1

2

SYLLABUS

UNIT-I
Introduction, Nature of RADAR, Maximum Unambiguous range, Radar Waveforms, Block
schematics of pulse radar and Operation, simple form of radar equation, RADAR frequencies,
Applications of RADARS. Related problems.
UNIT-II
Radar Equation: Prediction of Range Performance, Minimum Detectable Signal, Receiver
Noise and SNR, Integration of Radar Pulses, Radar Cross Section of Targets (simple Targets-
sphere,cone-sphere),Transmitter Power, PRF and Range Ambiguities, System Losses(qualitative
treatment),Related Problems .
UNIT-III
CW and Frequency Modulated Radar: Doppler Effect, CW Radar Block Diagram, Isolation
between Transmitter and Receiver, Non-zero IF Receiver, Receiver bandwidth requirements,
Applications of CW radar.
UNIT-IV
FM-CW Radar, Range and Doppler measurement, Block Diagram and Characteristics
(Approaching/Receding targets), FM-CW Altimeter, Measurement errors, Multiple Frequency
CWRadar

UNIT-V
MTI and Pulse Doppler radar: Introduction, Principle, MTI Radar with - Power Amplifier
Transmitter and Power Oscillator Transmitter, Delay Line Cancellers Filter Characteristics,
Blind Speeds, Double Cancellation, Staggered PRFs. Range Gated Doppler Filters. MTI Radar
Parameters, Limitations to MTI Performance, Non-coherent MTI, MTI versus Pulse Doppler
Radar
3

UNIT-VI
Tracking Radar: Tracking with Radar, Sequential Lobing, Conical Scan, Monopulse Radar
Amplitude Comparison and Phase Comparison Monopulse. Low angle tracking, tracking in
range,acquisition,ComparisonofTrackers.

UNIT-VII
Detection of Radar Signals in Noise: Introduction, Matched filter receiver-Response
Characteristics and Derivation, Correlation Function and Cross-Correlation receiver, Efficiency
of Non-matched Filters, matched Filter with Non-white Noise.
UNIT-VIII
Radar Receivers: Noise Figure and Noise temperature, Displays-types, Duplexers-Branch type
and Balanced type, Circulators as Duplexers. Introduction to Phased Array Antennas-Basic
Concepts, Radiation Pattern, Beam Steering and Beam Width Changes, Series versus Parallel
Feeds, Applications, Advantages and Limitations.

4


UNI T-I
NATURE OF
RADAR

5

INTRODUCTION:
The name Radar stands for Radio Detection and Ranging
Radar is a remote sensing technique: Capable of gathering information about objects located at
remote distances from the sensing device.
Two distinguishing characteristics:
1. Employs EM waves that fall into the microwave portion of the electromagnetic spectrum
(1 mm < l < 75 cm)
2. Active technique: radiation is emitted by radar radiation scattered by objects is detected
by radar.

6

Radar is an electromagnetic system for the detection and location of objects
(Radio Detection and Ranging). Radar operates by transmitting a particular type of waveform
and detecting the nature of the signals reflected back from objects.
Radar can not resolve detail or color as well as the human eye (an optical frequency
passive scatter meter).
Radar can see in conditions which do not permit the eye to see such as darkness, haze,
rain, smoke.
Radar can also measure the distances to objects. The elemental radar system consists of a
transmitter unit, an antenna for emitting electromagnetic radiation and receiving the echo, an
energy detecting receiver and a processor.
Receiver
Transmitter
Range
Velocity
Position
Type etc.,
Range

A portion of the transmitted signal is intercepted by a reflecting object (target) and is
reradiated in all directions. The antenna collects the returned energy in the backscatter direction
and delivers it to the receiver. The distance to the receiver is determined by measuring the time
taken for the electromagnetic signal to travel to the target and back. The direction of the target is
determined by the angle of arrival (AOA) of the reflected signal. Also if there is relative motion
between the radar and the target, there is a shift in frequency of the reflected signal (Doppler
7

Effect) which is a measure of the radial component of the relative velocity. This can be used to
distinguish between moving targets and stationary ones.
Radar was first developed to warn of the approach of hostile aircraft and for directing anti
aircraft weapons. Modern radars can provide AOA, Doppler, and MTI etc.

RADAR RANGE MEASUREMENT
Target
Target range =
ct
2
where c = speed of light
t = round trip time

8

The simplest radar waveform is a train of narrow (0.1s to 10s) rectangular pulses
modulating a sinusoidal carrier the distance to the target is determined from the time T
R
taken by
the pulse to travel to the target and return and from the knowledge that electromagnetic energy
travels at the speed of light.
Since radio waves travel at the speed of light (v = c = 300,000 km/sec)
Range = ctime/2
The range or distance, R = cT
R
/2
R (in km) = 0.15T
R
(s) R (in nmi) = 0.081T
R
(s)
NOTE:
1 nmi = 6076 feet =1852 meters.
1 Radar mile = 2000 yards = 6000 feet
Radar mile is commonly used unit of distance.
NOTE:
Electromagnetic energy travels through air at approximately the speed of light:-
1. 300,000 kilometers per second.
2. 186,000 statute miles per second.
3. 162,000 nautical miles per second.
Once the pulse is transmitted by the radar a sufficient length of time must elapse before
the next pulse to allow echoes from targets at the maximum range to be detected. Thus the
maximum rate at which pulses can be transmitted is determined by the maximum range at which
targets are expected. This rate is called the pulse repetition rate (PRF).
If the PRF is too high echo signals from some targets may arrive after the transmission of
the next pulse. This leads to ambiguous range measurements. Such pulses are called second time
around pulses.
The range beyond which second time around pulses occur is called the maximum
unambiguous range.
9

R
UNAMBIG
= c/2f
P
Where f
P
is the PRF in Hz.
More advanced signal waveforms then the above are often used, for example the carrier
maybe frequency modulated (FM or chirp) or phase modulated (pseudorandom bi phase) too
permit the echo signals to be compressed in time after reception. This achieves high range
resolution without the need for short pulses and hence allows the use of the higher energy of
longer pulses. This technique is called pulse compression. Also CW waveforms can be used by
taking advantage of the Doppler shift to separate the received echo from the transmitted signal.
Note: unmodulated CW waveforms do not permit the measurement of range.

What is done by Radar?
Radar can see the objects in
day or night
rain or shine
land or air
cloud or clutter
fog or frost
earth or planets
stationary or moving and
Good or bad weather.
In brief, Radar can see the objects hidden any where in the globe or planets except hidden behind
good conductors.

INFORMATION GIVEN BY THE RADAR:
Radar gives the following information:
The position of the object
The distance of objects from the location of radar
10

The size of the object
Whether the object is stationary or moving
Velocity of the object
Distinguish friendly and enemy aircrafts
The images of scenes at long range in good and adverse weather conditions
Target recognition
Weather target is moving towards the radar or moving away
The direction of movement of targets
Classification of materials

NATURE AND TYPES OF RADARS:
The common types of radars are:
Speed trap Radars
Missile traking Radars
Early warning Radars
Airport control Radars
Navigation Radars
Ground mapping Radars
Astronomy Radars
Weather forecast Radars
Gun fire control Radars
Remote sensing Radars
Tracking Radars
Search Rdars
IFF (Identification Friend or Foe)
Synthetic apearture Radars
Missile control Radars
MTI (Moving Target Indication) Radars
Navy Radars
Doppler Radars
11

Mesosphere, Stratosphere and Troposphere (MST) Radars
Over-The-Horizon (OTH) Radars
Monopulse Radars
Phased array Radars
Instrumentation Radars
Gun direction Radars
Airborne weather Radars

12

PULSE CHARACTERISTICS OF RADAR SYSTEMS:
There are different pulse characteristics and factors that govern them in a Radar system
Carrier
Pulse width
Pulse Repetition Frequency(PRF)
Unambiguous Range
NOTE: ECHO is a reflected EM wave from a target and it is received by a Radar receiver.
CARRIER: The carrier is used in a Radar system is an RF(radio frequency) signal with
microwave frequencies.
Carrier is usually modulated to allow the system to capture the required data.
In simple ranging Radars, the carrier will be pulse modulated but in continuous wave systems
such Doppler radar modulation is not required.
In pulse modulation, the carrier is simply switched ON & OFF in synchronization.
PULSE WIDTH: The pulse width of the transmitted signal determines the dead zone. When the
Radar transmitter is active, the receiver input is blanked to avoid the damage of amplifiers. For
example, a Radar echo will take approximately 10.8 sec to return from 1 standard mile away
target.
PULSE REPETITION FREQUENCY (PRF): PRF is the number of pulses transmitted per
second. PRF is equal to the reciprocal of pulse repetition time (PRT). It is measured in Hertz
PRF = 1/PRT
Pulse Interval Time or Pulse Reset Time (PRT) is the time interval between two pulses. It is
expressed in milliseconds.
Pulse Reset Time = Pulse Repetition Time Pulse Width
UNAMBIGUOUS RANGE: In simple systems, echoes from targets must be detected and
processed before the next transmitter pulse is generated if range ambiguity is to be avoided.
13

Range ambiguity occurs when the time taken for an echo to return from a target is greater than
the pulse repetition period (T).

Echoes that arrive after the transmission of the next pulse are called as second-time-around
echoes.
The range beyond which targets appear as second-time-around echoes is called as the Maximum
Unambiguous Range and is given by
R
UNAMBIG
= c/2f
P

c = velocity of propagation Where, T
P
= f
P

f
P
is the PRF(PULSE REPETITION FREQUENCY) in Hz

TYPES OF BASIC RADARS:
Monostatic and Bistatic
CW
FM-CW
Pulsed radar
14

Monostatic radar uses the same antenna for transmit and receive. Its typical geometry is shown in
the below fig.

Bistatic radars use transmitting and receiving antennas placed in different locations.
CW radars, in which the two antennas are used, are not considered to be bistatic radars as the
distance between the antennas is not considerable. The bistatic radar geometry is shown in below
fig.

15

RADAR WAVE FORMS:
The most common Radar waveform is a train of narrow, rectangular shape pulses modulating a
sine-wave carrier.
The figure shows a pulse waveform, which can be utilized by the typical Radar.


16

From the given Radar waveform:
Peak power p
t
= 1 Mwatt
Pulse Width = 1 sec.
Pulse Repetition Period T
P
= 1 msec.
A maximum unambiguous range of 150 km was provided by the PRF f
P
= 1000 Hz.
R
UNAMBIG
= c/2f
P


==> 15010
3
= 310
8
/ 2f
P

==> f
P
= 1000 Hz.
Then, the average power P
avg
of a repetitive pulse train wave form is given by P
avg
= p
t
/T
P
==>
P
avg
= p
t
f
P

In this case, P
avg
= 1 Kwatt


For a Radar wave form, the ratio of the total time that the Radar is radiating to the total time it
could have radiated is known as duty cycle.
Duty Cycle = /T
P
= f
P
= P
avg
/p
t


Duty Cycle = /T
P
= 0.001
The energy of the pulse is given by, E = p
t
= 1 Joule.
The Radar waveform can be extended in space over a distance of 300 meters using a pulse width
of 1 sec.
i.e., Distance = c = 300 m.
Half of the above distance (i.e. c /2) can be used to recognize the two equal targets which
are being resolved in range. In this case, a separation of 150m between two equal size targets can
be used to resolve them.

17

Name Symbol Units Typical values
Transmitted
Frequency
f
t
MHz, G hz 1000-12500 Mhz
Wavelength l cm 3-10 cm
Pulse Duration t M sec 1 m sec
Pulse Length h m 150-300 m (h=ct)
Pulse Repetition
Frequency
PRF sec
-1
1000 sec
-1
Interpulse Period T Milli sec 1 milli sec
Peak Transmitted
Power
P
t
MW 1 MW
Average Power P
avg
kW 1 kW (P
avg
= P
t
t PRF)
Received Power P
r
mW 10
-6
mW

The Radar Range Equation:
The radar range equation relates the range of the radar to the characteristics of the
transmitter, receiver, antenna, target and the environment.
It is used as a tool to help in specifying radar subsystem specifications in the design phase
of a program. If the transmitter delivers P
T
Watts into an isotropic antenna, then the power
density (w/m
2
) at a distance R from the radar is
P
t
/4R
2

Here the 4R
2
represents the surface area of the sphere at distance R
Radars employ directional antennas to channel the radiated power Pt in a particular
direction. The gain G of an antenna is the measure of the increased power radiated in the
direction of the target, compared to the power that would have been radiated from an isotropic
antenna
18

Power density from a directional antenna = P
t
G/4R
2

The target intercepts a portion of the incident power and redirects it in various directions.
The measure of the amount of incident power by the target and redirected back in the direction of
the radar is called the cross section .
Hence the Power density of the echo signals at the radar =
Note: the radar cross-section has the units of area. It can be thought of as the size of the target
as seen by the radar.
The receiving antenna effectively intercepts the power of the echo signal at the radar over
a certain area called the effective area A
e.

Since the power density (Watts/m
2
) is intercepted across an area A
e
, the power delivered
to the receiver is

P
r
= (P
t
GA
e
) /(4R
2
)
2
==> R
4
= (P
t
GA
e
) /(4)
2
P
r
R = [(P
t
GA
e
) /(4)
2
P
r
]
1/4
Now the maximum range R
max
is the distance beyond which the target cannot be detected
due to insufficient received power P
r,
the minimum power which the receiver can detect is called
the minimum detectable signal S
min
. Setting, P
r
= S
min
and rearranging the above equation gives

Note here that we have both the antenna gain on transmit and its effective area on receive. These
are related by:
As long as the radar uses the same antenna for transmission and reception we have
19


Example: Use the radar range equation to determine the required transmit power for the TRACS
radar given: Prmin =10
-13
Watts, G=2000, =0.23m, PRF=524, =2.0 m
2

Now,
From
= 3.1 MW
Note 1: these three forms of the equation for Rmax varywith different powers of . This results
from implicit assumptions about the independence of G or Ae from .
Note 2: the introduction of additional constraints (such as the requirement to scan a specific
volume of space in a given time) can yield other dependence.
Note 3: The observed maximum range is often much smaller than that predicted from the above
equation due to the exclusion of factors such as rainfall attenuation, clutter, noise figure etc.

RADAR BLOCK DIAGRAM AND OPERATION:
The Transmitter may be an oscillator (magnetron) that is pulsed on and off bya modulator to
generate the pulse train.
the magnetron is the most widely used oscillator
typical power required to detect a target at 200 NM is MW peak power and several kW
average power
typical pulse lengths are several s
typical PRFs are several hundreds of pulses per second
20


The waveform travels to the antenna where it is radiated. The receiver must be protected
from damage resulting from the high power of the transmitter. This is done by the duplexer.
duplexer also channels the return echo signals to the receiver and not to the transmitter
duplexer consists of 2 gas discharge tubes called the TR (transmit/receive) and the and an
ATR (anti transmit/receive) cell
The TR protects the receiver during transmission and the ATR directs the echo to the
receiver during reception.
solid state ferrite circulators and receiver protectors with gas plasma (radioactive keep
alive) tubes are also used in duplexers
The receiver is usually a superheterodyne type. The LNA is not always desirable. Although it
provides better sensitivity, it reduces the dy namic range of operation of the mix er. A receiver
with just a mixer front end has greater dynamic range, is less susceptible to overload and is less
vulnerable to electronic interference.
The mixer and Local Oscillator (LO) convert the RF frequency to the IF frequency.
The IF is typically 300MHz, 140Mz, 60 MHz, 30 MHz with bandwidths of 1 MHz to 10
MHz.
21

The IF strip should be designed to give a matched filter output. This requires its H(f) to
maximize the signal to noise power ratio at the output.
This occurs if the |H(f)| (magnitude of the frequency response of the IF strip is equal to
the signal spectrum of the echo signal |S(f)|, and the ARG(H(f)) (phase of the frequency
response) is the negative of the ARG(S(f)).
i.e. H(f) and S(f) should be complex conjugates
For radar with rectangular pulses, a conventional IF filter characteristic approximates a
matched filter if its bandwidth B and the pulse width satisfy the relationship

22

The pulse modulation is extracted by the second detector and amplified by video amplifiers
to levels at which they can be displayed (or A to Dd to a digital processor). The display is
usually a CRT; timing signals are applied to the display to provide zero range information. Angle
information is supplied from the pointing direction of the antenna.
The most common type of CRT display is the plan position indicator (PPI) which maps
the location of the target in azimuth and range in polar coordinates
The PPI is intensitymodulated bythe amplitude of the receiver output and the CRT
electron beam sweeps outward from the centre corresponding to range.
Also the beam rotates in angle in synchronization with the antenna pointing angle.
A B scope display uses rectangular coordinates to display range vs angle i.e. the x axis is
angle and the y axis is range.
Since both the PPI and B scopes use intensity modulation the dynamic range is limited
An A scope plots target echo amplitude vs range on rectangular coordinates for some
fixed direction. It is used primarily for tracking radar applications than for surveillance
radar.
The simple diagram has left out many details such as
AFC to compensate the receiver automatically for changes in the transmitter
AGC
Circuits in the receiver to reduce interference from other radars
Rotary joints in the transmission lines to allow for movement of the antenna
MTI (moving target indicator) circuits to discriminate between moving targets and
unwanted stationary targets
Pulse compression to achieve the resolution benefits of a short pulse but with the energy
benefits of a long pulse.
Monopulse tracking circuits for sensing the angular location of a moving target and
allowing the antenna to lock on and track the target automatically
Monitoring devices to monitor transmitter pulse shape, power load and receiver
sensitivity
23

Built in test equipment (BITE) for locating equipment failures so that faulty circuits can
be replaced quickly
Instead of displaying the raw video output directly on the CRT, it might be digitized and
processed and then displayed. This consists of:
Quantizing the echo level at range-azimuth resolution cells
Adding (integrating) the echo level in each cell
Establishing a threshold level that permits only the strong outputs due to target echoes to
pass while rejecting noise
Maintaining the tracks (trajectories) of each target
Displaying the processed information
This process is called automatic tracking and detection (ATD) in surveillance radar

Antennas:
The most common form of radar antenna is a reflector with parabolic shape, fed from a
point source (horn) at its focus
The beam is scanned in space by mechanically pointing the antenna
Phased array antennas are sometimes used. Her the beam is scanned by varying the phase
of the array elements electrically

Radar Frequencies:
Most Radar operates between 220 MHz and 35 GHz.
Special purpose radars operate out side of this range.
Skywave HF-OTH (over the horizon) can operate as low as 4 MHz
Groundwave HF radars operate as low as 2 MHz
Millimeter radars operate up to 95 GHz
Laser radars (lidars) operate in IR and visible spectrum
24

The radar frequencyletter -band nomenclature is shown in the table. Note that the
frequencyassignment to the latter band radar (e.g. L band radar) is much smaller than the
complete range of frequencies assigned to the letter band

25



Applications of Radar
General
i. Ground-based radar is applied chiefly to the detection, location and tracking of aircraft of
space targets
ii. Shipborne radar is used as a navigation aid and safety device to locate buoys, shorelines
and other ships. It is also used to observe aircraft
iii. Airborne radar is used to detect other aircraft, ships and land vehicles. It is also used for
mapping of terrain and avoidance of thunderstorms and terrain.
iv. Spaceborne radar is used for the remote sensing of terrain and sea, and for
rendezvous/docking.
26

Major Applications
1. Air Traffic Control
Used to provide air traffic controllers with position and other information on
aircraft flying within their area of responsibility (airways and in the vicinity of
airports)
High resolution radar is used at large airports to monitor aircraft and ground
vehicles on the runways, taxiways and ramps.
GCA (ground controlled approach) or PAR (precision approach radar) provides
an operator with high accuracy aircraft position information in both the vertical
and horizontal. The operator uses this information to guide the aircraft to a
landing in bad weather.
MLS (microwave landing system) and ATC radar beacon systems are based on
radar technology
2. Air Navigation
Weather avoidance radar is used on aircraft to detect and display areas of heavy
precipitation and turbulence.
Terrain avoidance and terrain following radar (primarily military)
Radio altimeter (FM/CW or pulse)
Doppler navigator
Ground mapping radar of moderate resolution sometimes used for navigation
3. Ship Safety
These are one of the least expensive, most reliable and largest applications of
radar
Detecting other craft and buoys to avoid collision
Automatic detection and tracking equipment (also called plot extractors) are
available with these radars for collision avoidance
Shore based radars of moderate resolution are used from harbour surveillance and
as an aid to navigation
4. Space
Radars are used for rendezvous and docking and was used for landing on the
moon
27

Large ground based radars are used for detection and tracking of satellites
Satellite-borne radars are used for remote sensing (SAR, synthetic aperture radar)
5. Remote Sensing
Used for sensing geophysical objects (the environment)
Radar astronomy - to probe the moon and planets
Ionospheric sounder (used to determine the best frequency to use for HF
communications)
Earth resources monitoring radars measure and map sea conditions, water resources,
ice cover, agricultural land use, forest conditions, geological formations,
environmental pollution (Synthetic Aperture Radar, SAR and Side Looking Airborne
Radar SLAR)
6. Law Enforcement
Automobile speed radars
Intrusion alarm systems
7. Military
Surveillance
Navigation , Fire control and guidance of weapons

ADVANTAGES OF BASIC RADAR:
It acts as a powerful eye.
It can see through: fog, rain, snow, darkness, haze, clouds and any insulators.
It can find out the range, angular position, location and velocity of targets.

LIMITATIONS:
Radar can not recognize the color of the targets.
It can not resolve the targets at short distances like human eye.
It can not see targets placed behind the conducting sheets.
It can not see targets hidden in water at long ranges.
28

It is difficult to identify short range objects.
The duplexer in radar provides switching between the transmitter and receiver
alternatively when a common antenna is used for transmission and reception.
The switching time of duplexer is critical in the operation of radar and it affects the
minimum range. A reflected pulse is not received during
the transmit pulse
subsequent receiver recovery time
The reflected pulses from close targets are not detected as they return before the receiver
is connected to the antenna by the duplexer.

Other Forms of the Radar Equation:-
FIRST EQUATION:-
If the transmit and receive antennas are not the same and have
different gains, the radar equation will

where G
t
is the gain of transmit antenna and G
r
is the gain of receive antenna .
SECOND EQUATION:-
If the target ranges are different for transmit and
receive antennas. The equation will be :

. Where R
t

and R
r
are ranges between the target and the transmit antenna and the target and the
receive antenna respectively .
THIRD EQUATION:-
The first radar equation we discussed was derived without incorporating
losses of energy which accompany transmission, reception, and the processing of
electromagnetic radiation. It is sufficient to incorporate all of these losses in one term and
write equation as follows :- Where L is the total loss term.

29

FOURTH EQUATION:-
If we know that the signal power equals the noise
power S/N = 1 the equation will be :

.Note that
all of
The terms appearing in the R
o
equation, with the exception of the target cross section, are a
characteristic of the radar system.
Once a design is established, R
o
can be determined for a given target
size. Using the value of R
o

from the fourth
equation in the
third equation
we get

.
From this equation, it is noted that S/N is inversely
proportional to the fourth power of
Range, R.
Parameters Affecting the Radar Range Equation:-
The radar equation was derived in the previous section and is below for reference:-



The terms of this equation, which depend on the:-

1) Physical structure of antenna. 2) Radar transmitter.
3) Processing of received signal. 4) System losses.
5) Characteristics of the target.
Type of Transmission:-
Passive: - there is no transmission.
Active: - there is transmission.

30

RADAR PARAMETERS AND DEFINITIONS:
RADAR: Radio means Radio Detection and Ranging. It is a device useful for detecting and
ranging, tracking and searching. It is useful for remote sensing, weather forecasting, speed
traping, fire control and astronomical abbrivations.
Echo: Echo is a reflected electromagnetic wave from a target and it is received by radar
receiver. The echo signal power is captured by the effective area of the receiving space antenna.
Duplexer: It is a microwave switch which connects the transmitter and receiver to the antenna
alternatively. It protects the receiver from high power output of the transmitter. It allows the use
of the single antenna for both radar transmistion and reception. It balnks the receiver during the
transmitting period.
Antenna: It is a device which acts as atransducer between transmitter and free space and
between free space and receiver. It converts electromagnetic energy into electrical energy at
receiving side and converts the electrical energy into electromagnetic energy at the transmitting
side. Antenna is a source and a sensor of electromagnetic waves. It is also an impedence
matching device and a radiator of electromagnetic waves.
Transmitter: It conditions the signals interest and connects them to the antenna. The
transmitter generates high power RF energy. It consists of magnetron or klystron or travelling
wave tube or cross field amplifier.
Receiver: It receives the signals from the receiving antenna and connects them to display. The
receiver amplifies weak return pulses and separates noise and clutter.
Synchronizer: It synchronizes and coordinates the timing for range determination. It regulates
PRF and resets for each pulse. Synchronizer connects the signals simultaneously to transmitter
and display. It maintains timing of transmitted pulses. It ensures that all components and devices
operate in a fixed time relationship.
Display: It isa device to present the received information for the operator to interpet. It
provides visual presentation of echoes.
31

Bearing or Azimuth Angle: It is an angle measured from true north in a horizontal plane.
In other words, it is the antenna beams angle on the local horizontal plane from some reference.
The reference is usually true north.
Elevation Angle: It is an angle measured between the horizontal plane and line of sight. In other
words, it is an angle between the radar beam antenna axis and the local horizontal.
Resolution: It is the ability to separate and detect multiple targets or multiple features on the
same target. In other words, it is the ability of radar to distinguish targets that are very close in
either range or bearing. The targets can be resolved in four dimentions range, horizontal cross-
range, vertical cross-range and Doppler shift.
Range Resolution (RS): It is the ability of Radar to distinguish two or more targets at
different rangesbut at the same bearing. It has the units of distance.
RS = v
o
(PM/2) in meters
Bearing Resolution: It is the ability of Radar to distinguish objects which are in different
bearing but at the same range. It is expressed in degress.
Range of Radar: It is the distance of object from the location of radar, R = v
o
t/2
Where, v
o
= velocity of EM wave, t = The time taken to receiver echo from the object.
Rdar Pulse: It is a modulated radiated frequency carrier wave. The carrier frequency is the
transmitter oscillator frequency and it influences antenna size and beamwidth.

