONS

1) When you ranked the lowest energy absorption as a measure of the d orbital splitting energy,
you created a mini-spectrochemical series consisting of NH
3
, H
2
O, and ethylenediamine.
Would you have gotten the same order if you had used the middle or the left-most set of peaks?

91

EXPERIMENT
COVALENT BONDING AND MOLECULAR MODELS

INTRODUCTION

Today you will use ball-and-stick molecular model kits to better understand covalent bonding.
You will figure out the structures of several different covalent molecules and then use the
models to make those molecules.

In order to draw proper Lewis structures chemists use two rules,

Rule #1: # of valence electrons + # of bonds = 8

Rule #2: All atoms, except hydrogen, want eight electrons (also known as the octet rule).

Valence electrons are determined by the column on the periodic table in which the atom is
found. Carbon is found in column four of the periodic table and therefore has four valence
electrons. To find the column an atom is in, simply count from left to right across the periodic
table, ignoring the transition metals. Most periodic tables have the column number marked at
the top of each column (in Roman numerals).

If we know the number of valence electrons an atom has then it is a simple matter to determine
how many bonds the atom must have. The table below gives the valence and the number of
bonds for several common atoms as predicted by Rule #1.

Atom Valence Bonds Total
C 4 4 8
N 5 3 8
O 6 2 8
Cl 7 1 8

Each bond has two electrons and as can be seen by the table carbon has four bonds which
means that these bonds account for eight electrons around the carbon. This is the number of
electrons required by Rule #2. Nitrogen on the other hand has three bonds which account for
six electrons. In order to fulfill the requirements of Rule #2 we must add two more electrons to
nitrogen that are not used in bonding. These electrons are called lone pair electrons. Nitrogen
needs one set of lone pair electrons (1 pair = 2 electrons). The following table tells you how
many bonds and how many lone pair electrons are to be found on some common atoms.
12
92

Atom Bonds e- Pairs Total e-
C 4 0 8
N 3 1 8
O 2 2 8
Cl 1 3 8

In this lab you will draw these molecules and then make them using the molecular model kits
provided in the lab. In each kit each ball represents a different kind of atom;

yellow balls, with 1 hole in each, represent hydrogen;

orange, green, and purple balls, with 1 hole each, represent the halogens- F, Cl, Br, I

red balls, with 2 holes each, represent oxygen or sulfur;

black balls, with 4 holes each, represent carbon or silicon.

In addition there are wooden pegs and metal springs and/or plastic tubing which represent
bonds. [Ignore the fact that some of the wood sticks are longer than others.] Use two pieces
of plastic tubing or two springs for a double bond and three pieces for a triple bond. When
removing springs from the holes in the balls, please be gentle with the springs so their shapes
are not distorted.

EXPERIMENT: First, draw the structure of each molecule given below. Don't forget to
count bonds and to look for symmetry and draw in the lone pair electrons. Then using the
balls, springs, and sticks make a model of the molecule. Compare the completed model with
your drawing. The model kits do not allow for lone pair electrons so do not expect to include
them in your model. Your drawing and model should agree as to what atoms are bonded to
what other atoms and what kinds (single, double or triple) of bonds are formed. You MUST
pay attention to bond angles for molecules with double bonds. If you do not draw them
properly you will not see all the structures you need to see. Then do the same for the next
molecule on the list. If you have time, draw the Lewis electron-dot structure of at least one
compound in each group (paragraph). If you need help--ASK!


93

COVALENT BONDING AND MOLECULAR MODELS WORKSHEET

1) Draw, then make: CH
4
, CCl
4
, HCCl
3
, and CCl
2
F
2
.









2) Draw, then make: C
2
H
6
, C
3
H
8
, and C
4
H
10
. Do you see a pattern here? (The next member
of this series is C
5
H
12
) Write down the mathematical relationship between carbons and
hydrogens in these molecules (one rule for all of them). There are two ways of drawing C
4
H
10
,
draw both of them.














3) Draw, then make: C
2
H
4
, C
3
H
6
, and C
4
H
8
. Do you see a pattern here? Write down the
mathematical relationship between carbons and hydrogens in this molecule (one rule for all of
them). There are six different ways of drawing C
4
H
8
, please draw them all.










94


4) Draw, then make: C
2
H
2
, C
2
Cl
2
, and C
3
H
4
. There are three ways of drawing C
3
H
4
, please
draw all of them.










5) There are two ways of making C
2
H
6
O. One of these isomers is CH
3
OCH
3
(dimethyl ether)
and the other is written, C
2
H
5
OH (ethyl alcohol). Draw each isomer and use the balls and
sticks to make these two isomers.








6) There are 11 ways of drawing C
3
H
6
O, please draw all of them. One of them is particularly
difficult to see, ask for help.















95

C C C C
H
H
H
H
OH
H
H
H
H H
7) Draw and make three isomers of C
2
H
2
Cl
2
. Hint: the isomers are very similar. Remember,
the breaking of bonds is required to change one isomer into another.









8) The molecule C
4
H
10
O can be drawn in a number of ways. Two of the molecules are mirror
images of one another. Make the molecule below and its mirror image. Are these two
molecules the same or different?






96


97











EXAM ONE
Nomenclature
Balancing Reactions
Protons, Neutrons, Electrons
Natural Abundance
Solubility Rules
Net Ionic Reactions
Atom, Mole, Gram Conversions
Empirical Formulas
Solution Chemistry / Molarity

98

1) What do the terms T.C. and T.D. mean?

T.C. =

T.D. =

2) A student did several runs to find the percentage of oxygen in the air. The data is given
below,
Run # Percentage Oxygen

1 18.8%
2 19.2%
3 19.0%
4 18.8%

What is the average percentage of oxygen for this experiment? Express your answer to
the correct number of significant figures. Later the student found that the percentage of
oxygen in the air was actually 21.0%. The students data was,

a) Accurate

b) Precise

c) Accurate and Precise

d) Neither accurate nor precise

3) Circle the answer which expresses the result of the following calculation to the correct
number of significant figures.

100.0 + 0.0200
20.0

4) Please indicate whether each of the following units are intensive or extensive.

a) Density Intensive Extensive

b) Temperature Intensive Extensive

c) Mass Intensive Extensive

d) Energy Intensive Extensive

99

5) The units of energy used in this class will be the Joule (J). Using the basic units of
mass, length, and time, give the definition of a joule.

6) Name the following compounds,

a) Al
2
Se
3
b) XeF
4
c) Fe
2
(SO
4
)
3

d) Cu
2
S e) CuSO
4
f) Ga(NO
3
)
3

g) N
2
O
5
h) (NH
4
)
2
SO
4
i) P
2
S
4

j) WCO
3


7) Give the formula of the following compounds,

a) Beryllium Iodide

b) Sulfur Hexafluoride

c) Copper (I) Phosphate

d) Iron (III) Sulfate

e) Carbonic acid

8) Write the formulas for the following compounds

a) Titanium (IV) Chloride
b) Tetraphosphorous decaoxide
c) Sodium Carbonate
d) Calcium Fluoride
e) Iron (III) Nitrate
f) Iodine Pentafluoride
g) Aluminum Hydroxide

9) Please provide names for the following compounds.

a) ZrO
2

b) (NH
4
)
3
PO
4

c) Na
2
S
d) SeF
4

e) CCl
4

f) CaCO
3

g) Co
2
O
3




100

10) Please write the product formed and balance each reaction

a) P + O
2

b) Mg + N
2

c) Sc + S
8

d) Li + N
2

e) N
2
+ H
2


11) Predict the charge(s) for each of the following atoms.

Sr = Nb = Sn =
Cd = Au = Re =

12) Predict the charge on the italicized element in each compound,

Pd(ClO
4
)
4
CH
2
O

KMnO
4
Na
3
AsO
4


13) Give the product for each of the following reactions.

Al + S

C + Br
2


S + F
2


P + O
2


14) Please write the net ionic reaction that occurs when the following compounds are
mixed.
Barium Nitrate and Ammonium Carbonate

Aluminum Nitrate and Sodium Hydroxide

Lead Acetate and Potassium Iodide

Silver (I) Nitrate and Sodium Dichromate

Mercury (I) Perchlorate and Sodium Chloride

Ammonium Phosphate and Calcium Chloride

Phosphoric acid and Ammonium Hydroxide
101

15) Please complete and balance the following reactions when the each compound is
combusted with oxygen.

Fe
2
S
3

NH
3

NaCN
CH
3
SH
AgCH
3
CO
2



16) Please balance each of the following reactions

Combination Reactions

P(s) + O
2
(g) P
2
O
3
(s)

N
2
(g) + H
2
(g) NH
3
(g)

Fe(s) + Cl
2
(g) FeCl
3
(s)

Decompostion Reactions

KHCO
3
(s) K
2
CO
3
(s) + H
2
O(g) + CO
2
(g)

Cr
2
(CO
3
)
3
(s) Cr
2
O
3
(s) + CO
2
(g)

AgClO
3
(s) AgCl(s) + O
2
(g)

LiNO
3
(s) LiNO
2
(s) + O
2
(g)

HgO(s) Hg(s) + O
2
(g)

H
2
O
2
(l) H
2
O(l) + O
2
(g)

Single Replacement Reactions

Cu(s) + AgNO
3
(aq) Cu(NO
3
)
2
(aq) + Ag(s)

Al(s) + Cd(C
2
H
3
O
2
)
2
(aq) Al(C
2
H
3
O
2
)
3
(aq) + Cd(s)

Fe(s) + Ni(NO
3
)
2
(aq) Fe(NO
3
)
3
(aq) + Ni(s)

102

Pb(s) + HNO
3
(aq) Pb(NO
3
)
4
(aq) + H
2
(g)

Co(s) + HCl(aq) CoCl
3
(aq) + H
2
(g)

Mn(s) + H
2
SO
4
(aq) MnSO
4
(aq) + H
2
(g)

Na(s) + H
2
O(l) NaOH(aq) + H
2
(g)

Ca(s) + H
2
O(l) Ca(OH)
2
(aq) + H
2
(g)

17) Please complete and balance each of the following double replacement reactions. If a
solid is formed, mark it with an (s) as shown in class.

AlCl
3
(aq) + AgNO
3
(aq)

CrCl
3
(aq) + Na
2
CO
3
(aq)

Au(NO
3
)
3
(aq) + K
2
CrO
4
(aq)

H
2
SO
4
(aq) + NaOH(aq)

H
3
PO
4
(aq) + Ba(OH)
2
(aq)

18) Complete and/or balance the following reactions,

a) FeS + O
2
Fe
3
O
4
+ SO
3


b) CO
2
+ H
2
O CH
4
+ O
2


c) P
2
O
5
+ H
2
O H
3
PO
4


d) Cl
2
+ CH
4
CHCl
3
+ HCl

e) H
2
SO
4
+ Al(OH)
3
Al
2
(SO
4
)
3
+ H
2
O

f) NH
3
+ O
2
NO + H
2
O

g) H
2
S + O
2
H
2
O + SO
3


h) Pb(NO
3
)
2
+ H
3
AsO
4
bHAsO
4
+ HNO
3


i) Na + H
2
O

103

j) Li + N
2


k) C + Cl
2


l) CaCl
2
+ (NH
4
)
3
PO
4


m) C
3
H
8
O + O
2


o) CaCl
2
+ H
3
PO
4


19) Balance the following reactions,

a) FeS + O
2
Fe
3
O
4
+ SO
3


b) Cl
2
+ CH
4
CHCl
3
+ HCl

c) P
2
O
5
+ H
2
O H
3
PO
4


d) H
2
SO
4
+ Al(OH)
3
Al
2
(SO
4
)
3
+ H
2
O

e) Zn(ClO
4
)
2
+ K
2
S ZnS + KClO
4


f) AlCl
3
+ H
2
O Al(OH)
3
+ HCl

20) Write the balanced NET ionic reaction for each of the following;

Ca(NO
3
)
2
+ H
3
PO
4


(NH
4
)
2
S + ZnSO
4


AgNO
3
+ NaCH
3
CO
2


NH
4
OH + H
2
S

21) Fill in the blanks.

Symbol Atomic # # of Neut. # of Prot. # of Elect. Mass#

35
Cl ________ __________ __________ ___________ ______
17

Symbol Atomic # # of Neut. # of Prot. # of Elect. Mass#

23
Na
+
_________ __________ __________ ___________ ______
11

104


22) What is the mass percentage of copper in CuSO
4
?

23) Copper is made up of two isotopes
63
Cu and
65
Cu and they weigh 62.9296 g and
64.9278g respectively. If the average natural abundance mass of copper is 63.5460 g,
calculate the percentage of
63
Cu and
65
Cu in naturally abundant copper.

24) When I went to write this problem I looked at the periodic table and saw that Rubidium
had a mass of 85.467. Since the mass of all isotopes are even (or nearly so) and this
average was uneven I knew immediately that rubidium had to have two major isotopes.
When I looked up the isotopes sure enough there were two of them but my book had
the mass of only one. Instead of a mass the other isotope had a - by it, which is clearly
wrong. The table I found is given below. Could you please use the data in the table so
I can fix my book (I'm not kidding, my book is wrong).

Isotope
%Natural
Abundance
Mass
Rb(average) 85.467
85
37
Rb 72.15 84.9117
87
37
Rb 27.85 - (wrong)

25) Using the solubility rules predict whether the following compounds are soluble or
insoluble

Na
2
SO
4
Soluble Insoluble

FeBr
3
Soluble Insoluble

Zr(CH
3
CO
2
)
4
Soluble Insoluble

CaS Soluble Insoluble

PbCl
2
Soluble Insoluble

ZnSO
4
Soluble Insoluble

26) How many atoms of sulfur (S) are there in 129 grams of FeS?

27) How many moles of copper are there in 10 grams of CuSO
4
?

28) How many grams of sulfur are needed to react with 10 grams of iron to make Fe
3
S
4
?

105

29) When KI and Pb(NO
3
)
2
are mixed a yellow solid is formed. How many grams of KI
are required to react with 30 grams of Pb(NO
3
)
2
, and how many grams of solid will
form? What is the formula of the solid?

30) How much solid will form when 100 mL of 0.75M Pb(NO
3
)
2
is added to 20 mL of 4 M
KI?

31) How many moles of NH
3
will be produced when 6.70 mol of CeCl
3
are produced
according to the following reaction?

Ce
2
O
3
+ 6NH
4
Cl 2CeCl
3
+ 3H
2
O + 6NH
3


32) When a 10.0 g sample of an unknown organic acid is subjected to combustion analysis
21.2 grams of CO
2
and 3.25 g of H
2
O are produced. Upon further analysis it was found
that the acid was 38.55% oxygen by mass. What is the empirical formula of the acid?


33) An 11.0 gram sample of a solid unknown was burned in oxygen producing 5.00 grams
of water and 16.29 grams of carbon dioxide. What is the empirical formula of the
compound?

34) When a 15.0 gram sample of an acid is subjected to combustion analysis, 26.76 grams
of carbon dioxide and 10.94 grams of water are formed. What is the empirical formula
of the compound?

35) A 15.25 gram sample of an organic acid was combusted in oxygen and produced 34.71
grams of carbon dioxide and 14.20 grams of water. What is the empirical formula of
the compound?

36) How many milliliters of 5 M CuSO
4
and water must you use to make 300 mL of 0.40
M CuSO
4
?

37) When 25 grams of KI are added to 100 grams of Hg(NO
3
)
2
a solid forms. What is the
net ionic reaction? How much solid will form?


106

Concentration Problems

38. When ammonium sulfide is added to silver nitrate solid silver sulfide is formed
according to the following reaction;

2 AgNO
3
+ (NH
4
)
2
S Ag
2
S + 2 NH
4
NO
3


a) If 25.0 mL of 0.10 M Ammonium sulfide is added to 60.0 mL of 0.10 M silver
nitrate how much silver sulfide will form?

b) Calculate the final concentration of the silver after all the precipitate (solid) has
formed.

39. When 75 mL of 0.20M Na
3
PO
4
is added to 125 mL of 0.30 M Zn(NO
3
)
2
a white solid
forms.

a) Please write the NET ionic reaction that occurred.

b) How many grams of solid were made?

c) What is the concentration of all the ions left in solution?

40. When 100 mL of 0.40M NaOH is added to 75 mL of 0.6 M Zn(NO
3
)
2
a white solid
forms.
a) Please write the NET ionic reaction that occurred.

b) How many grams of solid were made?

c) What is the concentration of all the ions left in solution?

41. How many grams of solid will form, and what is the concentration of all ionic species
left in solution when 125 mL of 0.2 M Pb(NO
3
)
2
and 50 mL of 0.60 M KI are mixed
together?

42. Write the NET IONIC reaction for the addition of 75 mL of 3 M NaOH with 100 mL of
2M BaCl
2
.

b) How much solid will form?

c) What is the concentration of the chloride ion after the reaction is complete?

107

43. A student took 25 mL of a concentrated H
2
SO
4
solution and added 225 mL to it to make
a more dilute solution. Afterwards 35 mL of the diluted H
2
SO
4
solution was titrated
with 22.7 mL of 1.5 M NaOH to the phenophthalein endpoint. What was the
concentration of the original (concentrated) H
2
SO
4
?

Neutralization Reactions

44. If 10.0 mL of 0.100 M HCl is titrated with 0.200 M NaOH, what volume of sodium
hydroxide solution is required to neutralize the acid?

HCl(aq) + NaOH(aq) NaCl(aq) + H
2
O(l)

45. If 20.0 mL of 0.500 M KOH is titrated with 0.250 M HNO
3
, what volume of nitric acid is
required to neutralize the base?

HNO
3
(aq) + KOH(aq) KNO
3
(aq) + H
2
O(l)

46. If 25.0 mL of 0.100 M HCl is titrated with 0.150 M Ba(OH)
2
, what volume of barium
hydroxide is required to neutralize the acid?

2 HCl(aq) + Ba(OH)
2
(aq) BaCl
2
(aq) + 2 H
2
O(l)

47. If 25.0 mL of 0.100 M Ca(OH)
2
is titrated with 0.200 M HNO
3
, what volume of nitric acid
is required to neutralize the base?

2 HNO
3
(aq) + Ca(OH)
2
(aq) 2 Ca(NO
3
)
2
(aq) + 2 H
2
O(l)

48. If 20.0 mL of 0.200 M H
2
SO
4
is titrated with 0.100 M NaOH, what volume of sodium
hydroxide is required to neutralize the acid?

H
2
SO
4
(aq) + 2 NaOH(aq) Na
2
SO
4
(aq) + 2 H
2
O(l)

49. If 30.0 mL of 0.100 M Ca(OH)
2
is titrated with 0.150 M HC
2
H
3
O
2
, what volume of acetic
acid is required to neutralize the base?

