Parker Compumotor PDF
Parker Compumotor PDF
Parker Compumotor PDF
Compumotor
Step Motor
& Servo Motor
Systems and Controls
STEPMOTOR&
SERVOMOTOR
SYSTEMSAND
CONTROLSSTE
PMOTOR&SERV
OMOTORSYST
EMSANDCON
TROLSSTEPM
OTOR&SERVOM
OTORSYSTEM
SANDCONTRO
COMPUMOTOR
Compumotor pioneered
microstepping techniques to
electronically improve the
smoothness and resolution of
step motors. The leadership
continues with a complete
range of products, from full
step and microstepping
systems to packaged singleand multi-axis drive/indexer
systems and powerful singleand multi-axis indexers.
C1-C160
B1-B146
An Introduction to
Compumotor
Page
Worldwide Support .......... 2-3
Technical Support Team .. 4-5
Seminars ......................... 6-7
Support Software ............ 8-9
Servo vs. Stepper
Motor Selection ........... 10-11
Servo Systems ............ 12-13
Stepper Systems ......... 14-15
Custom Products .............. 16
A1-A96
Manufacturing
Workcells
Our Strategy for Your
Success
Our strategy for success is
simple: provide our customers
with a competitive advantage.
We do so by offering
continuous product
innovation, complete
solutions, and unrivalled
technical support.
Internal Manufacturing
Parker Hannifin has invested in
state-of-the-art surface mount
and automated insertion
machines to guarantee a
prompt response to orders.
Unlike many other companies,
Parker Hannifin has the
flexibility to build any product
in any quantity (based on
demand) without relying on an
outside turn-key vendor to
build our boards. If your
manufacturing growth requires
more Parker Hannifin product,
we can grow with you! Our
manufacturing philosophy is
simple:
Authorize JIT-based vendors
to provide raw materials
with low lead times
Reduce our dock-to-stock
time required to receive the
raw parts before we can
build products
Build all boards internally
with state-of-the-art surface
mount and PCA equipment
Provide consistent lead
times to our customers
regardless of product mix
COMPUMOTOR
Quality Products
At Parker Hannifin, producing
quality products is our number
one priority. Our products are
designed with high quality
standards and are
manufactured with state-ofthe-art equipment and
production methods. Before
any product reaches our
customers, it must pass a
rigorous set of hardware and
software tests. JIT (Just-intime) manufacturing and DFM
(Design-for-Manufacturability)
methods lend themselves to
creating the necessary
flexibility to readily
accommodate your special
needs. As an example of these
manufacturing principles in
action, many of our products
have earned UL recognition.
Two-Year Warranty
Its one thing to promise
reliability, quality and service;
and quite another to
guarantee itespecially in a
global marketplace. Thats
why we offer a two-year
warranty on our entire line of
motors, drives, encoders, and
controllers.
U T I O
L
Parker Hannifins
Electromechanical
Territory Manager
Everyone promises service,
but Compumotor has the
people to assure timely, expert
support. For example, Parker
Hannifin employs a competent
and motivated team of
degreed, factory-trained field
application engineers who are
ready to offer you assistance
in product selection,
installation, product/system
programming and
troubleshooting.
Authorized Automation
Technology Centers
Your local independent
Automation Technology Center
has been factory-trained to
offer you expert service and
advice. The network includes
90 organizations and more
than 125 outlets throughout
the world. In addition to those
services offered by traditional
distributors, these
organizations specialize in the
application of high technology
automation equipment. Parker
Hannifin works cooperatively
with its authorized ATCs to
recruit, hire, and train degreed
engineers for positions with
ATC organizations. ATCs offer
local product availability,
product demonstrations,
complementary products and
services, programming
assistance, system integration,
and in-depth customer
seminars.
Engineering Support
Tools to Make Your Job
Easier
Years of experience have
culminated in a vast
assortment of engineering
support tools that help to
simplify the sizing, selection,
and installation process,
design a system to custom
application requirements, and
troubleshoot existing
installations. A few of these
tools include:
Motor Sizing and Selection
Software
Application Programming
Software
Application success stories
Product installation videos
In-depth handbooks on
subjects such as feed-tolength
The consolidated
engineering reference,
Section A of this catalog
A customer newsletter
P
P
Bulletin Board
Fax
g
nin
i
a
r
y T ers
r
o
m
ct
Fa usto
e
r
C
Mo for
Workshops
Youll Take Away More
Than Ideas
Attendees to our seminars get
more than answers. They
receive presentation materials,
article reprints, support
software, assignments with
solutions, videos and specific
application ideas.
Contact your local
Automation Technology
Center or Electromechanical
Territory Manager for
upcoming seminars.
Program EditorThis
module allows you to edit
code. It also has the
commands available
through Help menus. A
users guide is provided on
disk.
Terminal EmulatorThis
module allows you to
interact directly with the
6000 product. Help is
again available with all
commands and their
definitions available for
reference.
Test PanelYou can
simulate your programs,
debug programs, and check
for program flow using this
module.
Motion Toolbox is an
extensive library of LabVIEW
virtual instruments (VIs) for
icon-based programming of
Compumotors 6000 Series
motion controllers.
When using Motion Toolbox
with LabVIEW, programming
of the 6000 Series controller is
accomplished by linking
graphic icons, or VIs, together
to form a block diagram.
Motion Toolboxs has a library
of more than 150 command,
status, and example VIs. All
command and status VIs
include LabVIEW source
diagrams so you can modify
them, if necessary, to suit your
particular needs. Motion
Toolbox also comes with a
WIndows-based installer
and a comprehensive user
manual to help you gut up and
running quickly.
Motion Builder
Software for Easy
Programming of the
6000 Series
CompuCAM Software
for Computer-Aided
Motion Applications
CompuCAM is a Windowsbased programming package
that imports geometry from
CAD programs, plotter files,
or NC programs and
generates 6000 code
compatible with
Compumotors 6000 Series
motion controllers. Available
for purchase from
Compumotor, CompuCAM is
an add-on module which is
invoked as a utility from the
menu bar of Motion Architect.
From CompuCAM, run your
CAD software package. Once
a drawing is created, save it
as either a DXF file, HP-GL
plot file or G-code NC
program. This geometry is
then imported into
CompuCAM where the 6000
code is generated. After
generating the program, you
may use Motion Architect
functions such as editing or
downloading the code for
execution.
Applications in
hazardous
environments
or in a vacuum may not be
able to use a brushed motor.
Either a stepper or a brushless
motor is called for, depending
on the demands of the load.
Bear in mind that heat
dissipation may be a problem
in a vacuum when the loads
are excessive.
Brushless Servos*
Direct Drive
Brushless Servos*
0
0
180
3
360
6
720
12
Speed
1080 1440
18
24
Series
PDS & PDX Series
PK130
ZETA4
ZETA6104
Page
C55
C67
C17
C17
910
4500
400
400
850
5000
400
400
Torque (oz-in)
650
426
270
170
3300 3000 2200 1450
380
350
200
150
380
350
200
150
S & SX
LN
APEX Series
TQ10
BLH & BLHX
C37
C51
B17
B39
B47
1900
85
8400
25
1850
1900
60
8300
324
1850
1800 1500
35
10
8200 8100
323
322
1850 1850
Z Series
B61
18000
17825
Series
Dynaserv
Page
B80
1800 3000
30
50
130
1000
125
125
70
750
100
100
350
6000
100
1000
750
600
8000
318
1850
7900
319
1850
4700 3300
318
313
1850 430
1500
114
70
1300
Speed (revs/sec) 0
Torque (ft-lb)
370
1.0
330
2.0
50
3.0
50
4.0
40
* The torque values indicated are peak values. Please refer to the product section for full technical data.
10
SERVO VS.
&
E
& S RVO
S
Start Here
STEPP
&
E
No
SERVO
No
Do you need to
control torque?
Use a brushless
servo.
No
Yes
Is there a hybrid
servo which meets
the torque/speed
requirements?
Is rapid settling
important?
Yes
Yes
Try a hybrid
servo with
encoder feedback
if necessary.
&
E
ST PPE
Use a microstepping
with encoder
feedback?
Yes
Is quiet operation
important?
No
Yes
Yes
Really quiet?
No
No
No
Use a stepper
STEPPER
No
No
No
Is quiet operation
important?
Higher
torque/speed
technology.
Yes
Yes
No
No
Yes
No
No
Is low-speed
smoothness
important?
Will a brushless
servo meet
the torque/speed
requirements?
No
Yes
Yes
Do you need to
detect position
loss OR measure
actual load
position to correct
for backlash?
Will a brush
servo meet
the torque/speed
requirements?
Use a microstepping,
hybrid servo, or
direct drive servo
11
Yes
12
V
O
Compumotors servo
controllers offer power and
diversity with the capability of
supporting multi-axis
applications, in 1-, 2-, or 4axis configurations. Operating
stand-alone or with a host
computer, these controllers
incorporate the leading
processor technology in the
industry. Support for I/O,
operator interface, and
communications is standard in
all of the controllers. Other
complex operations including
multi-axis following can be
achieved with very little effort.
Pre-engineered AC
Brushless Servo
Systems
Theres no need to mix and
match components with
Compumotors digital AC
brushless servo systems
theyre completely preengineered for optimum
performance. That means
easy set-up and low
maintenance. Compumotor
brushless servo systems offer
high torque per motor size and
weight, rapid acceleration and
smoother machine
operationall in one proven,
pre-engineered package.
Pretested speed, torque and
acceleration performance
assures that every system
meets your design
requirements. Each single axis
model includes everything
neededmotor, drive,
resolver, cables and feedback.
6000 Series and X version
controller systems include a
controller integral to the drive
package.
13
Low-cost, Slow-speed
Rotation
The PDS Series offers
completely self-contained lowcost motion control for
applications that require a
combination of good dynamic
performance and smooth
slow-speed rotation. Digiplans
PDS Series features built-in
intelligent switch-mode power
supply that allows direct online operation from any AC
supply in the range of 95V to
265V without the need for
adjustment. PDS drives are
available with 3A and 5A
outputs, and a 70V DC bus
maximizes high-speed torque.
T
S
25,000 Steps/Rev
Standard
Compumotors 25,000 steps
per revolution has become the
industrial standard for
microstepping. A wide range
of resolutions are available
from 2,000 to 100,000 steps
per revolution for closed loop
applications requiring submicron resolutions.
While microsteppings
increased positional resolution
isnt necessary for all
applications, its low velocity
ripple and resonance control
assures smooth machine
operation thats unattainable
with conventional full step
motors and many servo
systems.
P
P
E
R
S
14
Powerful Indexers
Designed with the User
in Mind
UL-Recognized
Microstepping Systems
Todays laboratory and factory
automation products face
increasingly stringent
performance and safety
criteria. To meet these
standards, our ZETA Series
and S Series microstepping
systems are certified as UL
Recognized Components
under the UL508 safety
standard covering Industrial
Control Equipment.
15
Adaptability
Connectability
Out of the box component
installation can be even easier
with custom cables, modified
motors and customer specific
interfaces.
Complete Subsystems
16
Cabling
Controls
Drives
Absolute encoders
Software
Hardware
Engineering
Reference and
Application
Solutions
Drill
Head
Table
Ballscrew
Rotating Nut
Motor
Transfer
Machine
Drive/Controller
Drive
Motor
Drive
Motor
Joystick
Indexer
Circuit Board
Rotary Indexer
PLC
Programmable
Logic Controller
Controller
Drive
A1
Motor
Overview
Technologies
Introduction
Motion control, in its widest sense, could relate to
anything from a welding robot to the hydraulic
system in a mobile crane. In the field of Electronic
Motion Control, we are primarily concerned with
systems falling within a limited power range,
typically up to about 10HP (7KW), and requiring
precision in one or more aspects. This may involve
accurate control of distance or speed, very often
both, and sometimes other parameters such as
torque or acceleration rate. In the case of the two
examples given, the welding robot requires precise
control of both speed and distance; the crane
hydraulic system uses the driver as the feedback
system so its accuracy varies with the skill of the
operator. This wouldnt be considered a motion
control system in the strict sense of the term.
Our standard motion control system consists of
three basic elements:
Fig. 1 Elements of motion control system
High-Level
Commands
Host
Computer
or PLC
Command
Signals
Indexer/
Controller
Drive
Motor
Hybrid Stepper
DC Servo
Brushless
Servo Linear
Stepper
Controller
Drive
Motor
Velocity Feedback
A2
Table of Contents
Motor Applications
Step Motor Technology
Linear Step Motor Technology
Common Questions Regarding Step Motors
DC Brush Motor Technology
Brushless Motor Technology
Hybrid Servo Technology
Direct Drive Motor Technology
Step Motor Drive Technology
Microstepping Drive Technology
Analog and Digital Servo Drives
Brushless Servo Drive Technology
Servo Tuning
Feedback Devices
Machine Control
Control System Overview
Understanding I/O Modules
Serial & Parallel Communications
Electrical Noise Symptoms & Solutions
Emergency Stop
System Selection Considerations
Motor Sizing and Selection Software
System Calculations Move Profiles
System Calculations Leadscrew Drives
System Calculations Direct Drives
System Calculations Gear Drives
System Calculations Tangential Drives
System Calculations Linear Motors
Glossary of Terms
Technical Data
Application Examples
A3
A4
A9
A12
A13
A17
A20
A21
A23
A29
A31
A34
A36
A39
A45
A46
A48
A51
A52
A54
A55
A57
A58
A60
A63
A64
A65
A66
A68
A71
A72
Motor Technologies
The following section gives some idea of the
applications that are particularly appropriate for
each motor type, together with certain
applications that are best avoided. It should be
stressed that there is a wide range of
applications that can be equally well met by
more than one motor type, and the choice will
tend to be dictated by customer preference,
previous experience or compatibility with
existing equipment.
Cost-conscious applications will always be
worth attempting with a stepper, as it will
generally be hard to beat the steppers price.
This is particularly true when the dynamic
requirements are not severe, such as setting
type applications like positioning a guillotine
back-stop or a print roller.
High-torque, low-speed, continuous-duty
applications are also appropriate for step
motors. At low speeds, it is very efficient in
terms of torque output relative to both size and
input power. Microstepping can improve lowspeed applications such as a metering pump
drive for very accurate flow control.
Start Here
Will a stepper meet
the torque/speed
requirements?
No
Do you need to
control torque?
Is low-speed
smoothness
important?
Use a brushless
servo.
No
Is there a hybrid
servo which meets
the torque/speed
requirements?
Is rapid settling
important?
Yes
Yes
Try a hybrid
servo with
encoder feedback
if necessary.
Use a microstepping
with encoder
feedback?
Yes
Is quiet operation
important?
No
Yes
Yes
Really quiet?
No
No
No
Use a stepper
No
No
No
Is quiet operation
important?
Higher
torque/speed
technology.
Yes
Yes
No
Yes
Yes
No
Will a brushless
servo meet
the torque/speed
requirements?
No
No
No
Do you need to
detect position
loss OR measure
actual load
position to correct
for backlash?
Will a brush
servo meet
the torque/speed
requirements?
Yes
Yes
No
Use a microstepping,
hybrid servo, or
direct drive servo
A3
Yes
A Engineering Reference
Motor Technologies
Stepper Motor Disadvantages
Stepper motors have the following disadvantages:
Stepper Motors
Stepper Motor Benefits
Stepper motors have the following benefits:
Low cost
Ruggedness
Simplicity in construction
High reliability
No maintenance
Wide acceptance
No tweaking to stabilize
No feedback components are needed
They work in just about any environment
Inherently more failsafe than servo motors.
N
S
N S N S N
N
N
S
S N
S N
S
N
Rotor
Stator cup A
Coil A
Coil B
Stator cup B
Output shaft
Prelubricated
Bearing
Housing
Rotor
Stator
(a)
1A
(b)
N
2A
2B
S
N
S
N
N
S
(c)
(d)
S
1B
N
S
S
S
N
S
A Engineering Reference
Motor Technologies
Motor Technologies
If two coils are energized simultaneously (Fig. 1.6),
the rotor takes up an intermediate position since it
is equally attracted to two stator poles. Greater
torque is produced under these conditions because
all the stator poles are influencing the rotor. The
motor can be made to take a full step simply by
reversing the current in one set of windings; this
causes a 90 rotation of the stator field as before. In
fact, this would be the normal way of driving the
motor in the full-step mode, always keeping two
windings energized and reversing the current in
each winding alternately.
S
S
N
N
N
N
S
S
N
S
S
N
N
N
S
S
N
N
Phase 1
Phase 2
N
S
N
S
Phase 1
N
S
S
N
N
N
N
S
N
Phase 2
Phase 1
Phase 2
A6
+
-
+
-
Stator
Rotor
A7
A Engineering Reference
Motor Technologies
Motor Technologies
Bifilar Windings
Most motors are described as being bifilar wound,
which means there are two identical sets of
windings on each pole. Two lengths of wire are
wound together as though they were a single coil.
This produces two windings that are electrically and
magnetically almost identical if one coil were to be
wound on top of the other, even with the same
number of turns, the magnetic characteristics
would be different. In simple terms, whereas almost
all the flux from the inner coil would flow through
the iron core, some of the flux from the outer coil
would flow through the windings of the coil
underneath.
The origins of the bifilar winding go back to the
unipolar drive (see Drive Technologies section,
page A23). Rather than have to reverse the current
in one winding, the field may be reversed by
transferring current to a second coil wound in the
opposite direction. (Although the two coils are
wound the same way, interchanging the ends has
the same effect.) So with a bifilar-wound motor, the
drive can be kept simple. However, this
requirement has now largely disappeared with the
widespread availability of the more-efficient bipolar
drive. Nevertheless, the two sets of windings do
give us additional flexibility, and we shall see that
different connection methods can be used to give
alternative torque-speed characteristics.
If all the coils in a bifilar-wound motor are brought
out separately, there will be a total of 8 leads (see
Fig. 1.13). This is becoming the most common
configuration since it gives the greatest flexibility.
However, there are still a number of motors
produced with only 6 leads, one lead serving as a
common connection to each winding in a bifilar
pair. This arrangement limits the motors range of
application since the windings cannot be connected
in parallel. Some motors are made with only 4
leads, these are not bifilar-wound and cannot be
used with a unipolar drive. There is obviously no
alternative connection method with a 4-lead motor,
but in many applications this is not a drawback and
the problem of insulating unused leads is avoided.
Fig. 1.13 Motor lead configurations
4-lead
5-lead
6-lead
Fig. 1.14 also shows that the rotor flux only has to
cross a small air gap (typically 0.1mm or 0.004")
when the rotor is in position. By magnetizing the
rotor after assembly, a high flux density is obtained
that can be largely destroyed if the rotor is
removed. Stepper motors should therefore not be
dismantled purely to satisfy curiosity, since the
useful life of the motor will be terminated.
