763312A QUANTUM MECHANICS I - solution set 2 - autumn 2012

1. On The Probability Density

The wave function of a particle in one dimension is
(x, t) = xe
2|x|it
.
a) Calculate the probability density.
b) Let us consider intervals of the form [x
1
4
, x +
1
4
], where x R. Determine
the interval in which the particle is most likely found.
c) What is the probability to nd the particle at the range [2, 2]?
Solution
a) The probability density function associated with the position of the particle
is the squared norm of the wave function. This function is usually called just
probability density. If the wave function is square integrable, it must be normal-
ized before calculating the probability density. In order to obtain an expression
for the normalized wave function, we calculate the normalization coecient C.
It is determined by the normalization condition
_

[C(x, t)]

[C(x, t)] dx = 1. (1.1)

We note that this equation determines C up to an arbitrary phase factor. We
choose C to be real. As we then solve for C
2
, we obtain
C
2
=
__

[(x, t)]

[(x, t)] dx
_
1
. (1.2)
On the other hand,
_

[(x, t)]

[(x, t)] dx =
_

x
2
e
4|x|
dx
= 2
_

0
x
2
e
4x
dx
=
1
16
. (1.3)
Therefore
C
2
= 16. (1.4)
The probability density
(x) = [C(x, t)]

[C(x, t)]
= 16x
2
e
4|x|
. (1.5)
1
Figure 1: The probability density (x)
b) Let us assume that we are dealing with a square integrable wave func-
tion (as we are in this problem). Then the probability for nding the particle
within an interval [x
1
, x
2
] is given by
P(x
1
, x
2
) =
_
x2
x1
(x) dx, (1.6)
where (x) is the probability density. Now we can paraphrase our problem by
saying that we are solving for the global maximum points of P(x
1
4
, x +
1
4
).
Let us denote these points by x
i
, i = 1, 2, . We note that they satisfy the
condition
d
dx
_
x+1/4
x1/4
(s) ds

x=xi
= 0. (1.7)
Let us assume that a (x 1/4, x + 1/4) and study the function appearing at
the left-hand side of the previous equation. We obtain
d
dx

x+1/4
x1/4
(s) ds =
d
dx

a
x1/4
(s) ds +
d
dx

x+1/4
a
(s) ds
=
d
dx

x
a+1/4
(s
1
4
) ds +
d
dx

x
x1/4
(s +
1
4
) ds
= (x +
1
4
) (x
1
4
). (1.8)
Now we see that Eq. (1.7) is equivalent with
(x
i

1
4
) = (x
i
+
1
4
). (1.9)
That is, the probability density has equal values at the endpoints of the interval
we are searching for. Moreover, this condition implies that

(x) vanishes at
2
some point within the interval (x
i

1
4
, x
i
+
1
4
). This, in turn, leads us to see
that we are only concerned with intervals containing a maximum point of (x).
To summarize, we know that the interval we are searching for has the following
properties:
1. It contains a maximum point of (x).
2. The probability density (x) has equal values at the endpoints of the
interval.
After one has determined all the intervals having these two properties, one
has to calculate the associated probabilities of nding the particle. Then one
can determine the most probable interval by comparing these probabilities.
Now we have the tools to solve the problem at hand. The derivative

(s) =
_
32se
4s
64s
2
e
4s
, s 0
32se
4s
+ 64s
2
e
4s
, s < 0.
(1.10)
It vanishes at s
1
= 1/2, s
2
= 0 and s
3
= 1/2. We see that s
1
and s
3
are
maximum points. Let us now determine the center point x
1
of the interval
containing point s
1
. We do this by imposing the condition that the probability
density has equal values at the endpoints of the interval:
_
x
1

1
4
_
2
e
4(x11/4)
=
_
x
1
+
1
4
_
2
e
4(x1+1/4)
. (1.11)
Note that we made use of the fact x
1