2 HC
2
H
3
O
2
(aq) + Ca(OH)
2
(aq) Ca(C
2
H
3
O
2
)
2
(aq) + 2 H
2
O(l)

50. If a 50.0 mL sample of ammonium hydroxide is titrated with 25.0 mL of 0.200 M nitric
acid to a methyl red endpoint, what is the molarity of the base?

NH
4
OH(aq) + HNO
3
(aq) NH
4
NO
3
(aq) + H
2
O(l)


108

51. If a 50.0 mL sample of ammonium hydroxide is titrated with 25.0 mL of 0.200 M sulfuric
acid to a methyl red endpoint, what is the molarity of the base?

2 NH
4
OH(aq) + H
2
SO
4
(aq) (NH
4
)
2
SO
4
(aq) + 2 H
2
O(l)

52. If a 25.0 mL sample of sulfuric acid is titrated with 50.0 mL of 0.200 M potassium
hydroxide to a phenolphthalein endpoint, what is the molarity of the acid?

H
2
SO
4
(aq) + 2 KOH(aq) K
2
SO
4
(aq) + 2 H
2
O(l)

53. What is the molarity of a hydrochloric acid solution if 20.00 mL of HCl is required to
neutralize 0.424 g of sodium carbonate (105.99 g/mol)?

2 HCl(aq) + Na
2
CO
3
(aq) 2 NaCl(aq) + H
2
O(l) + CO
2
(g)

54. What is the molarity of a nitric acid solution if 25.00 mL of HNO
3
is required to neutralize
0.424 g of sodium carbonate (105.99 g/mol)?

2 HNO
3
(aq) + Na
2
CO
3
(aq) 2 NaNO
3
(aq) + H
2
O(l) + CO
2
(g)

55. What is the molarity of a sulfuric acid solution if 30.00 mL of H
2
SO
4
is required to
neutralize 0.840 g of sodium hydrogen carbonate (84.01 g/mol)?

H
2
SO
4
(aq) + 2 NaHCO
3
(aq) Na
2
SO
4
(aq) + 2 H
2
O(l) + 2 CO
2
(g)

56. What is the molarity of a hydrochloric acid solution if 25.00 mL of HCl is required to
neutralize 0.500 g of calcium carbonate (100.09 g/mol)?

2 HCl(aq) + CaCO
3
(s) CaCl
2
(aq) + H
2
O(l) + CO
2
(g)

57. What is the molarity of a sodium hydroxide solution if 40.00 mL of NaOH is required to
neutralize 0.900 g of oxalic acid, H
2
C
2
O
4
, (90.04 g/mol)?

H
2
C
2
O
4
(aq) + 2 NaOH(aq) Na
2
C
2
O
4
(aq) + 2 H
2
O(l)

58. What is the molarity of a sodium hydroxide solution if 35.00 mL of NaOH is required to
neutralize 1.555 g of KHP, that is KHC
8
H
4
O
4
(204.23 g/mol)?

KHC
8
H
4
O
4
(aq) + NaOH(aq) KNaC
8
H
4
O
4
(aq) + H
2
O(l)

59. If a 0.200 g sample of sodium hydroxide (40.00 g/mol) is completely neutralized with
0.100 M H
2
SO
4
, what volume of sulfuric acid is required?

H
2
SO
4
(aq) + 2 NaOH(aq) Na
2
SO
4
(aq) + 2 H
2
O(l)


109

60. If 0.900 g of oxalic acid, H
2
C
2
O
4
, (90.04 g/mol) is completely neutralized with 0.300 M
NaOH, what volume of sodium hydroxide is required?

H
2
C
2
O
4
(aq) + 2 NaOH(aq) Na
2
C
2
O
4
(aq) + 2 H
2
O(l)

61. If 1.020 g of KHC
8
H
4
O
4
(204.23 g/mol) is completely neutralized with 0.200 M Ba(OH)
2
,
what volume of barium hydroxide is required?

2 KHC
8
H
4
O
4
(aq) + Ba(OH)
2
(aq) BaK
2
(C
8
H
4
O
4
)
2
(aq) + 2 H
2
O(l)

62. Glycine is an amino acid that can be abbreviated HGly. If 27.50 mL of 0.120 M NaOH
neutralizes 0.248 g of HGly, what is the molar mass of the amino acid?

HGly(aq) + NaOH(aq) NaGly(aq) + H
2
O(l)

63. Proline is an amino acid that can be abbreviated HPro. If 33.55 mL of 0.150 M NaOH
neutralizes 0.579 g of HPro, what is the molar mass of the amino acid?

HPro(aq) + NaOH(aq) NaPro(aq) + H
2
O(l)

64. Lactic acid is found in sour milk and can be abbreviated HLac. If 47.50 mL of 0.275 M
NaOH neutralizes 1.180 g of HLac, what is the molar mass of the acid?

HLac(aq) + NaOH(aq) NaLac(aq) + H
2
O(l)


110











EXAM ONE
Answer Keys


111

1. TC = To Contain
TD = To Deliver

2.

The data is precise but not accurate (b)

3.

4. a) intensive b) intensive c) extensive d) extensive

5.

6. a) Aluminum Selenide b) Xenon Tetrafluoride
c) Iron (III) Sulfate d) Copper (I) Sulfide
e) Copper (II) Sulfate f) Gallium Nitrate
g) Dinitrogen Pentoxide h) Ammonium Sulfate
i) Diphosphorus Tetrasulfide j) Tungsten (II) Carbonate

7. a) BeI
2
b) SF
6
c) Cu
3
PO
4
d) Fe
2
(SO
4
)
3
e) H
2
CO
3


8. Write the formulas for the following compounds

a) Titanium (IV) Chloride TiCl
4

b) Tetraphosphorous decaoxide P
4
O
10

c) Sodium Carbonate Na
2
CO
3

d) Calcium Fluoride CaF
2

e) Iron (III) Nitrate Fe(NO
3
)
3

f) Iodine Pentafluoride IF
5

g) Aluminum Hydroxide Al(OH)
3


9. Please provide names for the following compounds.
a) ZrO
2
Zirconium (IV) Oxide
b) (NH
4
)
3
PO
4
Ammonium Phosphate
c) Na
2
S Sodium Sulfide
d) SeF
4
Selenium Tetrafluoride
e) CCl
4
Carbon Tetrachloride
f) CaCO
3
Calcium Carbonate
g) Co
2
O
3
Cobalt (III) Oxide


112

10. Please write the product formed and balance each reaction
1. 4 P + 5 O
2
2
2
O
5

2. 3 Mg + N
2
Mg
3
N
2

3. 3 Sc + 3/8 S
8
Sc
2
S
3

4. 6 Li + N
2
2 Li
3
N
5. N
2
+ 3 H
2
2 NH
3


11. Sr
2+
Nb
5+
Sn
4+
Cd
2+
Au
+
Re
7+


12. Pd
4+
C
0
Mn
7+
As
5+


13. Al + S Al
2
S
3

C + Br
2
CBr
4

S + F
2
SF
6

P + O
2

2
O
5


14. Please write the net ionic reaction that occurs when the following compounds are mixed.

Barium Nitrate and Ammonium Carbonate Ba
2+
+ CO
3
2-
BaCO
3


Aluminum Nitrate and Sodium Hydroxide Al
3+
+ 3 OH
-
Al(OH)
3


Lead Acetate and Potassium Iodide Pb
2+
+ 2 I
-
bI
2


Silver (I) Nitrate and Sodium Dichromate 2 Ag
+
+ Cr
2
O
7
2-
Ag
2
Cr
2
O
7


Mercury (I) Perchlorate and Sodium Chloride Hg
2
2+
+ 2 Cl
-
Hg
2
Cl
2


Ammonium Phosphate and Calcium Chloride 3 Ca
2+
+ 2 PO
4
3-
Ca
3
(PO
4
)
2


Phosphoric acid and Ammonium Hydroxide H
+
+ OH
-
H
2
O

15. Please complete and balance the following reactions when the each compound is
combusted with oxygen.

Fe
2
S
3
+ 6 O
2
Fe
2
O
3
+ 3 SO
3


2 NH
3
+ 4 O
2
N
2
O
5
+ 3 H
2
O

2NaCN + 5 O
2
Na
2
O + 2 CO
2
+ N
2
O
5


CH
3
SH + 7/2 O
2
CO
2
+ 2 H
2
O + SO
3


2 AgCH
3
CO
2
+ 4 O
2
Ag
2
O + 4 CO
2
+ 3 H
2
O
113

16. Please balance each of the following reactions

Combination Reactions

4 P(s) + 3 O
2
(g) 2 P
2
O
3
(s)

N
2
(g) + 3 H
2
(g) 2 NH
3
(g)

2 Fe(s) + 3 Cl
2
(g) 2 FeCl
3
(s)

Decomposition Reactions

2 KHCO
3
(s) K
2
CO
3
(s) + H
2
O(g) + CO
2
(g)

Cr
2
(CO
3
)
3
(s) Cr
2
O
3
(s) + 3 CO
2
(g)

2 AgClO
3
(s) 2 AgCl(s) + 3 O
2
(g)

2 LiNO
3
(s) 2 LiNO
2
(s) + O
2
(g)

2 HgO(s) 2 Hg(s) + O
2
(g)

2 H
2
O
2
(l) 2 H
2
O(l) + O
2
(g)

Single Replacement Reactions

Cu(s) + 2 AgNO
3
(aq) Cu(NO
3
)
2
(aq) + 2 Ag(s)

2 Al(s) + 3 Cd(C
2
H
3
O
2
)
2
(aq) 2 Al(C
2
H
3
O
2
)
3
(aq) + 3 Cd(s)

2 Fe(s) + 3 Ni(NO
3
)
2
(aq) 2 Fe(NO
3
)
3
(aq) + 3 Ni(s)

Pb(s) + 4 HNO
3
(aq) Pb(NO
3
)
4
(aq) + 2 H
2
(g)

2 Co(s) + 6 HCl(aq) 2 CoCl
3
(aq) + 3 H
2
(g)

Mn(s) + H
2
SO
4
(aq) MnSO
4
(aq) + H
2
(g)

2 Na(s) + 2 H
2
O(l) 2 NaOH(aq) + H
2
(g)

Ca(s) + 2 H
2
O(l) Ca(OH)
2
(aq) + H
2
(g)

114

17. Please complete and balance each of the following double replacement reactions. If a
solid is formed, mark it with an (s) as shown in class.

AlCl
3
(aq) + 3 AgNO
3
(aq) 3 AgCl + Al(NO
3
)
3


2 CrCl
3
(aq) + 3 Na
2
CO
3
(aq) Cr
2
(CO
3
)
3
+ 6 NaCl

2 Au(NO
3
)
3
(aq) + 3 K
2
CrO
4
(aq) Au
2
(CrO
4
)
3
+ 6 KNO
3


H
2
SO
4
(aq) + 2 NaOH(aq) 2 H
2
O + Na
2
SO
4


H
3
PO
4
(aq) + 3 Ba(OH)
2
(aq) 3 H
2
O + Ba
3
(PO
4
)
2


18. Complete and/or balance the following reactions,

a) 3 FeS + 13/2 O
2
Fe
3
O
4
+ 3 SO
3


b) CO
2
+ 2 H
2
O CH
4
+ 2 O
2


c) P
2
O
5
+ 3 H
2
O 2 H
3
PO
4


d) Cl
2
+ CH
4
CHCl
3
+ HCl

e) 3 H
2
SO
4
+ 2 Al(OH)
3
Al
2
(SO
4
)
3
+ 6 H
2
O

f) 4 NH
3
+ 5 O
2
4 NO + 6 H
2
O

g) H
2
S + 2 O
2
H
2
O + SO
3


h) Pb(NO
3
)
2
+ H
3
AsO
4
bHAsO
4
+ 2 HNO
3


i) 2 Na + 2 H
2
O 2 NaOH + H
2


j) 6 Li + N
2
2 Li
3
N

k) C + 2 Cl
2
CCl
4


l) 3 CaCl
2
+ 2 (NH
4
)
3
PO
4
Ca
3
(PO
4
)
2
+ 6 NH
4
Cl

m) C
3
H
8
O + 9/2 O
2
3 CO
2
+ 4 H
2
O

o) 3 CaCl
2
+ 2 H
3
PO
4
Ca
3
(PO
4
)
2
+ 6 HCl

115

19. 3 FeS +

O
2
Fe
3
O
4
+ 3 SO
3

3 Cl
2
+ CH
4
CHCl
3
+ 3 HCl
P
2
O
5
+ 3 H
2
O 2 H
3
PO
4

3 H
2
SO
4
+ 2 Al(OH)
3
Al
2
(SO
4
)
3
+ 6 H
2
O
Zn(ClO
4
)
2
+ K
2
S ZnS + 2 KClO
4

AlCl
3
+ 3 H
2
O Al(OH)
3
+ 3 HCl
Cr
2
O
7
2-
+ 2 OH
-
2 CrO
4
-
+ H
2
O

20. 3 Ca
2+
+ 2 PO
4
3-
Ca
3
(PO
4
)
2
Zn
2+
+ S
2-
ZnS
Ag
+
+ CH
3
CO
2
-
AgCH
3
CO
2

H
+
+ OH
-
H
2
O

21.





22. Cu = 63.55 g/mol
S = 32 g/mol

4 O = 4 x 16 g/mol
159.55 g/mol CuSO
4


23.

-1.9982 X = -138.18
X = 69.15
So,

24.

61.264 + 0.2785 X = 85.467
0.2785 X = 24.203
X = 86.906 g/mol
25.
Compound Sol/Insol Rule #
Na
2
SO
4
Soluble 1
FeBr
3
Soluble 4
Zr(CH
3
CO
2
)
4
Soluble 2
CaS Insoluble 5
PbCl
2
Insoluble 3
ZnSO
4
Soluble 6
Atom/Ion Atomic # Neutrons Protons Electrons Mass #

17 18 17 17 35

11 12 11 10 23
116

26.

1.468 mol S x 6.02x10
23
atom/mol = 8.84x10
23
atoms of Sulfur

27.

28.

0.2387 mol S x 32 g/mol S = 7.638 g Sulfur

29. 2 KI + Pb(NO
3
)
2
bI
2
(s) + 2 KNO
3

X = 0.1812 mol KI 0.1812 mol KI x 166 g/mol KI = 30.07 g KI

X = 0.09058 mol PbI
2
0.09058 mol PbI
2
x 461 g/mol PbI
2
= 41.76 g PbI
2



30. 2 KI + Pb(NO
3
)
2
bI
2
(s) + 2 KNO
3


(0.75M)(0.100L) = 0.075 mol Pb(NO
3
)
2

(4.0M)(0.020L) = 0.080 mol KI

Determine the limiting reagent,

31.

117

32. 21.2 g CO
2
= 0.4818 mol CO
2
0.4818 mol C 0.4818 mol C x 12 g/mol = 5.7816 g C
44 g/mol 0.3610 mol H x 1 g/mol = 0.3610 g H
6.1426 g
Total

3.25 g H
2
O = 0.1805 mol H
2
O 0.3610 mol H 10 g - 6.1426 g = 3.8574 g of oxygen
18 g/mol

3.8574 g O = 0.244 mol O
16 g/mol

0.4818 mol C = 2 C 0.3610 mol H = 1.5 H
0.2440 mol O 1 O 0.2440 mol O 1 O

The formula is C
2
H
1.5
O but you cannot have a fraction so, 2(C
2
H
1.5
O) = C
4
H
3
O
2


The actual structure of this compound is given on the left. You
will notice that the overall formula is C
8
H
6
O
4
and not the
empirical formula of C
4
H
3
O
2
predicted by our analysis. There is
no way of knowing the actual formula unless either, the
molecule cannot be drawn in which case the formula must be
doubled or tripled until a reasonable formula is obtained. or
extra information is given. In this case, the empirical formula of
C
4
H
3
O
2
cannot be drawn so the empirical formula was doubled.
The compound is Phthalic acid.


33. An 11.0 gram sample of a solid unknown was burned in oxygen producing 5.00 grams
of water and 16.29 grams of carbon dioxide. What is the empirical formula of the
compound?

16.29 g CO
2
= 0.3702 mol CO
2
0.3702 mol C 0.3702 mol C x 12 g/mol = 4.4424 g C
44 g/mol 0.5556 mol H x 1 g/mol = 0.5556 g H
4.998 g Total

5.00 g H
2
O = 0.2777 mol H
2
O 0.5556 mol H 11 g - 4.998 g = 6.002 g of oxygen
18 g/mol

6.002 g O = 0.3751 mol O
16 g/mol

0.5556 mol H = 1.5 H 0.3751 mol O = 1 O
0.3702 mol C 1 C 0.3702 mol C 1 C

The formula is CH
1.5
O but you cannot have a fraction so, 2(CH
1.5
O) = C
2
H
3
O
2

C
C
C
C
C
C
C H
H
H
H
O OH
O
OH
118

34. When a 15.0 gram sample of an acid is subjected to combustion analysis, 26.76 grams
of carbon dioxide and 10.94 grams of water are formed. What is the empirical formula
of the compound?

26.76 g CO
2
= 0.6082 mol CO
2
0.6082 mol C 0.6082 mol C x 12 g/mol = 7.2984 g C
44 g/mol 1.2160 mol H x 1 g/mol = 1.2160 g H
8.5144 g Total

10.94 g H
2
O = 0.6080 mol H
2
O 1.2160 mol H 15 g - 8.5144 g = 6.4856 g of oxygen
18 g/mol

6.4856 g O = 0.4050 mol O
16 g/mol

0.6082 mol C = 1.5 C 1.2160 mol H = 3 H
0.4050 mol O 1 O 0.4050 mol O 1 C

The formula is C
1.5
H
3
O but you cannot have a fraction so, 2(C
1.5
H
3
O) = C
3
H
6
O
2


35. A 15.25 gram sample of an organic acid was combusted in oxygen and produced 34.71
grams of carbon dioxide and 14.20 grams of water. What is the empirical formula of
the compound?

34.71 g CO
2
= 0.7889 mol CO
2
0.7889 mol C 0.7889 mol C x 12 g/mol = 9.4668 g C
44 g/mol 1.5778 mol H x 1 g/mol = 1.5778 g H
11.0446 g Total

14.20 g H
2
O = 0.7889 mol H
2
O 1.5778 mol H 15.25 g - 11.0446 g = 4.2054 g of oxygen
18 g/mol

4.2054 g O = 0.2628 mol O
16 g/mol

0.7889 mol C = 3 C 1.5778 mol H = 6 H
0.2628 mol O 1 O 0.2628 mol O 1 C

The formula is C
3
H
6
O.