Because the shaft of the motor passes through the
center of the permanent magnet, a non-magnetic
material must be used to avoid a magnetic shortcircuit. Stepper shafts are therefore made of
stainless steel, and should be handled with care.
Small-diameter motors are particularly vulnerable if
they are dropped on the shaft end, as this will
invariably bend the shaft.
8-lead
A8
Phase A
Electromagnet
Field Windings
Platen Teeth
A1
A2
B1
Pole Faces
Air
Gap
Platen
B2
A9
A Engineering Reference
Motor Technologies
Motor Technologies
Repeating the sequence in the example will cause
the forcer to continue its movement. When the
sequence is stopped, the forcer stops with the
appropriate tooth set aligned. At rest, the forcer
develops a holding force that opposes any attempt
to displace it. As the resting motor is displaced from
equilibrium, the restoring force increases until the
displacement reaches one-quarter of a tooth
interval. (See Fig. 1.18.) Beyond this point, the
restoring force drops. If the motor is pushed over
the crest of its holding force, it slips or jumps rather
sharply and comes to rest at an integral number of
tooth intervals away from its original location. If this
occurs while the forcer is travelling along the platen,
it is referred to as a stall condition.
Fig. 1.17 The four cardinal states or full steps of
the forcer
Phase B
Phase A
Flux Lines
B 2 Aligned
Max
Torque
Stable
Unstable
Stable
A 2 Aligned
B 1Aligned
A10
4 Motor Steps
Angle
Clockwise
Torque
A 1 Aligned
Counter Clockwise
Angle
Time
Start/Stop Curve
Slew Curve
Torque
Start/
Stop
Range
Slew
Range
A11
A Engineering Reference
Motor Technologies
Motor Technologies
Common Questions and Answers
About Step Motors
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.
8.
9.
A12
DC Brush Motors
The history of the DC motor can be traced back to
the 1830s, when Michael Faraday did extensive
work with disc type machines (Fig. 1.21).
Fig. 1.21 Simple disc motor
Conductive Disc
Practical Considerations
The problem now is that of using this force to
produce the continuous torque required in a
practical motor.
To achieve maximum performance from the motor,
the maximum number of conductors must be
placed in the magnetic field, to obtain the greatest
possible force. In practice, this produces a cylinder
of wire, with the windings running parallel to the axis
of the cylinder. A shaft is placed down this axis to
act as a pivot, and this arrangement is called the
motor armature (Fig. 1.23).
Fig. 1.23 DC motor armature
S
Resultant
Field Due to
Armature
Current
Magnet
Shaft
Brush
Armature
Direction
of Current
Into Page
Stator Field
Conductor
Carrying
Current (I)
(Into Page)
Force (F)
Force on Conductor F = I x B
Current
In
Out
6
A13
A Engineering Reference
Motor Technologies
Motor Technologies
armature that occupies a fixed position in space,
independent of the armature rotation, and allows
the armature to be regarded as a wound core with
an axis of magnetization fixed in space. This gives
rise to the production of a constant torque output
from the motor shaft.
The axis of magnetization is determined by the
position of the brushes. If the motor is to have similar
characteristics in both directions of rotation, the
brush axis must be positioned to produce an axis of
magnetization that is at 90 to the stator field.
DC Motor Types
Magnets
Stator
Lam Teeth
Stator Magnets
Windings
Rotor Winding
Commutator
Brushes
Permanent magnet
(8 pole)
Core
Motion
Armature
(Hollow cup, shaped
conductor array)
A14
Flux path
Losses in DC Motors
DC motors are designed to convert electrical power
into mechanical power and as a consequence of
this, during periods of deceleration or if externally
driven, will generate electrical power. However, all
the input power is not converted into mechanical
power due to the electrical resistance of the
armature and other rotational losses. These losses
give rise to heat generation within the motor.
Load
Speed
Commutator
Brush
Winding
losses
Iron
losses
Friction
losses
Brush
losses
Short-cut
circuit losses
Winding
Torque Ripple
Steady Torque
O/P
Time
A15
A Engineering Reference
Motor Technologies
Motor Technologies
Demagnetization. The permanent magnets of a
DC motor field will tend to become demagnetized
whenever a current flows in the motor armature.
This effect is known as armature reaction and will
have a negligible effect in normal use. Under high
load conditions, however, when motor current may
be high, the effect will cause a reduction in the
torque constant of the motor and a consequent
reduction in torque output.
Above a certain level of armature current, the field
magnets will become permanently demagnetized.
Therefore, it is important not to exceed the
maximum pulse current rating for the motor.
Mechanical resonances and backlash. It might
normally be assumed that a motor and its load,
including a tachometer or position encoder, are all
rigidly connected together. This may, however, not
be the case.
Motor Equations
Unlike a step motor, the DC brush motor exhibits
simple relationships between current, voltage,
torque and speed. It is therefore worth examining
these relationships as an aid to the application of
brush motors.
The application of a constant voltage to the
terminals of a motor will result in its accelerating to
attain a steady final speed (n). Under these
conditions, the voltage (V) applied to the motor is
opposed by the back emf (nKE) and the resultant
voltage drives the motor current (I) through the
motor armature and brush resistance (Rs).
The equivalent circuit of a DC motor is shown in
Fig. 1.34.
Fig. 1.34 DC motor equivalent circuit
L
Load
Motor
Tach
Back emf
As described previously, a permanent magnet DC
motor will operate as a generator. As the shaft is
rotated, a voltage will appear across the brush
terminals. This voltage is called the back
electromotive force (emf) and is generated even
when the motor is driven by an applied voltage. The
output voltage is essentially linear with motor speed
and has a slope that is defined as the motor voltage
constant, KE (Fig. 1.33). K E is typically quoted in
volts per 1000 rpm.
Fig. 1.33 Back-emf characteristic
Output
volts
Shaft speed
A16
Rs
RL
Vg
Rs = motor resistance
L = winding inductance
Vg = back emf and
RL represents magnetic losses.
The value of RL is usually large and so can be
ignored, as can the inductance L, which is generally
small.
If we apply a voltage (V) to the motor and a current
(I) flows, then:
V = IRs + Vg
but
Vg = nKE
so
V = IRs + nK E
(1)
This is the electrical equation of the motor.
If KT is the torque constant of the motor (typically in
oz/in per Amp), then the torque generated by the
motor is given by:
T = IKT
(2)
The opposing torque due to friction (TF) and viscous
damping (KD) is given by:
TM = TF + nKD
If the motor is coupled to a load TL ,then at
constant speed:
T = TL + TF + nKD (3)
Equations (1), (2) and (3) allow us to calculate the
required current and drive voltage to meet given
torque and speed requirements. The values of KT,
KE, etc. are given in the motor manufacturers data.
Brushless Motors
Before we talk about brushless motors in detail,
lets clear up a few points about terminology. The
term brushless has become accepted as referring
to a particular variety of servo motor. Clearly a step
motor is a brushless device, as is an AC induction
motor (in fact, the step motor can form the basis of
a brushless servo motor, often called a hybrid
servo, which is discussed later). However, the socalled brushless motor has been designed to have
a similar performance to the DC brush servo
without the limitations imposed by a mechanical
commutator.
Within the brushless category are two basic motor
types: trapezoidal and sine wave motors. The
trapezoidal motor is really a brushless DC servo,
whereas the sine wave motor bears a close
resemblance to the AC synchronous motor. To fully
explain the difference between these motors, we
must review the evolution of the brushless motor.
Fig. 1.35 Conventional DC brush motor
Commutator
N
S
Commutation
Encoder
Drive
N
S
Reversing Switch
A17
A Engineering Reference
Motor Technologies
Motor Technologies
Fig. 1.38 3-phase brushless motor
A1
Stator
Field
B2
C2
A1
C2
C1
A2
B2
C2
B1
B2
A2
C1
B1
B1
A2
A1
I
C2 A2
B2
B1
C1
Stator
Field
A1
B2
C2
N
N
S
C1
C1
B1
A2
A1
+
Torque
90
Direction of Rotor
Field Relative
to Stator Field
180
C2
A2
B2
B1
C1
A1
C2
B2
S
Stator
Field
B1
C1
A2
S
Stator
Field
A1
Rotation
N
60
C2 A2
B2
120
C1
Stator
Field
Rotor
Field
Average Lag = 90
A18
B1
Motor Technologies
With a fixed current level in the windings, the use of
this extended portion of the sinusoidal torque
characteristic gives rise to a large degree of torque
ripple. We can minimize the effect by manipulating
the motor design to flatten out the characteristic
to make it trapezoidal, (Fig. 1.42). In practice, this is
not very easy to do, so some degree of non-linearity
will remain. The effect of this tends to be a slight
kick at the commutation points, which can be
noticeable when the motor is running very slowly.
Fig. 1.42 Trapezoidal motor characteristic
60
60
angle very accurately, resulting in very smooth lowspeed rotation and negligible torque ripple. A
simplified explanation of why the sine wave motor
produces constant torque is given in the next
section.
The drive for a sine wave motor is more complex
than for the trapezoidal version. We need a
reference table from which to generate the
sinusoidal currents, and these must be multiplied by
the torque demand signal to determine their
absolute amplitude. With a star-connected threephase motor, it is sufficient to determine the
currents in two of the windingsthis will
automatically determine what happens in the third.
As previously mentioned, the sine wave motor
needs a high-resolution feedback device. However,
this device can also provide position and velocity
information for the controller.
Why constant torque from a sine wave
motor?
To understand this, its easier to think in terms of a
two-phase motor. This has just two sets of
windings that are fed with sinusoidal currents at 90
to each other. If we represent shaft position by an
angle , then the currents in the two windings are of
the form Isin and Icos.
Going back to our original motor model, youll
remember that the fundamental torque
characteristic of the motor is also sinusoidal. So for
a given current I, the instantaneous torque value
looks like:
T = I KT sin
Where KT is the motor torque constant
By making the motor current sinusoidal as well, and
in phase with the motor torque characteristic, the
torque generated by one phase becomes:
T1 = (I sin) KT sin
= I KT sin2
Similarly, the torque produced by the other phase
is:
T2 = I KT cos2
The total torque is:
Current
T1 + T2 = I KT (sin2 + cos2)
but:
sin2 + cos2 = 1 for any value of
therefore: T1 + T2 = IKT
So for sinusoidal phase currents with a constant
amplitude, the resultant torque is also constant and
independent of shaft position.
For this condition to remain true, the drive currents
must accurately follow a sine-cosine relationship.
This can only occur with a sufficiently high
resolution in the encoder or resolver used for
commutation.
A19
A Engineering Reference
Motor Technologies
The Hybrid Servo
In terms of their basic operation, the step motor
and the brushless servo motor are identical. They
each have a rotating magnet system and a wound
stator. The only difference is that one has more
poles than the other, typically two or three polepairs in the brushless servo and 50 in the stepper.
You could use a brushless servo as a stepper not
a very good one, since the step angle would be
large. But by the same token, you can also use a
stepper as a brushless servo by fitting a feedback
device to perform the commutation. Hence the
hybrid servo, so called because it is based on a
hybrid step motor (Fig. 1.44). These have also been
dubbed stepping servos and closed-loop
steppers. We prefer not to use the term stepper
at all since such a servo exhibits none of the
operating characteristics of a step motor.
The hybrid servo is driven in precisely the same
fashion as the brushless motor. A two-phase drive
provides sine and cosine current waveforms in
response to signals from the feedback device. This
device may be an optical encoder or a resolver. Since
the motor has 50 pole pairs, there will be 50 electrical
cycles per revolution. This conveniently permits a 50cycle resolver to be constructed from the same rotor
and stator laminations as the motor itself.
Rotor
Two MS Style
Connectors
Position Feedback
Device Rotor
Bearing
Housing
Position Feedback
Device Stator
A20
Motor Technologies
Motor Construction and Operation
Direct drive systems couple the systems load
directly to the motor without the use of belts or
gears. In some situations, brushed or brushlesss
servo motors may lack adequate torque or
resolution to satisfy some applications needs.
Therefore, mechanical means, such as gear
reduction systems to increase torque and
resolution, are used to meet system requirements.
The Dynaserv Direct Drive can provide very high
torque in a modest package size and solves many
of the performance issues of the gear reducer. All in
a system that is as easy to use as a stepping
motor.
Fig. 1.45 below shows the construction of the
Dynaserv DM Series direct drive motor compared
to a conventional motor with a gear reducer. The
gear reducer relies on large amounts of frictional
contact to reduce the speed of the load. This
gearing effectively increases torque and resolution
but sacrifices speed and accuracy. The direct drive
motor is brushless and gearless so it eliminates
friction from its power transmission Since the
feedback element is coupled directly to the load,
system accuracy and repeatability are greatly
increased and backlash is eliminated.
PDA Kit
Encoder
Rotor Core
Housing
Hub
Core
DC/AC
Motor
Bearing
Rotating
Element
Encoder PCB
Slit Plate
Stator
Element
Encoder
Rotor Core
Stator Core
Rotor
Excitation
Coil
Stator A
Permanent
Magnet
Stator B
A21
A Engineering Reference
Motor Technologies
Direct Drive Motor Advantages
High Precision
Dynaserv motors eliminate the backlash or
hysteresis inevitable in using any speed reducer.
Absolute positioning of 30 arc-sec is typical with a
repeatability of 2 arc-sec.
Faster Settling Time
The Dynaserv system reduces machine cycle times
by decreasing settling times. This result is realized
because of the gearless design and sophisticated
I-PD control algorithm.
High Torque at High Speed
The torque/speed curve of the various Dynaserv
models is very flat. This results in high acceleration
at high speeds (4.0 rps) with good controllability.
Optimum Tuning
Dynaserv systems offer the user a tuning mode that
simplifies the setting of optimum parameters for the
actual load. Turning on the test switch on the
front panel of the drive produces a test signal.
Using an oscilloscope, the gain settings are quickly
optimized by adjusting the digital switches and
potentiometers on the front panel.
Clean Operation
The Dynaserv system is brushless and gearless,
which results in a maintenance-free operation. With
preparation, the Dynaserv can operate in class 10
environments.
Smooth Rotation
The very low velocity and torque ripple of the
Dynaserv contribute to its excellent speed
controllability with a more than 1:1,000 speed ratio.
Torque Ripple
(DM1015A)
20
Conditions
Load 30 x Rotor Inertia
Rotation: CW
Speed Mode
15.3
15
14.7
5%
10
Torque (N m)
Ripple (%)
15
5
3
0
0.2
0.4
0.6
0.8
1.0
Revolution (rps)
A22
1.2
90
180
270
360
Drive Technologies
The stepper drive delivers electrical power to the
motor in response to low-level signals from the
control system.
The motor is a torque-producing device, and this
torque is generated by the interaction of magnetic
fields. The driving force behind the stator field is the
magneto-motive force (MMF), which is proportional
to current and to the number of turns in the
winding. This is often referred to as the amp-turns
product. Essentially, the drive must act as a source
of current. The applied voltage is only significant as
a means of controlling the current.
Input signals to the stepper drive consist of step
pulses and a direction signal. One step pulse is
required for every step the motor is to take. This is
true regardless of the stepping mode. So the drive
may require 200 to 101,600 pulses to produce one
revolution of the shaft. The most commonly-used
stepping mode in industrial applications is the halfstep mode in which the motor performs 400 steps
per revolution. At a shaft speed of 1800 rpm, this
corresponds to a step pulse frequency of 20kHz.
The same shaft speed at 25,000 steps per rev
requires a step frequency of 750 kHz, so motion
controllers controlling microstep drives must be
able to output a much higher step frequency.
Fig. 2.1 Stepper drive elements
1A
1B
TR1
2A
TR2
2B
TR3
TR4
0V
Stepper Drive
Elements
Step
Phase 1
Translator
Switch
Set
Motor
Direction
Phase 2
Step
Direction
A23
A Engineering Reference
Drive Technologies
Inductance/Water Analogy
For those not familiar with the property of
inductance, the following water analogy may be
useful (Fig. 2.3). An inductor behaves in the same
way as a turbine connected to a flywheel. When the
tap is turned on and pressure is applied to the inlet
pipe, the turbine will take time to accelerate due to
the inertia of the flywheel. The only way to increase
Kinetic Energy
of Flywheel
Equivalent to
Energy Stored
in Magnetic Field
Tap
I
1-Way
Valve
Turbine
Water Flow
Equivalent
to Current
Higher Pressure
Causes Flywheel
to Accelerate
More Rapidly
Voltage
(Pressure)
Reverse Pressure
When Flow
Interrupted
Current
(Flow)
A24
R-L Drive
Bipolar Drive
TR1
0V
TR2
2V
V-
2V
2V
2R
Unipolar Drive
Fig. 2.5 Basic unipolar drive
V+
1A
V+
1B
2A
2B
TR1
TR2
TR3
TR4
TR1
TR3
TR2
TR4
0V
0V
TR1
TR3
TR2
TR4
0V
A25
A Engineering Reference
Drive Technologies
Drive Technologies
Recirculating Chopper Drive
The method of current control used in most stepper
drives is the recirculating chopper (Fig. 2.9). This
approach incorporates the four-transistor bridge,
recirculation diodes, and a sense resistor. The
resistor is of low value (typically 0.1 ohm) and
provides a feedback voltage proportional to the
current in the motor.
Fig. 2.9 Recirculating chopper drive
+
TR1
TR2
TR3
D1
D2
TR1
TR4
TR2
TR3
D1
D2
TR4
Vs
Vs
Rs
Rs
Injection
Recirculation
Motor current
A26
+V
HV
D2
Power
dump
circuit
Power
supply
capacitor
D1
AC
in
R6
33
10W
R2
TR1
1K
R5
100K
R3
C1
R1
TR2
R4
0V
A27
A Engineering Reference
Drive Technologies
Drive Technologies
Stepper Drive Technology Overview
A28
Velocity
Velocity
Time
Time
Ministep Systems
Applications that require better low-speed
smoothness than a half-step system should
consider using a microstepping or ministepping
solution. Microstepping systems, with resolutions
of 50,000 steps/rev, can offer exceptional
smoothness, without requiring a gear-reducer.
Ministepping systems typically do not have wavetrimming capability or offset adjustment to achieve
the optimum smoothness, but offer a great
improvement over full-step and half-step systems.
Ministepping systems have resolutions between
1,000 and 4,000 steps/rev.