32

Cross-Range Resolution of Radar: It is the ability of Radar to distinguish multiple
targets at the same range. It has linear dimension perpendicular to the axis of the Radar antenna.
It is of two types:
Azimuth (Horizontal) cross-range
Elevation (Vertical) cross-range
Narrow beam of radar antennas resolve closed spaced targets. The cross-range resolution x is
given by, x = R/L
eff

Where R = Target range in meters
L
eff
= Effective length of the antenna in the direction of the beam width is estimated.
= Wavelength in meters
Doppler Resolution: It is the ability to distinguish targets at the same range, but moving at
different radial velocities. The Doppler resolution f
d
is given by, f
d
= 1/T
d
in Hz
Here T
d
= The look time in seconds.
The Doppler resolution is possible if Doppler frequencies differ by at least one cycle over the
time of observation. It depends on the time over which signal is gathered for processing.
Rdar Signal: Radar signal is an alternating electrical quantity which conveys information. It
can be voltage or current. The different types of radar signals are:
Echoes from desired targets
Echoes from undesired targets
Noise signals in the receiver
Jamming signals
Signals from hostile sources
Radar Beam: It is the main beam of radar antenna. It represents the variation of a field
strength or radiated power as a function of in free space.
33

ECM: ECM represents Electronic Counter Measure. It is also known as jamming. It is an
electronic technique which distrup radar or communication.
Radar Beam Width: It is the width of the main beam of radar antenna between two half
power points or between two first nulls. It is expressed in degrees.
Search Radar: These are used for searching the targets and they scan the beam a few times
per minute. These are used to detect targets and find their range, angular velocity and some times
velocity. The different types of search radars are:
Surface Search Radar
Air Search Radar
Two-dimentional Search Radar
Three-dimentional Search Radar
Pulse Width: It is the duration of the radar pulse. It is expressed in milli seconds. The pulse
width influences the total pulse energy. It determines minimum range and range resolution. In,
fact it represents the transmitter ON time.
Pulse Interval Time or Pulse Reset Time (PRT): It is the time interval between two
pulses. It is expressed in milli seconds.
Pulse Reset Time (PRT) = Pulse Repetetion Time (PRT) Pulse Width (PW)
Pulse Repetetion Frequency (PRF): It is the number of pulses transmitted per second. It
is equal to the reciprocal of pulse repetition time. It is measured in hertzs.
PRF = 1/PRT
Pulse Repetetion Time (PRT): It is the time interval between the start of one pulse and the
start of next pulse. It is the sum of pulse width and pulse reset time (PRT). In other words it is
the time. It is measured in microseconds.
PRT = PW+PRT
34

Duty Cycle (D
c
): It is the ratio of average power to the peak power. It is also defined as the
produt of pulse width and PRF. It has no units.
Duty Cycle, D
c
= PWPRF = PW/PRT = P
avg
/P
peak

Average Power (P
avg
): It is the average transmitted power over the pulse repetition period.
p
peak
p
avg

Two-Dimentional Radars: These are the radars which determine:
Range
Bearing of targets
Three-Dimentional Radars: These are the radars which determine:
Altitude
Range
Bearing of object
Target resolution of Radar: It is the ability of Radar to distinguish targets that are very
close in either range or bearing.
Navigational Radars: They are similar to search radars. They basically transmit short waves
which can be refelected from earth, stones and other obstacles. These are either shipborne or
airborne.
Weather Radars: These are similar to search radars. They radiate EM waves with circular
polarization or horizontal or vertical polarization.
Radar Altimeter: It is radar which is used to determine the height of the aircraft from the
ground.
Air Traffic Control Radars: This consists of primary and secondry radars to control the
traffic in air.
35

Primary Radars: It is radar which receives all types of echoes including clouds and aircrafts.
It receives its own signals as echoes.
Secondary Radars: It transmits the pulses and receives digital data coming from aircraft
transponder. The data like altitude, call signs interms of codes are transmitted by the
transponders. In military applications, these transponders are used to establish flight identity etc.
Example of secondary radar is IFF radar.
Pulsed Radar: It is radar which transmits high power and frequency pulse. After transmitting
one pulse, it receives echoes and then transmits another pulse. It determines direction, distance
and altitude of an object.
CW Radar: It is radar which transmits high frequency signal continuously. The echo is a
received and processed.
Unmodulated CW Radar: It is radar in which the transmitted signal has constant
amplitude and frequency. It useful to measure velocity of the object but not the speed.
Modulated CW Radar: It is radar in which the transmitted signal has constant amplitude
with modulated frequency.
MTI Radar: It is pulsed radar which uses the Doppler frequency shift for discriminating
moving targets from fixed ones, appearing as clutter.
Local Oscillator: It is an oscillator which generates a frequency signal which is used to
convert the recived signal frequency into a fixed intermediate frequency.
Mixer: It is a unit which mixes or heterodynes the frequency of the received echo signal and
the frequency of local oscillator and then produces a signal of fixed frequency known as
intermediate frequency. This unit is useful to increase the signal-to-noise ratio.
Doppler Frequency: Is the change in the frequency of a signal that occurs when the source
and the observer are in relative motion, or when the signal is reflected by a moving object, there
is an increase in frequency as the source and the observer ( or the reflecting object ) approach,
and a decrease in frequency as they separate .
36


Doppler Effect: Doppler Effect is discovered by Doppler. It is a shift in frequency and the
wavelength of the wave as perceived by the source when the source or the target is in motion.
Astronomy Radar: It is radar which is used to probe the celestial objects.
OTH Radar: It represents Over-The-Horizon radar. It is radar which can look beyond the
radio horizon. It uses ground wave and sky wave propagation modes between 2MHz and
30MHz.
MST Radar: It represents Mesosphere, Stratosphere and Troposphere radar. Mesosphere
exists between 50km and 100km above the earth. Stratosphere exits between 10km and 50 km
above the earth. Troposphere exists between 0 and 10km above the earth. MST Radar is used to
observe wind velocity, turbulence etc.
PPI: It represents Plan position Indicator. It is a cicular display with an intensity modulated
map. It gives the location of a target in polar coordinates.
A-Scope: It is a radar display and represents an oscilloscope. Its horizontal coordinate
represents the range and its vertical coordinate represents the target echo amplitude. It is the most
popular radar display.
B-Scope: It is a radar display and it is an intensity modulated radar dislay. Its horizontal axis
represents azimuth angle and its vertical axis represents the range of the target. The lower edge
of the display represents the radar location.
Tracking Radar: It is radar which tracks the target and it is usually ground borne. It provides
range tracking and angle tracking. It follows the motion of a target in azimuth and elevation.
Monostatic Radar: It is radar which contains transmitter and receiver at the same location
with common antenna.
Bistatic Radar: Inthis radar transmitting and receiving antennas are located at different
locations. The receiver receives the signals both from the transmitter and the target.
37

Laser Radar: It is radar which uses laser beam instead of microwave beam. Its frequency of
operation is in between 30 THz and 300 THz.
Remote Sensing Radar: It provides the data about the remote places and uses the shaped
beam antenna. The angle subtended at the radar antenna is much smaller than the angular width
of the antenna beam.
Phased Array Radar: It is radar which uses phased array antenna in which the beam is
scanned by changing the phase distribution of array. It is possible to scan the beam with this
radar at a fraction of microseconds.
Clutter: The clutter is an unwanted echo from the objects other than the targets.
LIDAR: It represents Light Detection and Ranging.it is some times called as LADAR or Laser
Radar.
Pulse Doppler radar: It is radar that uses series of pulses to obtain velocity content.
Radar Signature: It is the identification of patterns in a target radar cross-section.
Range Tracking Radar: It is radar which tracks the targets in range.
TWS Radar: It represents Tract-While-Scan Radar. This radar scans and tracks the targets
simultaneously.
Blind Range: is a range corresponding to the time delay of an integral multiple of the inter
pulse period plus a time less than or equal to the transmitted pulse length. Radar usually cannot
detect targets at a blind range because of interference by subsequent transmitted pulses. The
problem of blind ranges can be solved or largely mitigated by employing multiple PRFs.



38


39

Radar Display:
A radar display is an electronic instrument for visual representation of radar data. Radar
displays can be classified from the standpoint of their functions, the physical principles of their
implementation, type of information displayed, and so forth. From the viewpoint of function,
they can be detection displays, measurement displays, or special displays. From the viewpoint of
number of displayed coordinates, they can be one dimensional (1D), two dimensional (2D), or
three dimensional (3D). An example of a 1D display is the range display (A-scope). Most widely
used are 2D displays, represented by the altitude range display (range-height indicator, or RHI),
azimuth elevation display (C-scope), azimuth range display (B-scope), elevation range display
(E-scope), and plan position indicator ( PPI ). These letter descriptions date back to World War
II, and many of them are obsolete. From the viewpoint of physical implementation, active and
passive displays are distinguished. The former are represented mainly by cathode ray tube (CRT)
displays and semiconductor displays. Passive displays can be of liquid crystal or ferroelectric
types. In most radar applications CRT displays remain the best choice because of their good
performance and low cost.
From the viewpoint of displayed information, displays can be classified as presenting radar
signal data, alpha numerics, or combined displays. These can be driven by analog data (analog
or raw video displays) or digital data (digital or synthetic video displays). Displays in modern
radar are typically synthetic video combined displays, often using the monitors of computer
based work stations.



40

Now we will discuss the classifications of radar display from this figure.

41



42

OBJECTIVE TYPE QUESTIONS

1. The Doppler shift Df is given by ________ [
]
a. 2Vr / k b. Vr / 2 k c. 2k / Vr d. k/ Vr
2. Magnetrons are commonly sued as radar transmitters because ________ [ ]
a. high power can be generated and transmitted to aerial directly from oscillator
b. it is easily cooled c. it is a cumbersome device d. it has least
distortion.
3. A simple CW radar does not give range information because _________ [ ]
a. it uses the principle of Doppler shift
b. continuous echo cannot be associated with any specific part of the transmitted wave
c. CW wave do not reflect from a target d. multi echoes distort the information
4. Increasing the pulse width in a pulse radar -__________ [ ]
a. increases resolution b. decreases resolution
c. has no effect on resolution d. increase the power gain
5. COHO in MTI radar operates ------- [ ]
a. at supply frequency b. at intermediate frequency
c. pulse repetition frequency d. station frequency.
6. A high noise figure in a receiver means _________ [ ]
a. poor minimum detectable signal b. good detectable signal
c. receiver bandwidth is reduced d. high power loss.
43

7. Which of the following will be the best scanning system for tracking after a target has been
acquired _______ [ ]
a. Conical b. Spiral c. Helical d. Nodding
8. A RADAR IS used for measuring the height of an aircraft is known as _________[ ]
a. radar altimeter b. radar elevator c. radar speedometer d. radar
latitude
9. VOR stands for __________ [ ]
a. VHF omni range b. visually operated radar
c. voltage output of regulator. d. visual optical radar
10. The COHO in MTI radar operates at the _______________ [ ]
a. received frequency b. pulse repetition frequency
c. transmitted frequency d. intermediate frequency.


11. Radar transmits pulsed electromagnetic energy because ________ [ ]
a. it is easy to measure the direction of the target.
b. it provides a very ready measure*ment of range
c. it is very easy to identify the targets d. it is easy to measure the velocity of target
12. A scope displays _____________ [ ]
a. neither target range nor position, but only target velocity.
b. the target position, but not range c. the target position and range
d. the target range but not position.
13. Which of the following is the remedy for blind speed problem ___________ [ ]
44

a. change in Doppler frequency b. use of MTI
c. use of Monopulse d. variation of PRF.
14. Which of the following statement is incorrect? Flat topped rectangular pulses must be
transmitted in radar to _______________ [ ]
a. allow accurate range measurements b. allow a good minimum range.
c. prevent frequency changes in the magnetron.
d. make the returned echoes easier to distinguish from noise.
15. In case the cross section of a target is changing, the tracking is generally done by [ ]
a. duplex switching b. duplex scanning c. mono pulse d. cw radar
16. Which of the following is the biggest disadvantage of the CW Doppler radar ? [ ]
a. it does not give the target velocity b. it does not give the target position
c. a transponder is required at the target d. it does not give the target range.
17. The sensitivity of a radar receiver is ultimately set by _______ [ ]
a. high S/N ratio b. lower limit of signal input
c. over all noise temperature d. higher figure of merit
18. A rectangular wave guide behaves like a _______ [ ]
a. band pass filter b. high pass filter
c. low pass filter d. m - derived filter
19. Non linearity in display sweep circuit results in __________ [ ]
a. accuracy in range b. deflection of focus
c. loss of time base trace. d. undamped indications
20. The function of the quartz delay line in a MTI radar is to __________ [ ]
a. help in subtracting a complete scan from the previous scan
45

b. match the phase of the Coho and the output oscillator.
c. match the phase of the Coho and the stalo
d. delay a sweep so that the next sweep can be subtracted from it,

Answers:
1.a 2.a 3.b 4.b 5.b 6.a 7.a 8.a 9.a 10.d
11.b 12.d 13.d 14.d 15.c 16.d 17.c 18.b 19.a 20.a


ESSAY TYPE QUESTIONS

1. Discuss the parameters on which maximum detectable range of a radar system depends.
2. What are the specific bands assigned by the ITU for the radar? What the corresponding
frequencies?
3. What are the different range frequencies that radar can operate and give their applications?
4. What are the basic functions of radar? In indicating the position of a target, what is the
difference between azimuth and elevation?
5. Derive fundamental radar range equation governed by minimum receivable echo power
s
min.

6. Modify the range equation for an antenna with a transmitting gain G and operating at a
wavelength.
7. Draw the functional block diagram of simple pulse radar and explain the purpose and
functioning of each block in it.
8. List major applications of radar in civil and military systems.
46

9. With the help of a suitable block diagram explain the operation of a pulse radar
10. Explain how the Radar is used to measure the range of a target?
11. Draw the block diagram of the pulse radar and explain the function of each block
12. Explain how the Radar is used to measure the direction and position of target?
13. What are the peak power and duty cycle of a radar whose average transmitter power is
200W, pulse width of 1s and a pulse repetition frequency of 1000Hz?
14. What is the different range of frequencies that radar can operate and give their
applications?
15. What are the basic functions of radar? In indicating the position of a target, what is the
difference between azimuth and elevation?
16. Determine the probability of detection of the Radar for a process of threshold
17. Draw the block diagram of Basic radar and explain how it works?
18. Write the simplifier version of radar range equation and explain how this equation does
not adequately describe the performance of practical radar?
19. Derive the simple form of the Radar equation.
20. Compute the maximum detectable range of a radar system specified below:
a. Operating wavelength = 3.2 cm
b. Peak pulse transmitted power = 500 kW.
c. Minimum detectable power = 10
-3
W
d. Capture area of the antenna = 5 sq.m.
e. Radar cross-sectional area of the targe t = 20 sq.m.

47


UNIT-II

RADAR
EQUATION

48

The Radar Range Equation:
We know that,

All of the parameters are controllable by the radar designer except for the target cross
section .
In practice the simple range equation does not predict range performance accurately. The
actual range may be only half of that predicted.
This due, in part, to the failure to include various losses
It is also due to the statistical nature of several parameters such as Smin, , and
propagation losses
Because of the statistical nature of these parameters, the range is described by the
probability that the radar will detect a certain type of target at a certain distance.

Minimum detectable Signal:
The ability of the radar receiver to detect a weak echo is limited by the noise energy that
occupies the same spectrum as the signal
Detection is based on establishing a threshold level at the output of the receiver.
If the receiver output exceeds the threshold, a signal is assumed to be present
A sample detected envelope is show below, a large signal is detected at A. The threshold must be
adjusted so that weak signals are detected, but not so low that noise peaks cross the threshold and
give a false target.
The voltage envelope in the figure is usually from a matched filter receiver. A matched
filter maximizes the output peak signal to average noise power level.
49



Fig: Envelope of receiver output showing false alarms due to noise.
A matched filter has a frequency response which is proportional to the complex conjugate
of the signal spectrum. The output of a matched filter is the cross correlation between the
received waveform and the replica of the transmitted waveform. The shape of the input
waveform to the matched filter is not preserved.
In the figure, two signals are present at point B and C. The noise voltage at point B is
large enough so that the combined signal and noise cross the threshold. The presence of noise
sometimes enhances the detection of weak signals.
50

At point C the noise is not large enough and the signal is lost.
The selection of the proper threshold is a compromise which depends on how important it
is if a mistake is made by (1) failing to recognize a signal (probability of a miss) or by (2) falsely
indicating the presence of a signal (probability of a false alarm)
Note: threshold selection can be made byan operator viewing a CRT display. Here the threshold
is difficult to predict and may not remain fixed in time.
The SNR necessary to provide adequate detection must be determined before the
minimum detectable signal Smin can be computed.
Although detection decision is done at the video output, it is easier to consider
maximizing the SNR at the output of the IF strip (before detection). This is because the receiver
is linear up to this point.
It has been shown that maximizing SNR at the output of the IF is equivalent to
maximizing the video output.

False Alarm Rate
A false alarm is an erroneous radar target detection decision caused by noise or other interfering
signals exceeding the detection threshold. In general, it is an indication of the presence of a
radar target when there is no valid target. The False Alarm Rate (FAR) is calculated using the
following formula:

Figure 1: Different threshold levels
51

FAR =
false targets per PRT
.. (1)
Number of rangecells
False alarms are generated when thermal noise exceeds a pre-set threshold level, by the presence
of spurious signals (either internal to the radar receiver or from sources external to the radar), or
by equipment malfunction. A false alarm may be manifested as a momentary blip on a cathode
ray tube (CRT) display, a digital signal processor output, an audio signal, or by all of these
means. If the detection threshold is set too high, there will be very few false alarms, but the
signal-to-noise ratio required will inhibit detection of valid targets. If the threshold is set too low,
the large number of false alarms will mask detection of valid targets.
a. Threshold is set too high: Probability of Detection = 20%
b. Threshold is set optimal: Probability of Detection = 80%
But one false alarm arises!
False alarm rate = 1 / 666 = 1,5 10
-3

c. Threshold is set too low: a large number of false alarms arise!
d. Threshold is set variabel: constant false-alarm rate

Receiver Noise:
Noise is unwanted EM energy which interferes with the abilityof the receiver to detect
wanted signals. Noise may be generated in the receiver or may enter the receiver via the antenna.
One component of noise which is generated in the receiver is thermal (or Johnson) noise.
Noise power (Watts) = kTB
n

Where k = Boltzmanns constant =1.38 x 10
-23
J/deg
T = degrees Kelvin and B
n
= noise bandwidth
Note: B
n
is not the 3 dB bandwidth but is given by:
52

Here f
0
is the frequency of maximum response
i.e. B
n
is the width of an ideal rectangular filter whose response has the same area as the
filter or amplifier in question.
Note: For many types of radar Bn is approximately equal to the 3 dB bandwidth (which is easier
to determine).
Note: A receiver with a reactive input (e.g. a parametric amplifier) need not have any ohmic loss
and hence all thermal noise is due to the antenna and transmission line preceding the antenna.
The noise power in a practical receiver is often greater than can be accounted for
bythermal noise. This additional noise is created by other mechanisms than thermal agitation.
The total noise can be considered to be equal to thermal noise power from an ideal receiver
multiplied by a factor called the noise figure F
n
(sometimes NF)
= Noise out of a practical receiver/Noise out of an ideal receiver at T
0

Here G
a
is the gain of the receiver
Note: the receiver bandwidth B
n
is that of the IF amplifier in most receivers.
Since,
We have,
Rearranging gives:

Now S
min
is that value of S
i
corresponding to the minimum output SNR: (S
o
/N
o
) necessary for
detection. Hence
53


Substituting the above equation into the radar range equation, we get,


Probability Density Function (PDF):
Consider the variable x as representing a typical measured value of a random process
such as a noise voltage. Divide the continuous range of values of x into small equal segments of
length x, and count the number of times that x falls into each interval. The PDF p(x) is than
defined as:

Where N is the total number of values
The probability that a particular measured value lies within width dx centred at x is p(x)
dx, also the probability that a value lies between x
1
and x
2
is

Note: PDF is always positive by definition
The average value of a variable function (x) of a random variable x is:

Hence the average value or mean of x is
54

Also the mean square value is
Where, m
1
and m
2
are called the first and second moments of the random variable x.
Note: If x represents current, then m1 is the DC component and m2 multiplied by the resistance
gives the mean power.
Variance is defined as,

Variance is also called the second central moment. If x represents current,
2
multiplied
bythe resistance gives the mean power of the AC component. Standard deviation, is defined as
the square root of the variance. This is the RMS value of the AC component.
In RADAR systems, there are different types of PDF:
Uniform Probability Density Function
Gaussian (Normal) Probability Density Function
Rayleigh Probability Density Function
Exponential Probability Density Function
Uniform Probability Density Function:
The Uniform Probability Density Function is defined as,

Example of a uniform probability distribution is the phase of a random sine wave relative to a
particular origin of time.
The constant K is found from the following
55

Hence for the phase of a random sine wave
The average value for a uniform PDF

The mean squared value is

The variance is

The standard deviation is
Gaussian (Normal) PDF:
The Gaussian (Normal) Probability Density Function is defined as,
An example of normal PDF is thermal noise
We have for the Normal PDF
m
1
= x
0

m
2
= x
2
0
+
2

56

2
= m
2
- m
1
2


Central Limit Theorem:
The PDF of the sum of a large number of independent, identically distributed
randomquantities approaches the Normal PDF regardless of what the individual distribution
might be, provided that the contribution of anyone quantityis not comparable with the resultant
of all the others.
For the Normal distribution, no matter how large a value of x we may choose, there is
always a finite probability of finding a greater value.
Hence if noise at the input to a threshold detector is normally distributed there is always a
chance for a false alarm.
Rayleigh PDF:


57

Examples of a Rayleigh PDF are the envelope of noise output from a narrowband band
pass filter (IF filter in superheterodyne receiver), also the cross section fluctuations of certain
Here
Exponential PDF:
If x
2
is replaced by w where w represents power. And <x
2
>
avg
is replaced by w
0
where w
0

represents average power
Then
, for w 0
This is called the exponential PDF or the Rayleigh Power PDF

Here = w
0

The Probability Distribution Function is defined as, P(x) = probability (Xx)

In some cases the distribution function is easier to obtain from experiments.


58

Signal to Noise Ratio:
Here we will obtain the SNR at the output of the IF amplifier necessary to achieve a
specific probability of detection without exceeding a specified probability of false alarm.
The output SNR is then substituted into maximu radar range equation to obtain S
min
, the
minimum detectable signal at the receiver input.

Here B
V
> B
IF
/2 in order to pass all video modulation.
The envelope detector may be either a square law or linear detector. The noise entering
the IF amplifier is Gaussian.

Here
0
is the variance, the mean value is zero.
When this Gaussian noise is passed through the narrow band IF strip, the PDF of the envelope of
the noise is Rayleigh PDF.

Here R is the amplitude of the envelope of the filter output.
Now the probability that the noise voltage envelope will exceed a voltage threshold V
T
(false alarm) is:

59

The average time interval between crossings of the threshold by noise alone is the false
alarm time T
fa.

Here T
k
is the time between crossings of the threshold by noise
when the slope of the crossing is Positive.
Now the false alarm probability Pfa is also given by the ratio of the time that the
envelope is above the threshold to the total time.
Where

Since the average duration of a noise pulse is approximatelythe reciprocal of the
bandwidth. From the above two palse alaram probabilities, the resultant equation we get,

60


Example: For B
IF
= 1 MHz and required false alarm rate of 15 minutes.


Note: the false alarm probabilities of practical radars are quite small. This is due to their narrow
bandwidth.
61

Note: False alarm time Tfa is very sensitive to variations in the threshold level VT due to the
exponential relationship.
Example: For BIF = 1 MHz we have the following:

Note: If the receiver is gated off for part of the time (e.g. during transmission interval) the P
fa

will be increased by the fraction of the time that the receiver is not on. This assumes that T
fa

remains constant. The effect is usually negligible.
We now consider a sine wave signal of amplitude A present along with the noise at the input to
the IF strip.
Here the output of the envelope detector has a Rice PDF which is given by:

Where I
0
(Z) is the modified Bessel function of zero order and argument Z
Now,
Note: when A = 0, the above equation reduces to the PDF from noise alone.
The probability of detection P
d
is the probability that the envelope will exceed V
T.


For the conditions RA/
0
>> 1 and A >> |R-A|

62


Note: 1. the area represents the probability of detection.
2. The area represents the probability of false alarm.
If P
fa
is decreased by moving V
T
then P
d
is also decreased.
The above P
d
may be converted to power by replacing the signal-r.m.s.-noise-voltatge ratio.
The signal-r.m.s.-noise-voltatge ratio is given by
= [Signal amplitude/RMS noise voltage] = 2[RMS signal voltage/ RMS noise voltage]
= [Signal power/noise power]
1/2
= (2S/N)
1/2


The performance specification is Pfa and Pd and used to determine the S/N at the receiver
output and the Smin at the receiver input.
Note: This S/N is for a single radar pulse.
The above figure shows the probability of detection for a sine wave in noise as a function
of the signal-to-noise (power) ratio and the probability of false alaram.
63

Note: S/N required is high even for P
d
= 0.5. This is due to the requirement for the P
fa
to be
small. A change in S/N of 3.4 dB can change the P
d
from 0.999 to 0.5. When a target cross
section fluctuates, the change in S/N is much greater than this S/N required for detection is not a
sensitive function of false alarm time.

64

Integration of Radar pulses:
The above figure applies for a single pulse only. However many pulses are usually returned from
any particular target and can be used to improve detection. The number of pulses n
B
as the
antenna scans is

Where
B
= antenna beam width (deg) and f
P
= PRF (Hz)
= antenna scan rate (deg/sec)

m
= antenna scan rate (rpm)
Example: For a ground based search radar having

B
= 1.5 , f
P
= 300 Hz,
Determine the number of hits from a point target in each scan n
B
= 15
The process of summing radar echoes to improve detection is called integration.
All integration techniques employ a storage device
The simplest integration method is the CRT displaycombined with the integrating
properties of the eye and brain of the operator.
For electronic integration, the function can be accomplished in the receiver either before
the second detector (in the IF) or after the second detector (in the video).
Integration before detection is called predetection or coherent detection.
Integration after detection is called postdetection or noncoherent integration.
Predetection integration requires the phase of the echo signal to be preserved.
Postdetection integration can not preserve RF phase.
For predetection SNR integrated = n SNRi or (SNR)
n
=n(SNR)
1

Where SNRi is the SNR for a single pulse and n is the number of pulses integrated.
65

For postdetection, the integrated SNR is less than the above since some of the energy is
converted to noise in the nonlinear second detector.
Postdetection integration, however, is easier to implement
Integration efficiency is defined as
---------- (1)
Where (S/N)
1
= value of SNR of a single pulse required to produce a given probability of
detection and
(S/N)
n
= value of SNR per pulse required to produce the same probability of detection. When n
pulses are integrated.
For postdetection integration, the integration improvement factor is I
i
= n E
i
(n)
For ideal postdetection, E
i
(n) = 1 and hence the integration improvement factor is n
Examples of I
i
are given in Fig from data by Marcum
Note that I
i
is not sensitive to either P
d
or P
fa
.
We can also develop the integration loss as
This is shown in Fig.
The parameter n
f
in Fig. is called the false alarm number which is defined as the average number
of possible decisions between false alarms
n
f
= [no. of range intervals/pulse][no. of pulse periods/sec][false alarm rate]
= [T
P
/][f
P
][T
fa
]
Here T
P
= PRI (pulse repetition interval) and f
P
= PRF
Thus n
f
= T
fa
/ = T
fa
B 1/P
fa

Note: for a radar with pulse width , there are B = 1/ possible decisions per second on the
presence of a target
66

If n pulses are integrated before a target decision is made, then there is B/n possible
decisions/sea.
Hence the false alarm probability is n times as great.
Note: This does not mean that there will be more false alarms since it is the rate of detection-
decisions is reduced, not the average time between false alarms.
Hence T
fa
is more meaningful than P
fa

Note: some authors use a false alarm number n
f
= n
f
/n
Caution should be used in computations for SNR as a function of P
fa
and P
d

Fig. shows that for a few pulses integrated post detection, there is not much difference from a
perfect predetection integrator.

67



When there are many pulses integrated (small S/N per pulse) the difference is pronounced.
The radar equation with n pulses integrated is

Here (S/N)
n
is the SNR of one of n equal pulses that are integrated to produce the required P
d
for
a specified P
fa.

Using equation 1 into above equation, we get,

68

Here (S/N)
1
is found from Fig. and nE
i
(n) is found from Fig .
Some postdetection integrators use a weighting of the integrated pulses. These integrators
include the recirculating delay line, the LPF, the storage tube and some algorithms in digital
integration.
If an exponential weighting of the integrated pulses is used then the voltage out of the
integrator is

Here V
i
is the voltage amplitude of the ith pulse and exp(-) is the attenuation per pulse.
For this weighting, an efficiencyf actor can be calculated which is the ratio of the average S/N
for the exponential integrator to the average S/N for the uniform integrator:

Note: Maximum efficiency for a dumped integrator corresponds to =0
Maximum efficiency for a continuous integrator corresponds to n =1.257

Radar Cross Section of Targets:
Cross-section: The fictional area intercepting that amount of power which, when scattered
equally in all directions, produces an echo at the radar that is equal to that actually received.

69

Where R = range
Er= reflected field strength at radar
Ei = incident field strength at target
Note: for most targets such as aircraft. Ships and terrain, the does not bear a simple
relationship to the physical area.
EM scattered field: is the difference between the total field in the presence of an object
and the field that would exist if the object were absent. EM diffracted field: is the total field in
the presence of the object
Note: for radar backscatter, the two fields are the same (since the transmitted field has
disappeared by the time the received field appears).
The can be calculated using Maxwells equations onlyfor simple targets such as the sphere
(Fig.2.9).
When (the Rayleigh region), the scattering from a sphere can be used for
modelling raindrops. Since varies as
-4
in the Rayleigh region, rain and clouds are invisible for
long wavelength Radars.
The usual radar targets are much larger than raindrops and hence the long operation
does not reduce the target .
When the approaches the optical cross section a
2

Note: in the Mie (resonance region) can actually be 5.6 dB greater than the optical value or 5.6
dB smaller.
Note: For a sphere the is not aspect sensitive as it is for all other objects, and hence can be
used fro calibrating a radar system.
Backscatter of a long thin rod (missile) is shown. Where the length is 39 and the
diameter /4, the material is silver.
Here = 0 is the end on view and is small since the projected area is small.
70

However at near end on ( 5) waves couple onto the rod, travel the length of the rod
and reflect from the discontinuity at the far end large .

The Cone Sphere

71


Here the first derivatives of the cone and sphere contours are the same at the point of joining.
The nose-on is shown in Fig. 2.12

72

Note: Fig. 2.12. The for near 0 (-45 to +45) is quite low. This is because scattering occurs
from discontinuities. Here the discontinuities are small: the tip, the join and the base of the
sphere (which allows a creeping wave to travel around the sphere).
When the cone is viewed at perpendicular incidence ( = 90 - , where is the cone half
angle) a large specular return is contained.
From the rear, the is approximately that of a sphere.
The nose on for f above the Rayleigh region and for a wide range of , has a max of
0.4
2
and a min of 0.01
2
. This gives a very low backscatter (e.g. at = 3 cm, = 10-4
m
2
).
Example: at S band for 3 targets having the same projected area:
Corner reflector: 1000 m
2
, Sphere 1 m
2
, Cone sphere 10-3 m
2

In practice, to achieve a low with a cone sphere, the tip must be sharp, the surface
smooth and no holes or protuberances allowed.
A comparison of nose-on for several cone shaped objects is given in figure 2.13
Note: the use of materials such as carbon fibre composites can further reduce .
Complex Targets.
The of complex targets (ships, aircraft, and terrain) is complicated functions of
frequencyand viewing angle.
The can be computed using GTD (Geometric Theory of Diffraction), measured
experimentally or found using scale models.
A complex target can be considered as being composed of a large number of independent
objects which scatter energy in all directions.
The relative phases and amplitudes of the echo signals from the individual scatterers
determine the total . If the separation between individual scatterers is large compared to the
phases will vary with the viewing angle and cause a scintillating echo.
73

An example of the variation of with aspect angle is shown in Fig. 2.16. The can
change by 15dB for an angular change of 0.33. Broadside gives the max since the projected
area is bigger and is relatively flat (The B-26 fuselage had a rectangular cross-section). This data
was obtained bymounting the actual aircraft on a turntable above ground and observing its with
a radar.
A more economical method is to construct scale models. An example of a model
measurement is given in Fig. 2.17 bythe dashed lines. The solid lines are the theoretical
(computed using GTD) data. The computed data is obtained bybreaking up the target into simple
geometrical shapes. And then computing the contributions of each (accounting for shadowing).
The most realistic method for obtaining data is to measure the actual target in flight.
The US Naval Research Lab has such a facility with L, S, C, and X band radars. The radar track
data establishes the aspect angle. Data is usually averaged over a 10 x 10 aspect angle interval.
A single value cross section is sometimes given for specific aircraft targets for use in the
range equation. This is sometimes an average value or sometimes a value which is exceeded 99%
of the time.
Note: even though single values are given there can be large variations in actual for any target
e.g. the AD 4B, a propeller driven aircraft has a of 20 m2 at L band but its at VHF is about
100 m
2
This is because at VHF the dimensions of the scattering objects are comparable to and
produce a resonance effect.
For large ships, an average cross section taken from port, starboard and quarter aspects yields
Here is in m
2

f is in MHz and D is ship displacement in kilotons
This equation applies only to grazing angles i.e. as seen from the same elevation.
Small boats 20 ft. to 30 ft. give (X band) approx 5 m
2

40 ft. to 50 ft.
10 m
2
Automobiles give (X band) of approx 10 m
2
to 200 m
2

74


75



76


Examples of radar cross sections for various targets (in m
2
))

77

Human being gives as shown:

Cross-Section Fluctuations:
The echo from a target in motion is almost never constant. Variations are caused by
meteorological conditions, lobe structure of the antenna, equipment instability and the variation
in target cross section. Cross section of complex targets is sensitive to aspect.
One method of dealing with this is to select a lower bound of that is exceeded some
specified fraction of the time (0.95 or 0.99). This procedure results in conservative prediction of
range.
Alternatively, the PDF and the correlation properties with time may be used for a
particular tar get and type of trajectory. The PDF gives the probability of finding any value of
between the values of and + d. The correlation function gives the degree of correlation of
with time (i.e. number of pulses).
The power spectral density of is also important in tracking radars. It is not usually
practical to obtain experimental data for these functions. It is more economical to assess the
effects of fluctuating is to postulate a reasonable model for the fluctuations and to analyze it
mathematically.
Swerling has done this for the detection probabilities of 5 types of target.
Case 1
Echo pulses received from the target on any one scan are of constant envelope
throughout the entire scan, but are independent (uncorrelated) scan to scan.
This case ignores the effect of antenna beam shape the assumed PDF is:
78


Case 2
Echo pulses are independent from pulse to pulse instead of from scan to scan

Case 3
Same as case 1 except that the PDF is

Case 4
Same as case 2 except that the PDF is

Case 5
Nonfluctuating cross section
The PDF assumed in cases 1 and 2 applies to complex targets consisting of many
scatterers (in practice 4 or more). The PDF assumed in cases 3 and 4 applies to targets
represented byone large reflector with other small reflectors.
For all cases the value of to be substituted in the radar equation is
avg.
When detection probability is large, all 4 cases in which is not constant require greater
SNR than the constant case (case 5)
Note for P
d
=0.95 we have
79


This increase in S/N corresponds to a reduction in range bya factor of 1.84. Hence if the
characteristics of the target are not properly taken into account, the actual performance of the
radar (for the same value of ave) will not measure up to the predicted performance.