36. (0.40M)(0.300L) = (5M)(X) X = 0.024 L or 24 mL of 5M CuSO
4


So, take 24 mL of 5M CuSO
4
and add enough water to make 300 mL total (276 mL)



119

37. 2 KI + Hg(NO
3
)
2
HgI
2
(s) + 2 KNO
3


Net Ionic Hg
2+
+ 2 I
-
HgI
2
(s)

Determine the limiting reagent,

0.0753 mol HgI
2
x 454.6 g/mol HgI
2
= 34.23 g HgI
2
produced

Concentration Problem Answer Key

38. (0.10M)(0.025L) = 0.0025 mol (NH
4
)
2
S and (0.10M)(0.060L) = 0.006 mol AgNO
3


Determine the limiting reagent,

How much solid formed?

How much AgNO
3
is left?

0.006 mol AgNO
3
available - 0

= 0.001 mol AgNO

3
left

120

39. Net Ionic Reaction = 3 Zn
2+
+ 2 PO
4
3-
Zn
3
(PO
4
)
2


(0.20M)(0.075L) = 0.0150 mol Na
3
PO
4
0.0450 mol Na
+
and 0.0150 mol PO
4
3-

(0.30M)(0.125L) = 0.0375 mol Zn(NO
3
)
2
0.0375 mol Zn
2+
and 0.0750 mol NO
3
-


Determine the limiting reagent,

How much solid formed?

Zn
3
(O
4
)
2

Zn
3
(O
4
)
2


0.0075 mol Zn
3
(PO
4
)
2
x 386.08 g/mol = 2.8956 g of Zn
3
(PO
4
)
2
produced

Ion Before Rxn After Rxn Concentration
Zn
2+
0.0375 mol 0.0375-0.225 = 0.0150 mol 0.0150mol/0.200L = 0.075 M
NO
3
-
0.0750 mol 0.0750 mol 0.0750mol/0.200L = 0.375 M
Na
+
0.0450 mol 0.0450 mol 0.0450mol/0.200L = 0.225 M
PO
4
3-
0.0150 mol 0 mol 0 mol = 0.00 M

40. Net Ionic Reaction = Zn
2+
+ 2 OH
-
Zn(OH)
2


(0.40M)(0.100L) = 0.40 mol NaOH 0.040 mol Na
+
and 0.040 mol OH
-

(0.60M)(0.075L) = 0.45 mol Zn(NO
3
)
2
0.045 mol Zn
2+
and 0.090 mol NO
3
-


Determine the limiting reagent,

OH

OH

How much solid formed?

OH

Zn(OH)
2

Zn(OH)
2

0.020 mol Zn(OH)
2
x 99.38 g/mol = 1.9876 g of Zn(OH)
2
produced

121


Ion Before Rxn After Rxn Concentration
Zn
2+
0.045 mol 0.045-0.020 = 0.0250 mol 0.025 mol/0.175L = 0.1429 M
NO
3
-
0.090 mol 0.090 mol 0.090 mol/0.175L = 0.514 M
Na
+
0.040 mol 0.040 mol 0.040 mol/0.175L = 0.229 M
OH
-
0.040 mol 0 mol 0 mol/0.175L = 0.00 M

41. Net Ionic Reaction = Pb
2+
+ 2 I
-
bI
2


(0.20M)(0.125L) = 0.025 mol Pb(NO
3
)
2
0.025 mol Pb
2+
and 0.050 mol NO
3
-

(0.60M)(0.050L) = 0.030 mol KI 0.030 mol K
+
and 0.030 mol I
-


Determine the limiting reagent,

How much solid formed?

I

bI
2

bI
2

0.015 mol PbI
2
x 461 g/mol = 6.915 g of PbI
2
produced

Ion Before Rxn After Rxn Concentration
Pb
2+
0.025 mol 0.025-0.015 = 0.010 mol 0.010 mol/0.175L = 0.0571 M
NO
3
-
0.050 mol 0.050 mol 0.050 mol/0.175L = 0.2857 M
K
+
0.030 mol 0.030 mol 0.030 mol/0.175L = 0.1714 M
I
-
0.030 mol 0 mol 0 mol/0.175L = 0.00 M

42. Net Ionic Reaction = Ba
2+
+ 2 OH
-
Ba(OH)
2


(3M)(0.075L) = 0.225 mol NaOH 0.225 mol Na
+
and 0.225 mol OH
-

(2M)(0.100L) = 0.200 mol BaCl
2
0.200 mol Ba
2+
and 0.400 mol Cl
-


Determine the limiting reagent,

OH

OH

OH

How much solid formed?

122

OH

Ba(OH)
2

Ba(OH)
2

0.1125 mol Ba(OH)
2
x 171.3 g/mol = 19.27 g of Ba(OH)
2
produced

43. M
1
V
1
= M
2
V
2
moles H
+
= moles OH
-


(1.5M)(0.0227L) = (M
2
)(0.035L) M
2
= 0.9729 M H
+


the dilute solution was 0.9729 M H
+
and the total volume of this dilute solution was
250 mL so,

(0.9729 M H
+
) (0.250 L) = 0.2432 mol H
+
in the 250 mL but all of this was originally
in just 25 mL so,

123

Neutralization Reactions Answer Key

44. If 10.0 mL of 0.100 M HCl is titrated with 0.200 M NaOH, what volume of sodium
hydroxide solution is required to neutralize the acid?

HCl(aq) + NaOH(aq) NaCl(aq) + H
2
O(l)

M
1
V
1
= M
2
V
2
(0.100M) (0.010L) = (0.200M)(V
2
) V
2
= 0.005 L = 5 mL


45. If 20.0 mL of 0.500 M KOH is titrated with 0.250 M HNO
3
, what volume of nitric acid is
required to neutralize the base?

HNO
3
(aq) + KOH(aq) KNO
3
(aq) + H
2
O(l)

M
1
V
1
= M
2
V
2
(0.500M) (0.020L) = (0.250M)(V
2
) V
2
= 0.040 L = 40 mL

46. If 25.0 mL of 0.100 M HCl is titrated with 0.150 M Ba(OH)
2
, what volume of barium
hydroxide is required to neutralize the acid?

2 HCl(aq) + Ba(OH)
2
(aq) BaCl
2
(aq) + 2 H
2
O(l)

M
1
V
1
= M
2
V
2
(0.100M) (0.025L) = (0.150M)(V
2
) V
2
= 0.0166 L = 16.6 mL OH
-


But there are 2 OHs per Ba(OH)
2
so it takes half this volume = 8.33 mL of Ba(OH)
2


47. If 25.0 mL of 0.100 M Ca(OH)
2
is titrated with 0.200 M HNO
3
, what volume of nitric acid
is required to neutralize the base?

2 HNO
3
(aq) + Ca(OH)
2
(aq) 2 Ca(NO
3
)
2
(aq) + 2 H
2
O(l)

M
1
V
1
= M
2
V
2
(0.100M) (0.025L) = (0.200M)(V
2
) V
2
= 0.0125 L = 12.5 mL H+

But it takes 2 HNO
3
s per Ca(OH)
2
so it takes twice this volume = 25 mL of HNO
3



48. If 20.0 mL of 0.200 M H
2
SO
4
is titrated with 0.100 M NaOH, what volume of sodium
hydroxide is required to neutralize the acid?

H
2
SO
4
(aq) + 2 NaOH(aq) Na
2
SO
4
(aq) + 2 H
2
O(l)

0.200 M H
2
SO
4
= 0.400 M H
+


M
1
V
1
= M
2
V
2
(0.40M) (0.020L) = (0.100M)(V
2
) V
2
= 0.080 L = 80 mL NaOH
124

49. If 30.0 mL of 0.100 M Ca(OH)
2
is titrated with 0.150 M HC
2
H
3
O
2
, what volume of acetic
acid is required to neutralize the base?

2 HC
2
H
3
O
2
(aq) + Ca(OH)
2
(aq) Ca(C
2
H
3
O
2
)
2
(aq) + 2 H
2
O(l)

0.100 M Ca(OH)
2
= 0.200 M OH
-


M
1
V
1
= M
2
V
2
(0.200M) (0.030L) = (0.150M)(V
2
) V
2
= 0.040 L = 40 mL NaOH

50. If a 50.0 mL sample of ammonium hydroxide is titrated with 25.0 mL of 0.200 M nitric
acid to a methyl red endpoint, what is the molarity of the base?

NH
4
OH(aq) + HNO
3
(aq) NH
4
NO
3
(aq) + H
2
O(l)

M
1
V
1
= M
2
V
2
(0.200M) (0.025L) = (M
2
)(0.050L) M
2
= 0.100 M NH
4
OH

51. If a 50.0 mL sample of ammonium hydroxide is titrated with 25.0 mL of 0.200 M sulfuric
acid to a methyl red endpoint, what is the molarity of the base?

2 NH
4
OH(aq) + H
2
SO
4
(aq) (NH
4
)
2
SO
4
(aq) + 2 H
2
O(l)

0.200 M H
2
SO
4
= 0.400 M H
+


M
1
V
1
= M
2
V
2
(0.400M) (0.025L) = (M
2
)(0.050L) M
2
= 0.200 M NH
4
OH


52. If a 25.0 mL sample of sulfuric acid is titrated with 50.0 mL of 0.200 M potassium
hydroxide to a phenolphthalein endpoint, what is the molarity of the acid?

H
2
SO
4
(aq) + 2 KOH(aq) K
2
SO
4
(aq) + 2 H
2
O(l)

M
1
V
1
= M
2
V
2
(0.200M) (0.050L) = (M
2
)(0.025L) M
2
= 0.400 M H
+


But, there are 2 Hs per H
2
SO
4
so [H
2
SO
4
] = 0.200M

53. What is the molarity of a hydrochloric acid solution if 20.00 mL of HCl is required to
neutralize 0.424 g of sodium carbonate (105.99 g/mol)?

2 HCl(aq) + Na
2
CO
3
(aq) 2 NaCl(aq) + H
2
O(l) + CO
2
(g)

0.424 g/105.99 g/mol = 0.0040 mol Na
2
CO
3


Each Na
2
CO
3
requires 2 HCl so we need 0.0080 mol HCl

MV = moles (M)(0.020L) = 0.0080 mole HCl M = 0.40 M HCl
125

54. What is the molarity of a nitric acid solution if 25.00 mL of HNO
3
is required to neutralize
0.424 g of sodium carbonate (105.99 g/mol)?

2 HNO
3
(aq) + Na
2
CO
3
(aq) 2 NaNO
3
(aq) + H
2
O(l) + CO
2
(g)

0.424 g/105.99 g/mol = 0.0040 mol Na
2
CO
3


Each Na
2
CO
3
requires 2 HNO
3
so we need 0.0080 mol HNO
3


MV = moles (M)(0.025L) = 0.0080 mole HNO
3
M = 0.32 M HNO
3


55. What is the molarity of a sulfuric acid solution if 30.00 mL of H
2
SO
4
is required to
neutralize 0.840 g of sodium hydrogen carbonate (84.01 g/mol)?

H
2
SO
4
(aq) + 2 NaHCO
3
(aq) Na
2
SO
4
(aq) + 2 H
2
O(l) + 2 CO
2
(g)

0.840 g / 84.01 g/mol = 0.010 mol NaHCO
3

It takes 2 NaHCO3 per H
2
SO
4
so you need 0.005 mol H
2
SO
4


MV = moles M(0.030L) = 0.005 moles M = 0.167 M H
2
SO
4


56. What is the molarity of a hydrochloric acid solution if 25.00 mL of HCl is required to
neutralize 0.500 g of calcium carbonate (100.09 g/mol)?

2 HCl(aq) + CaCO
3
(s) CaCl
2
(aq) + H
2
O(l) + CO
2
(g)

0.500 g/100.09 g/mol = 0.005 mol CaCO
3


Each mole of CaCO3 requires 2 mol HCl so you need 0.005 x 2 = 0.010 mol HCl

MV = moles M(0.025L) = 0.010 mol M = 0.40 M HCl

57. What is the molarity of a sodium hydroxide solution if 40.00 mL of NaOH is required to
neutralize 0.900 g of oxalic acid, H
2
C
2
O
4
, (90.04 g/mol)?

H
2
C
2
O
4
(aq) + 2 NaOH(aq) Na
2
C
2
O
4
(aq) + 2 H
2
O(l)

0.900 g / 90.04 g/mol = 0.010 mol Oxalic acid

It takes 2 mole NaOH for every mole of Oxalic acid

so you need 2 x 0.010 mol = 0.02 mol NaOH

MV = moles M(0.040L) = 0.020 mole NaOH M = 0.50 M NaOH
126

58. What is the molarity of a sodium hydroxide solution if 35.00 mL of NaOH is required to
neutralize 1.555 g of KHP, that is KHC
8
H
4
O
4
(204.23 g/mol)?

KHC
8
H
4
O
4
(aq) + NaOH(aq) KNaC
8
H
4
O
4
(aq) + H
2
O(l)

1.555g / 204.23 g/mol = 0.00761 mol KHP

1 mole KHP needs 1 mole of NaOH so, 0.00761 mole KHP = 0.00761 mole NaOH

0.00761 mole NaOH / 0.0351 L = 0.2175 M NaOH

59. If a 0.200 g sample of sodium hydroxide (40.00 g/mol) is completely neutralized with
0.100 M H
2
SO
4
, what volume of sulfuric acid is required?

H
2
SO
4
(aq) + 2 NaOH(aq) Na
2
SO
4
(aq) + 2 H
2
O(l)

0.200 g NaOH / 40 g/mol = 0.005 mol NaOH

1 mole of H
2
SO
4
needs 2 mole NaOH so 0.005 mole NaOH needs 0.0025 mole H
2
SO
4


MV = moles (0.100 M H
2
SO
4
) (V) = 0.0025 mole V = 0.0250 L = 25 mL

60. If 0.900 g of oxalic acid, H
2
C
2
O
4
, (90.04 g/mol) is completely neutralized with 0.300 M
NaOH, what volume of sodium hydroxide is required?

H
2
C
2
O
4
(aq) + 2 NaOH(aq) Na
2
C
2
O
4
(aq) + 2 H
2
O(l)

0.900 g / 90.04 g/mol = 0.010 mol Oxalic acid

It takes 2 mole NaOH for every mole of Oxalic acid

so you need 2 x 0.010 mol = 0.02 mol NaOH

MV = moles (0.300M) (V) = 0.020 mole NaOH V = 0.0666 L = 66.6 mL

61. If 1.020 g of KHC
8
H
4
O
4
(204.23 g/mol) is completely neutralized with 0.200 M Ba(OH)
2
,
what volume of barium hydroxide is required?

2 KHC
8
H
4
O
4
(aq) + Ba(OH)
2
(aq) BaK
2
(C
8
H
4
O
4
)
2
(aq) + 2 H
2
O(l)

1.020g / 204.23 g/mol = 0.0050 mol KHP

2 mole KHP needs 1 mole of Ba(OH)
2
so, 0.0050 mole KHP needs 0.0025 mole Ba(OH)
2


MV = moles (0.200 M) (V) = 0.0025 mole Ba(OH)
2
V = 0.01250 L = 12.5 mL
127

62. Glycine is an amino acid that can be abbreviated HGly. If 27.50 mL of 0.120 M NaOH
neutralizes 0.248 g of HGly, what is the molar mass of the amino acid?

HGly(aq) + NaOH(aq) NaGly(aq) + H
2
O(l)

MV = moles (0.120 M) (0.02750L) = 0.033 mole NaOH = 0.0033 mole HGly

0.248 g / 0.0033 mole HGly = 75.12 g/mol HGly

63. Proline is an amino acid that can be abbreviated HPro. If 33.55 mL of 0.150 M NaOH
neutralizes 0.579 g of HPro, what is the molar mass of the amino acid?

HPro(aq) + NaOH(aq) NaPro(aq) + H
2
O(l)

MV = moles (0.150 M) (0.03355L) = 0.005033 mole NaOH = 0.005033 mole HPro

0.579 g / 0.050033 mole HPro = 115.05 g/mol HPro


64. Lactic acid is found in sour milk and can be abbreviated HLac. If 47.50 mL of 0.275 M
NaOH neutralizes 1.180 g of HLac, what is the molar mass of the acid?

HLac(aq) + NaOH(aq) NaLac(aq) + H
2
O(l)

MV = moles (0.275 M) (0.0475L) = 0.01306 mole NaOH = 0.01306 mole HLac

1.180 g / 0.01306 mole HLac = 90.33 g/mol HLac

128

Chemistry 120 Name______________________
First Exam October 14, 1988

CLOSED BOOK EXAM - No books or notes allowed. ALL work must be shown for full
credit. You may use a calculator.


Question Credit
1 (10)
2(10)
3(10)
4(12)
6(20)
7(20)
8(8)
TOTAL


1) Balance the following reactions;

a) NH
3
+ O
2
NO + H
2
O

b) H
2
S + O
2
H
2
O + SO
3


c) Pb(NO
3
)
2
+ H
3
AsO
4
bHAsO
4
+ HNO
3


2) Write the formulas for the following compounds.

a) Chromium (III) oxide


b) Carbonic acid


c) Cesium sulfate


d) Diphophorous pentoxide
129

3) Calculate the average of the following set of data to the correct number of significant
figures.

43.0 23.15 35 41.5 28.9





Average = __________________________


4) Given 4.0 grams of C
2
H
4
and 18.0 grams of Cl
2
in the following reaction how many grams
of HCl can form ?

C
2
H
4
+ 2 Cl
2
C
2
H
3
Cl
3
+ HCl










________________________grams

6) Consider the compound Yttrium (III) Chloride. Using your periodic table, answer the
following questions concerning the metal portion of the compound.

Atomic symbol =

Mass number =

Atomic number =

Number of protons =

Number of neutrons =

Number of electrons =

Yttrium is a ___________________ metal.
130

7) An 11.0 gram sample of a solid unknown was burned in oxygen producing 5.00 grams of
water and 16.29 grams of carbon dioxide. What is the empirical formula of the compound ?












8) How many atoms of oxygen are there in 19.5 grams of FeSO
4
?








9a) What does TC and TD mean when found on glassware?




9b) What is the difference between accuracy and precision (define each)?





9c Which is the more accurate piece of glassware, a Mohr pipet or a graduated cylinder?

131

Chemistry 120 Name___Answer Key_________
First Exam October 14, 1988

CLOSED BOOK EXAM - No books or notes allowed. ALL work must be shown for full
credit. You may use a calculator.


Question Credit
1 (10)
2(10)
3(10)
4(12)
6(20)
7(20)
8(8)
TOTAL


1) Balance the following reactions;

a) 2 NH
3
+ 5/2 O
2
2 NO + 3 H
2
O

b) H
2
S + 2 O
2
H
2
O + SO
3


c) Pb(NO
3
)
2
+ H
3
AsO
4
bHAsO
4
+ 2 HNO
3


2) Write the formulas for the following compounds.

a) Chromium (III) oxide Cr
2
O
3



b) Carbonic acid H
2
CO
3



c) Cesium sulfate Cs
2
SO
4



d) Diphophorous pentoxide P
2
O
5

132

3) Calculate the average of the following set of data to the correct number of significant
figures.