The motor is an important element in providing
good smoothness. Some motor designs are
optimized for high-torque output rather than
smooth rotation. Others are optimized for
smoothness rather than high torque. Ministepping
systems are typically offered with a motor as a
packaged total solution, using a motor that has
been selected for its premium smoothness
properties.
Ministep systems are sometimes selected to
improve positional accuracy. However, with an
open-loop system, friction may prevent the
theoretical unloaded accuracy from being achieved
in practice.
Drive Technologies
Sinewave
Filled out
Regulated Region
Torque
Voltage-Limited
Region
Drive with
Higher Supply
Voltage
Speed
Average
Current
During
Pulse
Trimmed
A29
A Engineering Reference
Microstepping Drives
Drive Technologies
With a bipolar drive, alternative possibilities exist for
the motor connections as shown in Fig. 2.14. An
8-lead motor can be connected with the two halves
of each winding either in series or in parallel. With
a 6-lead motor, either one half-winding or both
half-windings may be connected in series. The
alternative connection schemes produce different
torque-speed characteristics and also affect the
motors current rating.
1A
1B 2A
2B 1A
Series
1B 2A
2B
Parallel
Torque
Series
Parallel
Speed
A30
TR1
V
TR2
- Ve
A31
A Engineering Reference
Drive Technologies
Drive Technologies
Analog DC Drive Operation
The elements of an analog velocity amplifier are
shown in Fig. 2.17. The function of the system is to
control motor velocity in response to an analog
input voltage.
Fig. 2.17 Elements of an analog servo system
Velocity
Control
Signal
Torque
Control
Signal
A
Drive
Amplifier
Accelerating
CW
CCW
CW
Accelerating
CCW
Braking
CW
CCW
A32
Torque
Drive Technologies
Tuning
RS-232C
Step
Microprocessor
Direction
D to A
Converter
PWM
Control
Amplifier
Encoder
M
A33
A Engineering Reference
Drive Technologies
Brushless Motor Drives
The trapezoidal drive
Fig. 2.20 shows a simplified layout of the drive for a
three-phase trapezoidal motor. The switch set is
based on the familiar H-bridge, but uses three bridge
legs instead of two.The motor windings are
connected between the three bridge legs as shown,
with no connection to the star point at the junction of
the windings. By turning on the appropriate two
transistors in the bridge, current can be made to flow
in either direction through any two motor windings.
At any particular time, the required current path
depends on rotor position and direction of rotation,
so the bridge transistors are selected by logic driven
from the commutation encoder.
A PWM recirculating chopper system controls the
current in the same way as in the DC brush drive
described previously. The required current
feedback information is provided by sense
resistors connected in series with two of the motor
leads. The voltage signals derived from these
resistors must be decoded and combined to
provide a useful current reference, and the circuit
that does this also uses the commutation encoder
to determine how to interpret the information. In
fact, this is not a simple process because the
Velocity Amp
Velocity
Input
+
-
Torque
Amp
+
Logic
PWM &
Circuit
Velocity
Feedback
-
Current
Sense
Selector
Motor
Communication
Encoder
A34
Drive Technologies
Sine wave brushless motors can be two- or threephase, and the drive we'll look at is for the twophase version (see Fig. 2.21). This uses two Hbridges to control current in the two motor
windings, and the power section of this drive
closely resembles a pair of DC brush drives. By
contrast with the previous example, this drive uses
a digital processor-based control section that takes
its input in the form of step and direction signals.
We need to generate currents in the two motor
windings that follow a sine and cosine pattern as
the shaft rotates. The drive shown in Fig. 2.21 uses
a brushless resolver and a resolver-to-digital
converter (RDC) to detect the shaft position. From
this, we will get a number that can be fed to a
reference table to determine the instantaneous
current values for that particular shaft position. Bear
in mind that the reference table will only indicate
relative currents in the two windingsthe absolute
Step
D-to-A
Converter
PWM
Control
H - Bridge
D-to-A
Converter
PWM
Control
H - Bridge
Microprocessor
Direction
Resolver
to Digital
Converter
Motor
Resolver
A35
A Engineering Reference
Servo Tuning
Tuning a Servo System
Any closed-loop servo system, whether analog or
digital, will require some tuning. This is the process
of adjusting the characteristics of the servo so that
it follows the input signal as closely as possible.
Why is tuning necessary?
A servo system is error-driven, in other words, there
must be a difference between the input and the
output before the servo will begin moving to reduce
the error. The gain of the system determines how
hard the servo tries to reduce the error. A high-gain
system can produce large correcting torques when
the error is very small. A high gain is required if the
output is to follow the input faithfully with minimal
error.
Now a servo motor and its load both have inertia,
which the servo amplifier must accelerate and
decelerate while attempting to follow a change at
the input. The presence of the inertia will tend to
result in over-correction, with the system oscillating
or ringing beyond either side of its target (Fig. 3.1).
This ringing must be damped, but too much
damping will cause the response to be sluggish.
When we tune a servo, we are trying to achieve the
fastest response with little or no overshoot.
Fig. 3.1 System response characteristics
Output
Underdamped
Response
Critical Damping
Overdamped Response
Time
Servo
Amplifier
Velocity
Input
Tach
Feedback Signal
Oscillator
A36
Motor
Tach
Scope
+30
+20
Gain
+10
db
0
-10
Frequency
Input
Output
Characteristics of a Practical
Servo System
0
-90
Phase
Shift
-180
+dB
Gain
Phase
Shaft resonance
2 kHz typical
0
-dB
-180
B
-360
A37
A Engineering Reference
Servo Tuning
Servo Tuning
The second point of interest is the CROSSOVER
FREQUENCY, which is the frequency at which the
gain curve passes through 0dB (unity gain). This
frequency is typically between 40 and 300Hz. On
the phase plot, (beta) is the phase margin at the
crossover frequency. If is very small, the system
will overshoot and ring at the crossover frequency.
So represents the degree of damping the
system will be heavily damped if is large.
The DAMPING control increases the phase margin
at the crossover frequency. It operates by applying
lead compensation, sometimes called acceleration
feedback. The compensation network creates a
phase lead in the region of the crossover frequency,
which increases the phase margin and therefore
improves the stability.
Increasing the damping also tends to reduce the
gain at the 2kHz peak, allowing a higher gain to be
used before instability occurs. Therefore, the time
constant should be re-adjusted after the damping
has been set up.
Whats the effect of adding load inertia?
An external load will alter both the gain and phase
characteristics. Not only will the overall gain be
reduced owing to the larger inertia, but an
additional gain spike will be introduced due to
torsional oscillation between the motor and the
load. This gain spike may well be larger than the
original 2kHz spike, in which case the motor will
start to buzz at a lower frequency when the time
constant is adjusted.
A38
+dB
Gain
-dB
Motor
plus load
0
Phase
-180
-360
Feedback
ServoDevices
Tuning
A permanent magnet DC motor may be used as a
tachometer. When driven mechanically, this motor
generates an output voltage that is proportional to
shaft speed (see Fig. 4.1). The other main
requirements for a tachometer are that the output
voltage should be smooth over the operating range
and that the output should be stabilized against
temperature variations.
Small permanent magnet DC motors are
frequently used in servo systems as speed sensing
devices. These systems usually incorporate
thermistor temperature compensation and make
use of a silver commutator and silver loaded
brushes to improve commutation reliability at low
speeds and at the low currents, which are typical of
this application.
To combine high performance and low cost, DCservo motor designs often incorporate a
tachometer mounted on the motor shaft and
enclosed within the motor housing (Fig. 4.1).
Fig. 4.1 Tachometer output characteristics
Output
Volts
Shaft Speed
Collimated
Light Source
Grating
Mask
Detector
Output
Voltage
Motor
Optical Encoders
In servo control systems, where mechanical
position is required to be controlled, some form of
position sensing device is needed. There are a
number of types in use: magnetic, contact,
resistive, and optical. However, for accurate
position control, the most commonly used device is
the optical encoder. There are two forms of this
encoder absolute and incremental.
Optical encoders operate by means of a grating,
that moves between a light source and a detector.
When light passes through the transparent areas of
the grating, an output is seen from the detector.
For increased resolution, the light source is
collimated and a mask is placed between the
grating and the detector. The grating and the mask
produce a shuttering effect, so that only when their
transparent sections are in alignment is light
allowed to pass to the detector (Fig. 4.3).
DC
Offset
Shaft
Rotation
A39
A Engineering Reference
Tachometers
Feedback
Devices
Servo Tuning
Fig. 4.5 Output from dual photodiode system
V1
Output 1
V1
Output 2
DC
Offset
Shaft
Rotation
Combined
Output (1-2)
Channel A
Channel A
Channel B
A40
Channel A
Noise Spike
A
Inverted A
Eccentricity
This may be caused by bearing play, shaft run out,
incorrect assembly of the disc on its hub or the hub
on the shaft. Eccentricity may cause a number of
different error conditions.
a) Amplitude Modulation In a sine wave encoder,
eccentricity will be apparent as amplitude
modulation (Fig. 4.11).
Fig. 4.11 Amplitude modulation caused by
eccentricity
Nominal Signal
Level
Signal Amplitude
Nominal Frequency (f 1 )
Quantization Error
A41
A Engineering Reference
Feedback
ServoDevices
Tuning
Feedback
Devices
Servo Tuning
Mechanical Construction
Shaft encoder (Fig. 4.13). In this type of encoder,
which may be either incremental or absolute, the
electronics are normally supported on a substantial
mounting plate that houses the bearings and shaft.
The shaft protrudes from the bearings on the
outside of the encoder, for connection to the
rotating system, and on the inside, so that the
encoder disc may be mounted in the appropriate
position relative to the light source and detector.
The internal parts are covered by an outer casing,
through which the interconnecting leads pass.
Fig. 4.13 Shaft encoder
Interconnecting
Leads
Cover
Mounting Plate
Shaft
A42
Feedback
ServoDevices
Tuning
An absolute encoder is a position verification device
that provides unique position information for each
shaft location. The location is independent of all
other locations, unlike the incremental encoder,
where a count from a reference is required to
determine position.
Fig. 4.15 Absolute disk
Current
Position
1
1
0
1
1011 = Decimal 11
Bearing
Seals
Additional Turns
Stages
A43
A Engineering Reference
Feedback
Devices
Servo Tuning
Whenever power is supplied to an absolute system,
it can read the current position immediately. In a
facility where frequent power failures are common,
an absolute encoder is a necessity.
Operation in Electrically Noisy Environments
Equipment such as welders and motor starters
often generate electrical noise that can often look
like encoder pulses to an incremental counter.
Electrical noise does not alter the discrete position
that an absolute system reads.
High-speed Long-distance Data Transfer
Use of a serial interface such as RS-422 gives the
user the option of transmitting absolute position
information over as much as 4,000 feet.
Eliminate Go Home or Referenced Starting
Point
The need to find a home position or a reference
point is not required with an absolute encoding
system since an absolute system always knows its
location. In many motion control applications, it is
difficult or impossible to find a home reference
point. This situation occurs in multi-axis machines
and on machines that can't reverse direction. This
feature will be particularly important in a lights-out
manufacturing facility. Significant cost savings is
realized in reduced scrap and set-up time resulting
from a power loss.
Provide Reliable Position Information in
High-speed Applications
The counting device is often the factor limiting the
use of incremental encoders in high-speed
applications. The counter is often limited to a
maximum pulse input of 100 KHz. An absolute
encoder does not require a counting device or
continuous observation of the shaft or load location.
This attribute allows the absolute encoder to be
applied in high-speed and high-resolution
applications.
Resolvers
A resolver is, in principle, a rotating transformer.
If we consider two windings, A and B (Fig. 4.19),
and if we feed winding B with a sinusoidal voltage,
then a voltage will be induced into winding A. If we
rotate winding B, the induced voltage will be at
maximum when the planes of A and B are parallel
and will be at minimum when they are at right
angles. Also, the voltage induced into A will vary
sinusoidally at the frequency of rotation of B so that
EOA = Ei Sin. If we introduce a third winding (C),
positioned at right angles to winding A, then as we
rotate B, a voltage will be induced into this winding
and this voltage will vary as the cosine of the angle
, so that EOC = Ei Cos
Winding B
Fig. 4.19 Resolver principle
Winding A
A44
E iCos
360
E i Sin
1 Electrical Cycle
Sine
Multiplier
Integrator
Phase
Comparitor
Cosine
Multiplier
Up/Down
Counter
Digital Output
(Shaft Angle)
Voltage
Control
Oscillator
Integrator
DC Signal
(Velocity)
Ei
EOA
Stator
Phase 2
Rotor
Control Systems
Many industrial designers are concerned with
controlling an entire process. Motion control is one
important and influential aspect of complete
machine control. The primary elements of machine
control include:
Fig. 5.1 Primary machine control elements
Motion Control
Servos
Steppers
Hydraulics
Mainframes
MIS
SPC
Switches
Indicators
Readout
Actuators
Ne
two
ital
rks
I/O
Dig
Machine
Control
f
ter
r In
ato
er
Op
ace
Displays
Keyboards
Touchscreens
An
alo
gI
/O
Sensors
Gauges
Meters
Data Acquisition
Proportional Valves
A45
A Engineering Reference
Machine Control
Control Systems
Control System Overview
The controller is an essential part of any motion
control system. It determines speed, direction,
distance and acceleration rate in fact all the
parameters associated with the operation that the
motor performs. The output from the controller is
connected to the drives input, either in the form of
an analog voltage or as step and direction signals.
In addition to controlling one or more motors, many
controllers have additional inputs and outputs that
allow them to monitor other functions on a machine
(see Machine Control, p. A45).
Controllers can take a wide variety of forms. Some
examples are listed below.
Standalone This type of controller operates
without data or other control signals from external
sources. A standalone unit usually incorporates a
keypad for data entry as well as a display, and
frequently includes a main power supply. It will also
include some form of nonvolatile memory to allow it
to store a sequence of operations. Many controllers
that need to be programmed from a terminal or
computer can, once programmed, also operate in
standalone mode.
Bus-based A bus-based controller is designed to
accept data from a host computer using a standard
communications bus. Typical bus systems include
STD, VME and IBM-PC bus. The controller will
usually be a plug-in card that conforms to the
standards for the corresponding bus system. For
example, a controller operating on the IBM-PC bus
resides within the PC, plugging into an expansion
slot and functioning as an intelligent peripheral.
PLC-based A PLC-based indexer is designed to
accept data from a PLC in the form of I/O
communication. Typically, the I/O information is in
BCD format. The BCD information may select a
program to execute, a distance to move, a time
delay, or any other parameter requiring a number.
The PLC is well suited to I/O actuation, but poorly
suited to perform complex operations such as math
and complicated decision making. The motion
control functions are separated from the PLC's
processor and thus do not burden its scan time.
X Code-based X Code is a command language
specifically developed for motion control and
intended for transmission along an RS-232C link.
Controllers using this language either accept realtime commands from a host computer or execute
stored sequences that have been previously
programmed. The simplicity of RS-232C
communication allows the controller to be
incorporated into the drive itself, resulting in an
integrated indexer/drive package.
A46
X Code Programming
X Code has been designed to allow motion control
equipment to be programmed by users with little or
no computer experience. Although the language
includes more than 150 commands, depending on
the product, it is only necessary to learn a small
percentage of these to write simple programs.
Most command codes use the initial letter of the
function name, which makes them easy to
remember. Here are some examples of frequently
used commands.
V velocity in revs/sec
D distance in steps
A acceleration rate in revs/sec2
G go; start the move
T time delay in seconds
A typical command string might look like this:
V10 A50 D4000 G T2 G
This would set the velocity to 10 revs/sec,
acceleration to 50 revs/sec2 and distance to 4000
steps. The 4000-step move would be performed
twice with a 2-second wait between moves.
Please refer to specifications of X Code products
for a list of all the available X Code commands.
Single-axis and Multi-axis Controllers
A single-axis controller can, as the name implies,
only control one motor. The controller in an
integrated indexer/drive comes into this category.
However, such units are frequently used in systems
using more than one motor where the operations
do not involve precise synchronization between
axes.
A multi-axis controller is designed to control more
than one motor and can very often perform
complex operations such as linear or circular
interpolation. These operations require accurate
synchronization between axes, which is generally
easier to achieve with a central controller.
A variant of the multi-axis controller is the
multiplexed unit, which can control several motors
on a time-shared basis. A printing machine having
the machine settings controlled by stepper motors
could conveniently use this type of controller when
the motors do not need to be moved
simultaneously.
Hardware-based Controllers
Control systems designed without the use of a
microprocessor have been around for many years
and can be very cost-effective in simpler
applications. They tend to lack flexibility and are
therefore inappropriate where the move parameters
are continually changing. For this reason, the
hardware-based controller has now given way
almost exclusively to systems based on a
microprocessor.
Control Systems
XCode
Commands
RS-232C
Communications
Interface
Nonvolatile
RAM
Step
Microprocessor
Programmable
Pulse
Generator
Direction
Inputs
I/O
Interface
Program
Memory ROM
Output
to Drive
Outputs
Processor-based Controllers
The flexibility offered by a microprocessor system
makes it a natural choice for motion control.
Fig. 5.2 shows the elements of a typical step and
direction controller that can operate either in
conjunction with a host computer or as a standalone unit.
All the control functions are handled by the
microprocessor whose operating program is
stored in ROM. This program will include an
interpreter for the command language, which may
be X Code for example.
X Code commands are received from the host
computer or terminal via the RS-232C
communications interface. These commands are
simple statements that contain the required speed,
distance and acceleration rate, etc. The processor
interprets these commands and uses the
information to control the programmable pulse
generator. This in turn produces the step and
direction signals that will control a stepper or servo
drive.
A47
A Engineering Reference
Control Systems
Understanding Input and Output Modules
The primary reason for using I/O modules is to
interface 5VDC logic signals from an indexer to
switches and relays on the factory floor, which
typically run on voltage levels ranging from 24VDC
to 220VAC. Solid-state I/O modules are essentially
a relay, utilizing light emitting diode (LED) and a
transistor along with a signal conditioning circuit to
activate a switch. These I/O modules isolate (no
direct connection) the internal microprocessor
circuitry of an indexer from oversized DC and AC
voltages. The lack of a physical connection
between the indexer and external devices, protects
the indexer from hazardous voltage spikes and
current surges.
Optional
Circuit Board
Indicating
LED
Switch #1
+5VDC
+
+
10 to 24VDC
Floating
Source
10 to 24 mA
Logic Signal
Signal
Conditioning
1K
Coupling
LED
Photo
Transistor
Screw
Terminals
Ground
(+)
Amplifier
Logic
(equivalent
circuit)
A48
LED
Photo
Transistor
(-)
Output
Transistor
Load 10
(solenoid)
+
24VDC
Screw
Terminals
2.4 Amps
Control Systems
voltage to DC levels. AC input modules also include
transient protection to filter out spikes from the AC
line (caused by lightning strikes, arc welders, etc.).