Comparison of the five cases for a false alarm number n
f
= 108 is shown in Fig. 2.22
80


Also when P
d
> 0.3, larger S/N is required when fluctuations are uncorrelated scan to
scan (cases 1 & 3) than when fluctuations are uncorrelated pulse to pulse.
This results since the larger the number of independent pulses integrated, the more likely
the fluctuations will average out cases 2 & 4 will approach the nonfluctuating case.
Figures 2.23 and 2.24 may be used as corrections for probability of detection (Fig. 2.7)
Procedure:
1) Find S/N from Fig. 2.7 corresponding to desired P
d
and P
fa

2) From Fig. 2.23 find correction factor for either cases 1 and 2 or cases 3 and 4 to be
applied to S/N found in Step 1. The resulting (S/N)
1
is that which would applyif detection
were based on a single pulse
3) If n pulses are integrated, The integration improvement factor I
i
(n) is found from Fig.
2.24. The parameters (S/N)
1
and nE
i
(n)=I
i
(n) are substituted into the radar equation 2.33
along with
ave
.
Note: in Fig. 2.24 the integration improvement factor Ii(n) is sometimes greater than n. Here the
S/N required fro n=1 is larger than for the nonfluctuating target. The S/N per pulse will always
be less than that of the ideal predetection integrator.
81

Note: data in Fig. 2.23 and 2.24 are essentially independent of the false alarm number
(106<nf<1010).
Note: the PDF s for cases 1 &2 and # & 4 of the Swerling fluctuations are special cases of the
Chisquare distribution of degree 2m (also called the Gamma distribution)

Note: For target cross section models, 2m is not required to be an integer. It maybe any positive
real number.
For cases 1 and 2, m=1
For cases 3 and 4, m=2
Note: For the Chi-square PDF

Note: as m increases, the fluctuations become more constrained. With m = , we have the
nonfluctuating target.
The Chi-square distribution may not always fit observed data, but it is used for
convenience. It is described by two parameters ave and the number of degrees of freedom 2m.
Aircraft flying straight and level fit Chi-square distribution with m between 0.9 and 2,
and with
ave
varying 15 dB from min to max.
The parameters of the fitted distribution vary with aspect angle, type of aircraft and
frequency. The value of m is near unity for all aspect angles except broadside which give a
Rayleigh distribution with varying
ave.
It is found that ave has more effect on the calculation of
probabilityof detection than the value of m.

82


83

The Chi-square distribution also describes the cross section of shapes such as cylinders,
cylinders with fins (e.g. some satellites). Here m varies between 0.2 and 2 depending on the
aspect angle. The Rice distribution is a better description of the cross section fluctuations of a
target dominated by a single scatterer than the Chi-square distribution with m=2.
Here the Rice distribution is
Where s is the ratio of the cross section of the single dominant scatterer to the total cross section
of the smaller scatterers. I
0
is a modified Bessel function of zero order
Note: when s=1 the results using the Rice distribution approximate the Chi-square with m=2, for
small probabilities of detection.
The Log Normal distribution has been suggested for describing the cross sections of some
satellites, ships, cylinders, plates, arrays

Where s
d
= standard deviation of and
m
= median of .
Also the ratio of the mean to median value of is
Comparisons of several distributions models fro false alarm number nf = 106, with all pulses
during a scan correlated and pulses in successive scans independent, are shown in Fig. 2.25.
Note: The two extreme cases treated are for pulses correlated in any particular scan but with
scan-to-scan independence (slow fluctuations), and for complete independence (fast
fluctuations).
There could be partial correlation of pulses within a scan. The results for this case would fall
some where between the two cases.

84


Transmitter Power:
P
t
in the radar equation is the peak power. This is not the instantaneous peak power of the
carrier sine wave. It is the power averaged over a carrier cycle which occurs at the maximum of a
pulse.
The average radar power, Pav is the average transmitter power over the PRI

Here = pulse width, T
p
= PRI and f
p
= PRF
Now which defines the duty cycle
The typical duty cycle for surveillance radar is 0.001.
85

Thus the range equation in terms of average power is
Here (B
n
) are grouped together since the product is usually of the order of unity for pulse radars.
If the transmitted waveform is not a rectangular pulse, we can express the range equation
in terms of energy.

Note: In this form R
max
does not depend explicitly on or f
p


Pulse Repetition Frequency and Range Ambiguities:
PRF is determined primarily by the maximum range at which targets are expected.
Echoes received after an interval exceeding the PRI are called multiple-time-around echoes.
These can result in erroneous range measurements.
Consider three targets A, B and C. here A is within the maximum unambiguous range
Runambig, B is between Runambig and 2R
unambig
and C is between 2R
unambig
and 3R
unambig.

One wayof distinguishing multiple times around targets is to operate with a carrying PRF.
The echo from an unambiguous target will appear at the same place on each sweep; however
echoes from multiple time around targets will spread out.
The number of separate PRFs will depend on the degree of multiple time targets. Second
time around targets need only 2 separate PRFs to be resolved.
Alternative methods to mark successive pulses to identify multiple times around targets
include changing amplitude, pulse width, frequenc y, phase or polarization from pulse to pulse.
These schemes are not very successful in practice.
86


One limitation is the foldover of nearby targets (e.g. nearby strong ground targets, clutter)
which can mask weak multiple time around targets. A second limitation is increased processing
requirement to resolve ambiguities.
The range ambiguity in multiple PRF radar can be convenientlydecoded byuse of the
Chinese remainder theorem.

87

Antenna Parameters:
The gain of an antenna is

G is a function of direction. If it is greater than unityin some directions, it must be less
than unityin others.
From reciprocity, if an antenna has a larger gain in transmission in a specific direction,
then it also has a larger effective area in that direction.
The most common beam shapes fro radar are the pencil beam and the fan beam. Pencil
beams are axially symmetric with a width of a few degrees. They are used where it is necessary
to measure the angular position of a target continuously in azimuth and elevation (e.g.a tracking
radar for weapons control or missile guidance). These are generated with parabolic reflectors.
To search a large sector of sky with a narrow beam is difficult. Operational requirements
place restrictions on the maximum scan time (time for beam to return to the same point) so that
the radar can not dwell too long at any particular cell.
To reduce the number of cells, the pencil beam is replaced with the fan beam which is
narrow in one dimension and wide in the other.
Fan beams can be generated with parabolic reflectors with a shaped projected area.
manylong range ground based radars use fan beams.
Even with fan beams, a trade-off exists between the rate at which the target position is
updated (scan time) and the ability to detect weak signals (by use of pulse integration).
Scan rates are typically from 1 to 60 rpm. For long range surveillance, scan rates are
typically 5 or 6 rpm.
Coverage of a simple fan beam is not adequate for targets at high altitudes close to the
radar. The elevation pattern is usually shaped to radiate more energy at high angles as in the csc
2

pattern.
88


Here
0
and
m
are the angular limits of the csc
2
fit
This pattern is used for airborne search radars observing ground targets as well as ground
based radars observing aircraft. For the airborne case is the depression angle. Ideally
m
should
be 90 but it is always less. Csc
2
patterns can be generated bya distorted section of a parabola or
with special multiple horn feed on a true parabola, or with an array such as a slotted waveguide.
The csc
2
pattern gives constant echo power Pr independent of range for a target of
constant height, h and having a constant .
Substituting into the range equation (simple form)

Now for a constant height, h of a target, we have
Therefore Hence the echo signal is independent of range.
In practice P
r
varies due to varying with viewing angle, the earth not being flat and non perfect
csc
2
patterns.
Note: the gain of csc
2
antennas for ground based radars is about 2 dB less than for a fan beam
having the same aperture.
The maximum gain of any antenna is related to its size by
Where is the antenna efficiency which depends on the aperture illumination
This is controlled by the complexity of the feed design. Note: A

= A
eff

A typical reflector gives a beam width of where l is the dimension
89


System Losses:
Losses in the radar reduce the S/N at the receiver output. Losses which can be calculated
include the antenna beam shape loss, the collapsing loss and the plumbing loss. Losses which
cannot be calculated readily include those due to field degradation, operator fatigue and lack of
operator motivation.
Note: loss has a value greater than unity - Loss = [Gain]
-1

1) Plumbing Loss
Loss in transmission lines between the transmitter and antenna and between
antenna and receiver.
Note from the Fig 2.28 that, at low frequencies, the transmission lines
introduce little loss. At high frequencies the attenuation is significant
Additional loss occurs at connectors (0.5 dB), bends (0.1dB) and at rotary joints
(0.4 dB)
Note: If a line is used for both transmission and reception, its loss is added twice.
The duplexer typically adds 1.5 dB insertion loss. In general, the greater the isolation
required, the greater the insertion loss.

90

2) Beam Shape Loss
The train of pulses returned from the target to a scanning radar are modulated in amplitude
by the shape of the antenna beam.
A beam shape loss accounts for the fact that the maximum gain is used in the radar equation
rather than a gain which changes from pulse to pulse. (This approach is approximate since it does
not address Pd for each pulse separately).
Let the one way power pattern be approximated by a Gaussian shape
Here
B
is the half power beam width
n
B
is the number of pulses received within B and if n is the number of pulses integrated, then
the beam shape loss (relative to a radar that integrated n pulses with equal gain) is

Example integrating 11 pulses gives L (beam shape) = 1.66 dB
Note: the beam shape loss above was for a beam shaped in one plane only (i.e. fan beam or
pencil beam where the target passes through the centre of the beam).
If the target passe through any other part of the beam the maximum signal will not
correspond to the signal from the beam centre.
When many pulses are integrated per beamwidth, the scanning loss is taken as 1.6 dB for
a fan beam scanning in one coordinate, and as 3.2 dB when two coordinate scanning is used.
When the antenna scans so rapidly that the gain on transmission is not the same as the
gain on reception, an additional scanning loss is added.
Additional loss for phased array search using a step scanning pencil beam since not all
regions of space are illuminated by the same value of antenna gain.
91

3) Limiting Loss
Limiting in radar can lower the P
d.
This is not a desirable effect and is due to a limited
dynamic range. Limiting can be due to pulse compression processing and intensity modulation of
CRT (such as PPI).
Limiting results in a loss of onlya fraction of a dB for large numbers of pulses integrated
providing the limiting ratio (ratio of video limit level to RMS noise level) is greater than 2.
For small SNR in bandpass limiters, the reduction of SNR of a sine wave in narrowband
Gaussian noise is /4 (approx 1 dB).
If the spectrum of the input noise is shaped correctly, this loss can be made ne gligible.
4) Collapsing Loss
If the radar integrates additional noise samples along with the wanted signal +noise pulses,
the added noise causes degradation called the collapsing g loss. This occurs on displays which
collapse range information (C scope which displays E
l
vs A
z
).
In some 3D radars (range, Az, El) that displayoutputs at all Elevations on one PPI (range,
Az) display, the collapsing of the 3D information into 2 D display results in loss.
Can also occur when the output of a high resolution radar is displayed on a device which is of
coarser resolution than the radar.
Marcum has shown that for a square law detector, the integration of m noise pulses, along
with n signal + noise pulses with SNR per pulse (S/N)
n
, is equivalent to the integration of m+n
signal-to-noise pulses each with SNR of

The collapsing loss then is the ratio of the integration loss Li for m+n pulses to the
integration loss foe n pulses
92


Example: 10 signal pulses are integrated with 30 noise pulses Required P
d
= 0.9, n
f
= 10
8

From Fig 2.8b. L
i
(40) = 3.5 dB, L
i
(10) = 1.7 dB
Therefore L
i
(m,n) = 1.8 dB
Collapsing loss for a linear detector can be much greater than for a square law detector.
Fig 2.29 shows the comparison of loss for each detector
5) Nonideal Equipment
Transmitter power - the power varies from tube to tube (for same type), and with age for a
specific tube. Power is also not uniform over the operating band. Hence Pt may be other than the
design value. To allow for this, a loss factor of about 2 dB can be used.

93

Receiver noise figure: the NF will vary over the band, hence if the best NF is used in the
radar equation, a loss factor must account for its poorer value elsewhere in the band.
Matched filter: if the receiver is not the exact matched filter fro the transmitted waveform, a
loss of SNR will occur (typically 1 dB).
Threshold level: due to the exponential relationship between T
fa
and V
T
a slight change in
V
T
can cause significant change to Tfa hence, V
T
is set slightly higher than calculated to give
good T
fa
in the event of circuit drifts. This is equivalent to a loss.
6) Operator Loss
A distracted, tired, overloaded, poorly trained operator will perform less efficiently. The
operator efficiency factor (empirical) is where Pd is the single scan probability of detection.
Note: operator loss is not relevant to systems where automatic detection is done
7) Field Degradation
When a radar is operated under field conditions, the performance deteriorates even more than
can be accounted for in the above losses.
Factors which cause field degradation are:
poor training
weak tubes
water in the transmission lines
incorrect mixer crystal current
deterioration in the receiver NF
poor TR tube recovery
loose cable connections
Radars should be designed with BIST (built - in system test) and BITE (built - in test
equipment) to aid in performance monitoring. A preventative maintenance plan should be used.
BITE parameters to be monitored are
Transmitted power P
t

94

NF of receiver
Transmitter pulse shape
Recovery time of TR tube
With no other information available, 3 dB is assumed for field degradation loss
8) Other Loss Factors
MTI radars introduce additional loss. The MTI discrimination technique results in complete
loss of sensitivity for certain target values (blind speeds).
In a radar with overlapping range gates, the gates may be wider than optimum for practical
reasons.
The additional noise introduced bynonoptimum gate width leads to degradation performance.
Straddling loss accounts for loss in SNR for targets not at the centre of a range gate, or at the
centre of a filter in a multiple bank processor
9) Propagation Effects
The radar equation assumes free space propagation. The earths surface and atmosphere have
a significant effect on radar performance.
The effects fall into three categories:
attenuation
refraction by the earths atmosphere
lobe structure caused by interference between the direct wave and the ground reflected
wave
For most microwave radars, attenuation through the normal atmosphere or through
precipitation is not significant. However reflection from rain (clutter) is a limiting factor in radar
performance in adverse weather.
The deceasing density of atmosphere with altitude results in bending (refraction) of the
electromagnetic wave. This normally increases the line of sight. the refraction can also be
95

accounted for by assuming the earth to have a larger radius than actual. A typical earth radius
is 4/3 actual radius.
At times atmospheric conditions create ducting (or super refraction) and increases the radar
range considerably. It is not necessarily desirable since it can not be counted on. Also it de
grades MTI performance by extending the range at which ground clutter is seen.
The presence of the earth also breaks the antenna elevation pattern into many lobes. this
arises since the direct and reflected waves interfere at the target either destructively or
constructively to produce nulls or lobes. This results in non uniform illumination.

Other Considerations:
The radar equation is now written.

Note: The following substitutions can be made:
E = P
av
/f
p
= P
t

N
0
= N/B (power spectral density of noise)
B

1 and T
0
F
n
= T
s

Note: The above radar equation was derived for rectangular pulses but applies to other
waveforms provided that matched filter detection is used. The equation can be modified to
accommodate CW, FM-CW, pulse doppler MTI or tracking radar.
Radar Performance Figure - ratio of pulse power of Transmitter to S
min
of receiver not
often used
Blip-Scan ratio - same as single scan P
d.

method used to check performance of ground-based radars
96

here an aircraft is flown on a radial course and for each scan of the antenna it is recorded
whether or not a target blip is detected. The ration of the number of scans the target was
seen at a particular range to the total number of scans is the blip scan ratio
head on and tail on aspects are easiest to provide.
Cumulative Probability of Detection:
If single scan probability of detection id Pd, the probability of detecting a target at least
once during N scans is the cumulative probability of detection
P
c
= 1-(1-P
d
)N
Note: the variation of P
d
with range might have to be taken into account in computing P
c
.
The variation with range based on the cumulative probability of detection can be the 3
rd

power rather than the 4
th
power which is based on a single scan probability. In practice P
c
is not
easy to apply. Furthermore radar operators do not usually report a detection the first time it is
observed (which is required by the definition of P
c
). Instead theyreport a detection based on
threshold crossing on two successive scans, or on two out of three scans.
For track while scan radars, the measure of performance might be the probabilityof
initiating a target track rather than just probability of detection.
Surveillance Radar Equation:
The radar equation which describes the performance of a radar which dwells on the target
for n pulses is sometimes called the searchlight range equation.
In a search or surveillance radar, the additional constraint that the radar must search a
specified volume of space in a specified time modifies the range equation significantly.
If represents the angular region to be searched in scan time ts, then we have
Where t
0
is the time on target = n/f
p

0
= solid angle beamwidth and
0

A

E

97

Where
A
is the Azimuth beamwidth And
E
is the Elevation beamwidth
Also
With these substitutions the range equation becomes
This indicates that the important parameters for a search radar are the average power and
the antenna effective aperture.
Frequency does not appear explicitly, however low frequency is preferred since high
power and large aperture are easier to obtain at low frequencyand it is easier to build MTI
(moving target indicator) and weather has little effect on performance.
Note: the radar equation will be considerably different if clutter or external noise (jamming)
rather than receiver noise determine the background for the signal
Accuracy of the Radar Equation:
The predicted value of range from the range equation cannot be checked experimentally
with any accuracy. The safest means to achieve a specified range performance is to include a
safety factor. This is sometimes difficult to do in competitive bids but results in fine radars.


98

OBJECTIVE TYPE QUESTIONS

1. A high noise figure in a receiver means---------- [ ]
a. poor minimum detectable signal b. good detectable signal
c. receiver bandwidth is reduced d. high power loss.
2. Which of the following will be the best scanning system for tracking after a target has been
acquired.
a. conical b. spiral c. Helical d. Nodding
3. Which of the following noise figure. [ ]
a. (Si Ni) / (So No) b. (So No) / (Si Ni)
c. (So / No ) / sqrt. ( Si / Ni d. ( Si / Ni) / sqrt .(So / No
4. The average power of a pulsed radar transmitter is given by [ ]
a. The product of peak power of the pulse and the duty cycle
b. Peak power divided by the number of pulses repeated in one second.
c. Peak power divided by the duty cycle
d. Peak power divided by the duty cycle and pulse
5. Which of the following diode is used as detector in radar. [ ]
a. gunn diode b. schotky diode c. Impact diode d. varactor diode
6. In case the target cross section is changing the best system for accurate tracking is [ ]
a. monopulse b. lobe switching c. sequential lobing d. conical scanning.
7. In a radar in case the return echo arrives after the allocated pulse interval, then [ ]
a. it will not be received b. the receiver will get overloaded
99

c. it may interfere with the operation of the transmitter
d. the target will appear closer than it really.
8. PPI in a radar system stands for [ ]
a. plan position indicator b. pulse position indicator
c. plan position image d. prior position identification
9. Which of the following is unlikely to be used as a pulsed device [ ]
a. TWT b. BWO c. CFA d. Multicavity klystron
10. Radar detection is limited to line of sight because [ ]
a. curvature of the earth b. the waves are not reflected by the ionosphere
c. long wavelengths are used d. short wavelengths are used
11. Second time around echoes are caused by [ ]
a. Second time reflection from target
b. echoes returning from targets beyond the cathode ray tube range.
c. echoes that arrive after transmission of the next pulse.
d. extreme ends of bandwidth.
12. The resolution of pulsed radar can be improved by [ ]
a. increasing pulse width b. decreasing pulse width
c. increasing the pulse amplitude d. decreasing the pulse repetition frequency.
13. The most important application of monopulse antenna is in [ ]
a. determining the range of target b. tracking a target
c. identifying a target d. Isolating the track of target.
100

14. In case the antenna diameter in a radar system is increased to four times. The maximum
range will increase by [ ]
a. 2 times b. 2 times c. 4 times d. 8 times.
15. In case the ratio of the antenna diameter to the wavelength in a radar system is high, this is
likely not to result in [ ]
a. increased capture area b. good target discrimination
c. difficult target acquisition d. large maximum range
16. The term RADAR stands for [ ]
a. radio direction and reflection b. radio detection and ranging
c. radio waves dispatching and receiving d. random detection and re radiation.
17. The duty cycle in a pulsed radar transmitter cannot be increased beyond a point because it
a. affects the operating frequency
b. increase the average power of the transmitter tube.
c. does not detect weak signals
d. increase minor lobes
18. In case of radar receiver the IF bandwidth is inversely proportional to [ ]
a. pulse interval b. pulse repetition frequency
c. square root of the peak transmitted power d. pulse width.
19. The Doppler effect is used in [ ]
a. MTI b. CW c. FM d. Radar Altimeter
20. The gain of a radar transmitting antenna is [ ]
a. loss than that of radar receiving antenna
101

b. almost equal to that of radar receiving antenna
c. slightly higher than that of radar receiving antenna
d. much higher than that of radar receiving antenna.

Answers:
1.a 2.a 3.a 4.a 5.c 6.a 7.d 8.b 9.b 10.a
11.c 12.b 13.b 14.c 15.a 16.b 17.b 18.d 19.d 20.d


ESSAY TYPE QUESTIONS
1. Describe how threshold level for detection is decided in the presence of receiver noise for
a specified probability of occurrence of false alarms.
2. Describe the e ect of pulse repetition frequency on the estimated unambiguous range of
radar.
3. Obtain yhe SNR at the output of IF amplifier of radar receiver for a specified probability
of detection without exceeding a specified probability of false alarm.
4. Explain system losses will effect on the radar rangr?
5. Discuss about the factors that influence the prediction of radar range.
6. Define noise bandwidth of a radar receiver. How does it differ from 3 db band width?
Obtain the expression for minimum detectable signal in terms of noise bandwidth, noise
figure and other relavent parameters.
7. If the noise figure of a receiver is 2.5 db, what reduction (measured in dB) occurs in the
signal noise ratio at the output compared to the signal noise ratio at the input?
8. Describe the e ect of (in terms of wavelength of operation) size of a simple spherical target
on determination of radar cross section of the sphere.
9. What are multiple-time-around echoes? Explain the relation between unam-biguous range
estimation and multiple-time-around echoes.
10. Establish a relation between the probability of false alarm and detection threshold level of
102

a radar receiver in the presence of noise.
11. Estimate the radar cross-section of a spherical target if the wavelength of transmitting
signal with reference to the target size is in Rayleigh region.
12. Justify the requirement of integration of radar pulses to improve target detection process.
13. List all the possible losses in a radar system and discuss the possible causes of each of
them.
14. Discuss about the factors that in uence the prediction of Radar range.
15. De ne noise bandwidth of a radar receiver. How does it di er from 3-dB bandwidth?
Obtain the expression for minimum detectable signal in terms of noise bandwidth, noise
figure and other relevant parameters.
16. Explain the principle and process of binary moving window detector.
17. Obtain the SNR at the output of IF ampli er of Radar Receiver for a specified probability
of detection without exceeding a specified probability of false alarm.
18. Explain how system losses will a effect on the Radar Range?
19. Determine the probability of detection of the Radar for a process of threshold detection
with a graphic illustration.
20. Determine the Radar cross-section of a cone sphere.


103


UNIT-III

CW AND
FREQUENCY
MODULATED
RADAR

104

CW radar detects objects and measures velocity from Doppler shift.
CW radar sets transmit a high-frequency signal continuously.
It can not measure range.
It can be mono-static or bi-static.
Employs continual RADAR transmission
Separate transmit and receive antennas
Relies on the DOPPLER SHIFT


105

Pulse Transmission

Continuous Wave

106

PRINCIPLE OF DOPPLER EFFECT:
The radars radiate electromagnetic waves towards the targets for detection and also to
obtain details of the target.
When the target is stationary, the frequency of the received echoes is constant.
However, when the target is moving, the frequency of the received echoes is found to be
different from transmitted frequency.
If the target approaches the radar, the frequency is increased and if the target moves away
from the radar, the frequency is decreased.
That is, in the moving targets, there exists a frequency shift in the received echo signals.
The presence of frequency shift in the received echo signals in the radar due to moving
targets is known as Doppler Effect.
The frequency shift is known as Doppler frequency shift

Doppler Effect:
When there is a relative motion between Radar and target is based on recognizing the
change in the echo-signal frequency caused by the Doppler Effect.
If either obser or the source is in motion, then it results in a frequency shift, the resulatent
frequency shift is known as Doppler Effect.
When an observer moves relative to a source, there is an apparent shift in frequency is
known as Doppler frequency.
If distance between observer and the source is increasing, the frequency apparently
decreses, where as the frequency apprantly increases if the distance between the observer and the
source is decreasing is known as Doppler frequency.
If R is the distance from Radar to target, the total number of wavelengths contained in
the two-way path between the Radar and target is 2R/. i.e., the total number of wave lengths
=

.
Since one wavelength corresponds to an angular excursion of 2 radians, the total angular
excursion of made by the electromagnetic wave during its transit to and from the target is

radians. Therefore, = 2total number of wavelengths = 2

radians.
107

If the targe is in motion, distance R and phase are continually changing. Achange in
with respect to time is equal to a frequency. This is the Doppler angular frequency
d
and it is
given by
d
= 2f
d
=

= 4v
r
/
2f
d
= 4v
r
/
f
d
= 2v
r
/ f
d
= 2v
r
/
Where f
d
= Doppler frequency shift in hertz
v
r
= relative velocity or radial velocity of target with respet Radar in knots.
= dR/dt
= wavelength in meters = c/f
0

The distance R and wavelength are measured in same units.
The Doppler frequency shift is f
d
= 2v
r
/ = 2v
r
/( c/f
0)

f
d
= 2v
r
f
0
/c =

f
d
= 2v
r
f
0
/c
Where f
0
= transmitted frequency
c = velocity of propagation = 310
8
m/sec.
If f
d
in Hz, v
r
in knots and in meters: f
d
= 1.03v
r
/ f
d
= 1.03v
r
/
The relative velocity may be written v
r
= vcos
Where v is the target speed and is the angle made by the target trajectory and the line joining
Radar and target.
Therefore, f
d
= 2vcos/
When = 0
0
, the Doppler frequency is maximum. The Doppler frequency is zero, when
the trajectory is perpendicular to the Radar line of sight ( = 90
0
).


CW RADAR:
A Simple CW Radar is shown in fig1 (a). The CW Radar consists of a transmitter,
detector, beat-frequency amplifier and indicator.
The transmitter transmits a continuous wave of frequency oscillation or oscillation of
frequency f
0
, which is radiated by the antenna. An amount of radiated energy is intercepted by
108

the target and some of this energy is scattered back in the direction of the Radar. This energy is
collected by the receving antenna.
f
0



f
0
f
d
f
0
f
d
f
0


f
d
f
d




Fig 1(a): Simple CW Radar Block Diagram
Response




Frequency
Fib 1(b): Response characteristic of beat-frequency amplifier
If the target is in motion with a relative velocity v
r
to the Radar, then the

received signal
will be shifted by an amount of f
d
.
The plus sign associated with the Doppler frequency applies if the distance between
target and Radar is decreasing (closing target), i.e., when the received signal frequency is greater
than the transmitted signal frequency. The minus sign associated with the Doppler frequency
applies if the distance between target and Radar is increasing (receding target), i.e., when the
received signal frequency is less than the transmitted signal frequency.
CW
Transmitter
f
0

Detector
Or
Mixer
Beat
Frequency
Amplifier

Indicator


Detector
Or Mixer
Beat
Frequency
Amplifier

Indicator
109

The received echo signal at a frequency f
0
f
d
enters the Radar via the antenna and is
heterodyne in the detector with a part of the transmitted signal f
0
to produce a Doppler beat
frequency f
d.
The sign is lost in this process.
The purpose of Doppler amplifier is to eliminate the echos from stationary targets and to
amplify the Doppler echo signal to a level where it can be used to operate an indicating device. It
must have a frequency characteristic similar to that of fig1 (b).
The low frequency cut-off must be high enough to reject the dc component caused by
stationary targets. The upper cut-off frequency is selected to pass the higest Doppler frequency
expected. Finally, an indicator deviceis used, generally it consists of a pair of earphones or a
frequency meter.