43.0 23.15 35 41.5 28.9

Total = 171.55 Average = 171.55/5 = 34.31 but on 2 sig figs so,

Average = 34


4) Given 4.0 grams of C
2
H
4
and 18.0 grams of Cl
2
in the following reaction how many grams
of HCl can form ?

C
2
H
4
+ 2 Cl
2
C
2
H
3
Cl
3
+ HCl

Determine the limiting reagent,

0.1270 mol HCl x 36.45 g/mol HCl = 4.629 g HCl


6) Consider the compound Yttrium (III) Chloride. Using your periodic table, answer the
following questions concerning the metal portion of the compound. Note: YCl
3
= Y
3+


Atomic symbol = Y

Atomic number = 39

Number of protons = 39

Number of neutrons = 50

Number of electrons = 36

Yttrium is a Transition metal.
133

7) An 11.0 gram sample of a solid unknown was burned in oxygen producing 5.00 grams of
water and 16.29 grams of carbon dioxide. What is the empirical formula of the compound ?

16.29 g CO
2
= 0.3702 mol CO
2
0.3702 mol C 0.3702 mol C x 12 g/mol = 4.4424 g C
44 g/mol 0.5556 mol H x 1 g/mol = 0.5556 g H
4.998 g
Total
5.00 g H
2
O = 0.2777 mol H
2
O 0.5556 mol H 11 g - 4.998 g = 6.002 g of oxygen
18 g/mol

6.002 g O = 0.3751 mol O
16 g/mol

0.5556 mol H = 1.5 H 0.3751 mol O = 1 O
0.3702 mol C 1 C 0.3702 mol C 1 C

The formula is CH
1.5
O but you cannot have a fraction so, 2(CH
1.5
O) = C
2
H
3
O
2


8) How many atoms of oxygen are there in 19.5 grams of FeSO
4
?

0.5137 mole O x 6.02x10
23
atoms/mol = 3.09x10
23
atoms O

9a) What does TC and TD mean when found on glassware?

TC = To Contain - Graduated cylinders
TD = To Deliver - Pipets and Burets

9b) What is the difference between accuracy and precision (define each)?

Accuracy is how close the experiment value is to the accepted value
Precision is how close each experimental value is to one another.

9c Which is the more accurate piece of glassware, a Mohr pipet or a graduated cylinder?

A Mohr pipet


134









EXAM TWO
Gas Laws
Kinetic Molecular Theory

135

1) A sample of gas occupies 30.0 liters at 0.00 atm and 2C. How many moles of gas are
in the sample?

2) What are the units on the gas constant R?

3) One atmosphere pressure will support a column of mercury 760 mm tall. If the density
of mercury is 13.6 g/ml, how tall will the column be if carbon tetrachloride is
substituted for the mercury and the pressure remains constant ? Carbon tetrachloride
has a density of 1.594 g/ml.

4) The volume of a gas at 323 K is changed from 780 ml to 620 ml at constant pressure by
reducing the temperature. What is the new temperature of the gas ?
5) What do the van der Waal constants, "a" and "b"account for?

6) Two gases at the same temperature will,

a) have the same pressure

b) have the same velocity

c) have the same kinetic energy

d) occupy the same volume

7) Given that HCl and NH
3
come together to form a solid NH
4
Cl according to the
following reaction,

NH
3
(g) + HCl(g) ----> NH
4
Cl(s)

If a 2 liter container of HCl and a 5 liter container of NH
3
(both at STP) were connected
and then allowed to react, what would the final pressure be after reaction?

8) How long will it take a nitrogen dioxide molecule to travel 25 meters at STP?

9) Suppose that 2 atm H
2
and 3 atm O
2
are put into a 10 liter container. If a spark is added
and the oxygen and hydrogen react to form gaseous water, calculate the total pressure
inside the container after reaction. Assume that the temperature and volume of the
container remain constant.

136

10) A 10 liter container at STP contains both O
2
and N
2
. Twenty- five percent of all the
atoms in the container are Oxygen. Using this information, please answer the following
questions.

a) What is the partial pressure of O
2
?

b) How many moles of N
2
are there in the container?

c) What will the partial pressure of oxygen be if 2.5 mole of Argon are
introduced into the container?

11) hen 10 mL of liuid water at 0C is placed into an evacuated 3 Liter container the
pressure inside the container is 92.54 torr. The density of water is 1 g/mL. What is the
pressure if the containers volume is, decreased to 0.5 liters? Increased to 50 liters?
Increased to 150 liters?

12) A 10 liter container at STP contains both O
2
and N
2
. Using this information, please
answer the following questions.

a) If the pressure of the nitrogen is 250 torr what is the mole fraction of O
2
?

b) How many moles of N
2
are there in the container?

13) List three of the four assumptions concerning the Ideal Gas Law.

14) A container has 2 gases in it, and one of them weighs 64 g/mol. Given the following
information calculate the molecular mass of the other component. The mole fraction of
the unknown gas is 0.35. The total pressure inside the 1.0 liter container is 1.6 atm. he
density of the gaseous miture is 3.4 gL at 2C.

15) According to the kinetic theory of gases, if a gas has twice the kinetic energy of a
second gas then the first gas,

a) weighs twice as much. b) is moving twice as fast.

c) is at twice the temperature. d) I don't know, and I don't care.

16) At what temperature will the elocity of oygen eual the elocity of hydrogen at 2C

17) At what temperature does nitrogen have exactly twice the velocity of chlorine gas? N
2

= 28 g/mol and Cl
2
= 70.9 g/mol.
137

18) A box is filled with hexane, which is a liquid with a high vapor pressure (300 torr) at
25C. If 100 grams of hexane (FWT = 86 g/mole) are in the box and the box is expanded,
what is the pressure inside the box when the box is;

10 L

20 L

60 L

80 L

100 L

19) A box is filled with acetone, which is a commonly used solvent. It has a vapor pressure of
119 torr at 25C. If 0.80 mole of acetone are in the box and the box is expanded, what is the
pressure inside the box when the box is;

60 L

80 L

100 L

120 L

150 L

180 L

138

20) One way of making natural gas is by the so called water-gas reaction,

CO
2
+ 4 H
2
CH
4
+ 2 H
2
O

a) An experimenter took 20 liters of CO
2
and reacted it with 75 liters of H
2
at STP.
How many grams of CH
4
would be produced?

b) Calculate the final pressure assuming all products and reactants are ideal gases.

c) What is the mole fraction of the water in the final mixture after reaction?

d) Explain briefly why the final pressure in the reaction vessel would actually be much
less than our prediction from Part B? (You do not need to do Part B to answer this
question.)

21) The gas phase reaction between nitrogen and hydrogen is as follows,

N
2
+ 3 H
2
-----> 2 NH
3


When 100 grams of N
2
are added to 20 grams of H
2
at 300C ammonia is produced. If a
10 liter reaction vessel is used, please answer the following questions.

(a) How much ammonia is produced (in grams)?

(b) What is the pressure of the ammonia gas produced?

(c) What is the total pressure in the container AFTER reaction?

(d) What is the mole fraction of ammonia?

(e) Before reaction the pressure is higher inside the container than after reaction. Please
explain why.

(f) What is the density of the final mixture?

(g) What is the average molecular mass of the mixture?

(h) What is the average translational kinetic energy of the mixture?

(i) If the hydrogen was introduced to one end of a 10 meter tube and nitrogen to the
other end of the tube, at what point along the tube would the ammonia form? Draw a
picture to illustrate your answer.


139

22) A 2 liter tank containing oxygen at 0.5 atm pressure is connected by means of a valve
to a 3 liter tank containing nitrogen at 2 atm at the same pressure.

a) If the valve is opened, what will the new pressure be if the temperature remains
constant?

b) What is the partial pressure of the oxygen?

c) What is the mole fraction of nitrogen?

23) A 10.0 liter container is filled with a gas mixture consisting of 1.00 g of O
2
, 2.00 g H
2
,
and 0.50 g of CO
2
. What is the total pressure if the temperature is 27C. What is the
partial pressure of each substance?


24) When an open flask containing air is heated from 27C to 87C, what fraction of the air
in the flask is expelled? Assume that the volume of the flask and the atmospheric
pressure are constant.


25) Nitrogen gas is collected over water at 22C, and the volume is measured as 284 mL
when the total pressure of the gas is 764 torr. What volume would the nitrogen occupy
if it were dry and the pressure was 760 torr? Use the following table to answer the
question.

Temperature (C) Pressure (torr)

0 4.6
10 9.2
20 17.5
22 19.8
24 22.4
26 25.2
28 28.3

26) A 10 liter container has 0.30 mole fraction Argon. When the temperature of the
container is increased by 50.0C the pressure increases by a factor of 1.4. If the total
number of mole of gas in the container is 1.30 mole, what was the original pressure of
the argon in the container?

140

Gas Laws Answer Key

1) PV = nRT n = PV/RT ==> n = (0.800 atm)(30.0 L)/(0.08206 Latm/molK)(298 K)
n = 0.9814 moles of gas
2) 0.08206 L atm/mol K

3)
1
h
1

2
h
2
(13.6 g/mL Hg) (760 mm Hg) = (1.594 g/mL CCl
4
) (h
CCl4
)
h
CCl4
= 6,484.3 mm CCl
4

4)

1
n
1

2
n
2

2
so

2

70 mL
323 K

620 mL

2

2
26.74 K

5) V-nb = excluded volume

P + n
2
/a
2
= stickiness factor

6) Two gases at the same temperature will have the same kinetic energy (c).

7) Solids do not have a pressure so NH
4
Cl(s) does not add to the pressure. Also, at STP, 1
mole of gas occupies 22.4 liters,

2 L = 0.08929 mole HCl 5 L = 0.2232 mole NH
3

22.4 L/mole 22.4 L/mole

Total moles = 0.08929 mole HCl + 0.2232 mole NH
3
= 0.3125 mole total before reaction.

After reaction all of the HCl is used and some of the NH
3
is left,

0.2232 mole NH
3
- 0.08929 mole HCl = 0.13391 mole NH
3
left after reaction

1
n
1

2
n
2

2
so

1
n
1

2
n
2

1 atm
0.312 mol

2


2
0.426 atm

8) velocity = meters/sec = 25 m/ X sec = [3 (8.314J/molK)(273)/(0.046 Kg/mol NO
2
)]

X sec = 0.06498 seconds



141

9) The reaction is 2 H
2
+ O
2
2 H
2
O

By looking at the reaction, 2 atm of H
2
only needs 1 atm of O
2
but you have 3 atm O
2

so after reaction there will be 2 atm O
2
left. Also, 2 atm H
2
makes 2 atm of H
2
O, so
you have,

2 atm O
2
left + 2 atm H
2
O made = 4 atm total

10a) If 25% of the atoms are oxygen, then 25% of the pressure is caused by oxygen. If the
total pressure is 1 atm at STP then oxygen must represent 25% of 1 atm or 0.25 atm.

b) Since 1 mole of gas occupies 22.4 L at STP there must be,

10 L = 0.4464 moles total in the container
22.4 L/mole

Since 25% of these moles are oxygen then 75% of them must be nitrogen so,

0.75 x 0.4464 mole total = 0.3348 mole of nitrogen.

c) The pressure of the oxygen does not change by adding another gas like argon.
No Change - the pressure is still 0.25 atm

11) First thing you do is calculate the maximum size the container can be before the
pressure begins to drop.

V = nRT/P => V = (10g H
2
O/18 g/mol)(0.08206 Latm/molK)(323 K)/(92.54torr/760
torr/atm)
V = 120.93 liters

Therefore, the pressure remains constant at 0.5 liters and 50 liters (both are at 92.54
torr) but drops at 150 liters. We need to calculate the new pressure at 150 liters,

P
1
V
1
= P
2
V
2
==> (92.54 torr)(120.93 L) = P
2
(150 L) P
2
= 74.61 torr

12a) P
tot
X
1
= P
1
so, X
1
= P
1
/P
tot


X
1
= (760 torr - 250 torr N
2
)/(760 torr) = 0.6711 mol fraction

b) 10 L / 22.4 L/mol = 0.4464 mole total in the container. If O
2
makes up 0.6711 mole
fraction of the gas, then N
2
makes up 1 - 0.6711 = 0.3289 mole fraction. So,

0.4464 mole total x 0.3289 mole fraction = 0.1468 mole N
2


142

13) a) Molecules have no volume
b) Molecules do not stick together
c) Molecules do not stick to the container
d) Collisions are perfectly elastic. There is no loss of energy.

14) FWT = dRT/P ==> FWT = (3.45g/L)(0.08206 L atm/mol K)(298 K)/ (1.6 atm)
FWT = 52.73 g/mol is the average mass of the gases

FWT
1
X
1
+ FWT
2
X
2
= FWT average

(64g/mol)(0.35) + FWT
2
(0.65) = 52.73 g/mol

FWT
2
= 46.66 g/mol

15) c) is at twice the temperature.

16) v
1
/v
2
= (FWT
2
T
1
/FWT
1
T
2
)

but, if they have the same velocity then,

1 = (FWT
2
T
1
/FWT
1
T
2
)

= [(32 g/mol O
2
)(298 K)/ (2 g/mol H
2
)(T
2
)]



Solving for T
2
,

T
2
= 4768 K

17) At what temperature does nitrogen have exactly twice the velocity of chlorine gas? N
2

= 28 g/mol and Cl
2
70. gmol. Assume chlorine is at 2C.

v
1
/v
2
= (FWT
2
T
1
/FWT
1
T
2
)

but, if Nitrogen has twice the velocity of Chlorine then,

2/1 = 2 = (FWT
2
T
1
/FWT
1
T
2
)

= [(70.9 g/mol Cl
2
)(T
1
)/ (28 g/mol N
2
)(298 K)]



Solving for T
1
,

T
1
= 470.74 K


143

18. PV = nRT

)



(


)


Therefore, any volume small than 72.03 L the pressure remains unchanged. So,

10 L = 300 torr
20 L = 300 torr
60 L = 300 torr
80 L

)






100 L

)





19. PV = nRT

(


)


Therefore, any volume small than 124.9 L the pressure remains unchanged. So,

60 L = 119 torr
80 L = 119 torr
100 L = 119 torr
120 L = 119 torr
150 L

180 L

20) a) At STP, 1 mole of gas occupies 22.4 liters,

0.8371 mol CH
4
x 16 g/mol = 13.39 g of CH
4

144

b) moles of H
2
= 0 since it is limiting
moles of CO
2
= 0.8929 mol available 0.8371 mole used = 0.0558 mole left
moles of CH
4
= 0.8371 mol produced
moles of H
2
O = 2 x moles of CH4 = 2 x 0.8371 = 1.6742 mol

Total moles = 0 mol H
2
+ 0.0558 mol CO
2
+ 0.8371 mol CH
4
+ 1.6742 mol H
2
O
= 2.5671 mol total

c)

d) At STP water would be frozen (ice). It could not behave like an Ideal Gas so the
overall pressure has been overestimated.

21) The gas phase reaction between nitrogen and hydrogen is as follows,

N
2
+ 3 H
2
-----> 2 NH
3


When 100 grams of N
2
are added to 20 grams of H
2
at 300C ammonia is produced. If a
10 liter reaction vessel is used, please answer the following questions.

(a) How much ammonia is produced (in grams)?

This is a limiting reactant problem.

(b) What is the pressure of the ammonia gas produced?

145

10 meter tube
H
2
N
2
X 10 - X
(c) What is the total pressure in the container AFTER reaction?

3.5714 mol N
2
was available but 3.3333 mol of N
2
were used leaving 0.2381 mol N
2


Since it was limiting, all the H
2
was consumed and 6.666 moles of NH
3
were produced

Total moles = 0.2381 mol N
2
+ 6.666 moles of NH
3
= 6.9041 mol Total

(d) What is the mole fraction of ammonia?

(e) Before reaction the pressure is higher inside the container than after reaction. Please
explain why.

Look at the balanced reaction. When 1 mole of N
2
and 3 moles of H
2
react they
become only 2 moles of NH
3
. So, 4 moles of reactant become 2 moles of
product. The pressure must go down.

(f) What is the density of the final mixture? Note: 100 g N
2
+ 20 g H
2
= 120 g total








(g) What is the average molecular mass of the mixture?

(h) What is the average translational kinetic energy of the mixture?

E
k
= 3/2 RT = 3/2 (8.314 J/mol K)(573K) = 7145.9 J/mol

(i) If the hydrogen was introduced to one end of a 10 meter tube and nitrogen to the
other end of the tube, at what point along the tube would the ammonia form? Draw a
picture to illustrate your answer.



146

22) A 2 liter tank containing oxygen at 0.5 atm pressure is connected by means of a valve
to a 3 liter tank containing nitrogen at 2 atm at the same pressure.

a) If the valve is opened, what will the new pressure be if the temperature remains
constant?

P
1
V
1
+ P
2
V
2
= P
tot
V
tot


(0.5atm)(2L) + (2atm)(3L) = P
tot
(5L) P
tot
= 1.4 atm

b) What is the partial pressure of the oxygen?

Think of it this way, what is the new pressure if the 2 liter container suddenly
became a 5 L container?

P
1
V
1
= P
2
V
2


(0.5atm)(2L) = P
2
(5L) P
2
= 0.2 atm O
2


c) What is the mole fraction of nitrogen?

If the oxygen = 0.2 atm then the nitrogen must be 1.2 atm. Therefore,

23) A 10.0 liter container is filled with a gas mixture consisting of 1.00 g of O
2
, 2.00 g H
2
,
and 0.50 g of CO
2
. What is the total pressure if the temperature is 27C. What is the
partial pressure of each substance?

Total Moles = 0.03125 mol O
2
+ 1 mol H
2
+ 0.01136 mol CO
2
= 1.04261 mol Total

147

24. When an open flask containing air is heated from 27C to 87C, what fraction of the air
in the flask is expelled? Assume that the volume of the flask and the atmospheric
pressure are constant.

Assume you have 1 mole of gas at 27C

n
1
T
1
= n
2
T
2
(1mole)(300K) = (n
2
)(360K) n
2
= 0.8333 mole remains

0.1667 mole was expelled or 16.67% was expelled.

25) Nitrogen gas is collected over water at 22C, and the volume is measured as 284 mL
when the total pressure of the gas is 764 torr. What volume would the nitrogen occupy
if it were dry and the pressure was 760 torr? Use the following table to answer the
question.