Pushbutton
Indicator
Rectifying
Bridge
+5VDC
LED
8mA
Logic Signal
Signal
Conditioning
Screw
Terminals
Photo
Transistor
14K
120 VAC
60Hz
Power Line
Ground
Indicator
+5VDC
C
Zero
Voltage
Circuit
Logic
(equivalent
circuit)
LED
Photo
Transistor
Load
(motor)
R
Triac
Snubber
Screw
Terminals
120VAC
60Hz
Power Line
A49
A Engineering Reference
Control Systems
Serial and Parallel Communications
Serial and parallel communications are methods of
transferring data from a host computer to a
peripheral device such as a Compumotor indexer.
In the case of a Compumotor indexer, the data
consist of parameters such as acceleration,
Fig. 5.8 Serial Communications
Data bits
Parity bit
Start bit
Stop bits
IEEE-488
IBM PC
VME Bus
STD Bus
Multi Bus
0
0
0
Time
(baud rate)
Serial
Serial communication transmits data one bit at a
time on a single data line. Single data bits are
grouped together into a byte and transmitted at a
predetermined interval (baud rate). Serial
communication links can be as simple as a 3-line
connection; transmit (Tx), receive (Rx) and ground
(G). This is an advantage from a cost standpoint,
but usually results in slower communications than
parallel communications. Common serial interfaces
include RS-232C, RS-422, RS-485, RS-423.
Troubleshooting
Procedure for troubleshooting 3-wire RS-232C
communication.
1. Verify that the transmit of the host is wired to the
receive of the peripheral, and receive of the host
is wired to the transmit of the peripheral. Note:
Try switching the receive and transmit wires on
either the host or peripheral if you fail to get any
communication.
2. Some serial ports require handshaking. You can
establish 3-wire communication by jumpering
RTS to CTS (usually pins 4 and 5) and DSR to
DTR (usually pins 6 and 20).
3. Configure the host and peripheral to the same
baud rate, number of data bits, number of stop
bits, and parity.
4. If you receive double characters (e.g., typing A
and receiving AA), your computer is set to half
duplex mode. Change to full duplex mode.
5. Use DC common or signal ground as your
reference, NOT earth ground.
6. Cable lengths should not exceed 50 ft. unless
you are using some form of line driver, optical
coupler, or shield. As with any control signal, be
sure to shield the cable to earth ground at one
end only.
7. To test terminal or terminal emulation software
for proper 3-wire communication, unhook the
peripheral device and transmit a character. An
echoed character should not be received. If a
character is received, you are in half duplex
mode. Jumper the hosts transmit and receive
lines and send another character. You should
receive the echoed character. If not, consult the
manufacturer of the hosts serial interface for
proper pin outs.
A50
Signals
A = 0100
1 = 0011
0001
0001
Parallel
Parallel communication requires handshaking and
transmits data one byte (8 bits) at a time. When
data are transferred from the host processor to a
peripheral device, the following steps take place.
1. The host sets a bit on the bus signalling to the
peripheral that a byte of data has been sent.
2. The peripheral receives data and sets a bit on
the bus, signalling to the host that data have
been received.
The advantage of communicating in parallel vs.
serial is faster communications. However, since
parallel communications require more
communication lines, the cost can be higher than
serial communications.
Parallel bus structures include:
IEEE-488, IBM PC, VME, MULTIBUS, Q and STD.
Troubleshooting
Procedure for troubleshooting parallel
communication.
1. Make certain the address setting of the
peripheral device is configured properly.
2. Confirm that multiple boards are not set to the
same address (and each board is sealed
properly into a slot).
3. Verify that peripheral subroutines to reset the
board, write data, and read data work properly.
Follow the handshaking procedure outlined in
the devices user manual.
Note: Compumotor bus-based indexers come
complete with a diskette that includes pretested
programs to verify system functions and
routines for simple user program development.
Control Systems
Serial and Parallel Communications
NULL MODEM: A simple device or set of
connectors that switches the receive and transmit
lines a 3-wire RS-232C connector.
PARITY: An RS-232C error detection scheme that
can detect an odd number of transmission errors.
SERIAL POLLING: Method of checking the status
of the IEEE-488 device. By reading the status byte,
the host can determine if the device is ready to
receive or send characters.
START BITS: When using RS-232C, one or two
bits are added to every character to signal the end
of a character.
TEXT/ECHO (ON/OFF): This setup allows received
characters to be re-transmitted back to the original
sending device. Echoing characters can be used to
verify or close the loop on a transmission.
XON/XOFF: Two ASCII characters supported in
some serial communication programs. If supported,
the receiving device transmits an XOFF character to
the host when its character buffer is full. The XOFF
character directs the host to stop transmitting
characters to the device. Once the buffer empties,
the device will transmit an XON character to signal
the host to resume transmission.
A Engineering Reference
ASCII Table
DEC
HEX
GRAPHIC
DEC
HEX
GRAPHIC DEC
000
001
002
003
004
005
006
007
008
009
010
011
012
013
014
015
016
017
018
019
020
021
022
023
024
025
026
027
028
029
00
01
02
03
04
05
06
07
08
09
0A
0B
0C
0D
0E
0F
10
11
12
13
14
15
16
17
18
19
1A
1B
1C
1D
NUL
SOH
STX
ETX
EOT
ENQ
ACK
BEL
BS
HT
LF
VT
FF
CR
SO
S1
DLE
DC1
DC2
DC3
DC4
NAK
SYN
ETB
CAN
EM
SUB
ESC
FS
GS
030
031
032
033
034
035
036
037
038
039
040
041
042
043
044
045
046
047
048
049
050
051
052
053
054
055
056
057
058
IE
1F
20
21
22
23
24
25
26
27
28
29
2A
2B
2C
2D
2E
2F
30
31
32
33
34
35
36
37
38
39
3A
RS
US
SPACE
!
"
#
$
%
&
'
(
)
*
+
,
.
/
0
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
:
059
060
061
062
063
064
065
066
067
068
069
070
071
072
073
074
074
075
076
077
078
080
081
082
083
084
085
086
087
HEX
3B
3C
3D
3E
3F
40
41
42
43
44
45
46
47
48
49
4A
4B
4C
4D
4E
4F
50
51
52
53
54
55
56
57
GRAPHIC
;
<
=
>
?
@
A
B
C
D
E
F
G
H
I
J
K
L
M
N
O
P
Q
R
S
T
U
V
W
DEC
HEX
GRAPHIC DEC
HEX
088
089
090
091
092
093
094
095
096
097
098
099
100
101
102
103
104
105
106
107
108
109
110
111
112
113
114
115
116
58
59
5A
5B
5C
5D
5E
5F
60
61
62
63
64
65
66
67
68
69
6A
6B
6C
6D
6E
6F
70
71
72
73
74
X
Y
Z
[
/
]
V
75
76
77
78
79
7A
7B
7C
7D
7E
7F
117
118
119
120
121
122
123
124
125
126
127
a
b
c
d
e
f
g
h
i
j
k
l
m
n
o
p
q
r
s
t
A51
GRAPHIC
u
v
w
x
y
z
{
I
}
DEL
Control Systems
Electrical Noise . . .
Sources, Symptoms and Solutions
Noise related difficulties can range in severity from
minor positioning errors to damaged equipment
from runaway motors crashing blindly through limit
switches. In microprocessor controlled equipment,
the processor is constantly retrieving instructions
from memory in a controlled sequence. If an
electrical disturbance occurs, it could cause the
processor to misinterpret an instruction, or access
the wrong data. This is likely to be catastrophic to
the program, requiring a processor reset. Most
Compumotor indexers are designed with a
watchdog timer that shuts down the system if the
program is interrupted. This prevents the more
catastrophic failures.
Sources of Noise
Being invisible, electrical noise can be very
mysterious, but it invariably comes from the
following sources:
DC
Inductive
Load
A52
AC or DC
AC or DC
Varistor (MOV)
Transmitted Noise
Transmitted noise is picked up by external
connections to the indexer, and in severe cases,
can attack an indexer with no external connections.
The indexer enclosure will typically shield the
electronics from this, but openings in the enclosure
for connection and front panel controls may leak.
As with all electrical equipment, the indexer chassis
should be scrupulously connected to Earth to
minimize this effect.
When high current contacts open, they draw an
arc, producing a burst of broad spectrum radio
frequency noise that can be picked up on an
indexer limit switch or other wiring. High current and
high voltage wires have an electrical field around
them, and may induce noise on signal wiring
(especially when they are tied in the same wiring
bundle or conduit).
When this kind of problem occurs, consider
shielding signal cables or isolating the signals. A
proper shield surrounds the signal wires to intercept
electrical fields, but this shield must be tied to Earth
to drain the induced voltages. At the very least,
wires should be run in twisted pairs to limit straight
line antenna effects.
Most Compumotor cables have shields tied to
Earth, but in some cases the shields must be
grounded at installation time. Installing the indexer
in a NEMA electrical enclosure ensures protection
from this kind of noise, unless noise-producing
equipment is also mounted inside the enclosure.
Connections external to the enclosure must be
shielded.
Even the worst noise problems, in environments
near 600 amp welders and 25kW transmitters, have
been solved using enclosures, conduit, optical
isolation, and single-point ground techniques.
Ground Loops
Ground Loops create the most mysterious noise
problems. They seem to occur most often in
systems where a control computer is using
RS-232C communication. Garbled transmission
and intermittent operation symptoms are typical.
The problem occurs in systems where multiple
Earth ground connections exist, particularly when
these connections are far apart.
Defeating Noise
The best time to handle electrical noise problems is
before they occur. When a motion system is in the
design process, the designer should consider the
following system wiring guidelines (listed by order of
importance).
1. Put surge suppression components on all
electrical coils: resistor/capacitor filters, MOVs,
Zener and clamping diodes.
2. Shield all remote connections and use twisted
pairs. Shields should be tied to Earth at one
end.
3. Put all microelectronic components in an
enclosure. Keep noisy devices outside. Monitor
internal temperature.
4. Ground signal common wiring at one point.
Float this ground from Earth if possible.
5. Tie all mechanical grounds to Earth at one point.
Run chassis and motor grounds to the frame,
frame to Earth.
6. Isolate remote signals. Solid-state relays or opto
isolators are recommended.
7. Filter the power line. Use common RF filters
(isolation transformer for worst-case situations).
A noise problem must be identified before it can be
solved. The obvious way to approach a problem
situation is to eliminate potential noise sources until
the symptoms disappear, as in the case of ground
loops. When this is not practical, use the above
guidelines to troubleshoot the installation.
References
Information about the equipment referred to may be
obtained by calling the numbers listed below.
Corcom line filters (312) 680-7400
Opto-22 optically isolated relays (714) 891-5861
Crydom optically isolated relays (213) 322-4987
Potter Brumfield optically isolated relays
(812) 386-1000
General Electric MOVs (315) 456-3266
Teal power line isolation filters (800) 888-8325
Example
Suppose a Model 500 is controlling an axis, and the
limit switches use an external power supply. The
Model 500 is controlled by a computer in another
room. If the power supply Common is connected to
Earth, ground loop problems may occur (most
computers have their RS-232C signal common tied
to Earth). The loop starts at the Model 500s limit
switch ground, goes to Earth through the power
supply to Earth at the computer. From there, the
loop returns to the Model 500 through RS-232C
signal ground. If a voltage potential exists between
power supply Earth and remote computer Earth,
ground, current will flow through the RS-232C
ground creating unpredictable results.
The way to test for and ultimately eliminate a ground
loop is to lift or cheat Earth ground connections in
the system until the symptoms disappear.
A53
A Engineering Reference
Control Systems
Control Systems
Stopping in an Emergency
For safety reasons, it is often necessary to
incorporate some form of emergency stop system
into machinery fitted with stepper or servo motors.
There are several reasons for needing to stop
quickly.
To prevent injury to the operator if he makes a
mistake or operates the machinery improperly.
To prevent damage to the machine or to the
product as a result of a jam.
To guard against machine faults. You should
consider all the possible reasons for stopping to
make sure that they are adequately covered.
How should you stop the system?
There are several ways to bring a motor to a rapid
stop. The choice depends partly on whether it is
more important to stop in the shortest possible time
or to guarantee a stop under all circumstances. For
instance, to stop as quickly as possible means
using the decelerating power of the servo system.
However, if the servo has failed or control has been
lost, this may not be an option open to you. In this
case, removing the power will guarantee that the
motor stops; but if the load has a high inertia, this
may take some time. If the load is moving vertically
and can back-drive the motor, this introduces
additional complications. In extreme cases where
personal safety is at risk, it may be necessary to
mechanically lock the system even at the expense
of possible damage to the machine.
Emergency Stop Methods
1. Full-torque controlled stop.
Applying zero velocity command to a servo amplifier
will cause it to decelerate hard to zero speed in
current limit, in other words, using the maximum
available torque. This will create the fastest possible
deceleration to rest. In the case of a digital servo
with step and direction inputs, cutting off the step
pulses will produce the same effect.
The situation is different for a stepper drive. The
step pulse train should be decelerated to zero
speed to utilize the available torque. Simply cutting
off the step pulses at speeds above the start-stop
rate will de-synchronize the motor and the full
decelerating torque will no longer be available. The
controller needs to be able to generate a rapid
deceleration rate independent of the normal
programmed rate, to be used only for overtravel
limit and emergency stop functions.
2. Disconnect the motor.
Although this method is undoubtedly safe, it is not
highly recommended as a quick-stop measure. The
time taken to stop is indeterminate, since it
depends on load inertia and friction, and in highperformance systems the friction is usually kept to a
minimum. Certain types of drives may be damaged
by disconnecting the motor under power. This
method is particularly unsatisfactory in the case of a
vertical axis, since the load may fall under gravity.
A54
System Selection
System
Considerations
Calculations
Accuracy
An accuracy specification defines the maximum
error in achieving a desired position. Some types of
accuracy are affected by the application. For
example, repeatability will change with the friction
and inertia of the system the motor is driving.
Accuracy in a rotary motor is usually defined in
terms of arcminutes or arcseconds (the terms
Stepper Accuracy
Repeatability
The motors ability to return to the same position
from the same direction. Usually tested by moving
the motor one revolution, it also applies to linear
step motors moving to the same place from the
same direction. This measurement is made with the
motor unloaded, so that bearing friction is the
prominent load factor. It is also necessary to ensure
the motor is moving to the repeat position from a
distance of at least one motor pole. This
compensates for the motors hysteresis. A motor
pole in a Compumotor is 1/50 of a revolution.
Accuracy
Also referred to as absolute accuracy, this
specification defines the quality of the motors
mechanical construction. The error cancels itself
over 360 of rotation, and is typically distributed in a
sinusoidal fashion. This means the error will
gradually increase, decrease to zero, increase in the
opposite direction and finally decrease again upon
reaching 360 of rotation. Absolute accuracy
causes the size of microsteps to vary somewhat
because the full motor steps that must be traversed
by a fixed number of microsteps varies. The steps
can be over or undersized by about 4.5% as a
result of absolute accuracy errors.
Relative Accuracy
Also referred to as step-to-step accuracy, this
specification tells how microsteps can change in
size. In a perfect system, microsteps would all be
exactly the same size, but drive characteristics and
the absolute accuracy of the motor cause the steps
to expand and contract by an amount up to the
relative accuracy figure. The error is not cumulative.
Servos
Compumotor servos use resolver feedback to
determine their resolution and position. It is
essentially the resolution of the device reading the
resolver position that determines the highest
possible accuracy in the system. Digiplan servos
use encoder feedback to determine their resolution
and position. In this case, it is the encoders
resolution that determines the systems accuracy.
The positional accuracy is determined by the drives
ability to move the motor to the position indicated
by the resolver or encoder. Changes in friction or
inertial loading will adversely affect the accuracy
until the system is properly tuned.
Closed-Loop Steppers
Compumotor closed-loop stepper systems use an
encoder to provide feedback for the control loop.
The encoder resolution determines the systems
accuracy. When enabled, the controlling indexer
attempts to position the motor within the specified
deadband from the encoder. Typically, this means
the motor will be positioned to within one encoder
step. To do this satisfactorily, the motor must have
more resolution than the encoder. If the step size of
the motor is equal to or larger than the step size of
the encoder, the motor will be unable to maintain a
position and may become unstable. In a system
with adequate motor-to-encoder resolution, the
motor is able to maintain one encoder step of
accuracy with great dependability. This is a
continuous process that will respond to outside
events that disturb the motors position.
Hysteresis
The motors tendency to resist a change in
direction. This is a magnetic characteristic of the
motor, it is not due to friction or other external
factors. The motor must develop torque to
overcome hysteresis when it reverses direction. In
reversing direction, a one revolution move will show
hysteresis by moving the full distance less the
hysteresis figure.
A55
A Engineering Reference
Application Considerations
Selection
Considerations
System Calculations
Application Considerations
Load characteristics, performance requirements,
and coupling techniques need to be understood
before the designer can select the best motor/drive
for the job. While not a difficult process, several
factors need to be considered for an optimum
solution. A good designer will adjust the
characteristics of the elements under his control
including the motor/drive and the mechanical
transmission type (gears, lead screws, etc.) to
meet the performance requirements. Some
important parameters are listed below.
Torque
Rotational force (ounce-inches) defined as a linear
force (ounces) multiplied by a radius (inches). When
selecting a motor/drive, the torque capacity of the
motor must exceed the load. The torque any motor
can provide varies with its speed. Individual speed/
torque curves should be consulted by the designer
for each application.
Inertia
An objects inertia is a measure of its resistance to
change in velocity. The larger the inertial load, the
longer it takes a motor to accelerate or decelerate
that load. However, the speed at which a motor
rotates is independent of inertia. For rotary motion,
inertia is proportional to the mass of the object
being moved times the square of its distance from
the axis of rotation.
Friction
All mechanical systems exhibit some frictional force,
and this should be taken into account when sizing
the motor, as the motor must provide torque to
overcome any system friction. A small amount of
friction is desirable since it can reduce settling time
and improve performance.
Torque-to-Inertia Ratio
This number is defined as a motors rated torque
divided by its rotor inertia. This ratio is a measure of
how quickly a motor can accelerate and decelerate
its own mass. Motors with similar ratings can have
different torque-to-inertia ratios as a result of
varying construction.
Load Inertia-to-Rotor Inertia Ratio
For a high performance, relatively fast system, load
inertia reflected to the motor should generally not
exceed the motor inertia by more than 10 times.