Isolation between transmitter and receiver:
The main impotance of providing isolation between transmitter and receiver is to
eliminate the transmitter leakage signal.
Generally separate antennas are used for transmission and reception, so that there is no
chance of leakage entering the receiver. Even the isolation between transmitter and receiver is
possible using a single antenna as in CW Radar.
The noise that accompanies the transmitter leakage signal will determine the amount of
isolation needed in a long range CW Radar. For example, a 10 mwatt of leakage signal is
appeared at the receiver for a proper isolation between transmitter and receiver. The transmitter
noise must be atleast 110 dB beliw the transmitted carrier for a minimum detectable signal of 10
-
13
watt.
The isolation between transmitter and receiver can be obtained with a single antenna (like
CW Radars) by using a hybrid junction, circulator, turnstile junction or with separate
polarizations. Even though the isolation achieved by hybrid junctions such as magic Tee, rat race
or directional coupler is 60 dB in extreme cases, the isolation in practical cases is limited 20 or
30 dB.
110

The limitation of 6dB on overall performance using junctions is going to waste half the
transmitted power and half the received power. Thus, hybrid junctions are applicable to short
range Radars. Similarly, ferrite isolaton devices and turnstile junctions are also limited to short
range Radar due to the difficulty in obtaining large isolations.
The large isolatons are obtained in CW tracker-illuminator using separate antennas for
transmission and reception. By the proper insertion of a controlled sample of the transmitted
signal directly into the receiver, additional isolation can be obtained. The part of transmitted
signal that leaks into the receiver can be cancelled by adjustin the phase and amplitude of the
buck-off signal. The arrangement introduces aditional 10dB isolation. But the phase and
amplitude of the leakage signal may vary as the antenna scans. Thus a dynamic canceller can be
used that senses the proper phase and amplitude of leakage signal for obtaining the additional
isolation. Thus, the above dynamic cancellation of leakage signal can exceed isolation to 30dB.

Intermediate-Frequency Receiver:
The receiver of the simple block diagram of CW Radar is in some respect analoguos to a
superheterodyne receiver. Receivers of this type are called homodyne receivers or
superheterodyne receivers with zero.
The function of the local oscillator is replaced by the leakage signal from the transmitter.
Such a receiver is simpler than one with a more conventional intermediate frequency since no IF
amplifier or local oscillaotor is requied. However, the simple receiver or zero IF receiver is not
as sensitive because of increased noise at lower intermediate frequency caused by flicker effect.
Flicker effect noise occurs in semiconductor devices such as diode detector and cathods
of vacuume tubes. The noise power produced by flicker effect varies as 1/f

, where is
approximately unity.
The fig (2) shows a block diagram of CW Radar whose reciver operates with a non-zero
IF. In this case, separate antennas are shown for transmission and reception. Instead of the local
oscillator determined in the conventional superheterodyne receiver, the local oscillator or
reference signal is derived in this receiver from a part of transmitted signal mixed with a locally
111

generated signal of intermediate frequency f
if
to generate the two side bands f
0
+f
if
and f
0
-f
if
along
with f
0
and higher harmonics.

f
0

Transmitting Antenna
f
0

f
if


f
0,
f
0
+f
if
and f
0
-f
if



Receiving Antenna f
0
+f
if

f
if
f
d

f
0
f
d

f
d


Fig (2): Block diagram of CW Doppler Radar with non-zero IF receiver, some times
called side-band superheterodyne.
From this signal one of the side band is selected by passing it through narrowband filter
as the reference signal.
The reference signal from the sideband filter is mixed with the signal from receiving
antenna to get the intermediate signal f
if
f
d
which is amplified and then applied to the second
detector to get the Doppler echo signal f
d.

CW
Transmitter
f
0

Mixer
Side-band
Filter
Receiver
Mixer
Oscillator
f
if

IF
Amplifier
Second
Detector
Doppler
Amplifier
Indicator
112

The purpose of Doppler amplifier is to eliminate the echos from stationary targets and to
amplify the Doppler echo signal to a level where it can be used to operate an indicating device,
such as a pair of earphones or a frequency meter.

Comparision between zero and non-zero IF receivers:
1. Zero IF receiver is not as sensitive because of increased noise at lower intermediate
frequency caused by flicker effect.
2. The reduction in sensitivity has greater effect on the maximum efficiency with CW
Radar.
3. The improvement in receiver sensitivity with an non-zero IF receiver might be around
30 dB over the zero IF receiver.

Receiver Bandwidth:
The factors which tend to spread to the CW signal energy over a finite band of
frequencies are discussed in the following.
If the received waveform were a sine infinite duration, its frequency spectrum would be
a delta function and the receiver bandwidth would be infinitesimal. But a sine wave of infinite
duration and an infinitesimal bandwidth does not exist in nature. So, considering an echo signal
which a sine wave of finite duration rather than infinite duration. Then the spectrum of finite
duration sine wave is given by sin[(f-f
0
)]/(f-f
0
)
Where f
0
= frequency of sine wave
= duration of sine wave
f = frequency variable over which is spectrum is plotted as shown in fig (3b).
The above characteristic is approximated by the practical receivers. In practical aspects,
the echo may not be a pure sine wave, so we need to broaden the bandwidth still further.
Assuming that for a CW Radar, the duration of the received signal is given by =
B
/
.
S

113

i.e., time taken on target = =
B
/
.
S
Where
B
= antenna beamwidth in degrees and
.
S
= antenna scaning rate in degrees/sec
Thus, the signal is of finite duration and bandwidth of the receiver must be of the order of
the reciprocal of the time on target
.
S
/
B
. For example, if the antenna beamwidth and antenna
scaning rate are 2
0
and 36
0
/sec (6 rpm) respectively. Then the spread in the spectrum of the
received signal due to the finite time on the target is 18 Hz, which is independent of the
transmitted frequency.
In addition to the spread of the received signal spectrum caused by the finite time on the
target, the spectrum may be further widened, if the target cross section fluctuates.
Energy/Hz of bandwidth Energy/Hz of bandwidth
f=1/




f
0
Frequency f
0
Frequency
(a) Infinite duration (b) Finite duration
Fig(3): Frequency spectrum of CW oscillation
The echo signal from a propeller driven aircraft can also contain modulation component
at a frequency proportional to the propeller rotation.
The frequency range propeller modulation depends upon the shaft rotation speed and the
number of propeller blades. Propeller may cause an error in measurement of Doppler frequency.
This modulation may also be advantageous in the detection of propeller driven aircraft by
passing tangential trajectory even in the absence of Doppler frequency shift.
114

The modulation of echo signal is also resulted by rotating blades of a helicopter and the
compressor stages of a jet ebgine and which will degrade the performance of the CW Radar by
widening the soecrum.
A further widening of the received signal spectrum can occur, if the relative velocity of
the target is not constant. If a
r
is the acceleration of the target with respect to the Radar, the
signal will occupy a bandwidth: f
d
= (2a
r
/)
1/2

If for example, a
r
is twicw the acceleration of gravity, the receiver bandwidth must be
approximately 20 Hz when Radars wavelength is 10cm.

Filter Bank in CW Radar receiver:
A relative wide band of frequencies called as bank of narrow band filters are used to
measure the frequency of echo signal. These are also used to improve the signal to noise ratio of
the receiver. The bandwidth of each individual filter is such that, it accepts the signal energy but
should be taken that it does not introduce more noise because of wide bandwidth.
The center frequencies of the filters are staggered to cover the entire range of Doppler
frequencies. If the filters are spaced with their halh power points overlapped, the maximum
reduction in signal to noise ratio of a signal which lies midway between adjacent channels
compared with the signal to noise ratio at midband is 3 dB. By using the large number of filters,
the maximum loss will be reduced but it increases the probability of false alaram. The fig 4(a)
shows the block diagram of IF Doppler filter bank.
A bank of narrow band filters may be used after the detector in the video of the simple
CW Radar, instead of in the IF. The improvement in signal to noise ratio with a video filter bank
is not as good as can be obtained with an IF filter bank, but the ability to measure the magnitude
of Doppler frequency is still preserved.
The sign of the Doppler shift is lost with a video filter bank and it can not be directly
determined whether the Doppler frequency corresponds to an approaching or to a receding target.
115

One advantages of the foldover in the vedio is that only half the numer of filters are required than
in the IF filter bank. The equivalent of a bank of continguous bandpass filters may also be
obtained by converting the analog IF or vedio signal to a set of sampled, quantized signals which
are processed with digital circuitry by means of the fast Fourier transform algorithm.










Fig 4(a): Block diagram of IF Doppler filter bank
Response

IF Bandwidth





f
1
f
2
f
3
f
4
f
n
Frequency
Fig 4(b): Frequency-Response characteristic of Doppler filter bamk

Filter No.1 Detector
Filter No.2

Detector

Filter No.3

Detector

Filter No.4

Detector

Filter No.n

Detector

IF amplifier Mixer
I
N
D
I
C
A
T
O
R
116

The complexity of the receiver is increased by the bank of overlapping Doppler filters whether in
IF or vedio. The bank of Doppler filters may be replaced by a narrowband tunable filter, when
the system requirements permit a time sharing of the Doppler frequency range.

Measurement of Doppler direction with CW Radar OR Sign of Radial
Velocity:
In some applications of CW Radar it is of interest to know whether the target is approaching or
recedind. This might be determined with separate filters located on either side of the intermediate
frequency.
If the echo signal frequency lies below the carrier, the target is receding. If the echo signal
frequency is greater than the carrier, the target is approaching, which is shown in fig (5).
Amplitude Amplitude Amplitude


f
d
f
d


f
0
Frequency f
0
Frequency f
0
Frequency
Fig(5): Spectra of received signal. (a) No Doppler shift, no relative target motion,
(b) Approching target and (c) Receding target
Although the Doppler frequency spectrum folds over in the vedio because of the action of the
detector, it is possible to determine its sign from a technique borrowed from single sideband
communications.
If the transmitter signal is given by E
t
= E
0
cos (
0
t)
The echo signal from a moving target will be E
r
= k
1
E
0
cos [(
0

d
)t+]
Where E
0
= amplitude of transmitted signal
k
1
= a constant determined from the Radar equation

0
= angular frequency of transmitter in rad/sec
117


d
= Doppler angular frequency shift
= a constant phase shift, which depends upon range of intial detection
The sign of the Doppler frequency and the direction of target motion may be determined by
splitting the received signal into two channels as shown in fig (6).

Transmitting
Antenna



Receiving
Antenna


Fig (6): Measurement of Doppler direction using synchronous two-phase motor

In channel A, the signal is processed as in the simple CW Radar. A part of the transmitted signal
and the received signal are heterodyne in the detector (mixer) to produce a difference signal as
E
A
= k
2
E
0
cos [
d
t+]
In channel B, except for a 90
0
phase delay introduced in the reference signal, it will work similar
to that of channel A. Then the output of the channel B is given by
E
B
= k
2
E
0
cos [
d
t++/2]
If the target is approaching (positive Doppler), the outputs from the two channels are given by
E
A
(+) = k
2
E
0
cos [
d
t+]
E
B
(+) = k
2
E
0
cos [
d
t++/2]
CW
Transmitter
90
0
phase
shift
Mixer A
Mixer B
Synchronous
Motor
Indicator
118

If the target is receding (negative Doppler), the outputs from the two channels are given by
E
A
(-) = k
2
E
0
cos [-
d
t+] OR E
A
(-) = k
2
E
0
cos [
d
t-]
E
B
(-) = k
2
E
0
cos [-
d
t++/2] OR E
B
(-) = k
2
E
0
cos [
d
t--/2]
The sign of Doppler frequency and the direction of targets motion may be determined according
to whether the output of channel B leads or lags the output of channel A.
The approximation of two channel output to a synchronous two phase motor is one the method of
determining relative phase relationship between them. In which, the direction of the target motin
is indicated by the direction of motor rotation.
The relarive phase of the two channels can be sensed by other electronic methods instead of a
synchronous motor. Using this technique we can determine the velocity of theaircraft with
respect to the ground take-off and landing. Thus, in this way we can identify the Doppler
direction with respect to CW Radar.

CW Tracking Illiminator:




XTAL
X+D
X
X
XTAL

Pedestal Control
Fig (7): Block diagram of a CW tracking illuminator
Phase
Compensato
r
Servo
System
Scan
Detector
Speed Gate Doppler
Amplifier
Signal IF
Magnetron Klystron AFC
Reference IF
119

The figure shows the basic block diagram oc CW tracking illuminator. It is a tracking Radar as
well as illuminator. Since it must be able to follow the target as it travels through space. The
operation in presence of clutter is possible, due to the Doppler discrimination of continuous wave
Radar. In this type of Radar, the receiver in the missile receives the energy from the target and
this energy has been transmitted to the missile by an illuminator. The illuminator may be at the
launch platform. This CW illuminator has been used in many successful systems. Speed gate is a
wide band Doppler amplifier shown in fig (7), which is also referred as narrowband tracking
filter. The main function of this gate is to acquire the target and track, by changing Doppler
frequency shift.

Advantages of CW Doppler Radar:
1. CW Doppler Radars are not pulsed and simple to manufacture.
2. These Radars have no minimum or maximum range and maximize power on a target
because they are always broad casting.
3. These are having the ability to measure velocity with extreme accuracy by means of the
Doppler shift in the frequency echo.
4. The detected, reflected wave is shifted in frequency by an amount which is a function of
the relative velocity between the target and the transmitter receiver.
5. Range data are extracted from the change in Doppler frequency.

Disadvantages of CW Doppler Radar:
1. When a single antenna is used for both transmission and reception, it is difficult to protect
the receiver against the transmitter because in constant to pulse Radar, both are ON all
the time.
2. These are able to detect only moving targets, as stationary targets will not cause a
Doppler shift and the reflected signals will be filtered out.
3. CW Radars are not able to measure range, where range is normally measured by timing
the delay between a pulse being sent and received but as CW Radars are always
broadcasting; there is no delay to measure.
120

Applications of CW Doppler Radar:
1. Simple unmodulated CW Radar can be used to find the relative velocity of a moving
target without any physical constant with the target. For example: in police speed
monitors, in rate of climb-meter for vertical-take-off aircraft, measurement of turbine-
blade vibration, the peripheral speed of grinding wheels and the monitoring of vibrations
in the cables of suspension bridges.
2. CW radars are also used for the control of traffic lights, regulation of toll booths, vechical
counting.
3. In railways CW Radars can use as a speed meter to replace the conventional axle-driven
tachometer.
4. In measurement of rail roadfrieght car velocity during humping operations in marshalling
yards.
5. It can also be used as detection device to give track maintenance personnel advance
warning of approaching trains.
6. It is also employed for monitoring the docking speed of large ships.

Pulse Vs. Continuous Wave:
Pulse Echo Continuous Wave
1. Single Antenna
2. Gives Range, usually Alt. as well
3. Susceptible To Jamming
4. Physical Range Determined By PW and
PRF.

1. Requires 2 Antennae
2. Range or Alt. Info
3. High SNR
4. More Difficult to Jam But Easily
Deceived
5. Amp can be tuned to look for expected
frequencies




121

Unambiguous Range in CW Radar:
Consider a CW Radar with the folling waveform S(t) = A sin(2f
0
t)
The received signal from moving target at range is S
r
(t) = A
r
sin(2f
0
t-)
Where the phase = 2f
0
T
But, R=cT/2
T=2R/c and =c/f
0

Therefore, = 2f
0
(2R/c) = 4f
0
R/c= 4R/
R = /4 ------- (1)
Where, c is the velocity of propagation = 310
8
m/sec.
From the above equation we observe that, the maximum unamgiguious range occurs when is
maximum i.e., =2. Therefore, even for relatively large Radar wavelength R is limited to
impractical small values.
Now consider a Radar with two CW signals denited by S
1
(t) and S
2
(t) respectively.
S
1
(t) = A
1
sin(2f
1
t) and S
2
(t) = A
2
sin(2f
2
t)
The received signal from moving target at range is S
1r
(t) = A
r1
sin(2f
1
t-
1
)
S
2r
(t) = A
r2
sin(2f
2
t-
2
)
Where
1
= 2f
1
(2R/c) = 4f
1
R/c and
2
= 2f
2
(2R/c) = 4f
2
R/c
After mixing the carrier frequency, the phase difference between the two received signals is
=
2
-
1
= (4f
2
R/c)-(4f
1
R/c) = (4R/c)( f
2
-f
1
)
= (4R/c)(f) = 4Rf/c
After R is maximum when = 2
122

Therefore = 4Rf/c => 2 = 4Rf/c
R = c/2f -----------(2)
Since, f<<c, the range computed by eq(2) is such greater than that computed by eq(1).

Prob (1): For an ambiguious range of 81 nautical miles (1nmi=1852 meters) in a two
frequency CW Radar. Determine f
2
and f when f
1
=4.2 kHz.
Sol: Given that, unambiguious range R = 81 nmi
R
unamb
= 811852=150.012 km
The unambiguious range R = c/2f = 999.92 Hz
f = f
2
-f
1

f
2
=f+f
1
=5.199 kHz
Prob (2): Determine the acceleration of a target if the received signal bandwidth is 40 Hz and
the operating wavelength is 9 cm.
Sol: Given that for a moving target
Received signal bandwidth f
d
=40Hz
Operating wavelength = 9cm = 910
-2
m
Acceleration of a target a
r
=?
We know that, f
d
= (2a
r
/)
1/2

a
r
=72 m/sec
2

Prob (3): Determine the operating wavelength if the target is moving with acceleration as same
as acceleration of gravity and the received signal bandwidth is 50 Hz.
Sol: Given that, acceleration of a moving target a
r
=9.8 m/sec
2
= acceleration of gravity
123

Received signal bandwidth f
d
=50Hz
Operating frequency = ? and = c/f
0

We know that, f
d
= (2a
r
/)
1/2

f
0
=38.27 Hz.
Prob (4): with atransmit (CW) frequency of 5GHz, calculate the Doppler frequency seen by
stationary Radar when the target radial velocity is 100km/hr.
Sol: f
0
=5GHz, v
r
=100km/hr = 1005/18 m/sec = 27.778 m/sec.
The Doppler frequency, f
d
= 2v
r
f
0
/c = 925.93 Hz.

124

OBJECTIVE TYPE QUESTIONS
1. Stagger PRF is used to [ ]
a. shift the target velocities to which the MTI system is blind
b. improves the detection of a moving target against cluster background
c. increase the average power transmitted
d. increase the peak power transmitted.
2. COHO stands for [ ]
a. coherent output b. counter housed oscillator
c. coherent local oscillator d. carrier oscillater and harteley oscillater
3. If the peak transmitted power in a radar system in increased by a factor of 16, the maximum
range will be increased [ ]
a. 2 times b. 4 times c. 4 times d. 16 times
4. Which of the following statement is incorrect.The radar cross section of a target? [ ]
a. depends on the aspect of a target, if this is non spherical.
b. depends on the frequency used.
c. is equal to the actual cross sectional area for small targets
d. may be reduced by special coating of the target.
5. Which of the following statement is incorrect High PRF will [ ]
a. increase the maximum range
b. make target tracking easier to distinguish from noise
c. make the retured echoes easier to distinguish from noise
d. have no effect on the range resolution.
125

6. Side lobe of an antenna causes [ ]
a. reduction in gain of antenna b. reduction in beam width of antenna
c. ambiguity in direction finding d. increases directivity
7. A radar which is used for determining the velocity of the moving aircraft along with its
position and range is [ ]
a. moving target indicator b. radar speedometer
c. pulse radar d. radar range finder
8. Blind speed in MTI radar results in [ ]
a. restriction in speed of detectable targets b. blanking to PPI.
c. no change in phase detector output d. absorption of electromagnetic waves.
9. The quartz delay line in a MTI radar is used to [ ]
a. match the signal with echo b. substract a complete scan from previous scan
c. match the phase of COHO and STALO
d. Match the phase of COHO and output of oscillator
10. Which one of the following applications or advantages of radar beacons is false [ ]
a. navigation b. target identification
c. more accurate tracking of enemy target
d. very significant extension of the maximum range.
11. STALO stands for [ ]
a. standard local oscillator b. stable L-band output
c. stabilized local oscillator d. saturated and linear oscillator.
12. Large antenna is used in radar because it [ ]
126

a. gives higher gain b. gives lesser side lobes.
c. increases the bean width d. increases band width
13. The range of radar is [ ]
a. directly proportional to the gain of the radar antenna
b. directly proportional to the minimum detectable signal by the receiver
c. inversely proportional to the gain of the radar antenna
d. inver4sely proportional the transmitted power.
14. A biostatic radar has [ ]
a. one antenna for transmitting as well as for receiving
b. two antennas for receiving the signal. c. two antennas for transmitting signal
d. transmitting and receiving antennas
15. Blind speed causes target to appear [ ]
a. moving uniformly b. moving irregularly c. stationary d. intermittently
16. For precise target location and tracking retards operate in ` [ ]
a. s- band b. D- Band c. L- Band d. X - Band
17. The sensitivity of a radar receiver is ultimately set by [ ]
a. high S/N ratio b. lower limit of useful signal input
c. overall all noise temperature d. low S/N ratio
18. A radar system cannot be used [ ]
a. to detect moving objects b. to detect trajectory of moving objects
c. to detect aircraft d. to detect storms
19. Which of the following is essential for fast communication [ ]
127

a. Hgh S/N ratio b. High channel capacity
c. large bandwidth d. Higher directivity
20. The major advantage of pulsed radar CW radar is that [ ]
a. pulsed radar readily gives the range of target while CW radar cannot give range
information
b. pulsed radar can identify a target more easily than CW radar.
c. Pulses get reflected from the target more efficiently as compared to CW waves
d. Pulses have variation of magnitude and frequency both


Answers:
1.a 2.c 3.a 4.c 5.a 6.a 7.c 8.a 9.b 10.c
11.c 12.a 13.b 14.d 15.c 16.a 17.c 18.d 19.a 20.a


ESSAY TYPE QUESTIONS
1. With the help of a suitable block diagram, explain the operation of CW Doppler radar in a
sideband super heterodyne receiver.
2. Calculate the Doppler frequency of stationary CW radar transmitting at 6 MHz frequency
when a moving target approaches the radar with a radial velocity of 100 Km/Hour.
3. List the limitations of CW radar.
4. What is Doppler frequency shift? Establish a relation between Doppler frequency shift and
radial velocity of a moving target.
5. Explain how isolation between transmitter and receiver of a radar system can be achieved
128

if single antenna is used for transmission and reception.
6. What is Doppler frequency shift? Discuss the e ect of receiver bandwidth on the e ciency
of detection and performance of a CW Doppler radar.
7. With the help of a suitable block diagram, explain the operation of a CW tracking
illuminator application of a CW radar.
8. With the help of a suitable block diagram, explain the operation of a CW radar with non-
zero IF in the receiver.
9. Describe methods to achieve isolation between transmitter and receiver of a CW Doppler
radar if same antenna is to be used for transmission and reception
10. What is the beat frequency? How it is used in FMCW radar?
11. Explain how the multipath signals produce error in FM altimeter?
12. Explain how earphones are used as an indicator in CW Radar?
13. The transmitter power is 1 KW and safe value of power which might be applied to a
receiver is 10mW. Find the isolation between transmitter and receiver in dB. Suggest the
appropriate isolator.
14. Why the step error and quantization errors which occur in cycle counter are used for
frequency measurement in FMCW Radar?
15. What is the Doppler effect? What are some of the ways in which it manifests itself? What
are its radar applications?
16. Find the relation between bandwidth and the acceleration of the target with respect to
radar?
17. How to find the target speed from Doppler frequency?
18. Write the applications of CW Radar.
19. What are the factors that limit the amount of isolation between Transmitter and Receiver
of CW Radar?
20. Explain how earphones are used as an indicator in CW Radar?
21. The transmitter power is 1 KW and safe value of power which might be applied to a
receiver is 10mW. Find the isolation between transmitter and receiver in dB. Suggest the
appropiate isolator.


129


UNI T-I V

FM-CW
RADARR

130

Frequency-Modulated Continuous-Wave Radar:
CW radars have the disadvantage that they cannot measure distance, because it lacks the timing
mark necessary to allow the system to time accurately the transmit and receive cycle and convert
the measured round-trip-time into range. In order to correct for this problem, phase or frequency
shifting methods can be used. In the frequency shifting method, a signal that constantly changes
in frequency around a fixed reference is used to detect stationary objects and to measure the rage.
In such Frequency-Modulated Continuous Wave radars (FMCW), the frequency is generally
changed in a linear fashion, so that there is an up-and-down or a sawtooth-like alternation in
frequency. If the frequency is continually changed with time, the frequency of the echo signal
will differ from that transmitted and the difference f will be proportional to round trip time t
and so the range R of the target too. When a reflection is received, the frequencies can be
examined, and by comparing the received echo with the actual step of transmitted frequency, you
can do a range calculation similar to using pulses:

transmitted signal
received
echo signal



131

R = c
0
|t|/2= c
0
|f|/(2df/dt)
Where: c
0
= speed of light = 310
8 m
/
s

t = measured time-difference [s]
R = distance altimeter to terrain [m]
df/dt = transmitters frequency shift per unit time

Characteristic Feature of FMCW radar:
1. The distance measurement is done by comparing the actual frequency of the received
signal to a given reference (usually direct the transmitted signal)
2. The duration of the transmitted signal is much larger than the time required for measuring
the installed maximum range of the radar

Doppler direction in FMCW radar:
A block diagram illustrating the principle of the FM-CW radar is shown in Fig. A
portion of the transmitter signal acts as the reference signal required to produce the beat
frequency. It is introduced directly into the receiver via a cable or other direct connection. Ideally
the isolation between transmitting and receiving antennas is made sufficiently large so as to
reduce to a negligible level the transmitter leakage signal which arrives at the receiver via the
coupling between antennas. The beat frequency is amplified and limited to remove any
amplitude fluctuations. The frequency of the amplitude-limited beat note is measured with a
cycle-counting frequency meter calibrated in distance.

Fig: Block diagram of FM-CW radar
132


In the above, the target was assumed to be stationary. If this assumption is not applicable,
a Doppler frequency shift will be superimposed on the FM range beat note and an erroneous
range measurement results.
The Doppler frequency shift causes the frequency-time plot of the echo signal to be
shifted up or down (Fig. 4.1.2 (a)). On one portion of the frequency-modulation cycle the heat
frequency (Fig, 4.1.2 (b)) is increased by the Doppler shift, while on the other portion it is
decreased. If for example, the target is approaching the radar, the beat frequency fb(up) produced
during the increasing, or up, portion of the FM cycle will be the difference between the beat
frequency due to the range fr, and the doppler frequency shift fd. Similarly, on the decreasing
portion, the beat frequency, f
b
(down) is the sum of the two.
f
b
(up) = f
r
- f
d
and f
b
(down) = f
r
+ f
d

The range frequency f
r
, may be extracted by measuring the average beat frequency;
That is, f
r
= 1/2[f
b
(up) + f
b
(down)].

133

Fig: Frequency-time relation-ships in FM-CW radar when the f
r
+ f
d
received signal is shifted
in frequency by the doppler effect (a) Transmitted (solid curve) and echo (dashed curve); (b) beat
frequency.
If f
b
(up) and f
b
(down) are measured separately, for example, by switching a frequency
counter every half modulation cycle, one-half the difference between the frequencies will yield
the doppler frequency. This assumes f
r
> f
d
.
If, on the other hand, f
r
< f
d
such as might occur with a high-speed target at short range,
the roles of the averaging and the difference-frequency measurements are reversed; the averaging
meter will measure Doppler velocity, and the difference meter, range. If it is not known that the
roles of the meters are reversed because of a change in the inequality sign between f
r
and f
d
an
incorrect interpretation of the measurements may result.

Derive an expression for range and Doppler measurement for FMCW radar:
In the frequency-modulated CW radar (abbreviated as FM-CW), the transmitter
frequency is changed as a function of time in a known manner. Assume that the transmitter
frequency increases linearly with time, as shown by the solid line in Fig (a).
If there is a reflecting object at a distance R, an echo signal will return after a time T =
2R/c. The dashed line in the figure represents the echo signal. If the echo signal is heterodyned
with a portion of the transmitter signal in a nonlinear element such as a diode, a beat note f
b
will
be produced.
If there is no Doppler frequency shift, the beat note (difference frequency) is a measure of
the target's range and f
b
= f
r
where f
r
is the beat frequency due only to the target's range. If the
rate of change of the carrier frequency is f
0
, the beat frequency is
f
r
= f
0
T = 2Rf
0
/c
In any practical CW radar, the frequency cannot be continually changed in one direction
only. Periodicity in the modulation is necessary, as in the triangular frequency-modulation
waveform shown in Fig(b).
The modulation need not necessarily be triangular; it can be sawtooth, sinusoidal, or
some other shape. The resulting beat frequency as a function of time is shown in Fig(c) for
triangular modulation. The beat note is of constant frequency except at the turn around region. If
the frequency is modulated at a rate f
m
over a range f, the beat frequency is
f
r
= 2*2Rf
m
/c = 4Rf
m
f /c
134

Thus the measurement of the beat frequency determines the range R.
R = cf
r
/4f
m
f


Fig: Frequency-time relationships in FM-CW radar. Solid curve represents transmitted signal,
dashed curve represents echo. (a) Linear frequency modulation; (b) triangular frequency
modulation; (c) beat note of (b).