@ 22C the pressure of the nitrogen would be 764 torr 19.8 torr = 744.2 torr

The temperature and number of moles of nitrogen remain constant so,

P
1
V
1
= P
2
V
2


(744.2 torr)(284 mL) = (760 torr) (V
2
) V
2
= 278.1 mL

Temperature (C) Pressure (torr)

0 4.6
10 9.2
20 17.5
22 19.8
24 22.4
26 25.2
28 28.3


148

26) A 10 liter container has 0.30 mole fraction Argon. When the temperature of the
container is increased by 50.0C the pressure increases by a factor of 1.4. If the total
number of mole of gas in the container is 1.30 moles, what was the original pressure of
the argon in the container?

The pressure starts out at P
1
and increases to 1.4P
1
when the temperature increases from
T
1
to T
1
+ 50

So, the original temperature was 125 Kelvin. We also know that the original number of
moles of Ar = 0.30 mole fraction x 1.30 mole total = 0.39 mole Ar. So,

149

Chemistry 120 Name_____________________
Second Exam November 1, 1996

CLOSED BOOK EXAM - No books or notes allowed. ALL work must be shown for full
credit. You may use a calculator.

Problem Credit
1(10)
2(20)
3(20)
4(50)
Total


Important equations and constants

R = 0.08205 liter-atm/mole-K or R = 8.314 J/mole-K
FWT = dRT/P

1
h
1

2
h
2


2) What is the height of a barometer that uses chloroform as it's liquid if the atmospheric
pressure is 755 torr and the chloroform has a density of 1.35 g/mL and a vapor pressure of 65
torr? The density of mercury is 13.6 g/mL.







150

4) Hydrochloric acid can react with acetylene to form the toxic chemical dichloroethane (DCE)
according to the following reaction,

2 HCl + C
2
H
2
C
2
H
4
Cl
2


How many moles of dichloroethane (C
2
H
4
Cl
2
) can be made by mixing 5 liters of HCl and 3
liters of C
2
H
2
if both of them are at STP? Assume the containers are rigid.




















4b) What is the pressure inside the container AFTER reaction (8 liters total)?











4c) What is the mole fraction of C
2
H
2
in the final mixture?




151

4d) What is the average molecular mass of the mixture AFTER reaction?










4e) What is the velocity of C
2
H
2
at STP?

152

Chemistry 120 Name________________________
Second Exam November 1, 1996

CLOSED BOOK EXAM - No books or notes allowed. ALL work must be shown for full
credit. You may use a calculator.

Problem Credit
1(10)
2(20)
3(20)
4(50)
Total


Important equations and constants

R = 0.08205 liter-atm/mole-K or R = 8.314 J/mole-K

FWT dR
1
h
1

2
h
2


2) What is the height of a barometer that uses chloroform (CH
3
Cl) as its liquid if the
atmospheric pressure is 755 torr and the chloroform has a density of 1.35 g/mL and a vapor
pressure of 65 torr? The density of mercury is 13.6 g/mL.

755 torr - 65 torr = 690 torr = 690 mm Hg

1
h
1

2
h
2
(13.6 g/mL Hg) (690 mm Hg) = (1.35 g/mL CH
3
Cl) (h
CH3Cl
)
h
vodka
= 6951.1 mm CH
3
Cl





153

4) Hydrochloric acid can react with acetylene to form the toxic chemical dichloroethane (DCE)
according to the following reaction,

2 HCl + C
2
H
2
----> C
2
H
4
Cl
2


How many moles of dichloroethane (C
2
H
4
Cl
2
) can be made by mixing 5 liters of HCl and 3
liters of C
2
H
2
if both of them are at STP? Assume the containers are rigid.

5 L = 0.2232 mol HCl and 3 L = 0.1339 mole C
2
H
2

22.4 L/mol 22.4 L/mol

Limiting reactant

2 HCl = 0.2232 mol X = 0.1116 mole C
2
H
2
used HCl is limiting
1 C
2
H
2
X

2 HCl = 0.2232 mol X = 0.1116 mole C
2
H
4
Cl
2

1 C
2
H
4
Cl
2
X


4b) What is the pressure inside the container AFTER reaction (8 liters total)?

Note: All the HCl was used because it was the limiting reagent

Tot mol = 0.1116 mol C
2
H
4
Cl
2
produced + (0.1339 mole C
2
H
2
- 0.1116 mole C
2
H
2

used)
= 0.1339 mole total

P = nRT/V P = (0.1339 mol)(0.08206 Latm/mol K)(273 K) /(8 L) = 0.375 atm

4c) What is the mole fraction of C
2
H
2
in the final mixture?

n
1
/n
tot
= X
1
(0.0223 mol C
2
H
2
)/(0.1339 mol Tot) = 0.1665 mole fraction C
2
H
2


4d) What is the average molecular mass of the mixture AFTER reaction?

0.0223 mol C
2
H
2
x 26 g/mole = 0.5798 g C
2
H
2
11.6198 g Tot = 86.77 g/mol Tot
+ 0.1160 mol C
2
H
4
Cl
2
x 98.9 g/mol = 11.04 g C
2
H
4
Cl
2
0.1339 mol Tot
0.1339 mol Tot = 11.6198 g Tot

4e) What is the velocity of C
2
H
2
at STP?

v = (3RT/FWT)

= [3(8.314 J/mol K)/(0.026 Kg/mol)]

= 511.8 m/sec

154

Chemistry 120 Name________________________
Second Exam November 7, 1997

CLOSED BOOK EXAM - No books or notes allowed. ALL work must be shown for full
credit. You may use a calculator.

Problem Credit
1(15)
2(35)
3(10)
4(15)
5(10)
6(15)

Total



Important equations and constants. For more equations see the blackboard.

R = 0.08205 liter-atm/mole-K or R = 8.314 J/mole-K


1a) What are the two things we assumed about gases in working with the ideal gas law?

a)

b)

1b) Van der waals equation makes up for the deficiencies of the Ideal Gas Law by adding two
terms that account for non-ideality. What are these two terms and what do they do to help fix
the ideal gas law?

a)

b)

1c) What is the average translational kinetic energy of any gas at STP?


155

3) How tall would a barometer made of carbon tetrachloride (CCl
4
) be if the density of the
CCl
4
is 1.7 gmL and it has a apor pressure of 100 torr at 2C ensity of Hg 13.6 gmL.





4) Two gases, N
2
and O
2
are introduced into a 10 liter container. he pressure inside the
container is 10 torr at 2C. If the mole fraction of O
2
is 0.20 then;

a) What is the pressure of the nitrogen?




b) What is the average molecular mass of the mixture of gasses?





c) What is the new pressure if the container is allowed to expand to 25 liters?







6) Hydrogen gas (H
2
) and iodine (I
2
) are placed at opposite ends of a 20 meter tube. ou
want them to meet in the center. If the hydrogen is at 2C, how hot would you hae to make
the I
2
to get them to meet in the center? Assume that heating the I
2
does not affect the
temperature of the H
2
.






156

Chemistry 120 Name________________________
Second Exam November 7, 1997

CLOSED BOOK EXAM - No books or notes allowed. ALL work must be shown for full
credit. You may use a calculator.

Problem Credit
1(15)
2(35)
3(10)
4(15)
5(10)
6(15)

Total



Important equations and constants. For more equations see the blackboard.

R = 0.08205 liter-atm/mole-K or R = 8.314 J/mole-K


1a) What are the two things we assumed about gases in working with the ideal gas law?

a) Gases have no volume

b) Gases are not sticky. They do not stick to the container or each other.

1b) Van der waals equation makes up for the deficiencies of the Ideal Gas Law by adding two
terms that account for non-ideality. What are these two terms and what do they do to help fix
the ideal gas law?

a) (V-nb) = excluded volume

b) P + n
2
/a
2
= stickiness factor

1c) What is the average translational kinetic energy of any gas at STP?

Ek = 3/2 RT = 3/2 (8.314 J/mol K) (273 K) = 3404.6 J
157

3) How tall would a barometer made of carbon tetrachloride (CCl
4
) be if the density of the
CCl
4
is 1.57 g/mL and it has a apor pressure of 100 torr at 2C ensity of Hg 13.6 gmL.

760 torr - 100 torr = 660 torr = 660 mm Hg

1
h
1

2
h
2
(13.6 g/mL Hg) (660 mm Hg) = (1.57 g/mL CCl
4
) (h
CCl4
)
h
vodka
= 5,517.2 mm CCl
4


4) Two gases, N
2
and O
2
are introduced into a 10 liter container. he pressure inside the
container is 10 torr at 2C. If the mole fraction of O
2
is 0.20 then;

a) What is the pressure of the nitrogen? X
N2
+ X
O2
= 1 therefore X
N2
= 1 - X
O2
= 1- 0.20 = 0.80

P
tot
X
1
= P
1
(510 torr) (0.80 mol fract) = 408 torr for N
2



b) What is the average molecular mass of the mixture of gasses?

(0.80) (28g/mol N
2
) + (0.20)(32g/mol O
2
) = 28.8 g/mol



c) What is the new pressure if the container is allowed to expand to 25 liters?

P
1
V
1
= P
2
V
2
(510 torr) ( 10 L) = (P
2
) (25 L) P
2
= 204 torr

6) Hydrogen gas (H
2
) and iodine (I
2
) are placed at opposite ends of a 20 meter tube. ou
want them to meet in the center. If the hydrogen is at 2C, how hot would you hae to make
the I
2
to get them to meet in the center? Assume that heating the I
2
does not affect the
temperature of the H
2
. (Note: This is the same as saying; at what temperature will H
2
and I
2

have the same velocity?)

v
1
/v
2
= (FWT
2
T
1
/FWT
1
T
2
)

but, if they have the same velocity then,

1 = (FWT
2
T
1
/FWT
1
T
2
)

= [(254 g/mol I
2
)(298 K)/ (2 g/mol H
2
)(T
2
)]



Solving for T
2
,

T
2
= 37,846 K
Note FWT I
2
= 254 g/mol
FWT H
2
= 2 g/mol
T
H2
= 298 K
T
I2
= T
2



158

Chemistry 120 Name________________________
Second Exam November 13, 1998

CLOSED BOOK EXAM - No books or notes allowed. ALL work must be shown for full
credit. You may use a calculator.

Problem Credit
1(12)
2(12)
3(16)
4(35)
5(25)
Total

Important equations and constants

R = 0.08205 liter-atm/mole-K or R = 8.314 J/mole-K
FWT = dRT/P

1
h
1

2
h
2


1) Acetylene (C
2
H
2
) can be hydrogenated to make a common gas called ethane (C
2
H
6
)
according to the following reaction,

C
2
H
2
+ 2 H
2
> C
2
H
6


If 2.5 mole of acetylene and 4.5 mole of hydrogen are both put into a container at STP please
answer the following questions.

a) What is the pressure of the hydrogen before reaction?








b) What is the mole fraction of acetylene before reaction?

159

c) What is the final total pressure of the system after reaction?






d) What is the average formula weight of the mixture after reaction?




2) Vodka (ethanol) has a vapor pressure of 100 torr at 3C. If you had a really long straw, and
could suck on the straw really hard, what would be the highest that you could suck the vodka
up the straw? Assume that the atmosphere has a pressure of 755 torr, mercury has a density of
13.6 g/mL, and vodka a density of 0.88 g/mL.






2b) Suppose now that 100 mL of odka were put into a container and the container was
epanded to 2000L and heated from 3C to 10C, what would the new pressure be inside the
container? FWT Vodka = 46 g/mole







2c) How fast would the odka gas be traeling at 10C








2d) hat is the aerage translational kinetic energy of odka at 3C

160

Chemistry 120 Name_________________________
Second Exam November 13, 1998

CLOSED BOOK EXAM - No books or notes allowed. ALL work must be shown for full
credit. You may use a calculator.

Problem Credit
1(12)
2(12)
3(16)
4(35)
5(25)
Total

Important equations and constants

R = 0.08205 liter-atm/mole-K or R = 8.314 J/mole-K
FWT = dRT/P

1
h
1

2
h
2


1) Acetylene (C
2
H
2
) can be hydrogenated to make a common gas called ethane (C
2
H
6
)
according to the following reaction,

C
2
H
2
+ 2 H
2
> C
2
H
6


If 2.5 mole of acetylene and 4.5 mole of hydrogen are both put into a container at STP please
answer the following questions.

a) What is the pressure of the hydrogen before reaction?

2.5 mole + 4.5 mole = 7 mole total and you have 1 atm total pressure (STP)

P
tot
X
1
= P
1
= (1atm) (4.5mole H
2
/7 mole total) = 0.6429 atm H
2



b) What is the mole fraction of acetylene before reaction?

X
actylene
= n
acetylene
/n
total
= 2.5 mole / 7.0 mole = 0.3571 mole fraction

161

c) What is the final total pressure of the system after reaction? (Limiting reagent problem so
find limiting reagent first)

2 H
2
= 4.5 mole X = 2.25 mole C
2
H
2
H
2
is limiting so no moles of H
2
left after rxn
1 C
2
H
2
X mole and this is how much C
2
H
2
is used so
2.50 mol - 2.25 mol = 0.25 mol left after rxn
How much C
2
H
6
is made? Using limiting reagent

2 H
2
= 4.5 mol X = 2.25 mol C
2
H
6
made so, 2.25 mol C
2
H
6
+ 0.25 mol C
2
H
2
= 2.5 mol tot
1 C
2
H
6
X

P
1
= P
2
==> 1 atm = P
2
P
2
= 0.357 atm after rxn
n
1
n
2
7 mol 2.5 mol

d) What is the average formula weight of the mixture after reaction?

0.25 mol C
2
H
2
x 26 g/mol = 6.5 g C
2
H
2
69.5 g Tot = 27.8 g/mol
+ 2.25 mol C
2
H
6
x 28 g/mol = 63 g C
2
H
6
2.5 mol Tot
2.5 mol Total = 69.5 g tot

2) Vodka (ethanol) has a vapor pressure of 100 torr at 3C. If you had a really long straw, and
could suck on the straw really hard, what would be the highest that you could suck the vodka
up the straw? Assume that the atmosphere has a pressure of 755 torr, mercury has a density of
13.6 g/mL, and vodka a density of 0.88 g/mL.

755 torr - 100 torr = 655 torr = 655 mm Hg

1
h
1

2
h
2
(13.6 g/mL Hg) (655 mm Hg) = (0.88 g/mL Vodka) (h
vodka
)
h
vodka
= 10,122.7 mm Vodka

2b) Suppose now that 100 mL of vodka were put into a container and the container was
epanded to 2000L and heated from 3C to 10C, what would the new pressure be inside the
container? FWT Vodka = 46 g/mole (Note: 100 mL x 0.88 g/mL = 88 grams of Vodka = 1.913
mol Vodka)

Max volume = Vol
max
= (1.913 mol) (0.08206 Latm/molK)(308 K)/(100torr/760 torr/atm)
= 367.46 L before all the vodka turns to gas Vodka is a gas @ 2000 L

P = nRT/V P = (1.913 mol) (0.08206 Latm/molK)(378 K)/(2000 L) = 0.02967 atm = 22.55
torr

2c) How fast would the odka gas be traeling at 10C

v = [3(8.314 J/mol K) (378 K)/(0.046 Kg/mol)]

= 452.7 m/sec

162

2d) hat is the aerage translational kinetic energy of odka at 3C

Ek = 3/2 (8.314 J/mol K) (308 K) = 3841.1 J

163









EXAM THREE
Quantum Theory
Rydberg Equation
Quantum Numbers
Orbital Filling
Orbital Shapes
Hybridization
VSEPR
MO Theory
Crystal Field Theory
164

1) Rank the following electromagnetic waves according to increasing wavelength.

cosmic, visible, U.V., radio

2) It has been said that U.V. radiation is "ionizing radiation". Explain why this term is
consistent with our view of the energy of electrons around a nucleus.

3) If the wavelength of green light is 380 nm, what is its frequency? How much energy is
there in one photon of green light? What is the mass of one photon of green light?
Note: ONE photon not one mole of photons!

4) If the frequency of blue light is 470 nm, what is its wavelength? What is the mass of
one mole of blue light?

5) The human eye can detect a weak flash of light in which as little as 2.16x10
-18
J of
energy strikes the eye. How many photons of light of wavelength 460 nm (blue light)
must strike the eye in order to be seen?

6) What is the wavelength of Nolan Ryans fast ball if he throws it at 100.9 mph? A
hardball weighs 5 oz. Note: 1 meter = 3.28 ft and 1 oz = 0.02835 kg.

7) Calculate the de Broglie wavelength of a particle whose mass is 1.0 gram traveling at a
speed of 1.0 cm/sec.

8) Calculate the wavelength of the third line in the Lyman series.

9) Calculate the energy of transition for the second line of the Balmer series. What is the
frequency of this transition? What is the mass of this photon of light?

10) How much energy does it take to move one electron from the ground state to the 6th
excited state in a hydrogen atom? What is the frequency of this transition? What is the
wavelength of this transition? What is the mass of the light used for this transition?

11) Please calculate the energy of transition to the 5th excited state in the Lyman series.
The Rydberg constant = 2.18 x10
-18
J. The sign on the energy of transition should be
(positive or negative)? Please calculate the wavelength of the light during this
transition.

12) Which of the following set of quantum numbers cannot exist?

2,1,0,+1/2 1,1,0,-1/2 6,3,-3,-1/2 7,0,0,+1/2



165

13) Write the quantum numbers for the following atoms.

Hf W Rb Te Au

14) Please give the complete orbital filling diagram for Antimony. (ex. N = 1s
2
2s
2
2p
3
)

15) Give the outer electronic configuration of each of the following atoms and ions. (Li =
[He] 2s
1
)

Zn
2+
=
Cr =
Sb =

16) Based on your knowledge of the periodic table, predict which of the following pair of
atoms (ions) has the larger atomic radius. (Circle the larger atom or ion).

K
+
or Cl
-

Fe
2+
or Fe
3+

S
2-
or Se
2-

Zr or Nb

17) Please draw the shape of the d orbitals and label each appropriately.

18) Please draw the Lewis structure for SO
3
.

19) Please draw the Lewis structure for C
3
H
6
O.

20) Please draw the Lewis structure for C
2
H
4
O
2
.

21) Please draw all of the resonance forms of CO
3
2-.


22) What is the hybridization found around the central atom in each of the following
compounds? The central atom is given in parentheses for clarity.