Load inertias in excess of 10 times the rotor inertia
can cause unstable system behavior.
Torque Margin
Whenever possible, a motor/drive that can provide
more motor torque than the application requires
should be specified. This torque margin
accommodates mechanical wear, lubricant
hardening, and other unexpected friction.
Resonance effects, while dramatically reduced with
the Compumotor microstepping system, can cause
the motors torque to be slightly reduced at some
speeds. Selecting a motor/drive that provides at
least 50% margin above the minimum needed
torque is good practice.
A56
Velocity
Because available torque varies with velocity,
motor/drives must be selected with the required
torque at the velocities needed by the application.
In some cases, a change in the type of mechanical
transmission used is needed to achieve the
required performance.
Resolution
The positioning resolution required by the
application will have an effect on the type of
transmission used and the motor resolution. For
instance, a leadscrew with 4 revolutions per inch
and a 25,000-step-per-revolution motor/drive
would give 100,000 steps per inch. Each step
would then be 0.00001 inches.
Duty Cycle
Some motor/drives can produce peak torque for
short time intervals as long as the RMS or average
torque is within the motors continuous duty rating.
To take advantage of this feature, the application
torque requirements over various time intervals
need to be examined so RMS torque can be
calculated.
Solving Duty Cycle Limitation Problems
Operating a motor beyond its recommended duty
cycle results in excessive heat in the motor and
drive. The drive cycle may be increased by
providing active cooling to the drive and the motor.
A fan directed across the motor and another
directed across the drives heatsink will result in
increased duty cycle capability.
In most cases, it is possible to tell if the duty cycle is
being exceeded by measuring the temperature of
the motor and drive. Refer to the specifications for
individual components for their maximum allowable
temperatures.
Note: Motors will run at case temperatures up to
100C (212F)temperatures hot enough to burn
individuals who touch the motors.
To Improve Duty Cycle:
Mount the drive with heatsink fins running
vertically
Fan cool the motor
Fan cool the drive
Put the drive into REMOTE POWER SHUTDOWN
when it isnt moving, or reduce current
Reduce the peak current to the motor
(if possible)
Use a motor large enough for the application
A57
A Engineering Reference
System Calculations
Move Profile
Before calculating torque requirements of an
application, you need to know the velocities and
accelerations needed. For those positioning
applications where only a distance (X) and a time
(S) to move that distance are known, the
trapezoidal motion profile and formulas given below
are a good starting point for determining your
requirements. If velocity and acceleration
parameters are already known, you can proceed to
one of the specific application examples on the
following pages.
Move distance X in time S.
Assume that:
1. Distance X/4 is moved in time S/3 (Acceleration)
2. Distance X/2 is moved in time S/3 (Run)
3. Distance X/4 is moved in time S/3 (Deceleration)
( X4 )
( S3 )
2
a = -d = 2X
=
t2
v = at = 4.5X x S
S2
3
X
= 2 2x 9 = 4.5X
S
S2
= 1.5X
S
Example
You need to move 6" in 2 seconds
a = -d =
inches
4.5 (6 inches)
= 6.75
second2
(2 seconds)2
Velocity
V
a
S/3
S/3
2S/3
S/3
time
S/3
revolutions of motor
seconds
Accuracy: ______________________________________________________
Repeatability: ___________________________________________________
Duty Cycle
on tme: ____________________________________________________
off time: ___________________________________________________
seconds
seconds
Motor/Drive Selection
Based on Continuous Torque Requirements
Having calculated the torque requirements for an
application, you can select the motor/drive suited
to your needs. Microstepping motor systems
(S Series, Zeta Series OEM650 Series, LN Series)
have speed/torque curves based on continuous
duty operation. To choose a motor, simply plot total
torque vs. velocity on the speed/torque curve. This
point should fall under the curve and allow
approximately a 50% margin for safety. An S106178 and an S83-135 curve are shown here.
Note: When selecting a ZETA Series product, a
50% torque margin is not required.
Example
Assume the following results from load calculations:
TF = 25 oz-in
Friction torque
T
A = 175 oz-in Acceleration torque
TT = 200 oz-in Total torque
V = 15 rev/sec Maximum velocity
You can see that the total torque at the required
velocity falls within the motor/drive operating range
for both motors by plotting TT .
A58
oz-in
1500
1200
900
106-178
600
83-135
300
TT = 200
0
0
10
20
30
40
50
RPS (Vmax)
System Calculations
Based on peak torque requirements
Servo-based motor/drives have two speed/torque
curves: one for continuous duty operation and
another for intermittent duty. A servo system can
be selected according to the total torque and
maximum velocity indicated by the continuous duty
curve. However, by calculating the root mean
square (RMS) torque based on your duty cycle, you
may be able to take advantage of the higher peak
torque available in the intermittent duty range.
Duty Cycle
Index 4 revs in 0.3 seconds, dwell 0.3 seconds
then repeat.
If you look at the S106-178 speed/torque curve,
youll see that the requirements fall outside the
curve.
T1 =
T2 =
T3 =
MM
Ti2 ti
ti
TRMS =
T4 =
Where:
TF
= 25 oz-in
Friction Torque
TA
= 775 oz-in
Acceleration Torque
TT
= 800 oz-in
Total Torque
Vmax = 20 rps
t1 =
t2 =
t3 =
t4 =
Example
Assume the following results from your load
calculations.
A Engineering Reference
Motor/Drive Selection
TRMS =
t1 + t2 + t3 + t4
(800)2(.1) + (25)2(.1) + (750)2(.1) + (0)2(.3)
Maximum Velocity
Motion Profile
20 rps
1800
0.1
t1
0.2
t2
0.3
t3
0.4
0.5
0.6 t
T T (800)
t4
600
T RMS (506)
10
20
30
40
50
60
oz-in (N-m)
175 (1.22)
(HP)
.175
Torque
140 (1.98)
.140
Torque
105 (.73)
.105
70 (.49)
.070
Horsepower
35 (.24)
Power
.035
0
0
12
18
24
30
Speed-rps
A59
System Calculations
Leadscrew Drives
Leadscrews convert rotary motion to linear motion
and come in a wide variety of configurations.
Screws are available with different lengths,
diameters, and thread pitches. Nuts range from the
simple plastic variety to precision ground versions
with recirculating ball bearings that can achieve very
high accuracy.
The combination of microstepping and a quality
leadscrew provides exceptional positioning
resolution for many applications. A typical 10-pitch
(10 threads per inch) screw attached to a 25,000
step/rev. motor provides a linear resolution of
0.000004" (4 millionths, or approximately 0.1
micron) per step.
A flexible coupling should be used between the
leadscrew and the motor to provide some damping.
The coupling will also prevent excessive motor
bearing loading due to any misalignment.
Microscope Positioning
Application Type: X/Y Point to Point
Motion: Linear
Description: A medical research lab needs to
automate their visual inspection process. Each
specimen has an origin imprinted on the slide with
all other positions referenced from that point. The
system uses a PC-AT Bus computer to reduce data
input from the operator, and determines the next
data point based on previous readings. Each data
point must be accurate to within 0.1 microns.
Machine Objectives
Sub-micron positioning
Specimen to remain still during inspection
Low-speed smoothness (delicate equipment)
Use PC-AT Bus computer
Motion Control Requirements
High resolution, linear encoders
Stepper (zero speed stability)
Microstepping
PC-AT Bus controller
Compumotor Solution: Microstepping motors
and drives, in conjunction with a precision ground
40 pitch leadscrew table, provide a means of submicron positioning with zero speed stability.
Conventional mechanics cannot provide 0.1 micron
accuracies without high grade linear encoders. It is
necessary for the Compumotor Model AT6400
indexer, which resides directly on the computer
bus, to provide full X, Y, Z microscope control and
accept incremental encoder feedback.
Microstepping
motors
Encoders
A60
System Calculations
Other Leadscrew Drive Applications
XY Plotters
Facsimile transmission
Tool bit positioning
Cut-to-length machinery
Back gauging
Microscope drives
Coil winders
Slides
Pick-and-Place machines
Articulated arms
A Engineering Reference
Precision Grinder
A bearing manufacturer is replacing some
equipment that finishes bearing races. The old
equipment had a two-stage grinding arrangement
where one motor and gearbox provided a rough cut
and a second motor with a higher ratio gearbox
performed the finishing cut. The designer would like
to simplify the mechanics and eliminate one motor.
He wants to use a single leadscrew and exploit the
wide speed range available with microstepping to
perform both cuts. This will be accomplished by
moving a cutting tool mounted on the end of the
leadscrew into the workpiece at two velocities; an
initial velocity for the rough cut and a much reduced
final velocity for the finish cut.
The torque required to accelerate the load and
overcome the inertia of the load and the rotational
inertia of the leadscrew is determined to be 120 ozin. The torque necessary to overcome friction is
measured with a torque wrench and found to be 40
oz-in. A microstepping motor with 290 oz-in of
torque is selected and provides adequate torque
margin.
This grinder is controlled by a programmable
controller (PC) and the environment requires that
the electronics withstand a 60C environment. An
indexer will provide the necessary velocities and
accelerations. The speed change in the middle of
the grinding operation will be signaled to the PC
with a limit switch, and the PC will in turn program
the new velocity into the indexer. Additionally, the
indexer Stall Detect feature will be used in
conjunction with an optical encoder mounted on
the back of the motor to alert the PC if the
mechanics become stuck.
Steel
0.0017
0.0275
0.1392
0.4398
1.0738
2.2266
4.1251
7.0372
11.2723
17.1807
Brass
0.0018
0.0295
0.1491
0.4712
1.1505
2.3857
4.4197
7.5399
12.0774
18.4079
Diameter
Alum.
0.0006
0.0094
0.0478
0.1512
0.3691
0.7654
1.4180
2.4190
3.8748
5.9059
In.
2
oz-in
oz-in2
oz-in2
oz-in2
oz-in2
oz-in2
oz-in2
oz-in2
oz-in2
oz-in2
2.75
3.00
3.25
3.50
3.75
4.00
4.25
4.50
4.75
5.00
Steel
25.1543
35.6259
49.0699
66.0015
86.9774
112.5956
143.4951
180.3564
223.9009
274.8916
Brass
Alum.
26.9510
38.1707
52.5749
70.7159
93.1901
120.6381
153.7448
193.2390
239.8939
294.5267
8.6468
12.2464
16.8678
22.6880
29.8985
38.7047
49.3264
61.9975
76.9659
94.4940
oz-in2
oz-in2
oz-in2
oz-in2
oz-in2
oz-in2
oz-in2
oz-in2
oz-in2
oz-in2
Leadscrew Efficiencies
S
0.58
0.15
0.45
0.22
0.19
0.04
Type
Efficiency (%)
High
Median Low
Ball-nut
Acme with metal nut*
Acme with plastic nut
95
55
85
90
40
65
85
35
50
A61
System Calculations
Leadscrew Drives
Vertical or Horizontal Application:
ST Screw type, ball or acme
e Efficiency of screw
S Friction coefficient
L Length ofscrew
D Diameter of screw
pPitch
W Weight of load
FBreakaway force
Directly coupled to the motor?
If yes, CT Coupling type
If no, belt & pulley or gears
Radius of pulley or gear
Gear: Number of teeth Gear 1
Number of teeth Gear 2
Weight of pulley or gear
Weight of belt
ST =
e=
S =
L=
D=
p=
W=
F=
yes/no
%
inches
inches
threads/inch
lbs.
ounces
inches
ounces
ounces
Leadscrew Formulas
The torque required to drive load W using a
leadscrew with pitch (p) and efficiency (e) has the
following components:
TTotal = TFriction + TAcceleration
TFriction =
F
2pe
Where:
F = frictional force in ounces
p = pitch in revs/in
e = leadscrew efficiency
F = s W for horizontal surfaces where s =
coefficient of static friction and W is the weight of
the load. This friction component is often called
breakaway.
Dynamic Friction: F = D W is the coefficient to use
for friction during a move profile. However, torque
calculations for acceleration should use the worst
case friction coefficient, s.
TAccel = 1 (J Load + JLeadscrew + JMotor)
g
t
= 2pv
4
JLoad = w 2 ; JLeadscrew = LR
(2p)
2
Where:
T = torque, oz-in
= angular velocity, radians/sec
t = time, seconds
v = linear velocity, in/sec
L = length, inches
R = radius, inches
= density, ounces/in3
g = gravity constant, 386 in/sec2
The formula for load inertia converts linear inertia
into the rotational equivalent as reflected to the
motor shaft by the leadscrew.
Problem
Find the torque required to accelerate a 200-lb steel
load sliding on a steel table to 2 inches per second
in 100 milliseconds using a 5 thread/inch steel
leadscrew 36 inches long and 1.5 inches in
A62
= 2
( )( 2secin ) =
5
in
20
sec
20.
1
2
= 386 in/sec2 (4.99 + 80.16 + 6.56(oz-in )) sec
0.1sec
= 149 oz-in
TTotal = TFriction + TAccel
TTotal = 23.51 oz-in + 149 oz-in = 172.51 oz-in
System Calculations
There are many applications where the motion
being controlled is rotary and the low-speed
smoothness and high resolution of a Compumotor
system can be used to eliminate gear trains or other
mechanical linkages. In direct drive applications, a
motor is typically connected to the load through a
R2
R
R1
5.96
R Radius
R(1) Inner radius
R(2) Outer radius
L Length
W Weight of disc
Density/Material
g Gravity constant
R=
R(1) =
R(2) =
L=
W=
=
g=
Hollow Cylinder
w
JLoad = 2 (R21 + R22)
Where W, the weight, is known
or
JLoad =
L
2
(R42 R41)
g
T=
(JLoad + JMotor) t
inches
inches
inches
inches
ounces
ounces/inch3
386 in/sec2
Where:
a = angular acceleration, radians/sec2
2 = final velocity, radians/sec
1 = initial velocity, radians/sec
t = time for velocity change, seconds
J = inertia in units of oz-in2
The angular acceleration equals the time rate of
change of the angular velocity. For loads
accelerated from zero, 1 = 0 and a =
t
TTotal = 1 (JLoad + JMotor)
g
t
TTotal represents the torque the motor must deliver.
The gravity constant (g)
in the denominator
represents acceleration
due to gravity (386 in/
R
sec2) and converts
L
inertia from units of ozin2 to oz-in-sec2.
Problem
Calculate the motor torque required to accelerate a
solid cylinder of aluminum 5" in radius and 0.25"
thick from rest to 2.1 radians/sec (0.33 revs/sec) in
0.25 seconds. First, calculate JLoad using the
density for aluminum of 1.54 oz/in3.
4
4
JLoad = LR = x 0.25 x 1.54 x 5 = 378 oz-in2
2
2
Assume the rotor inertia of the motor you will use is
37.8 oz-in2.
TTotal = 1
g
=
R2
R1
(J Load + JMotor) x
t
= 9.05 oz-in
L
5.96
A63
A Engineering Reference
System Calculations
Gear Drives
reflected back to the motor through the gearing is
divided by the square of the gear ratio.
R=
R(1) =
R(2) =
N(1) =
N(2) =
G=
inches
inches
inches
W=
W(1) =
W(2) =
L=
F=
BT =
ounces
ounces
ounces
inches
ounce/inches
N1
G1
R
Gears
R1
W
R2
G2
N2
W
JGear1 = Gear1 R2Gear1
2
JGear2 =
TTotal =
A64
N1
NGear 2
NGear 1
G1
R
2
R2
G2
WGear2
R2Gear2
2
1
g
Gears
R1
N2
Where:
J
T
W
R
N
L
t
g
=
=
=
=
=
=
=
=
=
=
System Calculations
W
A Engineering Reference
Tangential Drives
R Radius
R=
inches
W=
ounces
W(P)
ounces
F Breakaway force
F=
ounces
V Linear velocity
V=
inches/sec
CT Coupling type
CT =
SL Side load
SL =
+TFriction
JLoad = WLR2
JPulley =
WpR
2
Problem
What torque is required to accelerate a 5-lb load to
a velocity of 20 inches per second in 10
milliseconds using a flat timing belt? The motor
drives a 2-inch diameter steel pulley 1/2-inch wide.
The timing belt weighs 12 oz. Load static friction is
30 ozs. Motor rotor inertia is 10.24 oz-in.2
(Remember to multiply by 2
if there are 2 pulleys.)
JBelt = WBR2
JPulley =
2(LR4)
= x 0.5 in x (4.48 oz/in3) (1 in)4
2
= 7.04 oz-in2
TFriction = FR
V
= R
TFriction = F x R = 30 oz x 1 in = 30 oz-in
Where:
T = torque, oz-in (gm-cm)
= angular velocity, radians/sec
t = time, seconds
WL = weight of the load, oz
WP = pulley weight, oz
W B = belt or rack weight, oz
F = frictional force, oz (gm)
R = radius, in (cm)
V = linear velocity
g = gravity constant, 386 in/sec2
= density, oz/in3
V
in
1 rad
rad
= R = 20 sec x 1 in = 20 sec
1
20
TTotal = 386 (80 + 7.04 + 12 + 10.24) .01 + 30
TTotal = 596.2 oz-in
A65
System Calculations
Linear Step Motors
There are many characteristics to consider when
designing, selecting and installing a complete
motion control system. The applications data
worksheet and the application considerations
detailed below will help determine if a linear motor
system is recommended for a given application. A
linear motor, when properly specified, will provide
the optimum performance and the greatest
reliability.
Application Data Worksheet #1
Application: Single Axis
Multi-Axis
X-Y Gantry
Vmax
53.2
40
4 lbs.
1/4
0
The Solution
Actual and assumed factors that contribute to the
solution are:
1. Force (F) = mass (M) x acceleration (A)
Note: mass units are in pounds
2. Acceleration due to gravity
(1g=386 inches/sec2)
3. L20 forcer weighs 2.0 lb.
4. Attractive force between L20 forcer and platen
= 200 lbs.
5. Trapezoidal velocity profile:
Accel time = 1.0 sec/4
= 0.250 sec.