135



Principle of operation of FMCW Altimeter:
The FM-CW radar principle is used in the aircraft radio altimeter to measure height
above the surface of the earth. The large backscatter cross section and the relatively short ranges
required of altimeters permit low transmitter power and low antenna gain. Since the relative
motion between the aircraft and ground is small, the effect of the Doppler frequency shift may
usually be neglected.
The band from 4.2 to 4.4 G Hz is reserved for radio altimeters, although they have in the
past operated at UHF. The transmitter power is relatively low and can be obtained from a CW
magnetron, a backward-wave oscillator, or a reflex klystron, but these have been replaced by the
solid state transmitter.
The altimeter can employ a simple homodyne receiver, but for better sensitivity and
stability the superheterodyne is to be preferred whenever its more complex construction can be
tolerated.
A block diagram of the FM-CW radar with a sideband superheterodyne receiver shown in
Fig. A portion of the frequency-modulated transmitted signal is applied to a mixer along with the
oscillator signal. The selection of the local-oscillator freq uency is a bit different from that in the
usual superheterodyne receiver.
136

The local-oscillator frequency f
IF
should be the same as the intermediate frequency used
in the receiver, whereas in the conventional superheterodyne the LO frequency is of the same
order of magnitude as the RF signal.
The output of the mixer consists of the varying transmitter frequency f
o
(t) plus two
sideband frequencies, one on either side of f
o
(t) and separated from f
o
(t) by the local-oscillator
frequency f
IF
. The filter selects the lower sideband f
o
(t) - f
IF
and rejects the carrier and the upper
sideband.
The sideband that is passed by the filter is modulated in the same fashion as the
transmitted signal. The sideband filter must have sufficient bandwidth to pass the modulation,
but not the carrier or other sideband. The filtered sideband serves the function of the local
oscillator.
When an echo signal is present, the output of the receiver mixer is an IF signal of
frequency f
IF
+ f
b
where f
b
is composed of the range frequency f
r
and the doppler velocity
frequency f
d
. The IF signals is amplified and applied to the balanced detector along with the
localoscillator signal f
IF
. The output of the detector contains the beat frequency (range frequency
and the Doppler velocity frequency), which is amplified to a level where it can actuate the
frequencymeasuring circuits.
In Fig. the output of the low-frequency amplifier is divided into two channels: one feeds
an average-frequency counter to determine range, the other feeds a switched frequency counter
to determine the doppler velocity (assuming fr > fd) Only the averaging frequency counter need
be used in an altimeter application, since the rate of change of altitude is usually small.

137


Fig: Block diagram of FM-CW radar using sideband superheterodyne receiver

EFFECT OF NOISE SIGNALS ON FM ALTIMETER:
The different noise signals occurring in a typical FM altimeter are:
Due to the mismatch in impedance a part transmitted signal gets reflected from the space
causing error in the altimeter.
The mismatch between the sideband filter and receiving gives rise to standing wave
pattern.
The leakage signal due to the transmitting and receiving antennas reach the receiver and
cause error..
The double bounce signal.
Hence the different noise signals accompanying the transmitted signal may reach the
receiver and effect its.

138

Advantages of FMCW altimeter over pulse based altimeter and compare
both?
What is the difference between altimeter and cabin altimeter: The main difference
between altimeter and cabin altimeter is the place where they take their pressure:
Altimeter takes the pressure from static ports, while cabin altimeter takes it's pressure
from the cabin.
Difference of radio altimeter to radar altimeter: They're both the same thing
What is an altimeter: The altimeter is basically a specialized pressure gauge. It measures
the pressure of the column of air above it. As the altitude varies, the air column height
varies, which registers on the altimeter.
Since the air pressure also varies with changes in the barometric pressure, altimeters must
have an adjustment to compensate for changes in local barometric pressure.

Sinusoidally modulated FM-CW radar:
The block diagram for sinusoidally modulated FM-CW radar extracting the third
harmonic is shown in fig.
The ability of the FM-CW radar to measure range provides an additional basis for
obtaining isolation. Echoes from short-range targets-including the leakage signal may be
attenuated relative to the desired target echo from longer ranges by properly processing the
difference frequency signal obtained by heterodyning the transmitted and received signals.
If the CW carrier is frequency-modulated by a sine wave, the difference frequency
obtained by heterodyning the returned signal with a portion of the transmitter signal may be
expanded in a trigonometric series whose terms are the harmonics of the modulating frequency
f
m
.
139


Fig: sinusoidally modulated FM-CW radar extracting the third harmonic.

Assume the form of the transmitted signal to be

Where,
f
o
= carrier frequency, f
m
= modulation frequency
f = frequency excursion (equal to twice the frequency derivation)
The difference frequency signal may be written as

Where J
0
, J
1
, J
2
, etc = Bessel functions of first kind and order 0, 1, 2, etc., respectively
D = (f/f
m
) sin (2f
m
R
0
/c)
R
0
= distance to target at time t = 0 (distance that would have been measured if target were
stationary)
c = velocity of propagation, f
d
= doppler frequency shift
v
r
= relative velocity of target with respect to radar

0
= phase shift approxirnately equal to angular distance 2 f
0
R
0
/c
140

m
= phase shift approxirnately equal to 2f
m
R
0
/c
The difference-frequency signal consists of a doppler-frequency component of amplitude
J
o
(D) and a series of cosine waves of frequency f
m
, 2f
m
, etc. Each of these harmonics of f
m
is
modulated by a doppler-frequency component with amplitude proportional to J
n
(D). The product
of the doppler-frequency factor times the nth harmonic factor is equivalent to a suppressed-
carrier double-sideband modulation.

The above figure shows a plot of several of the Bessel functions. The argument D of the
Bessel function is proportional to range. The Jo amplitude applies maximu response to signals at
zero range in radar that extracts the d-c doppler-frequency component. This is the range at which
the leakage signal and its noise conlponents (including microphony and vibration) are found. At
greater ranges, where the target is expected, the effect of the Jo Bessel function is to reduce the
echo-signal amplitude in comparison with the echo at zero range (in addition to the normal range
attenuation). Therefore, if the Jo term were used, it would enhance the leakage signal and reduce
the target signal.

BANK OF NARROW BAND FILTERS IN FMCW RADAR:
The mixer output of FMCW Radar will contain more than one difference frequency, when more
than one target is present within the view of Radar. In a linear system, each target is associated
with a frequency component.
By measuring the individual frequency component, we can determine the range to each target
and the following equation is applied to each frequency component
141

i.e., f
r
= 4Rf
m
f /c
The above frequency component must be separated from one another to measure the individual
frequencies. Thus, the requirement of a single frequency corresponding to a single target can be
accomplished and continuously observed by a bank of narrow band filters.
But for the following cases, the problem of resolving targets and measuring the range of each
becomes more complicated.
If the motion of the targets were to produce a Doppler frequency shift.
If the frequency modulation waveforms were non linear.
If the mixers were not operated in its linear region.

Multiple frequency CW radar:
The multiple frequency CW radar is used to measure the accurate range.
The transmitted waveform is assumed to consist of two continuous sine waves of
frequency f
1
and f
2
separated by an amount f. Let the amplitudes of all signals are equal to
unity. The voltage waveforms of the two components of the transmitted signal v
1r
and v
2r
, may
be written as
v
1r
= sin (2f
1
t +
1
)
v
2r
= sin (2f
2
t +
2
)
Where
1
and
2
are arbitrary (constant) phase angles.
The echo signal is shifted in frequency by the Doppler Effect. The form of the
dopplershifted signals at each of the two frequencies f
1
and f
2
may be written as

Where, R
o
= range to target at a particular time t = t
0
(range that would be measured if target
were not moving)
f
d1
= Doppler frequency shift associated with frequency f
1

f
d2
= Doppler frequency shift associated with frequency f
2

Since the two RF frequencies f
1
, and f
2
are approximately the same the doppler frequency
shifts f
d1
and f
d2
are approximately equal to one another. Therefore, f
d1
= f
d2
= f
d

142

The receiver separates the two components of the echo signal and heterodynes each
received signal component with the corresponding transmitted waveform and extracts the two
doppler-frequency components given below:

The phase difference between these two components is

Hence

A large difference in frequency between the two transmitted signals improves the
accuracy of the range measurement since large f means a proportionately large change in for
a given range. However, there is a limit to the value of f, since cannot be greater than 2
radians if the range is to remain unambiguous. The maximum unambiguous range R
unamb
is
R
unamb
= c/2f
The two-frequency CW radar is essentially single target radar since only one phase
difference can be measured at a time. If more than one target is present, the echo signal becomes
complicated and the meaning of the phase measurement is doubtful.

Measurement Errors:
The absolute accuracy of radar altimeters is usually of more importance at low altitudes
than at high altitudes. Errors of a few meters might not be of significance when cruising at
altitudes of 10 km, but are important if the altimeter is part of a blind landing system.
The theoretical accuracy with which distance can be measured depends upon the
bandwidth of the transmitted signal and the ratio of signal energy to noise energy. In addition,
measurement accuracy might be limited by such practical restrictions as the accuracy of the
frequency-measuring device, the residual path-length error caused by the circuits and
transmission lines, errors caused by multiple reflections and transmitter leakage, and the
frequency error due to the turn-around of the frequency modulation.
143

A common form of frequency-measuring device is the cycle counter, which measures the
number of cycles or half cycles of the beat during the modulation period. The total cycle count is
a discrete- number since the counter is unable to measure fractions of a cycle. The discreteness
of the frequency measurement gives rise to an error called the fixed error, or step error. It has
also been called the quantization error, a more descriptive name. The average number of cycles
N of the beat frequency fb in one period of the modulation cycle fm is fb /fm , where the bar
over, denotes time average.
R = cN/4f
Where, R = range (altitude). m
c = velocity of propagation. m/s
f = frequency excursion. Hz
Since the output of the frequency counter N is an integer, the range will be an integral
multiple of c/4f and will give rise to a quantization error equal to
R = c/4f
R (m) = 75/f ( MHz)
Since the fixed error is due to the discrete nature of the frequency counter, its effects can
be reduced by wobbling the modulation frequency or the phase of the transmitter output.
Wobbling the transmitter phase results in a wobbling of the phase of the beat signal so that an
average reading of the cycle counter somewhere between N and N + 1 will be obtained on a
normal meter movement. In one altimeter, the modulation frequency was varied at a 10-Hz rate,
causing the phase shift of the beat signal to vary cyclically with time. The indicating system was
designed so that it did not respond to the l0-Hz modulation directly, but it caused the fixed error
to be averaged. Normal fluctuations in aircraft altitude due to uneven terrain, waves on the water,
or turbulent air can also average out the fixed error provided the time constant of the indicating
device is large compared with the time between fluctuations. Over smooth terrain, such as an
airport runway, the fixed error might not be averaged out.
Target motion can cause an error in range equal to vr T0, where vr, is the relative velocity
and To is the observation time. The residual path error is the error caused by delays in the
circuitry and transmission lines.
Multipath signals also produce error. Reflections from the landing gear can also cause errors.
The unwanted signals in FM altimeter:
144

The fig. shows some of the unwanted signals that might occur in the FM altimeter. The wanted
signals are shown by the solid line while unwanted signals are shown by the broken arrows.
The unwanted signals include:
1. The reflection of the transmitted signals at the antenna caused by impedance mismatch.
2. The standing-wave pattern on the cable feeding the reference signal to the receiver, due to
poor mixer match.
3. The leakage signal entering the receiver via coupling between transmitter and receiver
antennas. This can limit the ultimate receiver sensitivity, especially at high altitudes.
4. The interference due to power being reflected back to the transmitter, causing a change in the
impedance seen by the transmitter. This is usually important only at low altitudes. It can be
reduced by an attenuator introduced in the transmission line at low altitude or by a directional
coupler or an isolator.
5. The double-bounce signal.


Fig: unwanted signals in FM altimeter
OBJECTIVE TYPE QUESTIONS
145


1. Which of the following statement is incorrect? The Doppler Effect is used in [ ]
a. MTI system b. CW radar c. FM Radar d. moving target plotting on the PPI
2. A transponder comprises of [ ]
a. transmitter only b. receiver only
c. transmitter and receiver d. transmitter and receiver and antenna
3. If A be the capture area of receiving antenna of radar then the maximum range will be
Proportional to [ ]
a. A b. A 2 c. 1 / sqrt A d. sqrt A
4. For high power radars the peak power is limited by [ ]
a. breakdown of RF components b. increased complexity of transmitter circuitry
c. cost aspects d. max. band width
5. The maximum range of radar depends on [ ]
a. pulse frequency b. pulse duration c. pulse energy d. pulse interrals
6. The term rat race in radar is associated with [ ]
a. duplexer. b. receiver bandwidth c. modulator d. hybrid ring
7. Most of the aircraft surveillance radars operate in [ ]
a. L band b. c band c. s band d. x band.
8. The minimum range of detection by a pulse radar depends on [ ]
a. pulse width b. Average transmitter power
c. beam width of the antenna d. bandwidth of antenna
9. An MTI system eliminates permanent echoes while preserving echoes from a moving target
by
146

a. decreasing pulse width b. utilizing the Doppler effect
c. increasing peak transmitted power d. wide beam width
10. A CW radar cannot give information about [ ]
a. a range b. direction c. both range and direction
d. range, direction and past track
11. A target is moving with a velocity of 360km/hour radially towards the transmitting frequency
generator of 3 GHz will be [ ]
a. 300 KHz b. 1 KHz c. 1.5 KHz d. 2 KHz
12. A duplex is a device which [ ]
a. switches an antenna between transmitter and receiver by means of selective filters
b. switches an antenna between transmitter and receiver by means of gas
Switching tubes.
c. neither of the above two d. connect at a time to transmitter or receiver only
13. The minimum receivable signal in a radar receiver whos IF bandwidth is 1.5 MHz and
which has a noise figure 9 dB will be [ ]
a. 4.16 X 10
-10
Watt b. 4.16 X 10
-12
Watt
c. 4.16 X 10-13 Watt d. 4.16 X 10
-14-
Watt

14. When p is the peak transmitted pulse power. The maximum range of the radar is proportional
to
a. P b. P
1/2
c. P

d. 1/ P
1/4
15. A RADAR SYSTEM OPERATES at 3 cm with a peak pulse power of 500KW. Its minimum
receivable power is 10 -3 W, The capture area of th antenna is 5 m2 and the radar crosssectional
area of the target is 20m 2 . the maximum range of the radar will be [ ]
a. 343 Km b. 44km c. 686 km d. 888 km
147

16. Which of the following is not a display method [ ]
a. PPI b. Computer feeding
c. Mono pulse conical scanning d. A scope
17. Which of the following is used for IFF [ ]
a. CW radar b. MTI c. Ordinary radar` d. Beacon
18. Which of the following statement about radar is valid [ ]
a. echoes from the target are random and noise impulses are repetitive
b. echoes and noise impulse both are random
c. echoes and noise pulses both are repetitive
d. echoes from target are repetitive and noise impulses are random
19. A radar consists of [ ]
a. display unit b. switching modulator c. varactor diode d. gunn diode
20. In radar as soon as the transmitted pulse terminates, the transmitter is disconnected from the
antenna by [ ]
a. Duplexer b. Mixer c. ART switches d. Detector
Answers:
1.d 2.d 3.d 4.c 5.c 6.a 7.a 8.a 9.a 10.a
11.d 12.b 13.d 14.c 15.c 16.c 17.d 18.d 19.a 20.a
ESSAY TYPE QUESTIONS
1. With the help of suitable block diagram, explain the operation of a FM-CW altimeter.
2. Discuss all the possible errors in the measurement accuracy of altitudes using a FM-CW
radar.
148

3. List out the possible errors for measurement of altitudes accurately using a FM-CW
altimeter.
4. Discuss the results of multiple frequency usage for operating FM-CW radar while
mentioning the limitations of multiple frequency usage in CW radars.
5. Range and Doppler measurement of a target using a FM-CW radar.
6. Unwanted signals and the measurement errors in FM altimeter.
7. With necessary mathematical expressions, describe range and Doppler measurement if the
transmitted signal of a CW radar is frequency modulated.
8. Describe the e ect of sinusoidal modulating signal in the place of rectangular pulses on the
performance of a radar.
9. Draw the block diagram of IF Doppler bank and explain the operation of it with the help
of frequency response of it.
10. What are the e ects which limit the amount of transmitter leakage power which can be
tolerated at the receiver?
11. Why is amplitude comparison mono pulse more likely to be preferred over the phase
comparison mono pulse and conical scan tracker over sequential lobbing, or lobe
switching, tracker? Explain.
12. Discuss in detail about the Amplitude fluctuations and how its effects are minimized
13. Explain Mono pulse tracking in two angle coordinates.
14. Draw the block diagram of sinusoidally modulated FMCW radar and explain the function
of each block.
15. What are the various unwanted signals which cause errors in FM altimeter?
16. Explain the two frequency CW technique for measuring the Radar range?
17. Explain the operation of the two frequency CW Radar.
18. How to select the difference between two transmitted signals of CW radar?
19. Why the step error and quantization errors which occur in cycle counter are used for
frequency measurement in FMCW Radar?
20. Draw the block diagram of sinu soidally modulated FMCW radar and explain the
function of each block.

149



150


UNIT-V

MTI AND PULSE
DOPPLER RADAR


151

MTI Radar means moving target indication radar. This is one form of pulsed radar. MTI
radar is characterized by its very low PRF and nence no range ambiguity in MTI Rdar. The
unambigues range is given by R
unamb
= v
o
/f
p

Where v
o
= velocity of electromagnetic wave in free space
f
p
= pulse repetition frequency in Hz
Moving target indication is the process of rejecting fixed or slowly moving clutter while
passing echoes from targets moving at significant velocities.
Moving Target Indication (MTI) radar: A delay line canceller filter to isolate moving
targets from nonmoving background
i. Ambiguous velocity ii. Unambiguous range
Pulsed Doppler radar: Doppler data are extracted by the use of range gates and Doppler filters.
i. Unambiguous velocity ii. Unambiguous or ambiguous range

Types of MTI Radar:
1. Area MTI Radar
2. Coherent MTI Radar
3. Non-coherent MTI Radar
4. Airborne Moving Target Indicator (AMTI) Rdar
5. Digital MTI (DMTI) Radar.

INTRODUCTION:
The Doppler shift produced by a moving target may be used in pulse radar: (1) To
determine the relative velocity of the target or (2) To separate desired moving targets from
undesired stationary clutter.
The second application has been of greater importance.
The MTI radar usually operates with ambiguous Doppler measurements (blind speeds)
but with unambiguous range (no second time around echoes).
The pulse Doppler radar has a high enough PRF to operate with unambiguous Doppler,
but at the expense of range ambiguities.
152

MTI is a necessity in high quality air surveillance radars that operate in the presence of
clutter. MTI adds cost and complexity and digital signal processing.
Practical, economical MTI has been available only since the mid 1970s.
Operation: Simple CW radar is shown. In principle the CW radar can be converted into pulse
radar by providing a power amplifier and a modulator to turn the amplifier on and off.
Note: The main difference between this pulse radar and the one described previouslyis that some
portion of the CW power that generates the transmitted pulse is applied to the receiver as the
local oscillator.
This LO provides the coherent reference needed for Doppler frequency detection.
Coherent means that the phase of the transmitted signal is preserved in the reference signal.
Let the CW oscillator voltage be

Therefore the reference voltage is .(1)
The Doppler shifted echo voltage is .(2)
153

Here c = velocity of propagation and R
0
= range of target
The reference and echo signal are mixed in the receiver and the difference extracted
..(3)
Note: equations 2 and 3 represent carriers upon which the pulse modulation is imposed
Note: For stationary targets, f
d
= 0 therefore V
diff
will have a constant value some where between
-A
4
and A
4
including zero.
Examples of V
diff
are shown in figure 4.2
When f
d
> 1/ the doppler can be discerned from the information in a single pulse (4.2 b)
When f
d
< 1/ the pulses will be modulated an amplitude given by equation 3 (Fig 4.2.c)
In this second case, many pulses will be needed to extract the Doppler information.
The situation shown in Fig. 4.2 c is typical of aircraft detection radar. The situation shown in Fig.
4.2 b is typical of detection of missiles or satellites (i.e. high velocity). Doppler ambiguities can
occur in Fig. 4.2 c but not in 4.2 b.

154

Moving targets can be distinguished from stationary targets by observing the video on an
A scope (amplitude vs range). A single sweep might appear as in Fig. 4.3 a.
This also shows several fixed targets and 2 moving targets indicated by the two arrows.
From the single sweep it is impossible to distinguish moving targets from fixed targets.
Successive A scope sweeps (PRIs) are shown. Echoes from fixed targets are constant while
echoes from moving targets vary in amplitude at a rate corresponding to the Doppler shift.
Superposition of the sweeps shows the moving targets producing a butterfly effect.

Note: the video is bipolar. Fixed targets can give either a positive or a negative pulse
(corresponding to the previous comment on the value ranging from -A
4
and A
4
.
The butterfly effect is not suitable for display on PPI. To extract Doppler information in a
form suitable for a PPI, one can use a delay line canceller.
155


The delay line canceller acts as a filter to eliminate DC. Fixed targets with unchanging
amplitudes pulse to pulse are cancelled. The amplitudes of the moving targets are not constant
pulse to pulse and subtraction results in an uncancelled residue. The rectifier provides the video
for the PPI.
A Diagram of an MTI employing an HPA (high power amplifier) is shown below. This
arrangement is called a MOPA (master oscillator, power amplifier). Here the coherent reference
is supplied by a coho (coherent oscillator). The coho is a stable oscillator whose frequency is the
same as the IF frequency in the receiver. The coho f
c
also mixes with the stalo (stable oscillator)
f
l.
The RF echo is heterodyned with fl to produce the IF.
After amplification at IF the received signal is phase detected with fc. (Note: the
heterodyne process is used to avoid 1/f noise) to give video proportional to the phase difference
between the two signals. The electronics excluding the high power amplifier are collectively
called the exciter-receiver.
Note: although the phase of the STALO influences the phase of the transmitted signal, any
STALO phase is cancelled on reception.
Again, the main feature of MTI is that the transmitted signal must be coherent (phase
referenced) with the downconverting oscillators in the receiver. The HPA maybe a Klystron, a
TWT (travelling wave tube), crossed field amplifier, triode, tetrode. Each has its advantages and
disadvantages.
Before the development of the Klystron amplifier, the only high power transmitter was
the magnetron oscillator. Here, the phase of the oscillator bears no relationship from pulse to
pulse. Hence the reference cannot be generated by a continuously operating oscillator. However
a coherent reference can be obtained by readjusting the phase of the coho at the beginning of
156

each sweep according to the phase of the transmitted power (sweep is the term for the period
between pulses).
Here a portion of the transmitted signal is mixed with the STALO to produce a phase
which is directly related to the phase of the transmitter. This IF pulse is applied to the coho and
causes the coho to lock in step with the phase of the IF reference pulse.

The phase of the coho is then related to the phase of the transmitted pulse and can be used
as the reference for echoes from that particular transmitted pulse. Upon the next transmitted
pulse, another IF locking pulse relocks the phase of the CW coho.

157


Advantages of MOPA (Master Oscillator Power Amplifier):
1. It can be easier to reach the desired performance i.e., in terms of line width, wavelength
tuning range, beam quality or pulse duration. This is because various performance aspects
are decoupled from the generation of high powers which gives the extra flexibility.
2. Low power seed laser can be modulated i.e., an optical modulator can be used between
seed laser and power amplifier.
3. The combination of an existing laser with an existing amplifier may be simpler than
developing a new laser with high output power.
4. Optical intensities are lower compared to intracavity intensities in an amplifier.
158

DISADVANTAGES OF MOPA:
1. The complexity of the setup is higher.
2. The wall-plug efficiency is often lower.
3. The resulting laser noise tends to be higher.
4. A MOPA can be sensitive to back reflections which are amplified again before entering
the master laser.
APPLICATIONS OF MOPA:
1. In pulsed laser sources it can be used as a reservoir of energy.
2. This can be used in the deformation of the temporal pulse shape.

DIFFERENCE BETWEEM PULSE DOPLER RADAR AND MTI RADAR:
1. Pulse doppler radar, in this the radar send the pulse train to detect the position of target
and MTI (moving target indicator) in which it detect the target which is moving but pulse
radar can detect the moving target but there is a disadvantage that the problem of blind
speed arises and pulse radar dosn't continuosly transmit the pulse after transmitting wait
for receiving in ths time it doesn't transmit any pulse.
2. Pulse doppler radar and MTI radar both are used to find the target range by using doppler
effect( doppler shift) .but MTI radar uses low PRF whereas pulse doppler uses high PRF.
3. The different between MTI radar and PD radar is a unique even though they all relay on
Doppler principle , but the MTI radar determine moving targets by detecting the phase
and amplitude of the received wave and compare it with saved replica of the original
transmitted wave but at opposite phase , so if the target are not moving then the phase and
amplitude of the 2 signals will match but at different value will result of canceling each
other, but if the 2 signals are not matched they will give positive or negative value and
that is indication of moving target.
159

4. Pulse Doppler radar has anther interest, it is interested in the changes happen to the
transmitted wave (DOPPLER SHIFT) either it will be compressed if the target moving
toward the radar
Example: received frequency may change from transmitted 6000MHz to 6010MHZ), or
may stretch if the target are going away from the radar ( the 6000MHz will be 5990MHz
5. The PD radar are not interested in the transmitted frequency any more after it has been
transmitted but it does set filters around it at the expected reflected frequency
Example:5970,5980,5990,6010,6020,6030. If there are moving targets then the filters
will receive power and that is an indication of presence of target.


Delay Line Cancellers:
The time domain delay-line canceller capability depends on the qualityof the medium
used as the delayline. The delay required is equal to the PRI and might be several milliseconds
(long!!!). This can not be achieved with electromagnetic transmission lines.
Converting the electromagnetic signal to an acoustic signal allows the design of
delaylines with reasonable physical length since the velocity of acoustic waves is approximately
10-5 that of electromagnetic waves.
The signal at the output of the acoustic delay device is then converted back to an
electromagnetic wave. Solid fused quartz using multiple internal reflections to obtain a compact
device was developed in the 1950s. These analog delay lines have been replaced by digital delay
lines using A/D and digital processing.
The use of digital processing allows implementation of complex delay line cancellers
which were not practical with the analog methods.
Note: An advantage of the time domain delay line canceler as compared with the frequency
domain filter is that a single network operates at all ranges and does not need a separate filter for
each range resolution cell.


160

Filter Characteristics of a Delay Line Canceler:
The canceler acts as a filter to reject DC clutter but because of its periodic nature it also
rejects energy near the PRF and its harmonics. The video received from a target at range R
0
is

The signal from the previous transmission which is delayed by a time T = PRI is

The output from the pulse canceler is
The frequency response of the single delay-line canceller is H(f) = 2k sin(f
d
T).
The response of the single delay line canceller will be zero when the argument f
d
T is 0, , 2
etc.
Definitions:
1. Blind speed is defined as the radial velocity of the target at which the MTI response is
zero.
2. It is also defined as the radial velocity of the target which results in a phase difference of
exactly 2 radians between successive pulses.
3. Blind speed is defined as the radial velocity of the target at which no shift appears
making the target appearing stationary and echows from the targets are cancelled.
The speeds at which these occur are called the blind speed of the radar. These are

For in metres, f
p
in Hz and vn in knots we have the following: v
n
= nf
p
/(1.02) nf
p


161

The first blind speeds in knots is given by v
b1
= 0.97f
p
= f
p

If the first blind speed is to be greater than the expected maximum radial speed, then f
p

must be large. Hence the MTI must operate at a long wavelength or high PRF or both. However
there are other constraints on and f
p
and blind speeds are not easily avoided.
There are four methods to reduce the effect of blind speeds by operating the radar at:
a. Long wavelength
b. High PRF
c. More than one PRF and
d. More than one wavelength.
The blind speed is dependent on the transmitted frequency and on the pulse repetition
frequency of the radar unit.
Example given:
A radar unit works with the tx-frequency of 2.8 GHz and a puls repetition time of 1.5 ms. Under
these conditions the first blind speed has got the value:
v
blind
=

=
c
0

=
310
8

= 35,72
m
/
s


c
0
= speed of
light


2T
s
2fT
s
22,810
9
1,510
-3

This speed of converted about 130 km/h and all integral multiples of this also well cause that the
target isn't visible in the range of the effectiveness of the MTI system.
Large has the disadvantage that antenna beamwidth is wider and is not satisfactory
where angular accuracy is important.
High f
p
reduces the unambiguous range.
Figure 4.8 shows the first blind speed v1 as a function of maximum unambiguous range
(R
unambig
= cT/2)
In practice MTI radars in L and S band are designed for the detection of aircraft and must
operate with blind speeds if they are to operate with unambiguous range. Systems which require
good MTI performance must operate with ambiguous range (pulse Doppler radar).
162


The effect of blind speeds can be reduced by operating with more than one PRF
(staggered PRF MTI). Operating at more than one RF frequency can also reduce effect of blind
speeds.


Double Cancellation:
Single delay line cancelers do not always have as broad a clutter reject null at DC as
might be desired. The null can be widened by the use of cancelers as shown
163

In Fig 4.9a, the output of the two single delay line cancellers in cascade is the square of that from
a single delay canceler.
The response of this double delay line canceler is shown in Fig. 4.10.The finite width of the
typical clutter spectrum is also shown to illustrate the additional cancellation offered.
The two delayline canceler of Fig. 4.9b has the same frequencyresponse characteristic as
the double delay line canceler.
Here the output of the adder is Where f(t) is the received video
signal
This arrangement is called a three pulse canceler.