CCl
4
(C) sp sp2 sp3 sp3d sp3d2

CaCl
2
(Ca) sp sp2 sp3 sp3d sp3d2

AlCl
3
(Al) sp sp2 sp3 sp3d sp3d2

HGaO (Ga) sp sp2 sp3 sp3d sp3d2

IF
5
(I) sp sp2 sp3 sp3d sp3d2

166

H
C
C
H
H
H
O
N
H
H
N
C C
C
H
C
H
C C
CH
3
H
H
OH
H
Cl
23) How many pi and sigma bonds are there in the following compounds,












Sigma = Pi = Sigma = Pi =

24) Calculate the coordination number, draw the overall shape, name the structure ignoring
lone pair electrons, and indicate the hybridization on the central atom.

Molecule Coord # Overall Shape Shape - ignoring e
-
's Hybridization



SOCl
2








XeF
2
Cl
2








MgCl
2





167




CO
2








IF
3








NH
3








AlCl
3








H
2
S







PCl
3





168




CO
3
2-








SO
2








CH
2
O







PO
4
3-








ClF
4
+







25) Using MO theory explain the bond order found in the N
2
molecule. Draw the
molecular orbital diagram.

26) What is the hybridization of the carbon atom in the compound whose formula is CH
2
O?

169

27) Using MO theory explain the bond order found in the N
2
2+
molecule. Draw the
molecular orbital diagram. Is the compound paramagnetic or diamagnetic?

28) Which of the following compounds is diamagnetic?

a) O
2
+
b) N
2
c) C
2
d) He
2
+


29) For each of the following compounds determine how many d electrons there are on the
central atom, whether it is low spin or high spin, and draw the splitting diagram.

Cu(H
2
0)
6
2+
Fe(en)
3
Cl
3
Au(CO
2
)
6
3+


Nb(CO)
6
Cl
2
Co(CN)
6
3-
Cd(OH)
3
Cl
3
4+


Fe(CO)
6
3+
CoCl
6
3-
RhBr
4
3-


30) Please name the following compounds

Cu(OH)
4
2-



Na
3
AuCl
4



Mo(CN)
6
4-



Fe(CO)
6
ScCl
6


170

Exam 3 Problem Set Answer Key

1) cosmic, U.V.,visible, radio

2) U.V. radiation is exactly the right energy to cause an electron to be removed from its
orbit around the nucleus. This is easily shown using the Rydberg equation and
calculating the energy of an electron in going from the ground state to infinity. The
energy calculated will correspond to the energy of U.V. light.

3) c = v 3x10
8
m/sec = (380x10
-9
m) v v = 7.89x10
14
Hz
E =hv = (6.6256x10
-34
Jsec)(7.89x10
14
Hz) = 5.228x10
-19
J

4) c = v 3x10
8
m/sec = (470x10
-9
m) v v = 6.38x10
14
Hz

5) c = v 3x10
8
m/sec = (460x10
-9
m) v v = 6.52x10
14
Hz
E =hv = (6.6256x10
-34
Jsec)(6.52x10
14
Hz) = 4.32x10
-19
J/photon
2.16x10
-18
J/4.32x10
-19
J/photon = 5 photons

6) 100.9 mph => 45.12 m/sec and a 5 oz harball weighs 0.14175 kg
= h/mv 6.6256x10
-34
/(0.14175 Kg)(45.12 m/sec) = 1.036x10
-34
m

7) 1.0 cm/sec = 0.01m/sec and 1.0gram = 1x10
-3
Kg
= h/mv 6.6256x10
-34
/(1x10
-3
Kg)(0.01 m/sec) = 6.6256x10
-39
m

8) E = 2.18x10
-18
J (1/n
1
2
- 1/n
2
2
) = 2.18x10
-18
J (1/1
2
- 1/4
2
) = 2.044x10
-18
J
E = hc/ ==> = hc/E ==> = (6.6256x10
-34
J sec) (3x10
8
m/sec)/(2.044x10
-18
J)
= 9.72x10-8 m or 97.2 nm

9) Calculate the energy of transition for the second line of the Balmer series. What is the
frequency of this transition?

E = 2.18x10
-18
J (1/n
1
2
- 1/n
2
2
) = 2.18x10
-18
J (1/2
2
- 1/4
2
) = 4.088x10
-19
J
E = hv ==> v = E/h ==> v = (4.088x10
-19
J)/(6.6256x10
-34
J sec)
v = 6.17x10
14
Hz

10) E = 2.18x10
-18
J (1/n
1
2
- 1/n
2
2
) = 2.18x10
-18
J (1/1
2
- 1/7
2
) = 2.138x10
-18
J
E = hv ==> v = E/h ==> v = (2.136x10
-18
J)/(6.6256x10
-34
J sec)
v = 3.22x10
15
Hz
c = v 3x10
8
m/sec = (3.22x10
15
Hz) = 9.31x10
-8
m or 93.1 nm


171

11) E = 2.18x10
-18
J (1/n
1
2
- 1/n
2
2
) = 2.18x10
-18
J (1/1
2
- 1/6
2
) = 2.119x10
-18
J
E = hc/ ==> = hc/E ==> = (6.6256x10
-34
J sec) (3x10
8
m/sec)/(2.119x10
-18
J)
= 9.38x10-8 m or 93.8 nm

12) Which of the following set of quantum numbers cannot exist?

2,1,0,+1/2 1,1,0,-1/2 6,3,-3,-1/2 7,0,0,+

if n = 1 then the next number must be n - 1 to zero. In this case n-1 = 0 so the next
number must be 0. Therefore, 1,1,0, -1/2 does not exist.

13) Write the quantum numbers for the following atoms.

Hf W Rb Te Au
5,2,0, 5,2,0, 5,0,0, 5,1,0, 5,2,0,

14) Please give the complete orbital filling diagram for Antimony. (ex. N = 1s
2
2s
2
2p
3
)

Sb = 1s
2
2s
2
2p
6
3s
3
3p
6
4s
2
3d
10
4p
6
5s
2
4d
10
5p
3


15) Give the outer electronic configuration of each of the following atoms and ions. (Li =
[He] 2s
1
)

Zn
2+
= [Ar] 4s
0
3d
10


Cr = [Ar] 4s
1
3d
5


Sb = [Kr] 5s
2
4d
10
5p
3


16) Based on your knowledge of the periodic table, predict which of the following pair of
atoms (ions) has the larger atomic radius. (Circle the larger atom or ion).

K
+
or Cl
-


Fe
2+
or Fe
3+


S
2-
or Se
2-


Zr or Nb



172

17) Please draw the shape of the d orbitals and label each appropriately.





















18) Please draw the Lewis structure for SO
3
.






19) Please draw the Lewis structure for C
3
H
6
O.





20) Please draw the Lewis structure for C
2
H
4
O
2
.







X
Y
X
Z
Y
Z
X
Y Z
d
xy
d
xz
d
yz
d
x
2
-y
2 d
z
2
S
O
O O
C
O
C C
H
H
H
H
H
H
C
O
C O
H
H
H
H
173

H
C
C
H
H
H
O
N
H
H
N
C C
C
H
C
H
C C
CH
3
H
H
OH
H
Cl
21) Please draw all of the resonance forms of CO
3
2-.








22) What is the hybridization found around the central atom in each of the following
compounds? The central atom is given in parentheses for clarity.

CCl
4
(C) sp sp2 sp3 sp3d sp3d2

CaCl
2
(Ca) sp sp2 sp3 sp3d sp3d2

AlCl
3
(Al) sp sp2 sp3 sp3d sp3d2

HGaO (Ga) sp sp2 sp3 sp3d sp3d2

IF
5
(I) sp sp2 sp3 sp3d sp3d2


23) How many pi and sigma bonds are there in the following compounds,













Sigma = 17 Pi = 6 Sigma = 17 Pi = 3


C
O
O O
2-
C
O
O
O
2-
C
O O
O
2-
174

24) Calculate the coordination number, draw the overall shape, name the structure ignoring
lone pair electrons, and indicate the hybridization on the central atom.

Molecule Coord # Overall Shape Shape - ignoring e
-
's Hybridization



SOCl
2





S = 6
O = 0
2Cl = 2

8/2 = 4




Trigonal pyramid


sp3



XeF
2
Cl
2





Xe = 8
2F = 2
2Cl = 2

12/2 = 6






Square Planar



sp3d2



MgCl
2






Mg = 2
2Cl = 4

4/2 = 2







Linear



sp



CO
2





C = 4
2O = 0

4/2 = 2








Linear



sp



IF
3





I = 7
3F = 3

10/2 = 5





T-shape



sp3d
O
S
Cl
Cl
F
Xe
Cl F
Cl
Cl Mg Cl
O C O
F I
F
F
175




NH
3





N = 5
3H = 3

8/2 = 4





Trigonal pyramid



sp3



AlCl
3





Al = 3
3Cl = 3

6/2 = 3





Trigonal Planar



sp2



H
2
S




S = 6
2H = 2

8/2 = 4





Bent



sp3



PCl
3





P = 5
3Cl = 3

8/2 = 4





Trigonal pyramid



sp3



CO
3
2-




C = 4
3O = 0
2- = 2

6/2 = 3





Trigonal Planar



sp2



SO
2





S = 6
2O = 0

6/2 = 3





Bent



sp2
H
N
H
H
Cl
Al
Cl Cl
H
H
S
Cl
P
Cl
Cl
O
C
O O
O
S
O
176

1so
1so*
2so
2so*
2po
2po*
2pt*
2pt 2pt
2pt*



CH
2
O




C = 4
2H = 2
O = 0

6/2 = 3





Trigonal Planar



sp2



PO
4
3-





P = 5
4O = 0
3- = 3

8/2 = 4





Tetrahedral



sp3



ClF
4
+





Cl = 7
4F = 4
+ = -1

10/2 = 5





See-saw



sp3d

25) Using MO theory explain the bond order found in the N
2
molecule. Draw the
molecular orbital diagram.

The bond order is,

BO = e
-
in bonding orbitals - e
-
in antibonding orbitals
2

BO = 10 - 4 = 3 so the molecule has a triple bond.
2











O
C
H H
O
O
P
O
O
Cl
F
F
F
F
177

26) What is the hybridization of the carbon atom in the compound whose formula is CH
2
O?

Coordination number and hybridization are linked.
C = 4
2H = 2
O = 0
Total 6/2 = 3 sp2 hybridized


27) Using MO theory explain the bond order found in the N
2
2+
molecule. Draw the molecular
orbital diagram. Is the compound paramagnetic or diamagnetic?

The bond order is,

BO = e
-
in bonding orbitals - e
-
in antibonding orbitals
2
BO = 8 - 4 = 2 so the molecule has a double bond.
2
Because there are two unpaired electrons the molecule is
paramagnetic
















1so
1so*
2so
2so*
2po
2po*
2pt*
2pt 2pt
2pt*
178

28) Which of the following compounds is diamagnetic?

a) O
2
+
b) N
2
c) C
2
d) He
2
+



Only N
2
has all its
electrons paired so
only N
2
is
diamagnetic (B).













29) Please answer the following questions concerning each of compounds listed below.

# d electrons HS/LS/NA Para/Dia > or < E


Pd(NH
3
)
2
Cl
2
d8 NA since sq.planar Diamag. > E




Ru(CO)
6
3+
d5 Low Spin Paramag > E




Ni(H
2
O)
6
2+
d8 NA HS and LS are the same Paramag < E




HgCl
4
2-
d10 NA since no HS or LS on Diamag < E
tetrahedrals
1so
1so*
2so
2so*
2po
2po*
2pt*
2pt 2pt
2pt*
1so
1so*
2so
2so*
2po
2po*
2pt*
2pt 2pt
2pt*
1so
1so*
2so
2so*
2po
2po*
2pt*
2pt 2pt
2pt*
1so
1so*
2so
2so*
2po
2po*
2pt*
2pt 2pt
2pt*
A B C D
179


Draw the d orbital splitting diagram for each of the compounds giving above.




















30) Please name the following compounds

Cu(OH)
4
2-
tetrahydroxocuprate (II)


Na
3
AuCl
4
Sodium tetrachloroaurate (I)


Mo(CN)
6
4-
hexacyanomolybdate (II)


Fe(CO)
6
ScCl
6
hexacarbonyl iron (III) hexachloroscandanate (III)

Pd(NH
3
)
2
Cl
2
Ru(CO)
6
3+
Ni(H
2
O)
6
2+
HgCl
4
2-
180

Chemistry 120 Name
Third Exam January 15, 1992

CLOSED BOOK EXAM - No books or notes allowed. ALL work must be shown for full
credit. You may use a calculator.

Question Credit
1(12)
2(8)
3(8)
4(20)
5(6)
6(8)
7(24)
8(14)
TOTAL

1a) The ground state electronic configuration for Molybdenum is,

a) [Kr] 5s
2
4d
4
b) [Xe] 5s
2
4d
4


c) [Kr] 5s
1
4d
5
d) [Kr] 4d
5


1b) What is the expected charge on a Mercury ion?

a) +1 b) +2

c) +3 c) -2

1c) List the following ions in order of decreasing radius.

Na
+
, O
2-
, Mg
2+
, F
-
, Al
3+


a) O
2-
> F
-
> Na
+
> Mg
2+
> Al
3+
b) F
-
> O
2-
> Al
3+
> Mg
2+
> Na
+


c) Al
3+
> Mg
2+
> Na
+
> F
-
> O
2-
d) Na
+
> F
-
> Mg
2+
> O
2-
> Al
3+




181

1e) Which element has the quantum number, 3,1,0,- ?

a) Fe b) S

c) Mg d) P

1f) Which of the following quantum numbers cannot exist?

a) 4,3,-3,- b) 2,1,0,

c) 3,3,1, d) 1,0,0,

3) Please draw a Lewis structure for C
4
H
4
O
2
Cl
2
.




4) Please draw the shape, name the shape ignoring lone pair electrons, and indicate the
hybridization in each of the following compounds,

Molecule Shape Name Hybridization


IF
4
-






SbCl
3
2-






SiO
4
4-






Be(OH)
2
2-




182

5) If two electrons are removed from a molecule of neon (Ne
2
2+
) a bond forms. Please circle
all of the true statements concerning this molecule.

a) The molecule is diamagnetic.

b) The molecule has a single bond.

c) Each atom is sp hybridized.

d) The Lewis structure of Ne
2
2+
violates the octet rule.

e) The bond order for the molecule is 2.

6) How many pi and sigma bonds are there in the following compound?

H H H H
\ / \ /
C=C C=C #Pi = #Sigma =
/ \ / \
H C=C F
/ \
H Cl

7) Please answer the following questions concerning each of compounds listed below.

# d electrons HS/LS/NA araia Oh > or < E


Pd(NH
3
)
3
Cl
3



Ru(CO)
6
3+



Ni(H
2
O)
6
2+



8a) What is the energy of transition of the 3rd line of the Balmer series?






183

8b) What is the frequency of this transition?




8c) What is the wavelength of this transition?





8d) How much MORE energy would the electron have to be given if the atom is to become
ionized?



184

Chemistry 120 Name KEY
Third Exam January 15, 1992

CLOSED BOOK EXAM - No books or notes allowed. ALL work must be shown for full
credit. You may use a calculator.

Question Credit
1(12)
2(8)
3(8)
4(20)
5(6)
6(8)
7(24)
8(14)
TOTAL


1a) The ground state electronic configuration for Molybdenum is,

a) [Kr] 5s
2
4d
4
b) [Xe] 5s
2
4d
4


c) [Kr] 5s
1
4d
5
d) [Kr] 4d
5


1b) What is the expected charge(s) on a Mercury ion?

a) +1 b) +2

c) +3 c) -2

1c) List the following ions in order of decreasing radius.

Na
+
, O
2-
, Mg
2+
, F
-
, Al
3+


a) O
2-
> F
-
> Na
+
> Mg
2+
> Al
3+
b) F
-
> O
2-
> Al
3+
> Mg
2+
> Na
+


c) Al
3+
> Mg
2+
> Na
+
> F
-
> O
2-
d) Na
+
> F
-
> Mg
2+
> O
2-
> Al
3+



185

1e) Which element has the quantum number, 3,1,0,- ?

a) Fe b) S

c) Mg d) Po

1f) Which of the following quantum numbers cannot exist?

a) 4,3,-3,- b) 2,1,0,

c) 3,3,1, d) 1,0,0,

3) Please draw a Lewis structure for C
4
H
4
O
2
Cl
2
.



4) Please draw the shape, name the shape ignoring lone pair electrons, and indicate the
hybridization in each of the following compounds,

Molecule Shape Name Hybridization


IF
4
-



I
F
F F
F


Square Planar sp3d2


SbCl
3
2-



Cl
Sb
Cl
Cl


T-shape sp3d


SiO
4
4-



O
Si
O
O
O


Tetrahedral sp3


Be(OH)
2
2-



OH
Be
HO


Bent sp2

C C C C
O
Cl Cl
O
H
H
H
H
186

5) If two electrons are removed from a molecule of neon (Ne
2
2+
) a bond forms. Please circle
all of the true statements concerning this molecule.

a) The molecule is diamagnetic.

b) The molecule has a single bond.

c) Each atom is sp hybridized.

d) The Lewis structure of Ne
2
2+
violates the octet rule.

e) The bond order for the molecule is 2.

6) How many pi and sigma bonds are there in the following compound?

H H H H
\ / \ /
C=C C=C #Pi = 3 #Sigma = 13
/ \ / \
H C=C F
/ \
H Cl

7) Please answer the following questions concerning each of compounds listed below.

# d electrons HS/LS/NA araia Oh > or < E


Pd(NH
3
)
6
Cl
3
d7 LS Para Oh > E


Ru(CO)
6
3+
d5 LS Para Oh > E


Ni(H
2
O)
6
2+
d8 NA Para Oh < E


8a) What is the energy of transition of the 3rd line of the Balmer series?

187

8b) What is the frequency of this transition?

E = hv
4.578x10
-19
J = 6.6256x10
-34
Jsec (v)
v = 6.906x10
-14
Hz

8c) What is the wavelength of this transition?





8d) How much MORE energy would the electron have to be given if the atom is to become
ionized?

c = v
(3x10
8
m/s)/(6.906x10
-14
Hz) = = 4.342x10
-7
m = 434.2 nm
188

Chemistry 120 Name Key_________________
Third Exam December 10, 2007

CLOSED BOOK EXAM - No books or notes allowed. ALL work must be shown for full
credit. You may use a calculator.

Question Credit
1(18)
2(12)
3(12)
4(15)
5(25)
6(18)

TOTAL



Equations and Constants

E h c h = 6.6256x10
-34
Jsec c = 3x10
8
m/sec

)



1a) What are the expected charges found on the ions made from Rhenium (Re)?

Re =[Xe] 6s
2
4f
14
5d
5

Re
+
=[Xe] 6s
1
4f
14
5d
5

Re
2+
=[Xe] 6s
0
4f
14
5d
5

Re
5+
=[Xe] 6s
2
4f
14
5d
0

Re
7+
=[Xe] 6s
0
4f
14
5d
0


1b) Please draw the complete orbital filling diagram for Tellurium (Li = 1s
2
2s
1
)

Te = 1s
2
2s
2
2p
6
3s
2
3p
6
4s
2
3d
10
4p
6
5s
2
4d
10
5p
4


1c) Please draw the dx
2
-y
2
orbital.