1
4
< x
1
+
1
4
0. By solving this equation,
we learn that
x
1
=
e + 1
4e 4
0.541. (1.12)
Let us denote by x
3
the center point of the interval containing s
3
. The fact
that the probability distribution is symmetric implies that
x
3
= x
1
0.541. (1.13)
Moreover, it also implies that the particle is found equally likely in either of
these intervals. Based on the theory we constructed earlier, we can say that all
the other intervals have lower probabilities of containing the particle.
3
c) The probability to nd the particle at range [2, 2] is given by
P =
_
2
2
(x) dx
= 16
_
2
2
x
2
e
4|x|
dx
= 32
_
2
0
x
2
e
4x
dx
=
_
1
41
e
8
_
0.986. (1.14)
4
2. On The Probability Current Density
A particle is described by the wave function
(r) =
e
(ika)r
r
; a > 0 constant.
Calculate the probability current density S, when r
2
= x
2
+y
2
+z
2
. How does
S behave for large values of r?
Solution
First we must normalize our wave function. That is to say, we have to determine
such a constant C that
_
R
_
1
C
(r)
_

1
C
(r) dV = 1. (2.1)
We note that this normalization condition determines C up to an arbitrary
phase factor. We choose C to be real. Then
C
2
=

R
3
|(r)|
2
dV
=

2
0
e
2ar
r
2
r
2
sin dr d d
=

0
e
2ar
dr

1
2a

0
sin d

2

2
0
d

2
=
2
a
. (2.2)
Let us now redene (r) so that it becomes normalized. That is to say, let us
dene
(r) =
1
C
e
(ika)r
r
. (2.3)
The probability current density
S =

m
Im(

) . (2.4)
For the sake of simplicity, we carry out the calculation in spherical coordinates.
We obtain
S =

m
1
C
2
Im

e
(ik+a)r
r
r

r
e
(ika)r
r

=
a
2m
Im

e
(ik+a)r
r
(ik a)re
(ika)r
e
(ika)r
r
2

r
=
a
2m
Im

(ik a)re
2ar
e
2ar
r
3

r
=
ak
2m
e
2ar
r
2
r. (2.5)
We easily see that S 0 when r .
5
3. Expectation Values of Momentum and Energy
A particle is described by the wave function
(r, t) =
1
N
e
2br
e
it
; b > 0 constant.
First, calculate the normalization factor N so that
_
R
3
|(r, t)|
2
dV = 1.
Then, calculate the expectation values of momentum and energy.
Solution
The normalization condition
_
R
3
|(r, t)|
2
dV = 1 (3.1)
determines N up to an arbitrary phase factor. We choose N to be real. Then
N
2
=
_
R
3
_
e
2br
e
it
_

_
e
2br
e
it
_
dV
=
_

0
_

0
_
2
0
r
2
sin e
4br
dd dr
= 4
_

0
r
2
e
4br
dr
=

8b
3
. (3.2)
Note that the last equality is obtained through integration by parts.
Let us use spherical coordinates when we calculate the expectation value of
momentum. We obtain
p =
_
R
3

pdV
= i
_
R
3

dV
=
i
N
2
_
R
3
e
2br
r

r
e
2br
dV
= i
2b
N
2
_
R
3
e
4br
r dV. (3.3)
We easily see that the integrand is antisymmetric
1
. Therefore the contributions
from any two opposite points cancel out with each other. Furthermore, we easily
1
Let us say that m and n are positive integers. We call a function f : R
m
R
n
antisym-
metric if f(r) = f(r) for all r.
6
see that the integral converges. Consequently, the integral vanishes. However,
let us also formally calculate this. Writing the volume element explicitly, we
obtain
p = i
2b
N
2
_

0
_

0
_
2
0
r
2
sin e
4br
r dd dr. (3.4)
On the other hand,
r =

i sin cos +

j sin sin +

k cos . (3.5)
As we substitute this into Eq. (3.4), we see that the integrations over the angles
make the integral vanish. Thus
p = 0. (3.6)
The energy expectation value
E =
_
R
3