164



Transversal Filters:
The 3 pulse filter of Fig. 4.9b is a transversal filter. The general form is shown below for
N pulses and N-1 delays. It is also called a feed-forward filter, a nonrecursive filter, a finite
memory filter and a tapped delay line filter. The weights for a transversal filter with n delay lines
that gives a sin
n
(f
d
T) are the binomial coefficient with alternating sign

Note: a cascade configuration of three delay lines each connected as a single canceller is called a
triple canceler: but when connected as a transversal filter it is called a four pulse canceler.
165


The transversal filter with alternating binomial weights is closely related to the filter
which maximizes the average of the ratio
Where S/C is the signal to clutter ratio And I
c
is the improvement factor for clutter
The average is over the range of Doppler frequencies. Ic is independent of target velocity
and depends onlyon the weights w
i
, the autocorrelation function (power spectral density) of the
clutter, and the number of pulses.
For the two pulse canceler (single delay line), the optimum weights based on the above
criterion are the same as the binomial weights when the clutter is Gaussian.
For the three pulse canceler, the difference between filter with optimal weights and one
with binomial weights is less than 2 dB.
The difference is small for higher order cancelers also.
For anyorder canceler, the difference between optimum weights and binomial weights is
small over a wide range of clutter spectral widths.
Similarlythe use of a criterion which maximizes the clutter attenuation (Cin/Cout) is also
well approximated by a transversal filter with binomial weights with alternating signs, when the
166

clutter spectrum can be represented by a Gaussian function whose spectral width is small
compared to the PRF. The transversal filter with binomial weights also approximates the filter
which maximizes the P
d
for a target at midband Doppler frequency or its harmonics.
The disadvantage is due to notches at DC, the PRF and harmonics of PRF increasing in
width as the number of delay lines increases. The added delay lines reduce the clutter but also
reduce the number of moving targets because of the reduced pass band. For targets uniformly
distributed across the Doppler frequency:
We have for the criterion that -10dB response of the filter is the threshold for detection,
the following table:
Although these filters are optimum for I
c
theyare not necessarilybest. They are onlybest
under a given set of assumptions. It would seem that the MTI filter should be shaped to reject the
clutter at DC and around the PRF, but have a flat response over the region where no clutter is
expected.

The transversal filter can be designed to achieve this desirable filter response but needs a
large number of delay lines. This sets a restriction on the radars PRF, beamwidth, antenna
rotation rate and dwell time.
Fig 4.12 shows the amplitude response of a 3 pulse canceler with sin2 f
d
T(1), a 5 pulse
optimum canceler which maximizes Ic (2) and a 15 pulse Chebyshev filter (3). Even a 5 pulse
Chebyshev design gives a significantly wider bandwidth than the 5 pulse optimum design.
Note: the Chebyshev design has a lower Ic but is worthwhile if the clutter spectrum is narrow.
167

When there are onlya few pulses available for processing, there is little that can be done
to control the filter shape. Hence for 3 or 4 pulse cancelers it is best to use the classical sin2 or
sin4 response of the binomial cancelers.

Shaping the Frequency Response:
Non recursive filters employ only feedforward loops. These yield zeroes for synthesizing
the frequency response. If feedback loops are used, each delay line can provide one pole as well
as one zero. The canonical form is shown below:
When feedback loops are used the filter is called recursive. Can synthesize in principle
almost any frequency response using z transform techniques. Canonical configuration is not
always desirable due to delay tolerances.
It has been shown that the canonical configuration can be broken into cascaded sections
with no section having more than two delay elements. This synthesis technique applies to
Chebyshev, Butterworth, Bessel and elliptical filter design.
The recursive delay line filters offer steady state response that is superior to that of
nonrecursive filters. However they have poor transient response due to the feedback loops.
168

The presence of large clutter returns can effectively appear as a large step input which
leads to severe ringing in the filter output which can mask the target signal until the transient
response dies out. In surveillance radar, the number of pulses from anytar get is limited. Hence
the MTI filter is almost always in a transient state for most recursive filters.

A filter with steep frequency response skirts might allow 15 - 30 pulses to be generated at
the filter output due to feedback. This could make the system unusable in situations with large
discrete clutter, or with interference or jamming from other radars. Poor transient response is also
undesirable in radars with step scan phased array, since the e xtra pulses might have to be gated
out after the beam has been moved.
For step scan radars the undesirable transient effects can be overcome by using the initial
return from each new beam position to apply initial conditions to the MTI filter. These initial
conditions are the steady state values that would appear in the filter after an infinitely long
sequence. This effectively suppresses the transient response. An alternative to the recursive filter
is to use multiple PRFs.
169

Multiple (Staggered) PRFs:
Multiple PRFs reduce the effect of blind speeds and also allow a sharper low frequency
cutoff. The blind speeds of two independent radars will be different if their PRFs are different.
This same result can be achieved with one radar which shares its PRFs between 2 or more
values.
PRF can be switched every other scan, every time the antenna is scanned half a beam
width or pulse to pulse (staggered PRF). Fig. 4.16 shows the composite response of MTI with
two separate PRFs with a ratio of 5:4
Note: The first blind speed of the composite is greatly increased (i.e. at f
d
= 4/T1 = 5/T2). But
regions of low sensitivity appear.
The closer the ratio T
1
: T
2
approaches unity, the greater the frequenc y of the first blind speed,
and the deeper he first null in the vicinity of f
d
- 1/T
1
. The null depth can be reduced and the first
blind speed increased by operating with more than 2 PRFs.
Fig 4.17 shows a five pulse stagger (4 periods) response with periods in the ratio 25:30:27:31
Here the first blind speed is 28.25 times that of a constant PRF with the same average period.
If the periods of the staggered pulses have the relationships
Where n
1
, n
2
,.....n
N
are integers
And if v
B
is the first blind speed of a nonstaggered pulse with period equal to the average period
Then the first blind speed v
1
is
Weighting can also be applied to received pulses of a staggered PRF. Fig. 4.18 dashed
curve shows the response of a 5 pulse canceler with fixed PRF and using weights of 7/8;1;-3 3/4;
1 7/8. The solid curve is for a staggered PRF with the same weights but with 4 interpulse periods
of -15%, -5%, 5%, 15%.
170



171




172

Note that the response at the first blind speed is down only 6.6dB. The disadvantage of
staggered PRF is its inabilityto cancel second time around clutter echoes. Such clutter does not
appear at the same range from pulse to pulse and produces uncancelled residue.
Second time around clutter can be removed by the use of constant PRF providing there is
pulse to pulse coherence (i.e. power amplifier form of MTI). Constant PRF might be employed
only over angular sectors where second time around clutter is expected, or by changing the PRF
each time the antenna scans half a beamwidth, or by changing the PRF each scan period.

Range Gated Doppler Filters:
It is possible to use frequency domain band pass filters in MTI radar to sort the Doppler
frequency shifted targets. A narrow band filter with a pass band designed to pass the Doppler
components of a moving target will ring when excited by a short radar pulse.
The narrow band filters means the input pulse since the impulse response is the reciprocal
of the filter bandwidth. This smearing destroys the range resolution.
If there is more than one target in the smeared region they can not be resolved. Even for
one target, noise from other range cells will interfere (collapsing loss) resulting in reduction in
sensitivity. The loss of range information and collapsing loss can be eliminated by quantizing the
range into small intervals (range gating). The width of the range gate is usually of the order of
the pulse width. The range resolution is established by range gating. Once the return is quantized,
the output from each gate is applied to a narrow band filter since the pulse shape need no linger
be preserved for range resolution. Collapsing loss does not take place since noise from other
range intervals is excluded.
The output of the phase detector is sampled sequentially by range gates. The range gate
acts as a switch which opens and closes at the proper time. Gates are activated once each PRI.
The output from a stationary target is s series of pulses of constant amplitude. An echo from a
moving target produces pulses which vary in amplitude according to the Doppler frequency.
The output from the range gates is stretched in boxcar generators (or sample and hold
circuits). This helps the filtering and detection process by emphasizing the fundamental of the
173

modulation frequency and eliminating harmonics of the PRF. Clutter rejection filter is a band
pass filter whose bandwidth depends on the clutter spectrum.

The full wave rectifier then converts the bipolar video to unipolar form. An integrator
acts as a low pass filter. The signal is then applied to the threshold detector circuit.
Following threshold detection the outputs from each range channel must be properly
combined for display on the PPI etc.
The band pass filter can be designed with a variable low frequency cutoff that can be
varied to conform to prevailing clutter conditions (i.e. adaptive).
For example, a wide notch at DC is needed to remove echoes from birds but mayalso
remove some desired targets. Since the appearance of birds varies with time of day and season
the adaptive notch width might be important.
MTI using range gates is more complex than MTI with single delay line canceler. MTI
using range gates improves performance and allows flexibility of range gates and filter
bandwidth.
174

Difference between MTI Radar and CW Radar:
CW Radar MTI Radar
1. Using this radar, we can not measure range
of a target.
1. Using this radar, we can measure range of a
target.
2. This radar can not have blind speeds and
phases.
2. This radar has blind speeds and phases.
3. It is difficult to avoid transmitter to receiver
feed-through.
3. It is easy to avoid transmitter to receiver
feed-through.
4. This radar has little inability to distinguish
between approaching and receiding target.
4. This radar not only distinguishes the
approaching and receiding target but also track
them.

Differences between blind speeds and blind phases:
Blind speeds Blind phases
1.The relative velocities of the target at which
MTI response is zero are called as blind speeds
and are given by

v
n
is the n
th
blind speed
1. The blind phases are due to the presence of
sampling pulses at the same point in the
Doppler cycle at each sampling instant.
2. Due to the presence of blind speeds within a
Doppler frequency band, the capability of radar
may be reduced.
2. When the Doppler frequency is half of the
PRF, blind phases with single has serious
problem, due to which complete signal is lost.
3. By operating with more than one PRF or
operating at more than one RF frequency we
can reduce blind speeds.
3. By using quadrature, we can eliminate the
blind phases.
4. Effect is more in MTI Radars. 4. Effect is more in MTI Radars.

175

Advantages of Time domain Delay-line Canceller over Conventional
Frequency Domain Filter:
1. The delay-line canceller has been widely used in MTI Radar, in order to separating moving
targets from stationary clutter ehile the filter configuration in conventional frequency
domain filter is more complex.
2. The delay-line canceller rejects the DC component of clutter.
3. In time domain delay-line canceller, a single network operates at all frequency ranges, it
does not require a separate fiter for each frequency range.
4. The gain through the delay-line canceller is unity.
5. Delay-line cancellers are used in digital signal processing through which great stability is
achieved.
6. The delay-line canceller serves as an important tool for a MTI designer.
7. The time domain delay-line canceller provides a time delay equal to the pulse repetition
period.
8. The digital processing technology using the delay line cancellers made an introduction of
digital devices for computing the Fourier transform.

Digital Signal Processing:
Allows multiple delay line cancelers with tailored frequency response to be achieved. Is
more dependable, requires less adjustment than analog cancelers, does not vary with temperature
etc. Most advantages of digital MTI result from the use of digital storage in the place of analog
delay lines. Here the IF signals is split into I and Q channels. The outputs of the two phase
detectors are 90 out of phase.
The quadrature channel eliminates the effects of blind phases. Note that this is seldom
done in analog delay line cancelers due to the complexity involved with additional analog delay
lines. The baseband bipolar video is sampled at a rate to obtain one or more samples per range
resolution cell. The A/D output is stored in the memory for one PRI and then subtracted from the
words from the next sweep. The I and Q outputs are combined as either
176

. The combined output is then converted to an analog signal with D/A for
display.

Note: more complex filtering schemes are normally implemented.
The memory can be RAM or a shift register. A/D must operate at high speeds to preserve
the information content, and also have sufficient number of bits to quantize the signal to preserve
precision. The number of bits determines the maximum improvement factor for the MTI radar.
The A/D converter must cover the peak excursion of the phase detector output. To ensure this, a
limiter may be necessary. The quantization noise introduced by the A/D imposes a limit to the
improvement factor of

Where 2N - 1 is the number of discrete intervals. This is approximately 6dB / bit
Example: A 9 bit A/D has 511 levels. Thus the maximum resolution is 1 out of 511
177

= 54 dB
Note: I
QN
= 52.9 which is close
Blind phase - this is different from blind speed. Blind speed occurs when pulse sampling occurs
at the same point on the Doppler cycle at each sampling instant (Fig 4.22a).
Fig. 4.22b shows the I channel with the pulse train such that the signals are of the same
amplitude and with spacing such that when pulse a
1
is subtracted from pulse a
2
the result is zero.
However a residue is produced when a2 is subtracted from a
3
, but not when a3 is subtracted from
a
4
.
Note: The pulse pairs that were lost in the I channel are recovered in the Q channel and vice
versa.
The combination of I and Q channels results in a uniform signal with no loss. An extreme
case, resulting in the complete loss of signal, occurs, with only one channel when the Doppler
frequency is half of the PRF and the phase between the two is such that the echo pulses lie on the
zeroes of the Doppler signal. However if the Q channel is added the all of the echo pulses occur
at the peaks of the Doppler signal. Other phase relationships also give loss with single channel
MTI.

178


Advantages of digital processing over analog delay lines:
1) Greater stability
2) Greater repeatability
3) Greater precision
4) Greater reliability
5) No special temperature control required
6) Greater dynamic range (i.e. no spurious response)
7) Avoids restriction that PRI and delay time must be equal
8) Different PRI can be used (without switching delay lines of various lengths in and out)
9) Greater freedom in selection of amplitude weighting for shaping filters
10) Allows easy implementation of I and Q channels (eliminates blind phases)

Digital Filter Banks and the FFT:
A transversal filter with N outputs (N-1 delays) can be made to form a bank of N
contiguous filters covering the spectrum of 0 to PRF. Consider the transversal filter of Fig. 4.11
to have N-1 delays each with a delay of T = 1/f
p.
Let the weights at the outputs be
Where i = 1,2,... N represents the ith tap And k = an index from 1 to N-1
Each k value corresponds to a different set of N weights and to a different doppler
frequency response. The N filters generated by the index k constitute the filter bank. The impulse
response of the transversal filter with the above weights is:

The Fourier transform yields the frequency response
The magnitude of the frequency response yields the amplitude characteristic
179


Note that the peak response occurs when the denominator is zero i.e.
(fT-k/N)= 0,,2 ....
for k=0, the peak response occurs at f= 0,1/T,2/T etc.
This is a filter centred at DC, the PRF and harmonics of the PRF. This filter has no clutter
rejection capability, b ut it is useful fro pro viding a map of clutter.
The first null occurs when the numerator is 0
For k=0 this is f= 1/NT
The bandwidth between nulls is then 2/NT and the half power bandwidth is: BW(3dB) 0.9/NT
When k=1, the peak response occurs at f = 1/NT, 1/T + 1/NT....
Hence each k defines a separate filter response, each with a bandwidth between nulls of 2/NT.

180

Since each filter occupies the 1/N bandwidth of a delayline canceler, its SNR will be
greater than the delay line canceler. Also the dividing of the band by N filters allows a measure
of the Doppler frequency to be made. If moving clutter (birds, weather) appears, the threshold of
each filter maybe adjusted individuallyto adapt to the clutter in it. This selectivity allows clutter
to be removed which would be passed by a delay line canceler. The first sidelobe level is at -
13dBc for the filters with the above weights. This can be reduced at the expense of wider
bandwidth by adjusting the weights (windowing).
Two forms of windows are the Hamming and the Hanning.
It is not always convenient to display outputs of all of the Doppler filters. One approach
is to connect filter outputs to a greatest of circuit, so that only one output is obtained (Note: the
filter at DC would be excluded).
The improvement factor for each of the 8 filters of a 8 filter bank is shown in Fig. 4.24 as
a function of the standard deviation of the clutter spectrum, for a spectrum represented as a
Gaussian function. For comparison, the improvement factor for an N pulse canceler is shown in
Fig. 4.25
Note: the improvement factor for a two pulse canceler is almost as good as that of the 8 pulse
Doppler filter bank. However, maximizing the improvement factor is not the onlycriterion for
judging the effectiveness of MTI Doppler processes. If a 2 or 3 pulse canceler is cascaded with a
Doppler filter bank, better clutter rejection is obtained.
Fig. 4.26 gives I
c
for a 3 pulse canceler cascaded with an 8 pulse filter bank. The upper
figure assumes uniform amplitude weights (-13.2 dB sidelobes) and the lower figure gives the
results for Chebyshev weights (-25 dB sidelobes). It is found that doubling the number of pulses
in the filter bank to 16 does not offer significant improvement (i.e. increased pulses increase
in bandwidth as well as decreased sidelobes. If the sidelobes of the individual filters in the filter
bank can be made low, the inclusion of the delay line canceler ahead of it might not be
necessary.


181

Other MTI Delay Lines:
Solid crystal has been mentioned previously.
Electrostatic storage tube
Here the signals are stored on a mesh similar to that of a TV camera. The first sweep
reads the signal on the storage tube. the next sweep written on the same space and
generates the difference between the two. Two tubes are required; one to write and store
the new sweep, the other to subtract the new sweep from the old. The electrostatic storage
tube can be used with different PRFs.
The charge transfer device (CTD) is a sampled data, analog shift register which can be used
as a delayline, transversal filter and recursive filter.
There are two types of CTD:
The bucket brigade device (BBD) with capacitive storage elements separated byswitches.
Here the data is transferred through the BBD at a rate determined bythe rate at which the
Switches are operated. The delay time is determined by the number of stages and the
switching (or clock) speed.
Charge coupled devices (CCDs) are similar except that charge packets are transferred to
adjacent potential wells by a clocked potential gradient
Notes: The sampling frequency must give one or two samples per resolution cell. No A/D or
D/A required as for digital systems.
MTI cancelling can be done at IF. Here no blind phases occur. Finally the video can FM
modulate a carrier f or acoustic delay. This avoids problems of amplitude stability of acoustic
delay lines.

182


183


184

Example of an MTI Radar Processor:
The moving target detector (MTD) was developed byLincoln Labs for the FAAs airport
surveillance radars (ASR). The ASR is medium range (60 NM) radar located at most US
airports. It has 2.7 to 2.9 GHz RF, 1s pulse width, 1.4 azimuth beamwidth, antenna rotation
rate of 12.5 to 15 RPM PRF from 700 to 1200 Hz and average power from 400 to 600 W.
The MTD processor is based on digital technology. Uses a 3 pulse canceler followed by
an 8 pulse FFT Doppler filter bank with weighting to reduce sidelobes. The total system has
alternating PRFs to eliminate blind speeds, adaptive thresholds and a clutter map used for
detecting targets with zero radial speed.
The measured Ic of the MTD on the ASR was 45 dB (20 dB better than with a
conventional 3 pulse MTI processor). The MTD also achieves a narrower notch at zero velocity
blind speeds. The processor is preceded by a large dynamic range receiver to avoid reduction in
Ic caused by limiting.
The IF is applied to I & Q detectors and the video is A/Dd with 10 bit resolution. The
range totalling 47.5 NM is divided into 1/16 NM intervals and the azimuth into 0.75 intervals.
In each 0.75 interval ( 1/2 beamwidth) 10 pulses are transmitted at constant PRF.
On receive the 10 pulses are processed by the delay line canceller and Doppler filter bank
which forms 8 Doppler filters. Hence the radar output is divided into 2,920,000
range/azimuth/doppler cells. Each cell has its own adaptive threshold. In the alternate 0.75
azimuth intervals another 10 pulses are transmitted at a different PRF. Changing PRF every 10
pulses eliminates second time around clutter. The MTD processor is shown in Fig. 4.27. The 3
pulse canceler ahead of the filter bank eliminates stationary clutter ahead of the filter bank and
reduces the dynamic range required of the Doppler filter bank.
Since the first two pulses of a three pulse canceler are useless, only the last 8 of the 10
pulses are passed to the filter bank (implemented using the FFT).
Following the filter bank, weighting is applied in the frequencydomain to reduce the filter
sidelobes. This is necessary since the frequency spectrum of rain and wind blown clutter requires
sidelobes lower than the -13.2 dB available from uniformly weighted samples.
185


The magnitude operation forms
Separate thresholds are applied to each filter. For non zero velocityresolution cells the
thresholds are established byscanning the detected outputs of the same velocityfilter in 16 range
cells, eight on either side of the cell of interest. Hence each filter output is averaged over one
mile in range to get the mean level of non zero velocityclutter.
The filter thresholds are determined by multiplying the mean levels by a constant to
achieve the desired P
fa
. This adaptive threshold on each doppler filter at each range cell provides
a constant false alarm rate (CFAR) and results in subclutter visibility (for different radial
velocities of aircraft and weather). A digital clutter map establishes the thresholds for zero
velocity cells. The map is implemented with one word for each of the 365000 range/azimuth
cells. The purpose of the zero velocity filters is to recover the clutter signal and use it to establish
a threshold for targets with zero radial velocity.
In each cell of the ground clutter map is stored the average value of the output of the zero
velocityfilter for the past 8 scans (32 seconds) On each scan 1/8 of the output is added to 7/8 of
the value stored in the map. The map is built up recursively requiring 10 to 20 scans to establish
steady state clutter values.
186

The values in the map are multiplied by a constant to establish a threshold for zero
velocity targets. This allows elimination of usual MTI blind speed at zero relative velocity for
targets with large cross section. The MTD filters are shown in Fig. 4.28.

Here the filters 3 through 7 establish the threshold from the mean signal in 16 range cells.
Filter 1 establishes the threshold from the clutter map. Filters 2 and 8 adjacent to the zero
velocity filter establish the threshold from the larger of the mean signal over 16 range cells and
the clutter map.
Fig 4.28 also shows the advantage of using 2 PRFs to detect targets in rain. As shown, the
PRFs are 20% different. Typical rain storm spectrum is shown o the bottom and has about 25 to
30 knots width centred any where from - 60 to +60 knots.
An aircraft return is also shown at the right of the figure and is shown as occupying filters
6 and 7 on PRF-1 and filters 7 and 8 on PRF-2 (the difference is due to frequency foldover).
With PRF-2 the aircraft velocity is competing with the rain clutter, but at PRF-1 it is clear of
187

clutter. Hence by using 2 PRFs alternating every 10 pulses, aircraft targets will appear in at least
one filter free of rain (except when the aircrafts radial velocity is that of the rain).
Interference from other radars may appear as one large return among the ten returns
processed. The MTD has an interference eliminator which compares the magnitude of each of
the ten pulses against the average magnitude of the ten pulses. If anypulse is greater than 5 times
the average, all information from that range/azimuth cell is discarded. The output of the MTD is
a hit report containing azimuth, range, amplitude, filter number and PRF.
On one scan, a large aircraft might be reported from more than one doppler filter, from
several coherent processing intervals and from adjacent range cells. Up to 20 hit reports might be
generated from a single large target.
A post processor groups together all reports which appear to originate from the same
target and interpolates to find the best azimuth, range, and amplitude and radar velocity. Target
amplitude and Doppler are used to eliminate small cross section and low speed angle echoes
before targets are delivered to the automatic tracking circuits.Tracking circuits eliminate false hit
reports which do not form logical tracks. The output of the automatic tracker is what is displayed
on the PPI.
Since the MTD processor eliminates large amounts of clutter and has a low false
detection rate, its output can be remoted via narrow bandwidth telephone.

Limitations of MTI Performance:
Improvement in signal to clutter is affected by factors other than the Doppler spectrum.
Instabilities in the transmitter and receiver, physical motion of the clutter, finite time on target
and receiver limiting all affect I
c.

Definitions:
1) MTI I mprovement Factor I : The signal to clutter ratio at the output of the MTI
system divided by the signal to clutter ratio at the input, averaged over all of the target radial
velocities of interest.
188

2) Subclutter Visibility (SCV): The ratio by which the target echo may be weaker
than the coincident clutter echo power and still be detected with specified Pd and Pfa. All
target radial velocities are assumed equally likely
Note: A typical value is 30 dB
Note: Two radars with the same subclutter visibility might not have the same ability to detect
targets in clutter if the resolution cell of one is greater and accepts more clutter echo power
3) Clutter Visibility Factor Voc: The signal to clutter ratio after cancellation (or
Doppler processing) that provides the stated P
d
and P
fa.

4) Clutter Attenuation C
A
: the ratio of the clutter power at the canceler input
to the clutter residue at the output, normalized (divided by) to the attenuation of a single
pulse passing through the unprocessed channel of the canceler
5) Cancellation Ratio: The ratio of canceler voltage amplification fro fixed target
echoes received with a fixed antenna, to the gain for a single pulse passing through the
unprocessed channel of the canceler.
Note:
Note: When the MTI is limited by noise like system instabilities, Voc should be chosen as the
SNR for range equation calculations.
Note: when the MTI is limited by antenna scanning fluctuations, let Voc = 6dB for a single
pulse.
Note: Once again, I is the preferred measure of MTI performance but does not account for
possible poor performance at certain velocities
6) I nterclutter Visibility: The ability of the MTI to detect moving targets in
clear resolution cells between patches of strong clutter. Resolution cells can be range,
azimuth or Doppler.
Note: the higher the radar resolution, the better the interclutter visibility. A medium resolution
radar with 2s pulse width and 1.5 beamwidth has sufficient resolution to achieve a 20 dB
advantage over low resolution radars
189

7) Equipment Instabilities: The apparent frequency spectrum from perfectly
stationary clutter can be broadened (and hence will degrade the MTI improvement factor)
due to the following:
Pulse to pulse changes in amplitude
Pulse to pulse changes in frequency
Pulse to pulse changes in phase
Timing jitter on transient pulse
Variations in time delay through the delay lines
Changes in pulse width
Changes in coho or stalo between time of transmit and time of receive
8) Consider the effect of phase variations
Let the echo from a stationary clutter on pulse 1 and pulse 2 be
Where is the change in oscillator phase between the two
pulses
9) On subtraction

Hence the limitation on the improvement factor due to oscillator instability is

Note: To achieve I > 40 dB requires < 0.01 rad from pulse to pulse!. This applies to the coho
locking or the phase change introduced by the HPA.
The limits to I imposed by pulse to pulse instability are:
190


Note: the digital processor does not experience degradation due to timing jitter of the transmit
pulse if the clock controlling the processor timing is started from the detected RF envelope of the
transmitted pulse.
10) I nternal Fluctuation of Clutter: Absolutely stationary clutter - buildings,
water towers, mountains, bare hills
Dynamic clutter - trees, vegetation, sea, rain, chaff
Can limit the performance of MTI
Most fluctuating clutter targets can be represented by a model consisting of many
independent scatterers located in the resolution cell.
Any motion of the scatterers relative to the radar results in a different vector sum from
pulse to pulse. Fig. 4.29 shows the power spectral density of clutter for a 1 GHz carrier.
191


Experimentally measured spectra of clutter can be approximated by

Where W(f) = clutter power spectrum
g(f) = Fourier transform of the clutter waveform
f
0
= radar carrier frequency and a = a parameter (given by Fig 4.29)
This equation can be rewritten as:
Where
c
is the RMS clutter frequency spread in Hz
or as
Where
v
is the clutter velocity spread in m/s
Note:
192


The improvement factor can be written as

Where C
A
= C
i
/C
0
- clutter attenuation averaged over all doppler frequencies
For a single delay line canceler
Where H(f) is the frequency response of the canceler
For a single delay line canceler, h(f) = 1- exp(-j2fT)
= 2jsin(fT) exp(-jfT)
Therefore,

Assuming
c
<< 1/T yields,
If the exponential is small, we can use the first two terms of its series expansion
193


Now the average gain (S
0
/S
i
)
avg
for the single delay line canceler is 2
Hence,
Similarly for a double canceler, whose average gain is 6,
A plot of above equation is shown in Fig 4.30 with f
p
as a parameter. Several representative
examples of clutter are indicated at particular values of
v.
Note:
v
(spectral spread in velocity) is with respect to the mean velocity which for ground
clutter is zero.
Rain, sea echo and chaff have non zero mean velocity which must be accounted for
Note: the frequency dependence of equations 25 and 26 for the clutter spectrum can not be
extended over too great a frequencyrange since no account is taken of variation of cross section
of individual scatterers as a function of frequency.
For example the leaves and branches of trees have considerably different reflecting
properties at Ka band where their dimensions are comparable to , than at UHF frequencies.
The general form for an N pulse canceler with N
l
= N-1 delay lines is

194



Antenna Scanning Modulation:
A scanning antenna observes a target for time t
0
Where n
B
is the number of hits received
The received pulse train of finite duration t0 has a frequency spectrum which is
proportional t
o
. Hence even if the clutter were perfectly stationary, the clutter spectrum would
have a finite width due to the finite time on target.
If the clutter spectrum is too wide due to too short an observation interval, the
improvement factor will be affected. This limitation is called scanning fluctuation or scanning
modulation.
To find the limitation on Ic we first find the clutter attenuation C
A

195

Here W
S
(f) describes the spectrum produced by the finite time on
target and H(f) is the MTI processor frequency response.
If the antenna main beam is approximated bya Gaussian shape, the spectrum will also be
Gaussian. Hence the results previously derived for a Gaussian clutter spectrum can be applied.
Thus equations I
1c
and I
2c
apply for the antenna scanning fluctuations with the correct
interpretation of
c
(the RMS spread of the spectrum about the mean).
Here the voltage waveform for the clutter is modulated bythe antenna power pattern (equal to the
two way field strength pattern), as it is rotated
Now, Where and
B
are in degrees
Therefore
Where S
a
(t) is the modulation of the received signal due to the
antenna pattern and is the scan rate in /s.