Vmax
= 1.33 x Vavg
A66
1/4
Time (sec)
1/4
1.0
4
20"
1.0
1. Motor Sizing
AXIS 1
A. Weight of payload (lbs)
10.0
B. Fixed forces, if any (lbs)
0
C. Known move distance (in)
40
time (sec)
1.0
D. Angle from horizontal (degrees)
0
2. Total length of travel (inches)
40
3. Desired repeatability (in)
001
4. Desired resolution (in)
.0005
5. Necessary settling time after move
100 ms to within
.001 inches
6. Life expectancy:
Percent duty cycle
20%
Estimated number of moves/year
200,000
7. Is the center of gravity significantly changed?
no
8. What is the environment? clean [] dirty [ ]
Specifics
9. Operating temperature range
65 to 85F
10. Can air be available?
yes
1/4
14.0 lbs
12
(6.45)
8
(3.83)
53.2 ips
4
(1.82)
0
20
(50.8)
40
60
(101.6) (152.4)
Speed in (cm)
80
(203.2)
100
(254.0)
Velocity Ripple
Velocity ripple is most noticeable when operating
near the motors resonant frequency. Rotary
stepping motors have this tendency as well, but it
is usually less noticeable due to mechanical losses
in the rotary-to-linear transmission system, which
dampens the effects. Velocity ripple due to
resonance can be reduced with the electronic
accelerometer damping option (-AC).
Platen Mounting
The air gap between the forcer and the platen
surface can be as small as 0.0005 inches. Properly
mounting the platen is extremely important. When
held down on a magnetic chuck, the platen is flat
and parallel within its specifications, however, in its
free state, slight bows and twists may cause the
forcer (L20) to touch the platen at several places.
Compumotor recommends mounting the platen
using all its mounting holes on a ground flat piece of
steel, such as an I-beam, U-channel or tube.
Environment
Due to the small air gap between the forcer and
platen, care should be taken to keep the platen
clean. A small amount of dirt or adhesive material
(such as paint) can cause a reduction in motor
performance. When appropriate, mounting the
motor upside down or on its side will help keep
foreign particles off the platen. Protective boots that
fold like an accordion as the motor travels can also
be used to assist in keeping the platen clean.
Accuracy
In linear positioning systems, some applications
require high absolute accuracy, while many
applications require a high degree of repeatability.
These two variables should be reviewed to
accurately evaluate proper system performance.
In the teach mode, a linear motor can be
positioned and subsequently learn the coordinates
of any given point. After learning a number of points
in a sequence of moves, the user will be concerned
with the ability of the forcer to return to the same
position from the same direction. This scenario
describes repeatability.
In a different application, a linear motor is used to
position a measuring device. The size of an object
can be measured by positioning the forcer to a
point on the object. Determining the measured
value is based on the number of steps required to
reach the point on the object. System accuracy
must be smaller than the tolerance on the desired
measurement.
Open-loop absolute accuracy of a linear step motor
is typically less than a precision grade leadscrew
system. If a linear encoder is used in conjunction
with a linear motor, the accuracy will be equivalent
to any other transmission system.
The worst-case accuracy of the system is the
sum of these errors:
Accuracy = A + B + C + D + E + F
A = Cyclic Error The error due to motor
magnetics that recurs once every pole pitch
as measured on the body of the motor.
B = Unidirectional Repeatability The error
measured by repeated moves to the same
point from different distances in the same
direction.
C = Hysteresis The backlash of the motor
when changing direction due to magnetic
non-linearity and mechanical friction.
D = Cumulative Platen Error Linear error of
the platen as measured on the body of the
motor.
E = Random Platen Error The non-linear
errors remaining in the platen after the linear
is disregarded.
F = Thermal Expansion Error The error
caused by a change in temperature
expanding or contracting the platen.
A67
A Engineering Reference
System Calculations
System Calculations
Glossary
of Terms
Absolute Positioning
Refers to a motion control system
employing position feedback devices
(absolute encoders) to maintain a given
mechanical location.
Absolute Programming
A positioning coordinate referenced
wherein all positions are specified relative
to some reference, or zero position. This
is different from incremental programming,
where distances are specified relative to
the current position.
AC Servo
A general term referring to a motor drive
that generates sinusoidal shaped motor
currents in a brushless motor wound as to
generate sinusoidal back EMF.
Acceleration
The change in velocity as a function of
time. Acceleration usually refers to
increasing velocity and deceleration
describes decreasing velocity.
Accuracy
A measure of the difference between
expected position and actual position of a
motor or mechanical system. Motor
accuracy is usually specified as an angle
representing the maximum deviation from
expected position.
Ambient Temperature
The temperature of the cooling medium,
usually air, immediately surrounding the
motor or another device.
ASCII
American Standard Code for Information
Interchange. This code assigns a number
series of electrical signals to each numeral
and letter of the alphabet. In this manner,
information can be transmitted between
machines as a series of binary numbers.
Bandwidth
A measure of system response. It is the
frequency range that a control system can
follow.
BCD
Binary Coded Decimal is an encoding
technique used to describe the numbers 0
through 9 with four digital (on or off) signal
lines. Popular in machine tool equipment,
BCD interfaces are now giving way to
interfaces requiring fewer wires such as
RS-232C.
Bit
Abbreviation of Binary Digit, the smallest
unit of memory equal to 1 or 0.
Back EMF
The voltage produced across a winding of
a motor due to the winding turns being cut
by a magnetic field while the motor is
operating. This voltage is directly
proportional to rotor velocity and is
opposite in polarity to the applied voltage.
Sometimes referred to as counter EMF.
A68
Block Diagram
A simplified schematic representing
components and signal flow through a
system.
Damping
An indication of the rate of decay of a
signal to its steady state value. Related to
settling time.
Bode Plot
A graph of system gain and phase versus
input frequency which graphically
illustrates the steady state characteristics
of the system.
Damping Ratio
Ratio of actual damping to critical
damping. Less than one is an
underdamped system and greater than
one is an overdamped system.
Break Frequency
Frequency(ies) at which the gain changes
slope on a Bode plot (break frequencies
correspond to the poles and zeroes of the
system).
Dead Band
A range of input signals for which there is
no system response.
Brushless DC Servo
A general term referring to a motor drive
that generates trapezoidal shaped motor
currents in a motor wound as to generate
trapezoidal Back EMF.
Byte
A group of 8 bits treated as a whole, with
256 possible combinations of ones and
zeros, each combination representing a
unique piece of information.
Commutation
The switching sequence of drive voltage
into motor phase windings necessary to
assure continuous motor rotation. A
brushed motor relies upon brush/bar
contact to mechanically switch the
windings. A brushless motor requires a
device that senses rotor rotational position,
feeds that information to a drive that
determines the next switching sequence.
Closed Loop
A broadly applied term relating to any
system where the output is measured and
compared to the input. The output is then
adjusted to reach the desired condition. In
motion control, the term describes a
system wherein a velocity or position (or
both) transducer is used to generate
correction signals by comparison to
desired parameters.
Critical Damping
A system is critically damped when the
response to a step change in desired
velocity or position is achieved in the
minimum possible time with little or no
overshoot.
Crossover Frequency
The frequency at which the gain intercepts
the 0 dB point on a Bode plot (used in
reference to the open-loop gain plot).
Daisy-Chain
A term used to describe the linking of
several RS-232C devices in sequence
such that a single data stream flows
through one device and on to the next.
Daisy-chained devices usually are
distinguished by device addresses, which
serve to indicate the desired destination for
data in the stream.
Decibel
A logarithmic measurement of gain. If G is
a systems gain (ratio of output to input),
then 20 log G = gain in decibels (dB).
Detent Torque
The minimal torque present in an
unenergized motor. The detent torque of a
step motor is typically about 1% of its
static energized torque.
Direct Drive Servo
A high-torque, low-speed servo motor with
a high resolution encoder or resolver
intended for direct connection to the load
without going through a gearbox.
Duty Cycle
For a repetitive cycle, the ratio of on time
to total cycle time.
On Time
Duty cycle =
(On Time + Off Time)
Efficiency
The ratio of power output to power input.
Electrical Time Constant
The ratio of armature inductance to
armature resistance.
Encoder
A device that translates mechanical motion
into electronic signals used for monitoring
position or velocity.
Form Factor
The ratio of the RMS value of a harmonic
signal to its average value in one halfwave.
Friction
A resistance to motion. Friction can be
constant with varying speed (Coulomb
friction) or proportional to speed (viscous
friction).
Gain
The ratio of system output signal to system
input signal.
Holding Torque
Sometimes called static torque, it specifies
the maximum external force or torque that
can be applied to a stopped, energized
motor without causing the rotor to rotate
continuously.
Home
A reference position in a motion control
system derived from a mechanical datum
or switch. Often designated as the zero
position.
Hybrid Servo
A brushless servo motor based on a
conventional hybrid stepper. It may use
either a resolver or encoder for
commutation feedback.
Hysteresis
The difference in response of a system to
an increasing or a decreasing input signal.
IEEE-488
A digital data communications standard
popular in instrumentation electronics. This
parallel interface is also known as GPIB, or
General Purpose Interface Bus.
Incremental Motion
A motion control term that describes a
device that produces one step of motion
for each step command (usually a pulse)
received.
Incremental Programming
A coordinate system where positions or
distances are specified relative to the
current position.
Inertia
A measure of an objects resistance to a
change in velocity. The larger an objects
inertia, the larger the torque that is
required to accelerate or decelerate it.
Inertia is a function of an objects mass
and its shape.
Inertial Match
For most efficient operation, the system
coupling ratio should be selected so that
the reflected inertia of the load is equal to
the rotor inertia of the motor.
Indexer
See PMC.
I/O
Abbreviation of input/output. Refers to
input signals from switches or sensors and
output signals to relays, solenoids etc.
Lead Compensation Algorithm
A mathematical equation implemented by
a computer to decrease the delay
between the input and output of a system.
Limits
Properly designed motion control systems
have sensors called limits that alert the
control electronics that the physical end of
travel is being approached and that
motion should stop.
Logic Ground
An electrical potential to which all control
signals in a particular system are
referenced.
Output
Phase Angle
Phase Margin
The difference between 180 and the
phase angle of a system at its crossover
frequency.
PLC
Programmable logic controller; a machine
controller that activates relays and other I/
O units from a stored program. Additional
modules support motion control and other
functions.
PMC
Programmable motion controller,
primarily designed for single- or multiaxis motion control with I/O as an
auxiliary function.
Pole
A frequency at which the transfer
function of a system goes to infinity.
Pulse Rate
The frequency of the step pulses applied
to a motor driver. The pulse rate
multiplied by the resolution of the motor/
drive combination (in steps per
revolution) yields the rotational speed in
revolutions per second.
PWM
Pulse Width Modulation. A method of
controlling the average current in a
motors phase windings by varying the
on-time (duty cycle) of transistor
switches.
Ramping
The acceleration and deceleration of a
motor. May also refer to the change in
frequency of the applied step pulse train.
Rated Torque
The torque producing capacity of a
motor at a given sped. This is the
maximum torque the motor can deliver
to a load and is usually specified with a
torque/speed curve.
Regeneration
Usually refers to a circuit in a drive
amplifier that accepts and drains energy
produced by a rotating motor either
during deceleration or free-wheel
shutdown.
Registration Move
Changing the predefined move profile
that is being executed, to a different
predefined move profile following receipt
of an input or interrupt.
Repeatability
The degree to which the positioning
accuracy for a given move performanced
repetitively can be duplicated.
Resolution
The smallest positioning increment that
can be achieved. Frequently defined as
the number of steps required for a
motors shaft to rotate one complete
revolution.
Resolver
A feedback device with a construction
similar to a motors construction (stator
and rotor). Provides velocity and position
information to a drives microprocessor
or DSP to electronically commutate the
motor.
A69
A Engineering Reference
System
Glossary
Calculations
of Terms
Glossary of Terms
Resonance
Designates the condition resulting from energizing a
motor at a frequency at or close to the motors
natural frequency. Lower resolution, open-loop
systems will exhibit large oscillations from minimal
input.
Ringing
Oscillation of a system following a sudden change
in state.
RMS Torque
For an intermittent duty cycle application, the RMS
Torque is equal to the steady- state torque that
would produce the same amount of motor heating
over long periods of time.
(Ti2 ti)
MM
TRMS =
ti
A70
Torque Constant
KT = The torque generated in a DC motor per unit
Ampere applied to its windings.
KT = T oz-in
A amp
Simplified for a brushless motor at 90 commutation
angle.
Torque Ripple
The cyclical variation of generated torque at a
frequency given by the product of motor angular
velocity and number of commutator segments or
magnetic poles.
Torque-to-Inertia Ratio
Defined as a motors holding torque divided by the
inertia of its rotor. The higher the ratio, the higher a
motors maximum acceleration capability will be.
Transfer Function
A mathematical means of expressing the output to
input relationship of a system. Expressed as a
function of frequency.
Triggers
Inputs on a controller that initiate or trigger the
next step in a program.
TTL
Transistor-Transistor Logic. Describes a common
digital logic device family that is used in most
modern digital electronics. TTL signals have two
distinct states that are described with a voltage a
logical zero or low is represented by a voltage of
less than 0.8 volts and a logical one or high is
represented by a voltage from 2.5 to 5 volts.
Voltage Constant
KE = The back EMF generated by a DC motor at a
defined speed. Usually quoted in volts per 1000
rpm.
Zero
A frequency at which the transfer function of a
system goes to zero.
Technical Data
Dont confuse mass-inertia with weight-inertia: mass inertia = wt. inertia
g
To convert from A to B, multiply by entry in Table.
lb-ft-s2
B
kg-m2
kg-cm2
g-cm2
kg-m-sec2
kg-cm-sec 2 g-cm-sec 2
oz-in2
oz-in-s2
lb-in-2
lb-in-s2
lb-ft2
(slug-ft-2)
kg-m2
104
107
0.10192
10.1972
1.01972-104
5.46745-104
1.41612-102
3.41716-103
8.850732
23.73025
0.73756
kg-cm2
10-4
103
1.01972-10-5
1.01972-10-3
1.01972
5.46745
1.41612-10-2
0.341716
8.85073-10-4
2.37303-10-3
7.37561-10-5
7.37561-10-8
g-cm2
10-7
10-3
1.01972-10-8
1.01972-10-6
1.01972-10-3
5.46745-10-3
1.41612-10-5
3.41716-10-4
8.85073-10-7
2.37303-10-6
9.80665
9.80665-104
9.80665-107
102
105
5.36174-105
1.388674-103
3.35109-104
86.79606
2.32714-102
7.23300
kg-cm-s2 9.80665-10-2
9.80665-102
9.80665-105
10-2
103
5.36174-103
13.88741
3.35109-102
0.86796
2.327143
7.23300-10-2
g-cm-s2 9.80665-10-5
0.980665
9.80665-102
10-5
10-3
5.36174
1.38874-10-2
0.335109
8.67961-10-4
2.32714-10-3
7.23300-10-5
oz-in2
0.182901
1.82901-102
1.86506-10-6
1.86506-10-4
0.186506
2.59008-10-3
6.250-10-2
1.61880-10-4
4.34028-10-4
1.34900-10-5
oz-in-s2 7.06154-10-3
70.6154
7.06154-104
7.20077-10-4
7.20077-10-2
72.00766
3.86089-102
24.13045
6.250-10-2
0.167573
5.20833-10-3
lb-in2
2.92641-10-4
2.92641
2.92641-103
2.98411-10-5
2.98411-10-3
2.98411
16
4.14414-10-2
2.59008-10-3
6.94444-10-3
2.15840-10-4
lb-in-s2
0.112985
1.12985-103
1.12985-106
1.15213-10-2
1.152126
1.15213-103
6.17740-103
16
3.86088-102
2.681175
8.3333-10-2
lb-ft2
lb-ft-s2
4.21403-10-2
4.21403-102
4.21403-105
4.29711-10-3
0.429711
4.297114-102
2.304-103
5.96755
144
0.372971
3.10809-10-2
1.35583
1.35582-104
1.35582-107
0.138255
13.82551
1.38255-104
7.41289-104
192
4.63306-103
12
32.1740
kg-m-s2
1.82901-10-5
(slug ft2)
N-m
N-m
N-cm
10 -2
dyn-cm
10
-7
N-cm
dyn-cm
kg-m
kg-cm
102
107
0.1019716
105
1.019716-10-3
10
-5
1
2
1.019716-10
7
g-cm
10.19716
-8
0.1019716-3
1.01972-10
-6
oz-in
1.019716-104
141.6119
1.019712-102
1.41612
1.01972-10
-3
1.41612-10
ft-lbs
in-lbs
0.737562
-5
8.85074
7.37562-10 -3
8.85074-10 -2
-8
8.85074-10 -7
7.37562-10
kg-m
9.80665
9.80665-10
9.80665-10
10
10
1.38874-10
7.23301
kg-cm
9.80665-10 -2
9.80665
9.80665-105
10 -2
103
13.8874
7.23301-10 -2
0.86792
g-cm
9.80665-10 -5
9.80665-10 -3
9.80665-102
10 -5
10 -3
1.38874-10 -2
7.23301-10 -5
8.679624-10-4
oz-in
7.06155-10 -3
0.706155
7.06155-104
7.20077-10 -4
7.20077-10 -2
72,0077
5.20833-10 -3
6.250-10-2
192
12
16
8.33333-10 -2
ft-lbs
1.35582
1.35582-10
1.35582-10
0.1382548
13.82548
1.382548-10
in-lbs
0.112085
11.2985
1.12985-106
1.15212-10 -2
1.15212
1.15212-103
86.79624
Calculate Horsepower
3
oz/in
gm/cm
1.54
2.66
4.80
8.30
4.72
8.17
5.15
8.91
Plastic
0.64
1.11
4.48
7.75
Hard Wood
0.46
0.80
Soft Wood
0.28
0.48
A71
A Engineering Reference
Application Examples
Summary of Application Examples
Feed-to-length
Tool Feed
Application No.
Page
1: BBQ Grill-Making Machine .................... A73
Application No.
Page
14: Surface Grinding Machine ...................... A86
15: Transfer Machine .................................... A87
17: Disc Burnisher ........................................ A89
X/Y Point-to-point
Applications that deal with parts handling
mechanisms that sort, route, or divert the flow of
parts.
Application No.
Page
4: Optical Scanner ...................................... A76
5: Circuit Board Scanning ........................... A77
Metering/Dispensing
Applications where controlling displacement and/
or velocity are required to meter or dispense a
precise amount of material.
Application No.
Page
6: Telescope Drive ...................................... A78
Winding
Controlling the process of winding material around
a spindle or some other object.
Application No.
Page
18: Monofilament Winder .............................. A90
19: Capacitor Winder ................................... A91
Following
Applications that require the coordination of motion
to be in conjunction with an external speed or
position sensor.
Application No.
Page
20: Labelling Machine ................................... A92
21: Window Blind Gluing .............................. A93
22: Moving Positioning Systems ................... A94
Indexing/Conveyor
Applications where a conveyor is being driven in a
repetitive fashion to index parts into or out of an
auxiliary process.
Application No.