189

1so
1so*
2so
2so*
2po
2po*
2pt*
2pt 2pt
2pt*
1d) Please give one possible quantum number for each of the atoms below,

Au = 5d 5,2,0,

Pu = 5f 5,3,0,


2) Please draw the Lewis structure for C
3
H
5
OCl







3) How many sigma and pi bonds are there in the following compound?

Sigma Bonds = 17


Pi Bonds = 4


Hybridization on atom # 1 2 3 4

sp3 sp2 sp2 sp2

4) Using MO theory, please answer the following questions about N
2
+
.
Draw the MO diagram here

Bond order = (9 - 4)/2 = 2.5

Paramagetic or Diamagnetic?

Paramagnetic - one unpaired electron

Does this molecule exist?

Yes, there is a bond between the atoms

C C C
H
H
H
H
H
O
Cl
N
N
C
N
C
C
C
N
C
N
O
H
H
H
H
H
1
2
3
4
190

5) An electron in the 2nd excited state of Hydrogen is struck by a photon of light of
wavelength 1005 nm.

a) What is the frequency of the photon?

c = v 3x10
8
m/sec = (1005x10
-9
m) v v = 2.985x10
14
Hz


b) What is the energy of this photon?

E = hv = (6.6256x10
-34
Jsec)(2.985x10
14
Hz) = 1.978x10
-19
J


c) To which energy level did the electron go?

n
2
= 7.00367 ==> n
2
= 7

d) How much energy was released by the electron in going to the energy level you calculated
in 5c)?

191

6) Using VSEPR draw and name the shape of the following compounds. When naming the
shape ignore lone pair electrons.
Molecule Coord # Shape Name Hybrid AXE



ClFO
2





Cl = 7
F = 1
2O = 0

8/2 = 4





Trigonal
pyramid



sp3



AX3E



PF
4
+





P = 5
4F = 4
+ = -1

8/2 = 4





Tetrahedral



sp3



AX4



SO
2





S = 6
2O = 0

6/2 = 3





Bent



sp2



AX2E

Bonus Problem (10 pts)
An electron in an excited state of hydrogen is struck by green light which ejects the electron
with a velocity of 500,000 m/sec. If the photon had a wavelength of 794.67 nm, and an
electrons mass is 9.11x10
-28
g, which energy level was the electron in prior to being struck by
the photon of light?

otal Energy Energy to go from n to + Energy of ejected electron
Energy of ejected electron = E = mv
2
= (9.11x10
-31
Kg)(500,000 m/sec)
2
= 1.13875x10
-19
J

Total Energy = Energy of photon of green light
E =hc/ = (6.6256x10
-34
Jsec)(3x10
8
m/sec)/(794.67x10
-9
m) = 2.5013x10
-19
J
So, 2.5013x10
-19
J Energy to go from n to + 1.13710
-19
J
Energy to go from n to 1.36210
-19
J
E = 2.18x10
-18
J (1/n
1
2
- 1/n
2
2
)
1.3625x10
-19
J = 2.18x10
-18
J (1/n
1
2
- 1
2
)
n
1
= 4, so the electron started in n = 4.
O
Cl
F
F
F
F
P
F
F
S
O
O
192

Chemistry 120 Name ___________________
Third Exam December 7, 2009

CLOSED BOOK EXAM - No books or notes allowed. ALL work must be shown for full
credit. You may use a calculator.

Question Credit
1(18)
2(10)
3(16)
4(20)
5(16 )
6(20)

TOTAL



Equations and Constants

E h c h = 6.6256x10
-34
Jsec c = 3x10
8
m/sec

)

1a) What are the expected charges found the ions made from Technetium (Tc)?





1b) Please draw the complete orbital filling diagram for Antimony (Sb) (Li = 1s
2
2s
1
)




1c) Please give one possible quantum number for each of the atoms below,

Se = Pu =


1d) How many electrons could you hae in an i orbital
193

2) Please draw the Lewis structure for C
3
H
6
O
2
.








3) How many sigma and pi bonds are there in the following compounds?

What is the hybridization on atom #

1 2 3 4 5 6

_____ _____ _____ _____ _____ _____



4) An electron in the first excited state of Hydrogen is struck by a photon of light of
wavelength 387 nm.

a) What is the frequency of the photon?




b) What is the energy of this photon?





c) To which energy level did the electron go?







d) How much energy was released by the electron in going to the energy level you calculated
in 4c)?

N
N
C
N
C
C
C
N
C
N
O
H
H
H
H
C N
1
2
3
4
5 6
194

5) Please draw the MO diagram for O
2
2+


Bond order =


Paramagnetic or Diamagnetic?


Exist or Not?

6) Using VSEPR draw and name the shape of the following compounds. When naming the
shape ignore lone pair electrons.

Molecule Coord # Shape Name - ignoring e
-
's Hybrid



SF
4








CH
2
O







NO
2
-








IF
5





195

Chemistry 120 Name Key
Third Exam December 7, 2009

CLOSED BOOK EXAM - No books or notes allowed. ALL work must be shown for full
credit. You may use a calculator.

Question Credit
1(18)
2(10)
3(16)
4(20)
5(16 )
6(20)

TOTAL



Equations and Constants

E h c h = 6.6256x10
-34
Jsec c = 3x10
8
m/sec

)
1a) What are the expected charges found the ions made from Technetium (Tc)?

Tc =[Kr] 5s
2
4d
5

Tc
+
=[Kr] 5s
1
4d
5

Tc
2+
=[Kr] 5s
0
4d
5

Tc
5+
=[Kr] 5s
2
4d
0

Tc
7+
=[Kr] 5s
0
4d
0


1b) Please draw the complete orbital filling diagram for Antimony (Sb) (Li = 1s
2
2s
1
)

Sb = 1s
2
2s
2
2p
6
3s
2
3p
6
4s
2
3d
10
4p
6
5s
2
4d
10
5p
3


1c) Please give one possible quantum number for each of the atoms below,

Se = 5,1,0, Pu = 5,3,0

1d) How many electrons could you hae in an i orbital

13 orbitals = 26 electrons
196

2) Please draw the Lewis structure for C
3
H
6
O
2
.








3) How many sigma and pi bonds are there in the following compounds?

What is the hybridization on atom #

1 2 3 4 5 6

_sp3_ _sp2_ _sp2_ _sp2_ _sp__ _sp__



4) An electron in the first excited state of Hydrogen is struck by a photon of light of wavelength
387 nm.

a) What is the frequency of the photon?

c = v 3x10
8
m/sec = (387x10
-9
m) v v = 7.751x10
14
Hz

b) What is the energy of this photon?


E = hv = (6.6256x10
-34
Jsec)(7.741x10
14
Hz) = 5.136x10
-19
J

c) To which energy level did the electron go?

)
n
2
= 8.3339 n
2
= 8

d) How much energy was released by the electron in going to the energy level you calculated in
4c)?

C C C
O
O H
H
H
H
H
H
N
N
C
N
C
C
C
N
C
N
O
H
H
H
H
C N
1
2
3
4
5 6

197

1so
1so*
2so
2so*
2po
2po*
2pt*
2pt 2pt
2pt*
5) Please draw the MO diagram for O
2
2+


Bond order = (10 - 4)/2 = 3


Paramagnetic or Diamagnetic?
Diamagnetic

Exist or Not? Yes, it has a triple bond


6) Using VSEPR draw and name the shape of the following compounds. When naming the
shape ignore lone pair electrons.

Molecule Coord # Shape Name - ignoring e
-
's Hybrid



SF
4





S = 6
4F = 4

10/2 = 5





See-saw



sp3d



CH
2
O




C = 4
2H = 2
O = 0

6/2 = 3





Trigonal Planar



sp2



NO
2
-





N = 5
2O = 0
- = 1

6/2 = 3






Bent




sp2



IF
5



I = 7
5F = 5

12/2 =6




Square Pyramid



sp3d2
S
F
F
F
F
O
C
H H
O
N
O
F
I
F F
F
F

198













Final Exams
30% Cut and Paste from previous exams
30% New material
40% New questions on old material


199

Chemistry 120 Name______________________
Final Exam December 18, 2000

CLOSED BOOK EXAM - No books or notes allowed. ALL work must be shown for full
credit. You may use a calculator.

Question Credit Question Credit
1(15) 6(25)
2(15) 7(25)
3(12) 8(20)
4(30) 9(10)
5(30) 10(18)
TOTAL TOTAL
Grand Total


1) Please find the value and associated error of the following mathematical operation.


34.568 0.004 - 23.089 0.005 =
3.57 0.02

















200

2) Write the names of the following compounds and indicate the solubility by choosing the
correct answer.

Name

Au(NO
3
)
3
___________________ Soluble Insoluble


BaSO
4
___________________ Soluble Insoluble


PbI
2
___________________ Soluble Insoluble


P
2
S
3
___________________ Soluble Insoluble


NH
4
Cl ___________________ Soluble Insoluble


3) Please complete and balance the following reactions,

a) As + O
2


b) K
2
S + FeCl
3


c) Sc + Cl
2


d) H
2
SO
4
+ Al(OH)
3


4a) When 10 grams of an organic molecule was subjected to combustion analysis 15.17g of
CO
2
and 3.10g of H
2
O were produced. What is the empirical formula of the compound?













201


4b) When 10 grams of the organic acid was the titrated with 2.5 M NaOH, it took 68.95 mL. If
the acid was diprotic, then what is the true formula of the compound?













4c) Please draw the true Lewis structure of the compound.









5) Short answer problems.

5A) What is the average translational kinetic energy of any gas at STP?



5B) Please give the four quantum numbers for Antimony (Sb).




5C) What is the complete orbital filling diagram for Te? Example: Li = 1s
2
2s
1
.




5D) Please predict all of the possible charges for Palladium (Pd)?


202

5E) Please circle the quantum numbers that can exist.

4,3,-3, 6,0,0, 7,6,5,1

18, 12, 5,- 3,4,2, 2,2,0,-

5F) One clever student decided to use a barometer to measure the vapor pressure of
chloroform. The student made a very tall barometer and filled it with chloroform and then
measured its height as being 5460 mm tall. The student then measured atmospheric pressure
using a standard mercury barometer and found that it was 755 torr. If the density of
chloroform is 1.35 g/mL, what was the vapor pressure of the chloroform? Density of mercury
= 13.6 g/mL.








6) When potassium dichromate is added to solutions containing silver, a brick red precipitate
forms according to the following reaction. ,

2 AgClO
4
+ K
2
Cr
2
O
7
Ag
2
Cr
2
O
7
(s) + 2 KClO
4


If 45.00 mL of 0.8 M AgClO
4
is allowed to react with 50.00 mL of 0.40 M K
2
Cr
2
O
7
, how
many grams of precipitate (solid) will form and what is the concentration of all the ions left in
solution?

















203

7) Using VSEPR draw and name the shape of the following compounds. When naming the
shape ignore lone pair electrons.

Molecule Shape Name Hybrid AXE designation



SbF
3








ClF
2
-








O
3








IF
5








MgCl
2









204


8) An electron in the first excited state of Hydrogen is struck by a photon of light of
wavelength 560 nm.

a) What is the frequency of the photon?








b) What is the energy of this photon?







c) To which energy level did the electron go?









9) How long will it take for Hydrogen gas (H
2
) and iodine (I
2
) to meet if they are placed at
opposite ends of a 2500 meter tube at 30C? FWT I
2
= 254 g/mol and FWT H
2
= 2 g/mol












205

10) Using MO theory, please answer the following questions about O
2
+
.

Draw the MO diagram here

Bond order =

Paramagetic or Diamagnetic?

Does this molecule exist?







Important Constants and Equations

E h c c = 3x10
8
m/sec h h M
1
V
1
= M
2
V
2


R0.020
L atm
mol K
or R .314
J
mol K
h = 6.6256x10
-34
Jsec

P
air
= P
col
+ P
vap
E 2.110
-1
J (
1
n
1
2
-
1
n
2
2
)

2

F
2

1
F
1

2

3R
F


If you need some other formula ASK

206

Chemistry 120 Name____Answer Key _____________
Final Exam December 18, 2000

CLOSED BOOK EXAM - No books or notes allowed. ALL work must be shown for full
credit. You may use a calculator.

Question Credit Question Credit
1(15) 6(25)
2(15) 7(25)
3(12) 8(20)
4(30) 9(10)
5(30) 10(18)
TOTAL TOTAL
Grand Total


1) Please find the value and associated error of the following mathematical operation.

34.568 0.004 - 23.089 0.005 =
3.57 0.02

For the subtraction,

error = [(0.004)
2
+ (0.005)
2
]

= 0.00643 ==> 0.006

Therefore, 34.568 0.004 - 23.089 0.005 = 11.479 0.006 so the problem is now,

11.479 0.006 = Also, 11.479/3.57 = 3.2154
3.57 0.02

rel error = [(0.006/11.479)
2
+ (0.02/3.57)
2
]

= 0.005627 error = 0.005627 (11.479/3.57)

error = 0.0181

So the answer is 3.2154 0.0181. Rounding appropriately, answer = 3.22 0.02


207

2) Write the names of the following compounds and indicate the solubility by choosing the
correct answer.

Name

Au(NO
3
)
3
__Gold (III) Nitrate___ Soluble Insoluble


BaSO
4
__Barium Sulfate ____ Soluble Insoluble


PbI
2
___Lead Iodide______ Soluble Insoluble


P
2
S
3
Diphosphorous trisulfide Soluble Insoluble


NH
4
Cl __Ammonium Chloride Soluble Insoluble


3) Please complete and balance the following reactions,

a) 4 As + 5 O
2
2 As
2
O
5


b) 3 K
2
S + 2 FeCl
3
6 KCl + Fe
2
S
3


c) 2 Sc + 3 Cl
2
2 ScCl
3


d) 3 H
2
SO
4
+ 2 Al(OH)
3
Al
2
(SO4)
3
+ 6 H
2
O

4a) When 10 grams of an organic molecule was subjected to combustion analysis 15.17g of
CO
2
and 3.10g of H
2
O were produced. What is the empirical formula of the compound?

15.17 g CO
2
= 0.3447 mol CO
2
==> 0.3447 mol C x 12 g/mol = 4.1364 g C
44 g/mol

3.10 g H
2
O = 0.1722 mol H
2
O ==> 0.3444 mol H x 1 g/mol = 0.3444 g H
18 g/mol

10 g - 4.1364 g C - 0.3444 g H = 5.5192 g O ==> 5.5192 g O/16 g/mol = 0.3449 mol O

0.3447 mol C = 1C 0.3449 mol 0 = 1C Empirical Formula = CHO
0.3444 mol H 1 H 0.3444 mol H 1 H


208

4b) When 10 grams of the organic acid was the titrated with 2.5 M NaOH, it took 68.95 mL. If
the acid was diprotic, then what is the true formula of the compound?

MV = moles = (2.5M)(0.06895L) = 0.1724 moles OH
-
= 0.1724 moles H
+


0.1724 moles H
+
/ (2H+/mole acid ) = 0.0862 mole Acid

10 grams Acid / 0.0862 mole Acid = 116 g/mol

CHO = 29 g/mol

116 g/mol / 29 g/mol = 4 units of CHO in the acid so, 4 x CHO = C
4
H
4
O
4


4c) Please draw the true Lewis structure of the compound.







5) Short answer problems.

5A) What is the average translational kinetic energy of any gas at STP?

Ek = 3/2RT = 3/2(8.314 J/molK)(273K) = 3404.6 J/mol

5B) Please give the four quantum numbers for Silver (Ag).

Ag = 4d = 4,2.0,

5C) What is the complete orbital filling diagram for Xe? Example: Li = 1s
2
2s
1
.

Xe = 1s
2
2s
2
2p
6
3s
2
3p
6
4s
2
3d
10
4p
6
5s
2
4d
10
5p
6


5D) Please predict all of the possible charges for Palladium (Pd)?

Pd = 5s
2
4d
8
Pd
4+
= 5s
1
4d
5
Pd
5+
= 5s
0
4d
5


5E) Please circle the quantum numbers that can exist.

4,3,-3, 6,0,0, 7,6,5,1

18, 12, 5,- 3,4,2, 2,2,0,-
C C
C C
O
O
H O
O
H
H H

209

5F) One clever student decided to use a barometer to measure the vapor pressure of
chloroform. The student made a very tall barometer and filled it with chloroform and then
measured its height as being 5460 mm tall. The student then measured atmospheric pressure
using a standard mercury barometer and found that it was 755 torr. If the density of
chloroform is 1.35 g/mL, what was the vapor pressure of the chloroform? Density of mercury
= 13.6 g/mL.

1
h
1
=
2
h
2
(1.35 g/mL)(5460 mm) = (13.6 g/mL)(h
2
) h
2
= 541.99 mm Hg = Pcol

P
air
= P
col
+ P
vap


P
air
- P
col
= P
vap
==> 755 mm Hg - 541.99 mm Hg = 213.01 mm Hg

6) When potassium dichromate is added to solutions containing silver, a brick red precipitate
forms according to the following reaction. ,

2 AgClO
4
+ K
2
Cr
2
O
7
Ag
2
Cr
2
O
7
(s) + 2 KClO
4


If 45.00 mL of 0.8 M AgClO
4
is allowed to react with 50.00 mL of 0.40 M K
2
Cr
2
O
7
, how
many grams of precipitate (solid) will form and what is the concentration of all the ions left in
solution?

(0.8M) (0.045L) = 0.036 mole AgClO
4

(0.4M) (0.050L) = 0.020 mole K
2
Cr
2
O
7


Ion
Moles Before
Rxn
Moles After
Rxn
Concentration
Ag
+
0.036 mole 0 mole 0 M Ag
+

ClO
4
-
0.036 mole 0.036 mole 0.036 mol/ 0.095 L = 0.3789 M ClO
4
-

K
+
0.040 mole 0.040 mole 0.040 mol/ 0.095 L = 0.4211 M K
+

Cr
2
O
7
2-
0.020 mole 0.002 mole 0.002 mol/ 0.095 L = 0.0211 M Cr
2
O
7
2-


Ag
+
is the limiting reactant and it takes 2 moles of Ag
+
for every mole of Ag
2
Cr
2
O
7
(s) made so,

0.036 mole Ag
+
will make 0.018 mole Ag
2
Cr
2
O
7
(s)

0.018 mole Ag
2
Cr
2
O
7
(s) x 431.7 g/mol = 7.77 grams of Ag
2
Cr
2
O
7
(s)





210

7) Using VSEPR draw and name the shape of the following compounds. When naming the
shape ignore lone pair electrons.