The spectrum is found by taking the Fourier transform

Since this is a Gaussian function we must have
196

Hence,
Note: This is for the voltage spectrum
For the power spectrum we have,
Hence the s due to the antenna scanning is
Substituting this for
c
, we get,


Note: the stepped scan antenna also is limited in MTI performance by the finite time on target.
The time waveform is rectangular which gives a different improvement factor.
197

Limiting in MTI Radar:
A limiter is used just before the MTI processor to prevent the residue from large clutter
echoes from saturating the display. Ideally an MTI radar should reduce clutter to a level
comparable to noise. However, when I is not great enough, the clutter residue will appear on the
displayand prevent the detection of aircraft whose radar cross section is larger than the clutter
residue. This condition can be prevented bysetting the limit L relative to the noise N equal to the
MTI improvement factor I.

If the limit le vel is set too high, clutter residue obscures part of the display. If the limit is
set too lo w, there may be a black hole effect. The limiter provides a CFAR (Constant False
Alarm Rate). A nonlinear limiter however causes the spectrum of strong clutter to spread into
the canceler pass band and results in the generation of additional residue which degrades the
MTI performance.
Figure 4.32 plots I for 2 pulse and 3 pulse cancelers with various levels of limiting. The
abscissa applies to Gaussian clutter spectrum generated by clutter motion (
v
) or by antenna
scanning modulation (n
B
). Here C/L is the ratio of RMS clutter power to the IF limit level.
Note: The loss of I increases with the complexity of the canceler. Limiting in a 3 pulse canceler
will cause a 15 to 25 dB reduction in performance. A 4 pulse canceler with limiting is only 2 dB
better than a 3 pulse canceler. Hence adding complexity is not justified in a limiting environment
Limiting is not needed if processor I is large enough to reduce the largest clutter to the
noise level (typically requires I 60 dB). This is difficult to achieve since it requires the receiver
to have a linear dynamic range of at least 60 dB, the A/D must have at least 11 bits, the
equipment must be stable, the processor must be designed for I = 60 dB and the number of pulses
processed must be sufficient to reduce the antenna scanning modulation.

198


199

Tracking with Surveillance Radar:
The track of a target can be determined with surveillance radar from the coordinates of
the target measured from scan to scan. The quality of such a track depends on the time between
observations, the location accuracy of each observation and the number of extraneous targets
present in the vicinity of the tracked target.
A surveillance radar which develops tracks on targets it has detected is called a track
while scan (TWS) radar. Tracks can be obtained by having an operator mark the location of a
target on the face of the PPI with a grease pencil on each scan.
A single operator however can not handle more than about 6 target tracks when the radar
has a twelve second scan rate. Also an operators effectiveness in detecting new targets decreases
rapidly after 1/2 hour of operation. These problems are avoided by automating the target
detection and tracking process. This is called automatic detection and tracking (ADT)
The ADT performs the following functions:
Target detection
Track initiation
Track association
Track update
Track smoothing
Track termination
The automatic detection quantizes the range into intervals equal to the range resolution.
At each range interval the detector integrates n pulses (n is the expected number of hits expected
from the target due to the antenna scan rate). The integrated pulses are compared with the
threshold to determine the presence or absence of a target.
An example is the moving window detector which examines continuouslythe last n
samples within each quantized range and announces the presence of a target if m out of n of
these samples crosses a preset threshold. By locating the centre of the n pulses, an estimate of the
targets angular direction can be obtained. This is called beam splitting.
200

If there is only one target present within the radars coverage, then the detection on two
scans is all that is required to establish a tar get track and estimate its v elocity. However there
are usuallyother targets plus clutter echoes and hence three or more detections are necessary to
establish a track reliably without the generation of false tracks.
A computer can recognize and reject false tracks, however too many false tracks can
overload a computer. Hence the radar using ADT should exclude unwanted signals from clutter
and interference. A good ADT system therefore requires a good MTI and a good CFAR receiver.
A clutter map generated by the radar is sometimes used to reduce the load on the tracking
computer by blanking the clutter areas and removing detections associated with large point
clutter sources not rejected by the MTI. Slowly moving echoes that are not of interest can also be
removed by the clutter map.
The availability of distinctive target characteristics such as altitude might prove of help
when performing track association. When a new detection is received, an attempt is made to
associate it with existing tracks. This is aided byestablishing for each track a small search region
(gate) within which a new detection is predicted based on the estimate of the target speed and
direction. It is desired to make the gate as small as possible to avoid having more than one echo
fall within it when traffic density is high, or when two tracks are close. However a large gate is
required if the tracker is to follow target maneuvres. Hence more than one gate size may be used.
The size of the gate depends on the accuracy of the track. When a target does not appear
in the small gate, a larger gate could be used. The size of the second gate would depend on the
maximum acceleration expected of the target. On the basis of past detections, the track while
scan radar must make smoothed estimates of the target position and velocity as well as the
predicted position and velocity.
One method of computing this information is the tracker (also called the g-h tracker).
Here the present smoothed target position and velocivty are computed using
Where x
pn
= the predicted position of the target at the nth scan
x
n
= the measured position at the nth scan
201

= the position smoothing parameter
= the velocity smoothing parameter
T
s
= the time between observations
The predicted position at the n+1 scan is
When acceleration is important, a third equation can be added to describe an
tracker where is the acceleration smoothing parameter.
If = = 0 then the tracker uses no current data, only smoothed data.
If = = 1 then no smoothing is included at all
The filter is designed to minimize the mean square error in the smoothed (filtered)
position and velocity assuming small velocity changes between observations. To minimize the
output noise variance at steady state and the transient response to a maneuvering target modeled
by a ramp function the coefficients are related by

The choice of between 0 and 1 depends on the system application and in particular on
the tracking bandwidth.
A compromise must be made between good smoothing (narrow bandwidth) and rapid
response to maneuver (wide bandwidth).
A criterion for selecting the , coefficients is based on the best linear track fitted to the
radar data in the least squares sense. This gives values
Where n = the number of scans or target observations
202

A standard tracker does not handle the maneuvering target. An adaptive
tracker is one which varies the two smoothing parameters to achieve a variable bandwidth so as
to be able to follow maneuvres.
The value of can be set by observing the measurement error x
n
- x
pn.
At the start of the
tracking, the bandwidth is set to be wide and is narrowed down if the target moves in a straight
line. As the target maneuvres, the bandwidth is widened to keep the tracking error small.
A Kalman filter is similar to an adaptive tracker except that it inherently provides
for dynamical targets. Here a model for the measurement error has to be assumed, as well a
model of the target trajectoryand the disturbance of the trajectory.
Disturbances might be due to neglect of higher order derivatives in the model of the
dynamics, random motions due to atmospheric turbulence, and target maneuvres.
Kalman filters can use a wide varietyof models for measurement noise and
trajectorydisturbance, however these are usually assumed to be white noise with zero mean.
A maneuvering target does not always fit this model since it produces correlated
observations. Proper inclusion of realistic dynamical models increases the complexity of the
calculations.
The Kalman filter is sophisticated but costly to implement. Its chief advantage over the
classical tracker is its inherent ability to account for maneuvre statistics. If Kalman filters
were restricted to modelling the target trajectoryas a straight line and if the measurement noise
and trajectory disturbance noise were modeled as white Gaussian noise with zero mean, then the
Kalman filter equations reduce to tracker equations, with the and computed
sequentially by the Kalman filter procedure.
The classical is easy to implement. To handle maneuvering targets, some means
maybe included to detect maneuvres and to change the values of and . The data rate might
also be increased during target maneuvres in some radar systems. As means for choosing and
become more sophisticated, the optimal tracker becomes equivalent to a Kalman filter even
for a target trajectory with error. Here the computation of and require a knowledge of the
statistics of the measurement errors and the prediction errors, and are determined in a recursive
203

manner in that theydepend on previous estimates of the mean square error in the smoothed
position and velocity.
Note: The concept of the tracker or the Kalman filter apply also to a continuous single
target tracker where the error signal is processed digitally. The equations describing the
tracker are equivalent to a Type II servo system
Of the track while scan radar does not receive target information on a particular scan, the
smoothing and predicting operations can be continued by accounting for the missing data. When
data to update a track is missing for a sufficient number of consecutive scans, the track is
terminated.
Example: if the criterion for establishing a track is 3 target reports, 5 consecutive misses is
suitable for termination.
ADT effectively reduces the bandwidth in the radar output allowing the data to be
transmitted to a remote site via narrow band phone lines. This allows the outputs from several
radars to be communicated to a central control point economically.
The adaptive thresholding of the automatic detector can cause worsening of the range
resolution. It would seem that two targets might be resolved if their separation is about 0.8 pulse
width. However with automatic detection, the probabilityof resolving targets in range onlye
xceeds 0.9 if theyare separated by 2.5 pulse widths.
To achieve this resolution, a log video receiver should be used and the threshold should
be proportioned to the smaller of the two means calculated from a number of reference cells on
either side of the test cell. This resolution limit assumes that the shape of the return pulse is not
known. (If it were, it would be possible to resolve targets within one pulse width).
When more than one radar are covering the same volume of space, it is sometimes
desirable to combine their outputs to form a single track file (Automatic Detection and Integrated
Tracking, ADIT). ADIT has the advantage of a greater data rate than a single radar and reduces
the likelihood of a loss of target detections caused by antenna lobing, fading, interference and
clutter. The integrated processing allows a favourable weighting of better data and lesser
weighting of the poorer data.
204

OBJECTIVE TYPE QUESTIONS
1. Radar range primarily depends upon [ ]
a. peak transmitted power b. average transmitted power
c. independent of transmitted power d. resolution of radar
2. In radar system which of the following is used for transmitter output tubes [ ]
a. parameter amplifier b. RC coupled amplifier
c. klystron only d. magnetron or travelling wave tube
3. A radar is to have maximum range of 60km. The maximum allowable pulse repetition
frequency for unambiguous reception should be [ ]
a. 25 pps b. 250 pps c. 2500 pps d. 25,000 pps
4. An MTI radar operates at 10 GHz with PRF of 3000pps. The lowest blind speed will be
90km/hr
a. 40 km/hr b. 66 km./hr c. 81 km/hr d. 162 km/hr
5. In which of the following case the lowest blind speed will be 90 km/hr [ ]
a. frequency 1 GHz an PRF 300 pps b. frequency 3 GHz and PRF 500 pps
c. frequency 5 GHz and PRF 700 pps d. frequency 7 GHz and PRF 1000 pps
6. If a given maximum range of radar is to be doubled, all other factors remaining constant the
peak power must be increased [ ]
a. four fold b. eight fold c. sixteen fold d. thirty fold
7. The maximum range of a radar depends on all of the following except [ ]
a. peak transmitted pulse power b. direction of movement of target
c. target area d. capture are
8. The antenna used for radar is [09M03] [ ]
205

a. paraboloidal antenna b. isotropic radiator
c. resonant antenna d. whip antenna
9. Noise figure of radar receiver is 12 dB and its bandwidth is 2.5 MHz. the value of
Pmin for this radar will be [ ]
a. 1.59 X 10
-9
watt b. 1.59 X 10
-13
watt c. 1.59 X 10
-15
watt d. 1.59 X 10
-17
watt
10. IN radar system the lobe switching technique is used to [09S01] [ ]
a. scan the area b. move antenna in the direction fo the object
c. locate the target accurately d. move the weapon in the required direction
11. Radar display is [ ]
a. A scope display `b. PPI c. MTI d. CRO
12. The minimum receivable signal in radar receiver which has an IF bandwidth of 1.5
MHz and is 9 dB noise figure will be [ ]
a. 4.17 X 10 -10 watt b. 4.17 X 10 -12 watt
c. 4.17 X 10-14 watt d. 4.17 X 10-16 watt
13. The advance and retard switches for the bearing circuit are needed due to [ ]
a. the gate generators being unstable b. scanner and deflection coil misalignment
c. in accuracies in the power supply d. failure of the switch circuits
14. When real transmitted power on a radar system, is increased by a factor of 16,. The
maximum range will be increased by a factor of [ ]
a. 2 b. 4 c. 8 d. 16
15. The signal arriving from the transmitter to the display unit is the [ ]
a. trigger b. echoes c. heading marker d.bearing information
206

16. The delay unit section of the VRM/ delay unit can be used to [ ]
a. extend the range of radar` b. reduce radar interference
c. expand an area for examination
d. extend the range of radar and expand an area for examination
17. The trigger circuit [ ]
a. is a switch connecting high voltage through to magnetron
b. is a master timing device of the radar
c. is microwave frequency oscillator
d. receives bearing information from the scanner.]
18. An AFC system produces a control voltage to control the --- frequency [ ]
a. Magnetrons b. Local oscillators
c. PRF oscillators d. Tabulator
19. The local oscillators frequency is [ ]
a. 60 MHz above the echo frequency b. 60 MHz below the echo frequency
c. 30 MHz above the echo frequency d. 30 MHz below the echo frequency
20Sea clutter returns occur [10M05] [ ]
a. due to reflections from rain clouds b. at short ranges
c. due to land reflections d. due to satellite reflections
Answers:
1.a 2.d 3.c 4.d 5.b 6.c 7.b 8.a 9.b 10.c
11.a 12.c 13.b 14.a 15.a 16.d 17.b 18.b 19.b 20.b

207

ESSAY TYPE QUESTIONS

1. What is a delay line canceller? Illustrate the concept of blind speeds based on the frequency
response of a single delay line canceller.
2. Discuss the factors limiting the performance of an MTI system.
3. What are blind speeds? Suggest a method to reduce the effect of blind speeds for
unambiguous detection of a moving target.
4. Calculate the lowest blind speed of an MTI system operating at 3.6 cm wave length and
transmitting at a pulse repetition time of 330 S.
5. Explore the possibility of broadening the clutter rejection null using a second dlay line
canceller in the MTI radar system.
6. Describe automatic tracking of a target through range gating technique for unambiguous
detection of a moving target.
7. Calculate the lowest blind speed of an MTI system operating at 4.2 cm wave length and
transmitting at a pulse repetition time of 286 S.
8. Explore the possibility of broadening the clutter rejection null using a second delay line
canceller in the MTI radar system.
9. With the help of necessary blo ck diagram explain the operation of an MTI radar system
with a power amplifier in the transmitter.
10. Compare and contrast the situations with a power amplifier and a power oscillator in the
transmitter of an MTI system
11. Describe the method of staggering pulse repetition frequency to reduce the effect of blind
speeds in an MTI system.
12. Explain the following limitations of MTI radar.
(a) Equipment instabilities.
(b) Scanning modulation.
(c) Internal fluctuation of clutter.
208

13. MTI radar is operated at 9GHz with a PRF of 3000 pps. Calculate the first two lowest
blind speeds for this radar. Derive the formula used.
14. Discuss the liminations of non-cohorent MTI Radar systems.
15. Write the description of Range gate Doppler filters.
16. Explain the operation of MTI radar with 2 pulse repetition frequencies.
17. Explain the function of time domain filter with an example.
18. MTI radar operates at 10GHz with a PRF of 300 pps. Calculate the lowest blind speed?

209



UNIT-VI

TRACKING
RADAR
210

Explain tracking principles:
A tracking-radar system
(1) Measures the coordinates of a target and
(2) Provides data which may be used to determine the target path and to predict its future
position.
All or only part of the available radar data-range, elevation angle, azimuth angle, and
Doppler frequency shift may be used in predicting future position; that is, radar might track in
range, in angle, in doppler, or with any combination. Almost any radar can be considered
tracking radar provided its output information is processed properly. But, in general, it is the
method by which angle tracking is accomplished that distinguishes what is normal normally
considered tracking radar from any other radar. It is also necessary to distinguish between
continuous tracking radar and a track-while-scan (TWS) radar.
The continuous tracking radar supplies continuous tracking data on a particular target,
while the track-while-scan supplies sampled data on one or more targets. In general, the
continuous tracking radar and the TWS radar employ different types of equipment.
The antenna beam in the continuous tracking radar is positioned in angle by a
servomechanism actuated by an error signal. The various methods for generating the error signal
may be classified as sequential lobing, conical scan, and simultaneous lobing or monopulse. The
range and Doppler frequency shift can also be continuously tracked, if desired, by a servocontrol
loop actuated by an error signal generated in the radar receiver.

Explain sequential lobing:
The antenna pattern commonly employed with tracking radars is the symmetrical pencil
beam in which the elevation and azimuth beamwidths are approximately equal. However, a
simple pencil-beam antenna is not suitable for tracking radars unless means are provided for
determining the magnitude and direction of the target's angular position with respect to some
reference direction, usually the axis of the antenna. The difference between the target position
and the reference direction is the angular error. The tracking radar attempts to position the
antenna to make the angular error zero. When the angular error is zero, the target is located along
the reference direction.
One method of obtaining the direction and the magnitude of the angular error in one
coordinate is by alternately switching the antenna beam between two positions (Fig.). This is
211

called lobe switching, sequential switching, or sequential lobing. Fig (a) is a polar representation
of the antenna beam (minus the sidelobes) in the two switched positions. A plot in rectangular
coordinates is shown in Fig (b), and the error signal obtained from a target not on the switching
axis (reference direction) is shown in Fig (c).
The difference in amplitude between the voltages obtained in the two switched positions
is a measure of the angular displacement of the target from the switching axis. The sign of the
difference determines the direction the antenna must be moved in order to align the switching
axis with the direction of the target. When the voltages in the two switched positions are equal,
the target is on axis and, its position may be determined from the axis direction.

Fig: Lobe-switching antenna patterns and error signal (one dimension). (a) Polar representation
of switched antenna patterns (b) rectangular representation (c) error signal.
Two additional switching positions are needed to obtain the angular error in the
orthogonal coordinate. Thus a two-dimensional sequentially lobing radar might consist of a
cluster of four feed horns illuminating a single antenna, arranged so that the right-left, up-down
212

sectors are covered by successive antenna positions. Both transmission and reception are
accomplished at each position. A cluster of five feeds might also be employed, with the central
feed used for transmission while the outer four feeds are used for receiving. High-power RF
switches are not needed since only the receiving beams, and not the transmitting beam, are
stepped in this five-feed arrangement.
One of the limitations of a simple unswitched nonscanning pencil-beam antenna is that
the angle accuracy can be no better than the size of the antenna beamwidth. An important feature
of sequential lobing (as well as the other tracking techniques to be discussed) is that the
targetposition accuracy can be far better than that given by the antenna beamwidth. The accuracy
depends on how well equality of the signals in the switched positions can be determined. The
fundamental limitation to accuracy is system noise caused either by mechanical or electrical
fluctuations.
Sequential lobing, or lobe switching, was one of the first tracking-radar techniques to be
employed. Early applications were in airborne-interception radar, where it provided directional
information for homing on a target, and in ground-based antiaircraft fire-control radars. It is not
used as often in modern tracking-radar applications.

Explain conical scanning method:
The logical extension of the sequential lobing technique is to rotate continuously an
offset antenna beam rather than discontinuously step the beam between four discrete positions.
This is known as conical scanning (Fig). The angle between the axis of rotation (which is
usually, but not always, the axis of the antenna reflector) and the axis of the antenna beam is
called the squint angle.
Consider a target at position A. The echo signal will be modulated at a frequency equal to
the rotation frequency of the beam. The amplitude of the echo-signal modulation will depend
upon the shape of the antenna pattern, the squint angle and the angle between the target line of
sight and the rotation axis. The phase of the modulation depends on the angle between the target
and the rotation axis. The conical scan modulation is extracted from the echo signal and applied
to a servo-control system which continually positions the antenna on the target. When the
antenna is on target, as in B of Fig, the line of sight to the target and the rotation axis coincide,
and the conical-scan modulation is zero.
213


Fig: Conical-scan tracking
A block diagram of the angle-tracking portion of typical conical-scan tracking radar is shown in
Fig. The antenna is mounted so that it can be positioned in both azimuth and elevation by
separate motors, which might be either electric- or hydraulic-driven. The antenna beam is offset
by tilting either the feed or the reflector with respect to one another.

Fig: Block diagram of conical-scan tracking radar
One of the simplest conical-scan antennas is a parabola with an offset rear feed rotated
about the axis of the reflector. If the feed maintains the plane of polarization fixed as it rotates, it
is called a nutating feed. A rotating feed causes the polarization to rotate. The latter type of feed
requires a rotary joint. The nutating feed requires a flexible joint. If the antenna is small, it may
214

be easier to rotate the dish, which is offset, rather than the feed, thus avoiding the problem of a
rotary or flexible RF joint in the feed.
A typical conical-scan rotation speed might be 30 r/s. The same motor that provides the
conical-scan rotation of the antenna beam also drives a two phase reference generator with two
outputs 90 apart in phase. These two outputs serve as a reference to extract the elevation and
azimuth errors. The received echo signal is fed to the receiver from the antenna via two rotary
joints (not shown in the block diagram). One rotary joint permits motion in azimuth, the other, in
elevation.
The receiver is a conventional superheterodyne except for features peculiar to the conical
scan tracking radar. One feature not found in other radar receivers is a means of extracting the
conical-scan modulation, or error signal. This is accomplished after the second detector in the
video portion of the receiver.
The error signal is compared with the elevation and azimuth reference signals in the
angle-error detectors, which are phase-sensitive detectors. A phasesensitive detector is a
nonlinear device in which the input signal (in this case the angle-error signal) is mixed with the
reference signal. The input and reference signals are of the same frequency. The output d-c
voltage reverses polarity as the phase of the input signal changes through 180.
The magnitude of the d-c output from the angle-error detector is proportional to the error,
and the sign (polarity) is an indication of the direction of the error. The angle-errordetector
outputs are amplified and drive the antenna elevation and azimuth servo motors.
The angular position of the target may be determined from the elevation and azimuth o
the antenna axis. The position can be read out by means of standard angle transducers such as
synchros, potentiometers, or analog-to-digital-data converters.

Explain the block diagram of the AGC portion of tracking radar receiver:
The echo-signal amplitude at the tracking-radar receiver will not be constant but will vary
with time. The three major causes of variation in amplitude are (1) the inverse-fourth-power
relationship between the echo signal and range, (2) the conical- scan modulation (angle-error
signal), and (3) amplitude fluctuations in the target cross section.
The function of the automatic gain control (AGC) is to maintain the d-c level of the
receiver output constant and to smooth or eliminate as much of the noise like amplitude
215

fluctuations as possible without disturbing the extraction of the desired error signal at the
conical-scan frequency.
One of the purposes of AGC in any receiver is to prevent saturation by large signals. The
scanning modulation and the error signal would he lost if the receiver were to saturate. In the
conical-scan tracking radar an AGC that maintains the d-c level constant results in an error signal
that is a true indication of the angular pointing error. The d-c level of the receiver must be
maintained constant if the angular error is to be linearly related to the angle-error signal voltage.
An example of the AGC portion of a tracking-radar receiver is shown in Fig. 6.4. A
portion of the video-amplifier output is passed through a low-pass or smoothing filter and fed
back to control the gain of the IF amplifier. The larger the video output, the larger will be the
feedback signal and the greater will be the gain reduction.
The filter in the AGC loop should pass all frequencies from direct current to just below
the conical-scan-modulation frequency. The loop gain of the AGC filter measured at the conical-
scan frequency should be low so that the error signal will not be affected by AGC action.

Fig: Block diagram of the AGC portion of a tracking-radar receiver
The output of the feedback loop will be zero unless the feedback voltage exceeds a
prespecified minimum value V
c
. In the block diagram the feedback voltage and the voltage V
c

are compared in the d-c amplifier. If the feedback voltage exceeds V
c
, the AGC is operative,
while if it is less, there is no AGC action. The voltage V
c
is called the delay voltage. The purpose
of the delay voltage is to provide a reference for the constant output signal and permit receiver
gain for weak signals. If the delay voltage were zero, any output which might appear from the
receiver would be due to the failure of the AGC circuit to regulate completely.
In many applications of AGC the delay voltage is actually zero. This is called undelayed
AGC. In such cases the AGC can still perform satisfactorily since the loop gain is usually low for
216

small signals. Thus the AGC will not regulate weak signals. The effect is similar to having a
delay voltage, but the performance will not be as good.

Explain the Block diagram of amplitude-comparison monopulse radar for
single angular coordinate and explain its operation:
The amplitude-comparison monopulse employs two overlapping antenna patterns (Fig
(a)) to obtain the angular error in one coordinate. The two overlapping antenna beams may be
generated with a single reflector or with a lens antenna illuminated by two adjacent feeds. (A
cluster of four feeds may be used if both elevation- and azimuth-error signals are wanted.) The
sum of the two antenna patterns of Fig (a) is shown in Fig (b), and the difference in Fig (c). The
sum patterns are used for transmission, while both the sum pattern and the difference pattern are
used on reception.
The signal received with the difference pattern provides the magnitude of the angle error.
The sum signal provides the range measurement and is also used as a reference to extract the
sign of the error signal. Signals received from the sum and the difference patterns are amplified
separately and combined in a phase-sensitive detector to produce the error-signal characteristic
shown in Fig (d).
A block diagram of the amplitude-comparison-monopulse tracking radar for a single
angular coordinate is shown in Fig. The two adjacent antenna feeds are connected to the two
arms of a hybrid junction such as a magic T, a rat race, or a short-slot coupler. The sum and
difference signals appear at the two other arms of the hybrid. On reception, the outputs of the
sum arm and the difference arm are each heterodyned to an intermediate frequency and amplified
as in any superheterodyne receiver.
The transmitter is connected to the sum arm. Range information is also extracted from the
sum channel. A duplexer is included in the sum arm for the protection of the receiver. The output
of the phase-sensitive detector is an error signal whose magnitude is proportional to the angular
error and whose sign is proportional to the direction.
The output of the monopulse radar is used to perform automatic tracking. The angular
error signal actuates a servo-control system to position the antenna, and the range output from
the sum channel feeds into an automatic-range-tracking unit.

217


Fig: Monopulse antenna patterns and error signal

Fig: Block diagram of amplitude-comparison monopulse radar
The sign of the difference signal (and the direction of the angular error) is determined by
comparing the phase of the difference signal with the phase of the sum signal. If the sum signal
in the IF portion of the receiver were As cos IF t, the difference signal would be either -A
d
cos (

IF
t) or A
d
cos (
IF
t) (A
s
> 0, A
d
>0), depending on which side of center is the target. Since A
d

218

cos (
IF
t) = A
d
cos [
IF
(t + )], the sign of the difference signal may be measured by
determining whether the difference signal is in phase with the sum or 1800 out of phase.

Explain the Block diagram of amplitude-comparison monopulse radar for
extracting error signals in both elevation and azimuth:
A block diagram of monopulse radar with provision for extracting error signals in both
elevation and azimuth is shown in Fig. The cluster of four feeds generates four partially
overlapping antenna beams. The feeds might be used with a parabolic reflector, Cassegrain
antenna, or a lens. All four feeds generate the sum pattern. The difference pattern in one plane is
formed by taking the sum of two adjacent feeds and subtracting this from the sum of the other
two adjacent feeds. The difference pattern in the orthogonal plane is obtained by adding the
differences of the orthogonal adjacent pairs. A total of four hybrid junctions generate the sum
channel, the azimuth difference channel, and the elevation difference channel. Three separate
mixers and IF amplifiers are shown, one for each channel. All three mixers operate from a single
local oscillator in order to maintain the phase relationships between the three channels. Two
phase-sensitive detectors extract the angle-error information, one for azimuth, the other for
elevation. Range information is extracted from the output of the sum channel after amplitude
detection.
Since a phase comparison is made between the output of the sum channel and each of the
difference channels, it is important that the phase shifts introduced by each of the channels be
almost identical. The phase difference between channels must be maintained to within 25 or
better for reasonably proper performance. The gains of the channels also must not differ by more
than specified amounts.
The purpose in using one- or two-channel monopulse receivers is to ease the problem
associated with maintaining identical phase and amplitude balance among the three channels of
the conventional receiver. Two-channel monopulse receivers have also been used by combining
the sum and the two difference signals in a manner such that they can be again resolved into
three components after amplification.
The approximately "ideal" feed-illuminations for a monopulse radar is shown in Fig. This
has been approximated in some precision tracking radars by a five-horn feed consisting of one
horn generating the sum pattern surrounded by four horns generating the difference patterns.

219


Fig: Block diagram of two-coordinate (azimuth and elevation) amplitude-comparison monopulse
tracking radar

Fig: approximately ideal feed-aperture illumination for monopulse sum and difference channels

Explain Phase-comparison monopulse tracking radar technique:
The measurement of angle of arrival by comparison of the phase relationships in the
signals from the separated antennas of a radio interferometer has been widely used by the radio
astronomers for precise measurements of the positions of radio stars. The interferometer as used
by the radio astronomer is a passive instrument, the source of energy being radiated by the target
itself. Tracking radar which operates with phase information is similar to an active interferometer
and might be called an interfero meter radar. It has also been called Simultaneous phase
comparison radar, or phase-comparison monopulse.
In Fig. two antennas are shown separated by a distance d. The distance to the target is R
and is assumed large compared with the antenna separation d. The line of sight to the target
220

makes an angle to the perpendicular bisector of the line joining the two antennas. The distance
from antenna 1 to the target is
R
1
= R+(dsin)/2
And the distance from antenna 2 to the target is
R
2
= R(dsin)/2
The phase difference between the echo signals in the two antennas is approximately
= 2d sin/
For small angles where sin = 0, the phase difference is a linear function of the angular error and
may be used to position the antenna via a servo-control loop.

