The Thematic

Apperception
Test (TAT)
and
McClelland's
Achievement
Motivation
Theory

Criticizing
economics as
being an overly
simplistic, and
rationalistic
discipline,
David
McClelland
points out that
it does not
really account
for how humans
actually behave.
For example,
Elton Mayo and
his work at the
Hawthorne
Western
Electric plant in
the 1920s and
30s recognized
the non-
economic
motivations of
workers.
In the
Hawthorne
Studies... the
importance of
the peer group
was recognized
in determining
employee
motivation.
Motivation research has long considered human motives and needs.
However, isolating people's motivational needs can be a difficult
process because most people are not explicitly aware of what their
motives are.
In attempting to understand employee motivation, Abraham Maslow
proposed a hierarchy of needs. David McClelland furthered this idea
in his learned needs theory. McClelland's experimental work
identified sets of motivators present to varying degrees in different
people. He proposed that these needs were socially acquired or
learned. That is, the extent to which these motivators are present
varies from person to person, and depends on the individual and his or
her background.
McClelland's experiment -- the Thematic Apperception Test (TAT) --
consisted of showing individuals a series of pictures and asking them
to give brief descriptions of what was happening in the pictures. The
responses were analyzed in terms of the presence or absence of
certain themes. The themes McClelland and his associates were
looking for revolved around the following motivators: achievement,
affiliation and power.
According to David McClelland, regardless of culture or gender,
people are driven by three motives:
achievement,
affiliation, and
influence.
Since McClelland's first experiments, over 1,000 studies relevant to
achievement motivation have been conducted. These studies strongly
support the theory.
. Achievement (nAch)
. The need for achievement is characterized by the wish to take
responsibility for finding solutions to problems, master complex
tasks, set goals, get feedback on level of success.
. Affiliation (nAff)
.
The need for affiliation is characterized by a desire to belong, an
enjoyment of teamwork, a concern about interpersonal relationships,
and a need reduce uncertainty.
. Power (nP)
.
The need for power is characterized by a drive to control and
influence others, a need to win arguments, a need to persuade and
prevail.
.
According to McClelland, the presence of these motives or drives in
an individual indicates a predisposition to behave in certain ways.
Therefore, from a manager's perspective, recognizing which need is
dominant in any particular individual affects the way in which that
person can be motivated.
.
UNDERSTANDING MOTIVES -- So, what does all this
mean?
. High achievement motivation
People driven
by the
achievement
motive like to
test themselves
against their
environment
and attain
standards of
excellence.
In areas of
management
where high
levels of
delegation may
be required,
high
achievement
motivated
individuals may
be unable to
Specifically, achievement motivation is defined as a non-conscious
concern for achieving excellence through individual efforts. Such
individuals set challenging goals for themselves, assume personal
responsibility for goal accomplishment, are highly persistent in the
pursuit of these goals, take calculated risks to achieve the goals, and
actively collect and use information for purposes of feedback.
High achievement motivated managers are also strongly inclined to be
personally involved in performing their organizational tasks. However,
they may also be reluctant to delegate authority and responsibility.
Thus, high achievement motivation may be expected to result in poor
performance of high- level executives in large organizations.
High achievement motivation is predicted to contribute to effective
entrepreneurship and effective leadership of small task-oriented
groups.
Achievement motivation is positively related to the leadership of
give up their
personal
involvement
with the task.
small task-oriented groups and small entrepreneurial firms and
negatively related to the effectiveness of high- level managers in
complex organizations or in political situations.
. High power motivation
People
motivated by
power are
concerned
about their
impact on other
people--
convincing
someone of
their point of
view or
empowering
others around
them, and
finding ways to
connect with
and influence
powerful
people.
Power
motivation is
assumed to be
predictive of
leader
effectiveness.
...the power
motive is
necessary for
leaders to be
effective
because it
induces them to
engage in social
influence
behavior
Power motivation is defined as the concern for acquiring status and
having an impact on others. McClelland used power motivation as a
measure of social influence behaviors. Clearly, since most
management activities require the use of social influence behaviors
and since power motivation measures an individual's desire to
influence, the power motive is important for leadership
effectiveness.
David McClelland proposed the Leader Motive Profile Theory (LMP
theory) in which he argued that a high power motivation, greater than
the affiliation motive, is predictive of leader effectiveness.
Highly power-motivated individuals obtain great satisfaction from the
exercise of influence. Consequently, their interest in the exercise of
leadership is sustained.
High power motivation is predicted to result in effective managerial
performance in middle and high-level positions. However, unless
constrained in some manner, some power-motivated managers may
also be predicted to exercise power in an aggressive manner for self-
aggrandizing purposes, to the detriment of their organizations.
. High affiliation motivation
People driven
by the affiliation
motive are
concerned
about the
Affiliative motivation is defined as a nonconscious concern for
establishing, maintaining, and restoring close personal relationships
with others. Individuals with high affiliative motivation tend to be
non-assertive, submissive, and dependent on others.
quality of their
relationships.
They enter into
relationships
for the sake of
the
relationships--
not for gain or
influence. They
are concerned
with how
harmonious and
reliable their
relationships
are and are
likely to be
upset when
disruptions to
relationships
occur.
Such managers are expected to manage on the basis of personal
relationships with subordinates. This may result in them showing
favoritism toward some.
As managers, highly affiliative individuals are predicted to be
reluctant to monitor the behavior of subordinates, give negative
feedback to others, or discipline their subordinates. However, when
the power motive is higher than the affiliative motive, individuals are
disinclined to engage in dysfunctional management behaviors such as
submissiveness, reluctance to monitor and
discipline subordinates, and favoritism.
. Need for Achievement and Entrepreneurship
.
Originally, the need for achievement was the greatest concern for
McClelland. He was particularly interested in this need and associated
behaviors because most organizations want their employees to
achieve. The 'need achievement' refers to an unconscious disposition
to energize and drive. High nAch individuals are constantly
'competing with standards of excellence'. Further, they are
attracted to tasks of moderate difficulty.
McClelland further described the profile of an entrepreneur as
someone high in nAch (Achievement) and low in nP (Power), while good
managers have high nPower and low nAch.
Over four decades of research into the characteristics of
entrepreneurs has established that the essential need for
achievement for entrepreneurship is learned at an early age. Persons
with a high 'need achievement' have a general predisposition towards
entrepreneurial activity.
. Summary
.
Adults are assumed to possess all three motivations to one degree or
another, however, one of the motives is usually dominant. Managers
need to identify what motivates others and to create appropriately
motivating conditions for them.
People with achievement motives are motivated by standards of
excellence, delineated roles and responsibilities and concrete, timely
feedback. Those with affiliation motives are motivated when they can
accomplish things with people they know and trust. And the power
motive is activated when people are allowed to have an impact,
impress those in power, or beat competitors.