Page
9: Indexing Table ........................................ A81
10: Rotary Indexer ........................................ A82
11: Conveyor ................................................ A83
Contouring
Applications where multiple axes of motion are
used to create a controlled path, (e.g., linear or
circular interpolation).
Application No.
Page
12: Engraving Machine ................................. A84
13: Fluted-Bit Cutting Machine ..................... A85
A72
Injection Molding
Applications where raw material is fed by gravity
from a hopper into a pressure chamber (die or
mold). The mold is filled rapidly and considerable
pressure is applied to produce a molded product.
Application No.
Page
23: Plastic Injection Molding ......................... A95
Flying Cutoff
Applications where a web of material is cut while
the material is moving. Typically, the cutting device
travels at an angle to the web and with a speed
proportional to the web.
Application No.
Page
24: Rotating Tube Cutting ............................ A96
Application Examples
Application Type: Feed-to-Length
Motion: Linear
Application Description: A manufactuer was
using a servo motor to feed material into a
machine to create barbeque grills, shopping carts,
etc. The process involves cutting steel rods and
welding the rods in various configurations.
However, feed-length was inconsistent because
slippage between the drive roller and the material
was too frequent. Knurled nip-rolls could not be
used because they would damage the material.
The machine builder needed a more accurate
method of cutting the material at uniform lengths.
The customer used a load-mounted encoder to
provide feedback of the actual amount of material
fed into the cutting head.
Machine Objectives:
Compnesate for material slippage
Interface with customers operator panel
Smooth repeatable operation
Variable length indexes
High reliability
Motor and
Drive Roll
Spool
Motor
BLHX75BN
ML3450B-10
Nip-Roll and
Load Mounted
Encoder
BLHX150BN
Servo Drive
Cutting Head
A73
A Engineering Reference
Application Examples
2. Film Advance
Application Type: Feed-to-Length
Motion: Linear
Tangential drives consist of a pulley or pinion
which, when rotated, exerts a force on a belt or
racks to move a linear load. Common tangential
drives include pulleys and cables, gears and
toothed belts, and racks and pinions.
Tangential drives permit a lot of flexibility in the
design of drive mechanics, and can be very
accurate with little backlash. Metal chains should
be avoided since they provide little or no motor
damping.
Application Description: A movie camera is
being modified to expose each frame under
computer control for the purpose of generating
special effects. A motor will be installed in the
camera connected to a 1/2-inch diameter, 2-inch
long steel film drive sprocket and must index one
frame in 200 milliseconds. The frame spacing is 38
mm (1.5").
Machine Requirements:
Index one frame within 200 milliseconds
Indexer must be compatible with BCD interface
Fast rewind and frame indexing
Motion Control Requirements:
Little to no vibration at rest Stepper
Minimum settling time
Preset and slew moves
Application Solution:
In this application, the move distance and time are
known, but the required acceleration is not known.
The acceleration may be derived by observing
that, for a trapezoidal move profile with equal
acceleration, slew and deceleration times, 1/3 of
the move time is spent accelerating and 1/3 of the
total distance is travelled in that time (a trapezoidal
move).
It is determined that the acceleration required is
107.4 rps2 at a velocity of 7.166 rps. Assume that
the film weighs 1 oz. and total film friction is 10 ozin. The rotor, sprocket, and film inertia is calculated
to be 0.545 oz-in/sec2. Solving the torque formula
indicates that the motor for this application must
provide 11.9 oz-in to drive the film and pulley (refer
to Direct Drive Formulas on p. A63).
An indexer is selected to be connected to a BCD
interface in the camera electronics. Preset and
Slew modes on the indexer are then controlled by
the camera electronics to provide fast rewind and
frame indexing.
Product Solutions:
Drive/Indexer
Motor
SX
S57-51-MO
Drive/Indexer
Motor
A74
Application Examples
Application Type: Feed-to-Length
Motion: Linear
Description: In a sheet metal fabrication process,
an unfastened part rides on a conveyor belt
moving continuously at an unpredictable velocity.
Two spot-welds are to be performed on each part,
4 inches apart, with the first weld 2 inches from the
leading edge of the part. A weld takes one second.
Machine Objectives
Standalone operation
Position welder according to position and
velocity of each individual part
Welding and positioning performed without
stopping the conveyor
Welding process must take 1 second to
complete
Motion Control Requirements
Programmable I/O; sequence storage
Following
Motion profiling; complex following
High linear acceleration and speed
Application Solution:
This application requires a controller that can
perform following or motion profiling based on a
primary encoder position. In this application, the
controller will receive velocity and position data
from an incremental encoder mounted to a roller
on the conveyor belt carrying the unfastened parts.
The conveyor is considered the primary drive
system. The secondary motor/drive system
receives instructions from the controller, based on
a ratio of the velocity and position information
supplied by the primary system encoder. The linear
motor forcer carries the weld head and is mounted
on an overhead platform in line with the conveyor.
Linear motor technology was chosen to carry the
weld head because of the length of travel. The
linear step motor is not subject to the same linear
velocity and acceleration limitations inherent in
systems converting rotary to linear motion. For
Drive
Motor
L Drive PO-L20-P54
Encoder
-E
Indexer
Linear Motor
Spot Welds
Microstepping
Drive
Encoder
(Mounted
to Conveyor)
Weld Head
A75
A Engineering Reference
3. On-the-Fly Welder
Application Examples
4. Optical Scanner
Application Type: X-Y Point-to-Point
Motion: Rotary
Application Description: A dye laser designer
needs to precisely rotate a diffraction grating under
computer control to tune the frequency of the
laser. The grating must be positioned to an angular
accuracy of 0.05. The high resolution of the
microstepping motor and its freedom from
hunting or other unwanted motion when stopped
make it ideal.
Machine Requirements:
System must precisely rotate a diffraction
grating to tune the frequency of the laser
PC-compatible system control
Angular accuracy of 0.05
IEEE-488 interface is required
Motion Control Requirements:
High resolution Microstepper
Little to no vibration at rest Stepper
No hunting at the end of move Stepper
Limited space is available for motor small
motor is required
Application Solution:
The inertia of the grating is equal to 2% of the
proposed motors rotor inertia and is therefore
ignored. Space is at a premium in the cavity and a
small motor is a must. A microstepping motor,
which provides ample torque for this application, is
selected.
The lasers instrumentation is controlled by a
computer with an IEEE-488 interface. An indexer
with an IEEE-488 interface is selected. It is
mounted in the rack with the computer and is
controlled with a simple program written in BASIC
that instructs the indexer to interrupt the computer
at the completion of each index.
Product Solutions:
Indexer
Drive
Motor
Model 4000
LN Drive
LN57-51
Drive
Model 4000
Motor
A76
Application Examples
Application Type: X-Y Point-to-Point
Motion: Linear
Application Description: An Original Equipment
Manufacturer (OEM) manufactures X-Ray Scanning
equipment used in the quality control of printed
circuit boards and wafer chips.
Drive
Motor
Accessories
-E
Daedal X-Y Table
Joystick
Drive
Drive
Motor
Joystick
Indexer
A77
A Engineering Reference
Application Examples
6. Telescope Drive
Application Type: Metering/Dispensing
Motion: Rotary
Traditional gear drives are more commonly used
with step motors. The fine resolution of a
microstepping motor can make gearing
unnecessary in many applications. Gears generally
have undesirable efficiency, wear characteristics,
backlash, and can be noisy.
Gears are useful, however, when very large inertias
must be moved because the inertia of the load
reflected back to the motor through the gearing is
divided by the square of the gear ratio.
In this manner large inertial loads can be moved
while maintaining a good load inertia-to-rotor
inertia ratio (less than 10:1).
Application Description: An astronomer
building a telescope needs to track celestial events
at a slow speed (15/hour) and also slew quickly
(15 in 1 second).
Machine Requirements:
Smooth, slow speed is required microstepper
High data-intensive application bus-based
indexer
Future capabilities to control at least 2 axes of
motion
Visual C++ interface
Motion Control Requirements:
High resolution
Very slow speed (1.25 revolutions per hour)
microstepping
AT bus-based motion controller card
Dynamic Link Library (DDL) device driver must
be provided with indexer. This helps Windows
programmers create Windows-based
applications (i.e., Visual C++) to interface with
the indexer
Application Solution:
A 30:1 gearbox is selected so that 30 revolutions
of the motor result in 1 revolution (360) of the
telescope. A tracking velocity of 15/hour
corresponds to a motor speed of 1.25 revs/hour or
about 9 steps/sec. on a 25,000 steps/rev. Moving
15 (1.25 revolutions) in 1 second requires a
velocity of 1.25 rps.
The inverse square law causes the motor to see 1/
900 of the telescopes rotary inertia. The equations
are solved and the torque required to accelerate
the telescope is 455 oz-in. The step pulses
required to drive the motor are obtained from a
laboratory oscillator under the operators control.
Product Solutions:
Indexer
Drive
Motor
AT6200-AUX1*
S Drive
S106-178
Drive
Motor
A78
Computer
(Indexer installed
in a PC)
Application Examples
Application Type: Metering/Dispensing
Motion: Rotary
Application Description: A jet engine
manufacturer is building a test facility for making
operational measurements on a jet engine. The
throttle and three other fuel flow controls need to
be set remotely. While the application only calls for
a rotary resolution of 1 degree (1/360 rev.), the
smoothness and stiffness of a microstepping
system is required.
Application Solution:
Each valve is measured with a torque wrench.
Two valves measure at 60 oz-in and the other two
measure at 200 oz-in. Two high-power and two
low-power microstepping motor/drives systems
are selected. These choices provide
approximately 100% torque margin and result in a
conservative design.
Machine Requirements:
Low wear
Remote operation
High reliability
Motion Control Requirements:
Motor velocity is low
High stiffness at standstill
Slow-speed smoothness
Four axes of control
Homing function
Drive
Motor
AT6400*
S Drive
S57-102
Motor
Motor
Drive
Motor
Drive
Computer
(Indexer installed in a PC)
Motor
Drive
Drive
A79
A Engineering Reference
Application Examples
8. Capsule Filling Machine
Application Type: Metering/Dispensing
Motion: Linear
Application Description: The design requires a
machine to dispense radioactive fluid into capsules.
After the fluid is dispensed, it is inspected and the
data is stored on a PC. There is a requirement to
increase throughput without introducing spillage.
Machine Requirements:
Increase throughput
No spilling of radioactive fluid
Automate two axes
PC compatible system control
Low-cost solution
Smooth, repeatable motion
Motion Control Requirements:
Quick, accurate moves
Multi-axis controller
PC bus-based motion control card
Open-loop stepper if possible
High-resolution motor/drive (microstepping)
Application Solution:
The multi-axis indexer is selected to control and
synchronize both axes of motion on one card
residing in the IBM PC computer. An additional
feature is the integral I/O capability thats
necessary to activate the filling process. The
horizontal axis carrying the tray of capsules is
driven by a linear motor. The simple mechanical
construction of the motor makes it easy to apply,
and guarantees a long maintenance-free life. The
vertical axis raises and lowers the filling head and
is driven by a microstepping motor and a
leadscrew assembly. A linear motor was also
considered for this axis, but the fill head would
have dropped onto the tray with a loss of power
to the motor. Leadscrew friction and the residual
torque of the step motor prevents this occurrence.
Product Solutions:
Indexer
AT6200
Drive
Filling Heads
Top View
Full
Capsules
Tray of
Empty Capsules
Hose
Side View
Platen
Linear Motor
Motor with Leadscrew
Computer
(Indexer
installed
in a PC)
Drive
A80
Drive
Motor
Application Examples
Application Type: Indexing/Conveyor
Motion: Linear
Application Description: A system is required
to plot the response of a sensitive detector that
must receive equally from all directions. It is
mounted on a rotary table that needs to be
indexed in 3.6 steps, completing each index
within one second. For set-up purposes, the table
can be positioned manually at 5 rpm. The table
incorporates a 90:1 worm drive.
Machine Requirements:
Low-EMI system
Repeatable indexing
Remote operation
Table speed of 5 rpm
Motion Control Requirements:
Jogging capability
Sequence select functionality
Capable of remote drive shutdown
Application Solution:
The maximum required shaft speed (450 rpm) is
well within the capability of a stepper, which is an
ideal choice in simple indexing applications.
Operating at a motor resolution of 400 steps/rev,
the resolution at the table is a convenient 36,000
step/rev. In this application, it is important that
electrical noise is minimized to avoid interference
with the detector. Two possible solutions are to
use a low-EMI linear drive or to shut down the
drive after each index (with a stepper driving a
90:1 worm gear there is no risk of position loss
during shutdown periods).
Product Solutions:
Indexer
Drive
Motor
Model 500
LN Drive
LN57-102
Detector
Drive
Indexer
Motor
Rotary
Stage
A81
A Engineering Reference
9. Indexing Table
Application Examples
10. Rotary Indexer
Application Type: Indexing Conveyor
Motion: Rotary
Application Description: An engineer for a
pharmaceutical company is designing a machine
to fill vials and wants to replace an old style
Geneva mechanism. A microstepping motor will
provide smooth motion and will prevent spillage.
The indexing wheel is aluminum and is 0.250-inch
thick and 7.5" in diameter. Solving the equation for
the inertia of a solid cylinder indicates that the
wheel has 119.3 oz-in2. The holes in the indexing
wheel reduce the inertia to 94 oz-in2. The vials
have negligible mass and may be ignored for the
purposes of motor sizing. The table holds 12 vials
(30 apart) that must index in 0.5 seconds and
dwell for one second. Acceleration torque is
calculated to be 8.2 oz-in at 1.33 rps2. A triangular
move profile will result in a maximum velocity of
0.33 rps. The actual torque requirement is less
than 100 oz-in. However, a low load-to-rotor
inertia ratio was necessary to gently move the vials
and fill them.
Machine Requirements:
Smooth motion
PLC control
Variable index lengths
Motion Control Requirements:
Smooth motion
Sequence select capability
I/O for sequence select
Programmable acceleration and deceleration
Application Solution:
The index distance may be changed by the
engineer who is controlling the machine with a
programmable controller. Move parameters will be
changing and can therefore be set via BCD inputs.
The indexer can be buried in the machine and
activated with a remote START input.
Product Solutions:
Drive Indexer
Motor
SX Drive Indexer*
S83-135
PLC
Programmable
Logic Controller
A82
Controller
Drive
Application Examples
Application Type: Indexing/Conveyor
Motion: Linear
Tangential drives consist of a pulley or pinion
which, when rotated, exerts a force on a belt or
racks to move a linear load. Common tangential
drives include pulleys and cables, gears and
toothed belts, and racks and pinions.
Tangential drives permit a lot of flexibility in the
design of drive mechanics, and can be very
accurate with little backlash. Metal chains should
be avoided since they provide little or no motor
damping.
Application Description: A machine vision
system is being developed to automatically inspect
small parts for defects. The parts are located on a
small conveyor and pass through the cameras
field of view. The conveyor is started and stopped
under computer control and the engineer wants to
use a system to drive the conveyor because it is
necessary for the part to pass by the camera at a
constant velocity.
It is desired to accelerate the conveyor to a speed
of 20 inches/sec. in 100 milliseconds. A flat timing
belt weighing 20 ozs. is driven by a 2-inch diameter
aluminum pulley 4 inches wide (this requires a
motor velocity of 3.2 rps). The maximum weight of
the parts on the pulley at any given time is 1 lb.
and the load is estimated to have an inertia of 2 ozin2. Static friction of all mechanical components is
30 oz-in. The required motor toque was
determined to be 50.9 oz-ins (refer to Direct Drive
Formulas on p. A63).
Machine Requirements:
Computer-controlled system
High accuracy
Low backlash
Motion Control Requirements:
Accurate velocity control
Linear motion
High resolution
AT bus-based motion control card
Application Solution:
A computer controls the entire inspection
machine. A bus-based compatible indexer card
was selected. A microstepping motor/drive system
that supplied 100 oz-in of static torque was also
chosen to complete the application.
Product Solutions:
Indexer
Drive
Motor
PC21*
S Drive
S57-83
Motor
Drive
Computer
(Indexer installed
in a PC)
A83
A Engineering Reference
11. Conveyor
Application Examples
12. Engraving Machine
Application Type: Contouring
Motion: Linear
Application Description: An existing engraving
machine requires an upgrade for accuracy beyond
0.008 inches, capability and operating
environment. Using a personal computer as the
host processor is desirable.
Machine Requirements:
Positional accuracy to 0.001 inches
Easy-to-use, open-loop control
CNC machining capability
Interface-to-digitizer pad
Compatibility with CAD systems
Motion Control Requirements:
High resolution
Microstepping
G-Code compatibility
IBM PC compatible controller
Application Solution:
A four-axis motion controller resides on the bus of
an IBM compatible computer, allowing full
integrated control of four axes of motion. Axes 3
and 4 are synchronized to prevent table skew.
CompuCAMs G-Code package allows the user to
program in industry-standard machine tool
language (RS274 G-Code) or to import CAD files
with CompuCAM-DXF. Open-loop microstepping
drives with precision leadscrews give positional
accuracies better than the desired 0.001 inch.
This simple retrofit to the existing hardware greatly
improved system performance.
Product Solutions:
Indexer
Drives
Motor
AT6400*
S Drives
S83-135
Drives
Digitizer Pad
Motor
Axis 2
Axis 3
Axis 1
Motor
Motor
Axis 4
A84
Motor
Application Examples
Application Type: Contouring
Motion: Linear
Application Description: The customer
manufactures a machine that cuts a metal cylinder
into fluted cutting bits for milling machines. The
machine operation employed a mechanical cam
follower to tie the bits rotation speed to the
traverse motion of the bit relative to the cutting
tool. The cut depth was manually adjusted using a
hand crank.
This arrangement was acceptable when the
company had a bit for the cam they wanted to
grind. Unfortunately, custom prototype bits made
of titanium or other high-tech metals required that
they make a cam before they could machine the
bit, or do those parts on a $10,000 CNC screw
machine. Both of these alternatives were too
expensive for this customer.
Machine Requirements:
Machine must be capable of making lowvolume custom bits as well as high-volume
standard bitsan be economical for both
processes.
Quick set-up routine
Operator interface for part entry
Motion Control Requirements:
Smooth motion
Four axes of coordinated motion
2 axes of linear interpolation
Math capabilities
Application Solution:
Controlled by a multi-axis step and direction
controller, microstepping motors and drives are
attached to four axes for smooth, programmable
motion at all speeds.
Axis 1: Alignment
Axis 2: Chamfer (cutting depth)
Axis 3: Traverse
Axis 4: Rotation
To allow for the flexibility required to cut a bit at a
desired pitch, the traverse and rotation axes (axes
3 and 4) are synchronized along a straight line.