Fig: Wavefront phase relationships in phase- comparison monopulse radar
In the early versions of the phase-comparison monopulse radar, the angular error was
determined by measuring the phase difference between the outputs of receivers connected to
each antenna.
The output from one of the antennas was used for transmission and for providing the
range information. With such an arrangement it was difficult to obtain the desired aperture
illuminations and to maintain a stable boresight. A more satisfactory method of operation is to
form the sum and difference patterns in the RF and to process the signals as in conventional
amplitude-comparison monopulse radar.
221

Explain how tracking in range is achieved using split range gates:
The technique for automatically tracking in range is based on the split range gate. Two
range gates are generated as shown in Fig. One is the early gate, and the other is the late gate.
The echo pulse is shown in Fig., the relative position of the gates at a particular instant in Fig.,
and the error signal in Fig. The portion of the signal energy contained in the early gate is less
than that in the late gate. If the outputs of the two gates are subtracted, an error signal will result
which may be used to reposition the center of the gates. The magnitude of the error signal is a
measure of the difference between the center of the pulse and the center of the gates. The sign of
the error signal determines the direction in which the gates must be repositioned by a feedback-
control system. When the error signal is zero the range gates are centered on the pulse.
The range gating necessary to perform automatic tracking offers several advantages as by
products. It isolates one target excluding targets at other ranges. This permits the boxcar
generator to be employed. Also range gating improves the signal-to-noise ratio since it eliminates
the noise from the other range intervals. Hence the width of the gate should be sufficiently
narrow to minimize extraneous noise. On the other hand, it must not be so narrow that an
appreciable fraction of the signal energy is excluded. A reasonable compromise is to make the
gate width of the order of the pulse width.

Fig: Split-range-gate tracking (a) Echo pulse; (h) early-late range gates; (c) difference signal
between early and late range gates.
222

A target of finite length can cause noise in range-tracking circuits in an analogous manner
to angle-fluctuation noise (glint) in the angle-tracking circuits. Range-tracking noise depends or
the length of the target and its shape. It has been reported that the rms value of the range noise is
approximately 0.8 of the target length when tracking is accomplished with a video split-range-
gate error detector.

What are the various methods of acquisition before tracking a target with
Radar?
A tracking radar must first find and acquire its target before it can operate as a tracker.
Therefore it is usually necessary for the radar to scan an angular sector in which the presence of
the target is suspected. Most tracking radars employ a narrow pencil-beam antenna. Examples of
the common types of scanning patterns employed with pencil-beam antennas are illustrated in
Fig.
In the helical scan, the antenna is continuously rotated in azimuth while it is
simultaneously raised or lowered in elevation. It traces a helix in space. Helical scanning was
employed for the search mode of the SCR-584 fire-control radar, developed during World War II
for the aiming of antiaircraft-gun batteries. The SCR-584 antenna was .rotated at the rate of 6
rpm and covered a 20" elevation angle in 1 min.
The Palmer scan derives its name from the familiar penmanship exercises of grammar
school days. It consists of a rapid circular scan (conical scan) about the axis of the antenna,
combined with a linear movement of the axis of rotation. When the axis of rotation is held
stationary, the Palmer scan reduces to the conical scan. Because of this property, the Palmer scan
is sometimes used with conical-scan tracking radars which must operate with a search as well as
a track mode since the same mechanisms used to produce conical scanning can also be used for
Palmer scanning.
Some conical-scan tracking radars increase the squint angle during search in order to
reduce the time required to scan a given volume. The conical scan of the SCR-584 was operated
during the search mode and was actually a Palmer scan in a helix. In general, conical scan is
performed during the search mode of most tracking radars.
The Palmer scan is suited to a search area which is larger in one dimension than another.
The spiral scan covers an angular search volume with circular symmetry. Both the spiral scan
and the Palmer scan suffer from the disadvantage that all parts of the scan volume do not receive
223

the same energy unless the scanning speed is varied during the scan cycle. As a consequence, the
number of hits returned from a target when searching with a constant scanning rate depends upon
the position of the target within the search area.
The raster, or TV, scan, unlike the Palmer or the spiral scan, paints the search area in a
uniform manner. The raster scan is a simple and convenient means for searching a limited sector,
rectangular in shape. Similar to the raster scan is the nodding scan produced by oscillating the
antenna beam rapidly in elevation and slowly in azimuth. Although it may be employed to cover
a limited sector-as does the raster scan-nodding scan may also be used to obtain hemispherical
coverage, that is, elevation angle extending to 900 and the azimuth scan angle to 3600.

Fig: Examples of acquisition search patterns. (a) Trace of helical scanning beam; (b) Palmer
scan; (c) spiral scan; (d) raster, or TV, scan; (e) nodding scan.
The helical scan and the nodding scan can both be used to obtain hemispheric coverage
with a pencil beam. The nodding scan is also used with height-finding radars. The Palmer, spiral,
and raster scans are employed in fire-control tracking radars to assist in the acquisition of the
target when the search sector is of limited extent.

Explain in detail about the limitations to tracking accuracy:
Main limitations to tracking accuracy of radar are,
1. Amplitude fluctuations.
2. Angle fluctuations.
3. Receiver and servo noise
224

Amplitude fluctuations:
A complex target such as an aircraft or a ship may be considered as a number of
independent scattering elements. The echo signal can be represented as the vector addition of the
contributions from the individual scatterers. If the target aspect changes with respect to the radar-
as might occur because of motion of the target, or turbulence in the case of aircraft targets-the
relative phase and amplitude relationships of the contributions from the individual scatterers also
change. Consequently, the vector sum, and therefore the amplitude change with changing target
aspect.
Amplitude fluctuations of the echo signal are important in the design of the lobeswitching
radar and the conical-scan radar but are of little consequence to the monopulse tracker. Both the
conical-scan tracker and the lobe-switching tracker require a finite time to obtain a measurement
of the angle error.
To reduce the effect of amplitude noise on tracking, the conical-scan frequency should be
chosen to correspond to a low value of amplitude noise. If considerable amplitude fluctuation
noise were to appear at the conical-scan or lobe-switching frequencies, it could not be readily
eliminated with filters or AGC. A typical scan frequency might be of the order of 30 Hz. Higher
frequencies might also be used since target amplitude noise generally decreases with increasing
frequency.
It has been found experimentally that the tracking accuracy of radars operating with pulse
repetition frequencies from 1000 to 4000 Hz and a lobing or scan rate one-quarter of the prf are
not limited by echo amplitude fluctuations.
Angle fluctuations:
Changes in the target aspect with respect to the radar can cause the apparent center of
radar reflections to wander from one point to another. (The apparent center of radar reflection is
the direction of the antenna when the error signal is zero.) In general, the apparent center of
reflection might not correspond to the target center.
The random wandering of the apparent radar reflecting center gives rise to noisy or
jittered angle tracking. This form of tracking noise is called angle noise, angle scintillations,
angle fluctuations, or target glint. The angular fluctuations produced by small targets at long
range may be of little consequence in most instances. However, at short range or with relatively
large targets (as might be seen by a radar seeker on a homing missile), angular fluctuations may
225

be the chief factor limiting tracking accuracy. Angle fluctuations affect all tracking radars
whether conical-scan, sequential lobing, or monopulse.
Receiver and servo noise:
Another limitation on tracking accuracy is the receiver noise power. The accuracy of the
angle measurement is inversely proportional to the square root of the signal-to-noise power ratio.
Since the signal-to-noise ratio is proportional to 1/R4 (from the radar equation), the angular error
due to receiver noise is proportional to the square of the target distance. Servo noise is the
hunting action of the tracking servomechanism which results from backlash and compliance in
the gears, shafts, and structures of the mount. The magnitude of servo noise is essentially
independent of the target echo and will therefore be independent of range.

Explain low angle tracking:
Radar that tracks a target at a low elevation angle, near the surface of the earth, can
receive two echo signals from the target, Fig. 6.11. One signal is reflected directly from the
target, and the ther arrives via the earth's surface. The direct and the surface-reflected signals
combine at the radar to yield angle measurement that differs from the true measurement that
would have been made with a single target in the absence of surface reflections. The result is an
error in the measurement of elevation. The surface-reflected signal may be thought of as
originating from the image of the target mirrored by the earth's surface. Thus, the effect on
tracking is similar to the two-target model used to describe glint. The surface-reflected signal is
sometimes called a multipath signal.

Fig: Low-angle tracking
The surface-reflected signal travels a longer path than the direct signal so that it may be
possible in some cases to separate the two in time (range). Tracking on the direct signal avoids
the angle errors introduced by the multipath. The range-resolution required to separate the direct
from the ground-reflected signal is
226


Where,
h
a
= radar antenna height,
h
t
= target height,
R = range to the target.
For a radar height of 30 m, a target height of 100 m and a range of 10 km, the
rangeresolution must be 0.6 m, corresponding to a pulse width of 4 ns. This is a much shorter
pulse than is commonly employed in radar. Although the required range-resolutions for
groundbased radar are achievable in principle, it is usually not applicable in practice. The use of
frequency diversity can also reduce the multipath tracking error.

227

OBJECTIVE TYPE QUESTIONS

1. One method commonly employed to extract Doppler information in a form suitable for
display on the PPI scope is with a [ ]
a. Power Amplifier b. A-Scope display
c. Delay line canceller d. Coherent oscillator
2. The characteristic feature of coherent MIT Radar is that the [ ]
a. Transmitted signal must be out of phase with reference signal in receiver
b. The transmitted signal must be equal in the magnitude with reference signal
c. The transmitted signal must be coherent with the reference signal in the receiver
d. Transmitted signal must not be equal to reference signal in the receiver
3. In the following which are produce, with time a butterfly effect on the 'A' scope [ ]
a. Fixed Targets b. PPI scope c. Moving Targets d.Phase Detector
4. The stalo, coho and the mixer in which they are combined plus any low-level amplification are
called the [ ]
a. Transmitter-Oscillator b. Transmitter-Exciter
c. Receiver-Amplifier d.Receiver-exciter
5. The Doppler frequency shift produced by a moving target may be used in pulse radar to
a. Combine moving targets from desired stationery objects
b. Determine the relative velocity of a target
c. Separate desired moving targets from desired stationery objects
d. Determine the displacement of a target
6. To operate with unambiguous Doppler pulse repetition frequency is usually [ ]
228

a. Low b. Very low c. High d. Very High
7. MTI stands for [ ]
a. Moving Transmitter Indicator b. Moving target interval
c. Moving target indication d. Modulation Transmitting Interval
8. Echoes from fixed targets [ ]
a. Vary in amplitude b. Vary in frequency
c. Vary in pulse interval d. Remains constant
9. The limitation of pulse MTI radar which do not occur with cw radar [ ]
a. Blind speeds b. Delay lines
c. Requires more operating powers d. Requires complex circuitry
10. The presence of blind speeds within the Doppler frequency band reduces the [ ]
a. Output of the radar b. Detection capabilities of the radar
c. Unambiguous range d. Ambiguous range
11. The capability of delay line canceller depends on the [ ]
a. Quality of signal b. Pulse Interval
c. Quality of the medium used as the delay line. d. Delay time of the delay line
12. The output of the MTI receiver phase detector be quantized into a sequence of digital words
by Using [ ]
a. Digital quantizer b. Digital Phase detector
c. Digital delay lines d. Digital filter
13. A transmitter which consists of a stable low power oscillator followed by a power amplifier
is called
a. POMA b. MOPA c. MTI Radar d. CW radar
229

14. A simple MTI delay line canceller is an example of a [ ]
a. Frequency domain filters b. High pass filter
c. Active filter d. Time domain filter
15. The delay line must introduce a time delay equal to the [ ]
a. Time interval b. Pulse repetition interval c. Pulse width d. Phase shift
16. The delay line canceller [ ]
a. Rejects the ac component of clutter b. Rejects the dc component of clutter
c. Allows the ac as well as dc d. It rejects all components
17. In pulse MTI radar, Doppler is measured by [ ]
a. Continuous signals b. discrete samples c. Constant period d.Constant
amplitude
18. The output of the two single delay line cancellers in cascade is the [ ]
a. Double of that from a single canceller b. U times that from a single
canceller
c. Square of that from a single canceller d. Same as that from a single
canceller
19. To operate MTI radar with high pulse repetition frequencies [ ]
a. fp must be small b. fp must be unity c. fp must be zero d. fp must be large
20. If the first blind speed were 600 knots, the maximum unambiguous range would be ----- at a
frequency of 300MHz [ ]
a. 140 nautical miles b. 600 knots c. 140 knots d. 130 nautical miles


230

Answers:
1.c 2.d 3.c 4.d 5.b 6.c 7.c 8.d 9.a 10.b
11.c 12.c 13.b 14.d 15.b 16.b 17.b 18.c 19.d 20.d


ESSAY TYPE QUESTIONS

1. Discuss the e ect of surface quality and reaction characteristics of a target on the angular
tracking accuracy of a tracking radar.
2. Describe the phase comparison mono pulse tracking technique in a radar system
with the help of necessary block diagram.
3. With the help of a suitable block diagram, Sequential lobing type of tracking technique in
a tracking radar system.
4. Compare and contrast conical scan and sequential lobing type tracking techniques
5. Describe the pro cess of acquiring a moving target prior to tracking it along with the
patterns used for acquisition.
6. Describe automatic tracking of a target through range gating technique.
7. Describe sequential lobing type of error signal generation to track a target automatically.
8. List the merits and demerits of monopulse tracker over conical scan type tracker.
9. Draw the block diagram of an amplitude comparison monopulse tracking radar in azimuth
and elevation directions. Explain the functioning of this two dimensional tracking radar.
10. Write the simpli er version of radar range equation and explain how this equation does
not adequately describe the performance of practical radar?
11. What are the speci c bands assigned by the ITU for the Radar? What the corresponding
frequencies?
12. A low power, short range radar is solid-state throughout, including a low-noise RF ampli
er which gives it an overall noise gure of 4.77dB. If the antenna diameter is 1m, the IF
231

bandwidth is 500kHz, the operating frequency is 8GHz and the radar set is supposed to
be capable of detecting targets of 5m2 cross sectional area at a maximum distance of 12
km, what must be the peak transmitted pulse power?
13. The average false alarm time is a more signi cant parameter than the false-alarm
probability. Give the reasons.
14. Why post detection integration is not as e cient as pre-detection integration of radar
pulses?
15. Draw and explain block diagram of Conical-scan tracking radar.
16. Why does a tracking radar have poor accuracy at low elevation angles? Explain
17. Draw and explain the following with respect to Tracking in range:
i. Echo pulse
ii. Early-late range gates
iii. Difference signal between early and late range gates.
18. Limitation of automatic detection and tracking.
19. Explain the block diagram of amplitude comparison mono pulse for extracting error
signals in both elevation and azimuth.
20. With diagrams explain Split-range-gate tracking.



232


UNIT-VII


DETECTION OF RADAR
SIGNALS IN NOISE


233

Matched-Filter Receiver:
A network whose frequency-response function maximizes the output peak-signal-to-
mean-noise (power) ratio is called a matched filter. This criterion, or its equivalent, is used for
the design of almost all radar receivers.
The frequency-response function, denoted H(f), expresses the relative amplitude and
phase of the output of a network with respect to the input when the input is a pure sinusoid. The
magnitude H(f) of the frequency-response function is the receiver amplitude passband
characteristic.
If the bandwidth of the receiver passband is wide compared with that occupied by the
signal energy, extraneous noise is introduced by the excess bandwidth which lowers the output
signal-to-noise ratio. On the other hand, if the receiver bandwidth is narrower than the bandwidth
occupied by the signal, the noise energy is reduced along with a considerable part of the signal
energy.
The net result is again a lowered signal-to-noise ratio. Thus there is an optimum
bandwidth at which the signal-to-noise ratio is a maximum. This is well known to the radar
receiver designer.
The rule of thumb quoted in pulse radar practice is that the receiver bandwidth B should
be approximately equal to the reciprocal of the pulse width . This is a reasonable approximation
for pulse radars with conventional superheterodyne receivers. It is not generally valid for other
waveforms, however, and is mentioned to illustrate in a qualitative manner the effect of the
receiver characteristic on signal-to-noise ratio.
The exact specification of the optimum receiver characteristic involves the frequency-
response function and the shape of the received waveform.
The receiver frequency-response function, is assumed to apply from the antenna
terminals to the output of the IF amplifier. (The second detector and video portion of the well-
designed radar superheterodyne receiver will have negligible effect on the output signal-to-noise
ratio if the receiver is designed as a matched filter.) Narrow banding is most conveniently
accomplished in the IF.
The bandwidths of the RF and mixer stages of the normal superheterodyne receiver are
usually large compared with the IF bandwidth. Therefore the frequency-response function of the
portion of the receiver included between the antenna terminals to the output of the IF amplifier is
taken to be that of the IF amplifier alone. Thus we need only obtain the frequency-response
234

function that maximizes the signal-to-noise ratio at the output of the IF. The IF amplifier may be
considered as a filter with gain. The response of this filter as a function of frequency is the
property of interest. For a received waveform s(t) with a given ratio of signal energy E to noise
energy No (or noise power per hertz of bandwidth), North showed that the frequency-response
function of the linear, time-invariant filter which maximizes the output peak-signal-to-mean-
noise (power) ratio for a fixed input signal-tonoise (energy) ratio is


The noise that accompanies the signal is assumed to be stationary and to have a uniform
spectrum (white noise). It need not be gaussian. The filter whose frequency-response function is
given by Eq. above has been called the North filter, the conjugate filter, or more usually the
matched filter. It has also been called the Fourier transform criterion. It should not be confused
with the circuit-theory concept of impedance matching, which maximizes the power transfer
rather than the signal-to-noise ratio.
The frequency-response function of the matched filter is the conjugate of the spectrum of
the received waveform except for the phase shift exp (- j2f
t1
). This phase shift varies uniformly
with frequency. Its effect is to cause a constant time delay. A time delay is necessary in the
specification of the filter for reasons of physical realizability since there can be no output from
the filter until the signal is applied.
The frequency spectrum of the received signal may be written as an amplitude spectrum
S(f) ( and a phase spectrum exp [- j
s
(f )]. The matched- filter frequency-response function
may similarly be written in terms of its amplitude and phase spectra H(f) and exp [-j
m
(f)].
Ignoring the constant G
a
, Eq. above for the matched filter may then be written as

235

Thus the amplitude spectrum of the matched filter is the same as the amplitude spectrum
of the signal, but the phase spectrum of the matched filter is the negative of the phase spectrum
of the signal plus a phase shift proportional to frequency.
The matched filter may also be specified by its impulse response h(t), which is the
inverse Fourier transform of the frequency-response function.

Physically, the impulse response is the output of the filter as a function of time when the input is
an impulse (delta function).


A rather interesting result is that the impulse response of the matched filter is the image
of the received waveform; that is, it is the same as the received signal run backward in time
starting from the fixed time t
1
. Figure 1 shows a received waveform s(t) and the impulse
response h(t) of its matched filter. The impulse response of the filter, if it is to be realizable, is
not defined for t< 0. (One cannot have any response before the impulse is applied.) Therefore we
must always have t < t
1
. This is equivalent to the condition placed on the transfer function H(f)
that there be a phase shift exp (-j2f
t1
). However, for the sake of convenience, the impulse
response of the matched filter is sometimes written simply as s(- t).

Derivation of the matched-filter characteristic:
The frequency-response function of the matched filter has been derived by a number of
authors using either the calculus of variations or the Schwartz inequality. We shall derive the
matched-filter frequency-response function using the Schwartz inequality.
We wish to show that the frequency-response function of the linear, time-invariant filter
which maximizes the output peak-signal-to-mean-noise ratio is

236

When the input noise is stationary and white (uniform spectral density). The ratio we
wish to maximize is


Fig.1 (a) Received waveform s(t); (b) impulse response h(t) of the matched filter.

Where s
o
(t)max = maximum value of output signal voltage and N = mean noise power
at receiver output. The ratio R
f
is not quite the same as the signal-to-noise ratio which has been
considered in the radar equation. The output voltage of a filter with frequency-response function
H(f) is

Where S(f) is the Fourier transform of the input (received) signal. The mean output noise power
is

Where N
o
is the input noise power per unit bandwidth. The factor appears before the
integral because the limits extend from - to +, whereas No is defined as the noise power per
237

cycle of bandwidth over positive values only. Assuming that the maximum value of s
o
(t)2
occurs at time t = t
1
, the ratio R
f
becomes

Schwartz's inequality states that if P and Q are two complex functions, then

The equality sign applies when P = kQ, where k is a constant. Letting

We get, on applying the Schwartz inequality to the numerator of Eq. earlier, we get

The frequency-response function which maximizes the peak-signal-to-mean-noise ratio
R
f
may be obtained by noting that the equality sign in Eq. applies when P = kQ, or

Where the constant k has been set equal to 1/G
a
.


Relation between the matched filter characteristics and correlation function:
238

The matched filter and the correlation function. The output of the matched filter is not a
replica of the input signal. However, from the point of view of detecting signals in noise,
preserving the shape of the signal is of no importance. If it is necessary to preserve the shape of
the input pulse rather than maximize the output signal-to-noise ratio, some other criterion must
be employed.
The output of the matched filter may be shown to be proportional to the input signal
cross-correlated with a replica of the transmitted signal, except for the time delay t
1
. The
crosscorrelation function R(t) of two signals y() and s(), each of finite duration, is defined as

The output y
o
(t) of a filter with impulse response h(t) when the input is y
in
(t) = s(t) + n(t) is

If the filter is a matched filter, then h() = s(t
1
- ) and Eq. above becomes

Thus the matched filter forms the cross correlation between the received signal corrupted
by noise and a replica of the transmitted signal. The replica of the transmitted signal is "built in"
to the matched filter via the frequency-response function. If the input signal yin (t) were the same
as the signal s(t) for which the matched filter was designed (that is, the noise is assumed
negligible), the output would be the autocorrelation function. The autocorrelation function of a
rectangular pulse of width is a triangle whose base is of width 2.

Efficiency of non-matched filters:
In practice the matched filter cannot always be obtained exactly. It is appropriate,
therefore, to examine the efficiency of non matched filters compared with the ideal matched
filter. The measure of efficiency is taken as the peak signal-to-noise ratio from the non matched
filter divided by the peak signal-to-noise ratio (2E/N
o
) from the matched filter. Figure. Plots the
efficiency for a single-tuned (RLC) resonant filter and a rectangular-shaped filter of half-power
bandwidth B

when the input is a rectangular pulse of width . The maximum efficiency of the
239

single-tuned filter occurs for B

0.4. The corresponding loss in signal-to-noise ratio is 0.88 dB

as compared with a matched filter.
Table lists the values of B

which maximize the signal-to-noise ratio (SNR) for various

combinations of filters and pulse shapes. It can be seen that the loss in SNR incurred by use of
these non-matched filters is small.

Fig: Efficiency, relative to a matched filter, of a single-tuned resonant filter and a rectangular
shaped filter, when the input signal is a rectangular pulse of width . B = filter bandwidth.

Table: Efficiency of nonmatched filters compared with the matched filter

240

Matched filter with nonwhite noise:
In the derivation of the matched-filter characteristic, the spectrum of the noise
accompanying the signal was assumed to be white; that is, it was independent of frequency. If
this assumption were not true, the filter which maximizes the output signal-to-noise ratio would
not be the same as the matched filter. It has been shown that if the input power spectrum of the
interfering noise is given by [N
i
(f)]
2
, the frequency-response function of the filter which
maximizes the output signal-to-noise ratio is

When the noise is nonwhite, the filter which maximizes the output signal-to-noise ratio is called
the NWN (nonwhite noise) matched filter. For white noise [N
i
(f)]
2
= constant and the NWN
matched-filler frequency-response function of Eq. above reduces to that of Eq. discussed earlier
in white noise. Equation above can be written as

This indicates that the NWN matched filter can be considered as the cascade of two filters. The
first filter, with frequency-response function l/Ni (f), acts to make the noise spectrum uniform, or
white. It is sometimes called the whitening filter. The second is the matched filter when the input
is white noise and a signal whose spectrum is S(f )/N
i
(f ).

Correlation Detection:

Equation above describes the output of the matched filter as the cross correlation between the
input signal and a delayed replica of the transmitted signal. This implies that the matched-filter
receiver can be replaced by a cross-correlation receiver that performs the same mathematical
operation as shown in Fig.5. The input signal y (t) is multiplied by a delayed replica of the
transmitted signal s(t - Tr), and the product is passed through a low-pass filter to perform the
integration. The cross-correlation receiver of Fig.5 tests for the presence of a target at only a
single time delay Tr. Targets at other time delays, or ranges, might be found by varying T
r
.
However, this requires a longer search time. The search time can be reduced by adding parallel
241

channels, each containing a delay line corresponding to a particular value of Tr, as well as a
multiplier and low-pass filter. In some applications it may be possible to record the signal on
some storage medium, and at a higher playback speed perform the search sequentially with
different values of T
r
. That is, the playback speed is increased in proportion to the number of
time-delay intervals T
r
that are to be tested.
Since the cross-correlation receiver and the matched-filter receiver are equivalent
mathematically, the choice as to which one to use in a particular radar application is determined
by which is more practical to implement. The matched-filter receiver, or an approximation, has
been generally preferred in the vast majority of applications.

Fig: Block diagram of a cross-correlation receiver.




242


243

OBJECTIVE TYPE QUESTIONS
1. The maximum unambiguous range [ ]
a. Runamb = c/2 b. Runamb = (c) c. Runamb = c/4 d. Runamb = (c/2)
2. To operate MTI radar at low frequencies [ ]
a. fp must be small b. fp must be zero
c. fp must be large d. fp must be unity
3. The effect of blind speed can be significantly reduced in [ ]
a. Pulse MTI radar b. Delay line canceller
c. Staggered - prf MTI d. Pulse canceller
4. The blind speeds are present in pulse radar because [ ]
a. Doppler is measured by discrete samples at the prf
b. Doppler is measured by continuous signal c. Doppler is assumed to be zero
d. Doppler frequency remains constant
5. If the first blind speed is to be greater than the maximum radial velocity expected from the
target, The product fp must be [ ]
a. Small b. Zero c. Large d. Infinity
6. The clutter-rejection notches may be widened by passing the output of the delay line canceller
through a [ ]
a. Coho b. Stalo c. Second delay line canceller d.Pulse canceller
7. The frequency response of double delay line canceller is [ ]
a. 4 Sin fd1T b. 4 Sin fd1T c. 4 Sin2 fd1T d. (2 Sin fd1T)
2
8. MTI radar primarily designed for the detection of aircraft must usually operate with [ ]
a. Unambiguous Doppler b. Unambiguous blind speed
c. Ambiguous Doppler d. Ambiguous range
244

9. The blind speeds of two independent radars operating at the same frequency will be different
if Their [ ]
a. Amplitudes are different b. Blind speeds are different
c. Pulse repetition frequencies are different d. Pulse intervals are different
10. A disadvantage of the staggered prf is its inability to [ ]
a. Cancel second-time around echoes b. Cancel second-time around clutter echoes
c. Provide variable prf d. Provide pulse to pulse incoherence
11. Second-time around clutter echoes can be removed by use of a [ ]
a. Stalo b. Coho c. Constant prf d. Delay
canceller
12. The loss of range information and the collapsing loss may be eliminated by [ ]
a. Sampling the range b. Shaping the range
c. Quantizing the range d. Keeping constant range
13. Range gating is a process of [ ]
a. Sampling the range into various samples b.Quantizing the range into small intervals
c. Getting constant range d. Removing the range intervals
14. When the switching is pulse to pulse. It is known as a [ ]
a. Delay canceller b. Staggered prf c. MTI radar d. Pulse radar
15. Pulse to pulse coherence is provided by use of [ ]
a. Stalo b. Coho c. Constant prf d. Delay canceller
16. The output of the range gates is stretched in a circuit called [ ]
a. Clutter rejection filter b. Clutters filter c. Box car generator d. Sampler
17. The clutter rejection filter is a [ ]
245

a. Band stop filter b. Band pass filter c. Low pass filter d. High pass filter
18. The bandwidth of clutter rejection filter depends upon the extent of the [ ]
a. Spectrum b. Expected clutter spectrum
c. Filter characteristic d. Clutter characteristic
19. By quantizing the range [05D01] [ ]
a. Loss of range Information is eliminated b. Loss of range information is increased
c. Range becomes constant d. Range becomes sampled
20. Clutter visibility factor provides [ ]
a. Attenuation b. Probabilies of detection and false alarm
c. Cancellation ratio d. Decrease in clutter residue

Answers:
1.a 2.c 3.c 4.a 5.c 6.c 7.c 8.c 9.c 10.b
11.c 12.c 13.b 14.b 15.c 16.c 17.b 18.b 19.a 20b

ESSAY TYPE QUESTIONS
1. Explain the principle behind the operation of duplexers and receiver protectors.
2. Explain how a circulator can be utilized for a radar receiver protection.
3. Define noise figure and noise temperature of a receiver system.
4. Derive the impulse response of a matched filter that is commonly used in a a radar system.
5. Describe the principle behind the operation of a phased array antenna in a radar system.
6. Substantiate the requirement of duplexers in e cient radar systems. Describe the operation
of branch and balanced type duplexers with necessary diagrams.
246

7. Describe any two types of duplexers used in radar receivers.
8. Define noise figure and equivalent noise temperature of a radar receiver.
9. A radar receiver is connected to a 50 ohm resistance antenna that has an equivalent noise
resistance of 30 ohms. Calculate the noise figure of the receiver and the equivalent noise
temperature of the receiver.
10. Discuss in detail about Matched-filter Receiver with necessary expressions.
11. Explain the function of time domain filter with an example.
12. An MTI radar operates at 10GHz with a PRF of 300 pps. Calculate the lowest blind
speed?
13. Derive the impulse response of a matched filter that is commonly used in a radar
receiver.
14. Explain how a threshold level is selected in threshold detection?
15. How to find the number of pulses that returned from a point target as the radar antenna
scans through its beam width?
16. Why most of the radar receivers are considered as envelop detectors while calculating the
SNR?
17. Discuss the relation between the matched filter characteristics and correlation detection
18. What is the difference between matched filter and non-matched filter?
19. Discuss the efficiency of non matched filters.

UNIT VIII
247

RADAR
RECEIVERS








248