Molecule Shape Name Hybrid AXE designation



SbF
3








Trigonal Pyramid sp
3

AX3E



ClF
2
-







Linear sp
3
d
AX2E3



O
3






Bent sp
2

AX2E



IF
5







Square Pyramid sp
3
d
2

AX5E



MgCl
2






Linear sp
AX2



F
Sb
F
F
Cl
F
F
O
O
O
F
I
F F
F
F
Mg Cl Cl

211

8) An electron in the first excited state of Hydrogen is struck by a photon of light of
wavelength 560 nm.

a) What is the frequency of the photon?



c = v 3x10
8
m/sec = (560x10
-9
m) v v = 5.357x10
14
Hz



b) What is the energy of this photon?


E = hv = (6.6256x10
-34
Jsec)(5.357x10
14
Hz) = 3.549x10
-19
J



c) To which energy level did the electron go?


E = 2.18x10
-18
J (1/n
1
2
- 1/n
2
2
)
3.549x10
-19
J = 2.18x10
-18
J (1/2
2
- 1/n
2
2
)
n
2
= 3.387 ==> n
2
= 3



9) How long will it take for Hydrogen gas (H
2
) and iodine (I
2
) to meet if they are placed at
opposite ends of a 200 meter tube at 30C F I
2
= 254 g/mol and FWT H
2
= 2 g/mol

Both gases travel for the same length of time but they do not travel the same distance.
Hydrogen travels much farther in the same amount of time. Calculate the distance traveled by
one of them.

Distance for H
2
= X
Distance for I
2
= 2500 - X

X/(2500 - X) = [(254 g/mol)/(2 g/mol)]

X = 2296.2 meters for H

2


v = m/sec = (3RT/FWT)

==> 2296.2m/(X sec) = (3 (8.314 J/molK)(303 K)/(0.002

Kg/mol)

X = 1.181 s for them to meet

212

10) Using MO theory, please answer the following questions about O
2
+
.

Draw the MO diagram here

Bond order = (10 - 5)/2 = 2.5

Paramagetic or Diamagnetic?

The molecule is paramagnetic
since it has one unpaired electron

Does this molecule exist?

Yes, the molecule exists














Important Constants and Equations

E h c c = 3x10
8
m/sec h h M
1
V
1
= M
2
V
2


R0.020
L atm
mol K
or R .314
J
mol K
h = 6.6256x10
-34
Jsec

P
air
= P
col
+ P
vap
E 2.110
-1
J (
1
n
1
2
-
1
n
2
2
)

2

F
2

1
F
1

2

3R
F


If you need some other formula ASK

213

Chemistry 120 Name______________________________
Final Exam December 14, 2009

CLOSED BOOK EXAM - No books or notes allowed. ALL work must be shown for full
credit. You may use a calculator.

Question Credit Question Credit
1(10) 7(25)
2(15) 8(15)
3(15) 9(12)
4(25) 10(20)
5(25) 11(15)
6(8) 12(15 )
TOTAL TOTAL
Grand Total


Important Constants and Equations

E h c c = 3x10
8
m/sec h h M
1
V
1
= M
2
V
2


R0.020
L atm
mol K
or R .314
J
mol K
h = 6.6256x10
-34
Jsec

P
air
= P
col
+ P
vap
E 2.110
-1
J (
1
n
1
2
-
1
n
2
2
)

2

F
2

1
F
1

2

3R
F


1a) Do the math, but also describe in words, how you would make 200 mL of 1.60 M NaOH
from solid NaOH?





1b) If it takes 25.6 mL of 0.80 M NaOH to completely neutralize 36.4 mL of the H
2
SO
4
, what
is the concentration of H
2
SO
4
?


214

2) Name the following compounds and circle whether they are soluble or insoluble.

a) BaSO
4
_______________________ Soluble Insoluble

b) Au(OH)
3
_______________________ Soluble Insoluble

c) CS
2
_______________________ Soluble Insoluble

d) Mg(NO
3
)
2
_______________________ Soluble Insoluble

e) PbS _______________________ Soluble Insoluble


3) A student wanted to make a barometer but could not purchase mercury, so instead, the
student made a barometer out of carbon tetrachloride (CCl
4
). One day the student read the
barometer and it was 5823.74 mm tall (about 20 feet!). What was the barometric pressure in
torr? Density CCl
4
is 1.584 g/mL and it has a vapor pressure of 85 torr at 25C? Density of Hg
= 13.6 g/mL.







4a) When 10 grams of an organic molecule were subjected to combustion analysis 20 g of CO
2

and 8.18 g of H
2
O were produced. What is the empirical formula of the compound?








4b) The compound was a gas that had a density of 3.865 g/L at 60C and 1.2 atm. What is the
actual formula of the compound?







215

4c) Please draw the actual Lewis structure of the compound.









5) Short answer problems.

5a) What is the average translational kinetic energy of any gas at STP?



5b) Please draw the complete orbital filling diagram for Cr (Li = 1s
2
2s
1
)



5c) What are the expected charges found the ions made from Rhodium (Rh)?




5d) Please find the value and associated error of the following mathematical operation.

3.572 0.002 =
21.13 0.04 - 13.089 0.005




e) Eplain why cold glasses of ice water sweat.




5f) If the weatherman reports that it is 36% relative humidity and the outside temperature is
20C, what is the dew point?





216

6) A box containing 10 grams of CCl
4
is allowed to expand. If the vapor pressure of the CCl
4

is 85 torr at 25C, please calculate the pressure when the box expands to;

100 mL

10 liters

100 liters

1000 liters


7) Nitrogen monoxide (NO) gas is highly reactive and smells a bit like chlorine. NO gas reacts
rapidly with oxygen at room temperature (25C) to produce a brown gas (NO
2
) according to
the following reaction: 2 NO + O
2
2 NO
2
. Consider the picture below

a) If the valve is opened, what is the pressure of the oxygen before reaction?










b) What is the mole fraction of NO before reaction?




c) What is the final total pressure of the system after reaction?











217

d) What is the average formula weight of the mixture after reaction?







e) If the O
2
and NO gases were placed at opposite ends of a 100 meter tube, what would the
temperature of the NO have to be in order for them to meet 25 meters from the O
2
end?
Assume that the temperature of the O
2
is 25C.










8) When sodium sulfide is added to solutions containing iron, a black precipitate forms
according to the following reaction. ,

3 Na
2
S + 2 Fe(NO
3
)
3
> Fe
2
S
3
+ 6 NaNO
3


If 50.00 mL of 0.8 M Na
2
S is allowed to react with 75.00 mL of 0.60 M Fe(NO
3
)
3
, how many
grams of precipitate (solid) will form and what is the concentration of all the ions left in
solution?
















218

9) How many sigma and pi bonds are there in the following compound?


Sigma Bonds =


Pi Bonds =


Hybridization on atom # 1 2 3 4



10) Using VSEPR draw and name the shape of the following compounds. When naming the
shape ignore lone pair electrons.

Molecule Coord# Shape Name Hybrid


CH
2
O






IO
3
-







SF
4








XeCl
4





N
N
H
Br C
O
O
N
1
2
3
4
H

219

11) An electron in the first excited state of Hydrogen is struck by a photon of light of
wavelength 610 nm.

a) What is the frequency of the photon?








b) What is the energy of this photon?







c) To which energy level did the electron go?










12) Please draw the MO diagram for N
2
2+


Bond order =


Paramagnetic or Diamagnetic?


Exist or Not?



220

Chemistry 120 Name____Answer Key____________
Final Exam December 14, 2009

CLOSED BOOK EXAM - No books or notes allowed. ALL work must be shown for full
credit. You may use a calculator.

Question Credit Question Credit
1(10) 7(25)
2(15) 8(15)
3(15) 9(12)
4(25) 10(20)
5(25) 11(15)
6(8) 12(15 )
TOTAL TOTAL
Grand Total


E h c c = 3x10
8
m/sec h h M
1
V
1
= M
2
V
2

R0.020
L atm
mol K
or R .314
J
mol K
h = 6.6256x10
-34
Jsec
P
air
= P
col
+ P
vap
E 2.110
-1
J (
1
n
1
2
-
1
n
2
2
)

2

F
2

1
F
1

2

3R
F

1a) Do the math, but also describe in words, how you would make 200 mL of 1.60 M NaOH
from solid NaOH?
MV = moles ==> (1.60 M)(0.200L) = 0.320 mole NaOH
0.320 mole NaOH x 40 g/mol NaOH = 12.8 grams of NaOH
Put 12.8 grams of NaOH in a container and add some water. Stir until dissolved and then
add enough water to get to the 200 mL mark.

1b) If it takes 25.6 mL of 0.80 M NaOH to completely neutralize 36.4 mL of the H
2
SO
4
, what
is the concentration of H
2
SO
4
?
M
OH-
V
OH-
= M
H+
V
H+
(0.80M)(0.0256L) = (M
H+
)(0.0364L) M
H+
= 0.5626 M H
+


But, there are two H
+
s in H
2
SO
4
so

2 H
+
= 0.5636 M H
+
X = 0.2813 M H
2
SO
4

H
2
SO
4
X

221

2) Name the following compounds and circle whether they are soluble or insoluble.

a) BaSO
4
__Barium Sulfate_________ Soluble Insoluble

b) Au(OH)
3
_Gold (III) Hydroxide _____ Soluble Insoluble

c) CS
2
__Carbon Disulfide__ _____ Soluble Insoluble

d) Mg(NO
3
)
2
_Magnesium Nitrate_______ Soluble Insoluble

e) PbS _Lead Sulfide ____________ Soluble Insoluble

3) A student wanted to make a barometer but could not purchase mercury, so instead, the
student made a barometer out of carbon tetrachloride (CCl
4
). One day the student read the
barometer and it was 5823.74 mm tall (about 20 feet!). What was the barometric pressure in
torr? Density CCl
4
is 1.584 g/mL and it has a vapor pressure of 85 torr at 25C? Density of Hg
= 13.6 g/mL.

1
h
1
=
2
h
2
(1.584 g/mL)(5823.74 mm) = (13.6 g/mL)(h
2
) h
2
= 678.29 mm Hg =
Pcol

P
air
= P
col
+ P
vap
==> 678.29 mm Hg + 85 mm Hg = 763.29 mm Hg

4a) When 10 grams of an organic molecule was subjected to combustion analysis 20 g of CO
2

and 8.18 g of H
2
O were produced. What is the empirical formula of the compound?

20.0 g CO
2
= 0.4545 mol CO
2
==> 0.4545 mol C x 12 g/mol = 5.454 g C
44 g/mol

8.18 g H
2
O = 0.4544 mol H
2
O ==> 0.9088 mol H x 1 g/mol = 0.9088 g H
18 g/mol

10 g - 5.4545 g C - 0.9088 g H = 3.6367 g O ==> 3.6367 g O/16 g/mol = 0.2273 mol
O

0.4545 mol C = 2 C 0.9088 mol H = 4 H Empirical Formula =
C
2
H
4
O
0.2273 mol O 1 O 0.2273 mol O 1 O

4b) The compound was a gas that had a density of 3.865 g/L at 60C and 1.2 atm. hat is the
actual formula of the compound?

FWT = dRT/P FWT = (3.865 g/L)(0.08206 Latm/molK)(333K)/(1.2 atm) = 88 g/mol
C
2
H
4
O = 44 g/mole therefore true formula = 2(C
2
H
4
O) = C
4
H
8
O
2


222

4c) Please draw the actual Lewis structure of the compound.




5) Short answer problems.

5a) What is the average translational kinetic energy of any gas at STP?

Ek = 3/2RT = 3/2(8.314 J/molK)(273K) = 3404.6 J/mol

5b) Please draw the complete orbital filling diagram for Cr (Li = 1s
2
2s
1
)

Cr = 1s
2
2s
2
2p
6
3s
2
3p
6
4s
1
3d
5


5c) What are the expected charges found the ions made from Rhodium (Rh)?

Rh = 5s
2
4d
7
Rh
3+
= 5s
1
4d
5
Rh
4+
= 5s
0
4d
5



5d) Please find the value and associated error of the following mathematical operation.

3.572 0.002 =
21.13 0.04 + 13.089 0.005

For the addition,

error = [(0.04)
2
+ (0.005)
2
]

= 0.00643 ==> 0.0403

Therefore, 21.13 0.04 + 13.089 0.005 = 34.219 0.0403 ==> 34.22 0.04

3.572 0.002 = Also, 3.572/34.22 = 0.10438
34.22 0.04

rel error = [(0.002/3.572)
2
+ (0.04/34.22)
2
]

= 0.001296 error = 0.001296 x 0.10438

error = 0.000135

So the answer is 0.10438 0.000135. Rounding appropriately, answer = 0.1044 0.0001

5e) Eplain why cold glasses of ice water sweat.

As the warm air gets close to the class the air cools and the relative humidity increases.
Eventually the humidity surpasses 100% (the dew point) and liquid begins to condense on the
glass.
H C C C C
H
H
H
H
H
H
O
O
H

223

5f) If the weatherman reports that it is 36% relative humidity and the outside temperature is
20C, what is the dew point?

36%/100 x 20C = 7.2C

6) A box containing 10 grams of CCl
4
is allowed to expand. If the vapor pressure of the CCl
4

is torr at 2C, please calculate the pressure when the bo epands to

V = nRT/P V = (10g/163.8g.mol)(0.08206Latm/molK)(298)/(85 torr/760 torr/atm)
V = 13.48 L max volume

100 mL = 85 torr

10 liters = 85 torr

100 liters => P = nRT/V = (10g/163.8g.mol)(0.08206Latm/molK)(298)/(100L)
= 0.01493 atm x 760 torr/atm = 11.35 torr

1000 liters => P = nRT/V = (10g/163.8g.mol)(0.08206Latm/molK)(298)/(1000L)
= 0.001493 atm x 760 torr/atm = 1.135 torr

7) Nitrogen monoxide (NO) gas is highly reactive and smells a bit like chlorine. NO gas reacts
rapidly with oxygen at room temperature (25C) to produce a brown gas (NO
2
) according to
the following reaction: 2 NO + O
2
2 NO
2
. Consider the picture below

a) If the valve is opened, what is the pressure of the oxygen before reaction?

P
1
V
1
= P
2
V
2

(2atm)(6L) = (P
2
)(8L) P
2
= 1.5 atm O
2


b) What is the mole fraction of NO before reaction?

P
1
V
1
= P
2
V
2
==> (2.5atm)(2L) = (P
2
)(8L) P
2
= 0.625 atm NO
1.5 atm O
2
+ 0.625 atm NO = 2.125 atm total
P
tot
X
1
= P
1
==> P
1
/P
tot
= X
1
==> 0.625 atm NO/2.125 atm Total = 0.2941 mole fraction NO

c) What is the final total pressure of the system after reaction?

NO is limiting so NO
2
is made and O
2
is left after reaction. Final pressure = 1.81 atm

d) What is the average formula weight of the mixture after reaction?

Avg FWT = 36.83 g/mol


224

e) If the O
2
and NO gases were placed at opposite ends of a 100 meter tube, what would the
temperature of the NO have to be in order for them to meet 25 meters from the O
2
end?
Assume that the temperature of the O
2
is 25C.

m
1
/m
2
= [FWT
2
T
1
/FWT
1
T
2
]

= 75 m/25 m = [(32 g/mol x T

1
)/(30 g/mol x 298K)]

T
1
= 2514.4 K


8) When sodium sulfide is added to solutions containing iron, a black precipitate forms
according to the following reaction. ,

3 Na
2
S + 2 Fe(NO
3
)
3
> Fe
2
S
3
(s) + 6 NaNO
3


If 50.00 mL of 0.8 M Na
2
S is allowed to react with 75.00 mL of 0.60 M Fe(NO
3
)
3
, how many
grams of precipitate (solid) will form and what is the concentration of all the ions left in
solution?

(0.8M) (0.050L) = 0.040 mole Na
2
S
(0.6M) (0.075L) = 0.045 mole Fe(NO
3
)
3


Ion
Moles Before
Rxn
Moles After
Rxn
Concentration
Na
+
0.080 mole 0.080 mole 0.080 mol/ 0.125 L = 0.64 M Na
+

S
2-
0.040 mole 0.0275 mole 0.0275 mol/ 0.125 L = 0.22 M S
2-

Fe
3+
0.045 mole 0 mole 0 M Fe
3+

NO
3
-
0.135 mole 0.135 mole 0.135 mol/ 0.125 L = 1.08 M NO
3
-


Fe
3+
is the limiting reactant and it takes 2 moles of Fe
3+
for every mole of Fe
2
S
3
made so,

0.045 mole Fe
3+
will make 0.0225 mole Fe
2
S
3
(s)

0.0225 mole Fe
2
S
3
(s) x 207.7.7 g/mol = 4.673 grams of Fe
2
S
3
(s)





225

9) How many sigma and pi bonds are there in the following compound?


Sigma Bonds = 17


Pi Bonds = 7


Hybridization on atom # 1 2 3 4
sp2 sp3 sp sp2


10) Using VSEPR draw and name the shape of the following compounds. When naming the
shape ignore lone pair electrons.

Molecule Coord# Shape Name Hybrid


CH
2
O




C = 4
2H = 2
O = 0

6/2 = 3





Trigonal Planar



sp
2



IO
3
-



I = 7
3O = 0
-1 = 1

8/2 = 4




Trigonal Pyramid


sp
3



SF
4





S = 6
4F = 4

10/2 = 5




See-Saw


sp
3
d


XeCl
4





Xe = 8
4Cl = 4

12/2 = 6




Square Planar


sp
3
d
2


N
N
H
Br C
O
O
N
1
2
3
4
H
C
O
H H
O
I
O
O
S
F
F
F
F
Cl
Xe
Cl Cl
Cl

226


11) An electron in the first excited state of Hydrogen is struck by a photon of light of
wavelength 610 nm.

a) What is the frequency of the photon?

c = v 3x10
8
m/sec = (610x10
-9
m) v v = 4.918x10
14
Hz

b) What is the energy of this photon?

E = hv = (6.6256x10
-34
Jsec)(4.918x10
14
Hz) = 3.258x10
-19
J

c) To which energy level did the electron go?

E = 2.18x10
-18
J (1/n
1
2
- 1/n
2
2
)
3.258x10
-19
J = 2.18x10
-18
J (1/2
2
- 1/n
2
2
)
n
2
= 3.153 ==> n
2
= 3

12) Please draw the MO diagram for N
2
2+


Bond order = (8 - 4)/2 = 2


Paramagnetic or Diamagnetic?

Paramagnetic - it has 2 unpaired electrons

Exist or Not?

Yes, it exists. It has a double bond.