The controllers linear interpolation allows this
functionality. Both the alignment and chamfer axes
(axes 1 and 2) remain stationary during the cutting
process.
The controllers operator input panel and math
capabilities allow the operator to enter the bit
diameter, desired pitch, depth, and angle. Using
these part specifications, the controller generates
all motion profiles and stores them in nonvolatile
battery-backed RAM. Programming is
accomplished with the controllers menu-driven
language. The typical process is as follows:
1. Axis 1 aligns the center line of the bit to the
cutting tool.
2. Axis 2 lowers the cutting tool to the desired
cutting depth (chamfer).
3.
Drives
Motor
Model 4000*
S Drives
S83-135
Drive
Drive
Motor
(Axis 2 - Chamfer)
Motor
(Axis 4 Rotation)
Drive
Cutting
Tool
Bit
Motor
(Axis 3 Traverse)
Motor
(Axis 1 - Alignment)
A85
A Engineering Reference
Application Examples
14. Surface Grinding Machine
Application Type: Tool Feed
Motion: Linear
Application Description: A specialty machine
shop is improving the efficiency of its surface
grinding process. The existing machine is sound
mechanically, but manually operated. Automating
the machine will free the operator for other tasks,
which will increase overall throughput of the
machine shop.
Machine Requirements:
Allow flexibility to machine various parts
Easy set up for new parts
Automate all three axes
Keep operator informed as to progress
Low-cost solution
High-resolution grinding
Motion Control Requirements:
Nonvolatile memory for program storage
Teach mode
Multi-axis controller
Interactive user configurable display
Open-loop stepper if possible
High resolution motor/drive (microstepping)
Application Solution:
A four-axis motion controller with a userconfigurable front panel is required for this
application. An indexer with a sealed, backlit
display would be ideal for the applications
industrial environment (machine shop). The
controllers Teach mode and sizable nonvolatile
memory allows for easy entry and storage of new
part programs. Microstepping drives, which plenty
of power, resolution, and accuracy are selected
instead of more expensive closed-loop servo
systems. The operator utilizes the controllers jog
function to position the grinding head at the proper
spark off height. From this point, the controller
takes over and finishes the part while the operator
works on other critical tasks. Increasing the parts
repeatability and throughput of the process
justified the cost of automating the machine.
Product Solutions:
Indexer
Drive
Motor
Model 4000*
S Drive
S83-93
Motor
Safety
Guard
Grinding
Wheel
Control Panel
Motors
Indexer
A86
Application Examples
Application Type: Tool Feed
Motion: Linear
Application Description: A stage of a transfer
machine is required to drill several holes in a
casting using a multi-head drill. The motor has to
drive the drill head at high speed to within 0.1" of
the workpiece and then proceed at cutting speed
to the required depth. The drill is then withdrawn at
an intermediate speed until clear of the work, then
fast-retracted and set for the next cycle. The
complete drilling cycle takes 2.2 seconds with a
0.6-second delay before the next cycle.
Due to the proximity of other equipment, the length
in the direction of travel is very restricted. An
additional requirement is to monitor the machine
for drill wear and breakage.
Machine Requirements:
Limited length of travel
Limited maintenance
Monitor and minimize drill damage
High-speed drilling
Motion Control Requirements:
Packaged drive controller
Complex motion profile
High speed
High duty cycle
Application Solution:
The combined requirements of high speed, high
duty cycle and monitoring the drill wear all point to
the use of a servo motor. By checking the torque
load on the motor (achieved by monitoring drive
current), the drilling phase can be monitored (an
increased load during this phase indicates that the
drill is broken).
This type of application will require a ballscrew
drive to achieve high stiffness together with high
speed. One way of minimizing the length of the
mechanism is to attach the ballscrew to the
moving stage and then rotate the nut, allowing the
motor to be buried underneath the table. Since
access for maintenance will then be difficult, a
brushless motor should be selected.
Product Solutions:
Drive/Controller
Motor
APEX6152
606 Motor
Drill
Head
Table
Ballscrew
Rotating Nut
Motor
Drive/Controller
A87
A Engineering Reference
Application Examples
16. Flute Grinder
Application Type: Tool Feed
Motion: Linear
Application Description: A low-cost machine
for grinding the flutes in twist drills requires two
axes of movementone moves the drill forwards
underneath the grinding wheel, the other rotates
the drill to produce the helical flute. At the end of
the cut, the rotary axis has to index the drill round
by 180 to be ready to grind the second flute. The
linear speed of the workpiece does not exceed 0.5
inches/sec.
Machine Requirements:
Two-axis control
Low cost
Easy set-up and change over of part programs
Smooth, accurate cutting motion
Motion Control Requirements:
Two-axis indexer
Linear interpolation between axes
Nonvolatile program storage
Flexible data pad input
Moderate speeds
Programmable I/O
Grinding Wheel
Application Solution:
This is a natural application for stepper motors,
since the speeds are moderate and the solution
must be minimum-cost. The grinding process
requires that the two axes move at accurately
related speed, so the controller must be capable
of performing linear interpolation. The small
dynamic position error of the stepper system
ensures that the two axes will track accurately at
all speeds.
Product Solutions:
Controller
Drive
Motor
Operator
Interface
6200*
S Drive
S83-135
RP240
Axis
Motor
Rotary
Head
Twist
Drill
Drive
X-Axis
Motor
Axis Drive
X-Axis
Drive
Operator Interface
A88
Controller
Drive
Application Examples
Application Type: Tool Feed
Motion: Rotary
Application Description: Rigid computer discs
need to be burnished so that they are flat to within
tight tolerances. A sensor and a burnishing head
move together radially across the disc. When a
high spot is sensed, both heads stop while the
burnishing head removes the raised material. The
surface speed of the disc relative to the heads
must remain constant, and at the smallest
diameter, the required disc speed is 2400 rpm.
The machine operates in a clean environment, and
takes approximately one minute to scan an
unblemished disk.
Machine Requirements:
High-speed burnishing
Surface speed of disc relative to the heads must
remain constant
Clean environment no brushed servo
motors
Motion Control Requirements:
Variable storage, conditional branching and
math capabilities
Linear interpolation between the head axes
(axes #1 and #2)
Change velocity on-the-fly
Programmable inputs
Axis 1
Sensing Head
Application Solution:
The drive for the disc requires continuous
operation at high speed, and a brushless solution
is desirable to help maintain clean conditions. The
natural choice is a brushless servo system. The
speed of this axis depends on head position and
will need to increase as the heads scan from the
outside to the center. To successfully solve this
application, the multi-axis indexer requires variable
storage, the ability to perform math functions, and
the flexibility to change velocity on-the-fly.
The sense and burnishing heads traverse at low
speed and can be driven by stepper motors.
Stepper motorssince the sense and burnishing
heads need to start and step at the same time,
linear interpolation is required.
Product Solutions:
Controller Drive #1
Model 4000* S Drive
Drive #2
Drive #3
S Drive
Z Drive
Motor #1
Motor #2
Motor #3
S83-93
S83-93
Z60
Axis 2
Burnishing Head
Motor
Motor
Disc
Axis 3
Disc Drive Motor
Drive
Multi Axis
Controller (4000)
Drive
Drive
A89
A Engineering Reference
Application Examples
18. Monofilament Winder
Application Type: Winding
Motion: Rotary
Application Description: Monofilament nylon is
produced by an extrusion process that results in
an output of filament at a constant rate. The
product is wound onto a bobbin that rotates at a
maximum speed of 2000 rpm. The tension in the
filament must be held between 0.2 lbs. and 0.6 lbs
to ensure that it is not stretched. The winding
diameter varies between 2" and 4".
The filament is laid onto the bobbin by a ballscrewdriven arm, which oscillates back and forth at
constant speed. The arm must reverse rapidly at
the end of the move. The required ballscrew speed
is 60 rpm.
Machine Requirements:
Controlled tension on monofilament
Simple operator interface
High throughput
Motion Control Requirements:
2 axes of coordinated motion
Linear interpolation
Constant torque from motor
Application Solution:
The prime requirement of the bobbin drive is to
provide a controlled tension, which means
operating in Torque mode rather than Velocity
mode. If the motor produces a constant torque,
the tension in the filament will be inversely
proportional to the winding diameter. Since the
winding diameter varies by 2:1, the tension will fall
by 50% from start to finish. A 3:1 variation in
tension is adequate, so constant-torque operation
is acceptable. (To maintain constant tension,
torque must be increased in proportion to winding
diameter.)
This requirement leads to the use of a servo
operating in torque mode (the need for constantspeed operation at 2000 rpm also makes a
stepper unsuitable). In practice, a servo in Velocity
mode might be recommended, but with an
overriding torque limit, the programmed velocity
would be a little more than 2000 rpm. In this way,
the servo will normally operate as a constanttorque drive. However, if the filament breaks, the
velocity would be limited to the programmed
value.
The traversing arm can be adequately driven by a
smaller servo.
Product Solutions:
Indexer
Drive
Motor
6250*
BL30
ML2340
Bobbin
Drive
Torque
Motor
Servo
Drive
A90
Controller
Application Examples
Application Type: Winding
Motion: Linear
Application Description: The customer winds
aluminum electrolytic capacitors. Six reels, two
with foil (anode and cathode) and four with paper,
are all wound together to form the capacitor. After
winding the material a designated number of turns,
the process is stopped and anode and cathode
tabs are placed on the paper and foil. The tabs
must be placed so that when the capacitor is
wound, the tabs end up 90 (0.1) from each
other. This process is repeated until the required
number of tabs are placed and the capacitor
reaches its appropriate diameter.
The previous system used a PLC, conventional DC
drives, and counters to initiate all machine
functions. DIP switches were used to change and
select capacitor lengths. Lengthy set-up and
calibration procedures were required for proper
operation. In addition, material breakage was
common, resulting in extensive downtime. An
operator had to monitor the machine at all times to
constantly adjust the distances for accurate tab
placement.
Machine Requirements:
Constantly monitor the linear feed length of the
paper and foil and calculate the constantly
changing capacitor circumference as a function
of that length
A complete motion control package is required
to eliminate the need for a PLC and separate
motion cards
Reduce time and complexity of set-up (too much
wiring in previous system)
Reduce machine downtime caused by material
breakage
Motion Control Requirements:
Following
Two axes of coordinated motion
Math capability
AT-based control card
Drive
Application Solution:
Precise motion control of the material feed axes
demands closed-loop servo commands. Actuation
of external cylinders and solenoids requires both
analog and digital I/O. A flexible operator interface
is needed for diagnostics and other alterations of
machine function. Motion, I/O, and an operator
interface should be provided with a machine
controller.
The first motorized axis (mandril) pulls all six
materials together and feeds an appropriate
distance. An encoder is placed on this motor as
well as on the materials as they are fed into the
mandril. The controller constantly compares the
two encoders to get an exact measurement of
linear distance, and compensates for material
stretching.
When the linear distance is achieved, the first
motor comes to an abrupt stop while a second
axis places a tab. The controller then initiates a
cold weld (pressure weld) of the tab onto the
paper and foil.
To avoid material breakage, constant tension is
applied to each of the six reels via air cylinders.
Sensors are installed on all axes so that if a break
occurs, the controller can stop the process.
A computer makes this process easy to use and
set up. PC/AT-based support software allows the
user to build his controller command program.
The operator sets the diameter of the appropriate
capacitor, the operating speed and the number of
capacitors (all via the keyboard). After this
process, the machine runs until a malfunction
occurs or it has completed the job.
Product Solutions:
Controller
Drive
AT6250*
BL30
ML2340 -E Encoder
Drive
Encoder
Input
Motor Accessories
Anode
Tab
Reel
Motor
Output
Cathode
Tab
Reel
Anode
Foil Reel
Tab Feeder
Axis Motor
Spindel
Axis Motor
and Encoder
Paper
Reel
Paper
Reel
Capacitor
Wound Onto
Spindle
Opto I/O Rack
Paper
Reel
Encoder
I/O to Limits,
Cylinders and
Solenoids
Computer
(Indexer installed in a PC)
Cathode
Foil Reel
Paper
Reel
A91
A Engineering Reference
Application Examples
20. Labelling Machine
Application Type: Following
Motion: Linear
Application Description: Bottles on a conveyor
run through a labelling mechanism that applies a
label to the bottle. The spacing of the bottles on
the conveyor is not regulated and the conveyor
can slow down, speed up, or stop at any time.
Velocity
Machine Requirements:
Accurately apply labels to bottles in motion
Allow for variable conveyor speed
Allow for inconsistent distance between bottles
Pull label web through dispenser
Smooth, consistent labelling at all speeds
Motion Control Requirements:
Synchronization to conveyor axis
Electronic gearbox function
Registration control
High torque to overcome high friction
High resolution
Open-loop stepper if possible
Application Solution:
A motion controller that can accept input from an
encoder mounted to the conveyor and reference
all of the speeds and distances of the label roll to
the encoder is required for this application. A
servo system is also required to provide the
torque and speed to overcome the friction of the
dispensing head and the inertia of the large roll of
labels. A photosensor connected to a
programmable input on the controller monitors the
bottles positions on the conveyor. The controller
commands the label motor to accelerate to line
speed by the time the first edge of the label
contacts the bottle. The label motor moves at line
speed until the complete label is applied, and then
decelerates to a stop and waits for the next bottle.
Product Solutions:
Controller
Motor
APEX6152*
APEX604
Secondary Axis
Time
Registration Input
Start Photocell
Servo
Encoder
Drive/Controller
A92
Application Examples
Application Type: Following
Motion: Linear
Application Description: A window blind
manufacturer uses an adhesive to form a seam
along the edge of the material. It is critical that the
glue be applied evenly to avoid flaws; however, the
speed that the material passes beneath the
dispensing head is not constant. The glue needs
to be dispensed at a rate proportional to the
varying speed of the material.
Program
Machine Requirements:
Allow for varying material speed
Dispense glue evenly
Allow for multiple blind lengths
Motion Control Requirements:
Synchronization to material speed
Velocity following capabilities
Sequence storage
Application Solution:
A step and direction indexer/follower and a
microstepping motor/drive are used to power a
displacement pump. The indexer/follower is
programmed to run the motor/drive at a velocity
proportional to the primary velocity of the material,
based on input from a rotary incremental encoder.
This assures a constant amount of glue along the
length of the material.
FOL
FOR2.5
FOL2
A1
AD1
MC
Product Solutions:
Drive/Controller
Motor
SXF Drive/Controller*
S57-102
Motor
Encoder
Drive/Controller
A93
A Engineering Reference
Application Examples
22. Moving Positioning System
Application Type: Following
Motion: Linear
Application Description: In a packaging
application, a single conveyor of boxes rides
between 2 conveyors of product. The product
must be accurately placed in the boxes from
alternate product conveyors without stopping the
center conveyor of boxes. The line speed of the
boxes may vary. When the product is ready, the
controller must decide which box the product can
be placed into and then move the product into
alignment with the moving box. The product must
be moving along side of the box in time for the
product to be pushed into the box.
Machine Requirements:
Reliable product packaging on the fly
Standalone operation
Multiple product infeeds
Continuous operation without stopping the box
conveyor
Motion Control Requirements:
Programmable I/O
Sequence storage
Complex following capabilities
Moving positioning system functionality
Multitasking
Product
Application Solution:
A standalone multiple-axis controller provides the
control for this application. The controller can
perform motion profiling based on an external
encoder that is mounted on the center conveyor of
boxes. The two product conveyors are driven by
servo motors for high speeds and accelerations.
The controller looks for a product ready signal
from a sensor mounted on the product infeed
conveyor and then makes a move based on the
status of the boxes on the box conveyor and the
status of the product on the other product
conveyor. The controller is multitasking the control
of the two product conveyors and the external
encoder input, as well as a sensor input to monitor
the status of the boxes. Thus the controller can
instantaneously decide into which box the product
should be placed and where that box is located.
The controller then accelerates the product into
alignment with the appropriate box in time for the
product to be completely placed in the box, and
continues to monitor the other rest of the product
and box positions.
Product Solutions:
Controller
Drive
Motor
Encoder
Model 500
L Drive
L20
-E Encoder
Product
Infeed
Box
Conveyor
Product
Product
Infeed
Product
Synchronization
Product
Synchronization
Controller
A94
Drive
Drive
Drive
Drive
Application Examples
Application Type: Injection Molding
Motion: Linear
Application Description: A manufacturer of
injection molding machines wants a system that
will close a molding chamber, apply pressure to
the molding chamber for 5 seconds and then open
the mold. This action needs to be synchronized
with other machine events. When the molding
chamber is open the motor must be parked at a
designated position to allow clearance to remove
the molded part. The manufacturer would like an
electronic solution (this is the only hydraulic axis on
the current machine).
Machine Requirements:
Electronic solution
Computer-controlled solution
4000N (900lbs.) force
Motion Control Requirements:
Position and torque control
Serial link to computer and other drives
Ability to change pressure and dwell
Motor
Actuator
BLHX75BN
ML3450B-10
-ET580-BO4LA
ML3450B-25
Motor
Electric
Cylinder
Drive
"HOME" Position
Top Mold
Chamber
"PARK" Position
Bottom Mold
Chamber
"CLOSE" Position
A95
A Engineering Reference
Application Examples
24. Rotating Tube Cutter
Application Type: Flying Cutoff
Motion: Linear
Application Description: Metal tubing feeds off
of a spool and needs to be cut into predetermined
lengths. A rotating blade mechanism is used to cut
the tube, and the blade mechanism must spin
around the tube many times in order to complete
the cut. The throughput of this machine must be
maximized, so the tubing cannot be stopped while
this cut is being made. Therefore, to make a clean
cut on the tube, the blade must move along with
the tube while the cut is being performed.
Machine Requirements:
Standalone operation
Move cutting mechanism with the tubing to
make the cut without stopping
Simple user interface to set different tube
lengths
High accuracy on cut
Motion Control Requirements:
Programmable I/O
Program storage
Position following
High acceleration and speed
Application Solution:
A single-axis servo controller/drive was chosen to
solve this application. An external encoder
monitors the tube output and sends this
information back to the servo system. The servo
system tracks the length of the tube that is being
fed past the cutting blade. Once the appropriate
amount of material has been fed past the blade,
the servo accelerates the cutting device up to the
speed of the tube, sends an output to start the
cutter, and then follows the tube speed exactly.
Product Solutions:
Drive/Controller
Motor
APEX6152
APEX610
Coil of Tube
Encoder
Cutting
Mechanism
Motor
RP240
Leadscrew
Table
A96
Controller/Drive