_
i

t

_
dV
=
i
N
2
_
R
3
e
2br
e
it
(i)e
2br
e
it
dV
=

N
2
_
R
3
e
4br
dV
= . (3.7)
The last equality follows from the fact that the value of the integral appearing
at the second last line is N
2
.
7
4. Free Particle In Three Dimensions
Let us consider a free particle in three dimensions. Show that the divergence of
the probability current density vanishes. That is, show that
S = 0.
What does this result mean?
Solution
The wave function of a free particle in three dimensions is
(r, t) = Ae
i(krt)
. (4.1)
The probability current density
S(r, t) =

m
Im[

] . (4.2)
Now direct calculation yields
= ik. (4.3)
Consequently,

= i|A|
2
k. (4.4)
Since k is a real vector (i.e. its components are real),
Im[

] = |A|
2
k. (4.5)
It follows that
S(r, t) =
|A|
2
m
k. (4.6)
Now we see that the probability current density is a constant with respect to
position. That is, S(r, t) is constant with respect to r. It immediately follows
that
S = 0. (4.7)
In order to give an interpretation for this result, we consider some arbitrarily
chosen region of space. Indeed, Eq. (4.7) means that the probability of nding
the particle from that region does not vary with respect to time [cf. lectures Eq.
(29)].
8
5. Free Particle In One Dimension
By using the separation of variables, solve the one-dimensional free particle
Schrodinger equation. That is, use the separation of variables to solve

2
2m
d
2

dx
2
= i

t
. (i)
Determine the probability density and the probability current density under the
condition that the two arbitrary constants appearing in the solution are real.
In what case the probability density does not depend on position? In general,
if we know that the probability density is time-independent, what can we say
about the probability current density?
Solution
We begin by substituting a trial function (x, t) = (x)(t) into Eq. (i). After
that, we divide both sides of the equation by the same trial function. Then
the left-hand side depends only on x whereas the right-hand depends only on t.
Since the equality has to hold for all x and t, we conclude that both sides have
to be equal to some constant, say E. Setting both sides equal to E yields two
equations, namely
d
2

dx
2
= k
2
; k =
_
2mE

2
, (5.1)
(t) =
iE

(t). (5.2)
Note that k is real because E is, in fact, the kinetic energy of the particle (and
thus nonnegative). Anyway, Eq. (5.1) is a second order homogeneous dierential
equation with constant coecients. We easily obtain its general solution
2
(x) = C
1
e
ikx
+ C
2
e
ikx
. (5.3)
Eq. (5.2) is a rst order homogeneous dierential equation with constant coef-
cients. We easily obtain its general solution
(t) = C
3
e
it
; = E/. (5.4)
Thus the general solution to Eq. (i) is
(x, t) = Ae
i(kxt)
+ Be
i(kx+t)
, (5.5)
where A and B are arbitrary complex constants.
Let us now restrict ourselves to the case A, B R. Then the probability
density
(x, t) =

(x, t)(x, t)
= A
2
+ B
2
+ 2AB cos 2kx. (5.6)
2
Cf. e.g. Fundamentals of Dierential Equations and Boundary Value Problems, Nagle, 2.
edition, section 4.6.
9
Note that we made use of the Eulers formula. We easily see that the probability
density does not depend on position if either A or B is zero. That is, if a particle
is in an eigenstate of momentum, we cannot predict its location at all.
The probability current density (cf. lectures p. 21)
S =

m
Im
_

d
dx
_
. (5.7)
From Eq. (5.5) we obtain
d
dx
= ik
_
Ae
i(kxt)
Be
i(kx+t)
_
. (5.8)
Consequently

d
dx
= ik
_
A
2
B
2
+ 2iAB sin 2kx
_
. (5.9)
As we substitute Eq. (5.9) into Eq. (5.7), we obtain
S =
k
m
_
A
2
B
2
_
. (5.10)
In general, if the probability density is time-independent, the divergence of the
probability current density vanishes [cf. lectures Eq. (31)]. In one-dimensional
case this means that the probability current density is a constant.
10