lnLroducuon Lo wear

Surfaces, lnLerfaces, and Lhelr

Appllcauons ll
nlcholas u. Spencer
8ecap: denluon of Lrlbology
!"#$%&%'( #* +,- *.#-/.- 0/1 +-.,/%&%'( %2 #/+-"0.3/' *4"20.-* #/ "-&035- 6%3%/ 0/1
"-&0+-1 *4$7-.+* 0/1 8"%.-**-*
8ubblng surfaces are never perfecLly aL
8oughness
1he normal load ls borne by Lhe asperlues on each
surface comlng lnLo conLacL wlLh each oLher
ConLacL areas are small (asperlues)
ressures are large
Asperlues become elasucally and plasucally
deformed upon conLacL wlLh each oLher
ConLacL areas lncrease
ConLacL pressure may evenLually exceed Lhe
elasuc llmlL of Lhe maLerlal
1rue area = apparenL area !"#$ lf surfaces are aLomlcally smooLh
%&'( *&(* ++ ,--*&(". *&(*
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8ecap: frlcuon and lubrlcauon
8eslsLance encounLered when one body ls moved over anoLher
9:;<=
0.001 (e.g. ln a lubrlcaLed bearlng under llghL loads)
10 (e.g. when clean meLals rub agalnsL each oLher ln vacuum)
0.1 - 1.0 (mosL -values for slldlng surfaces)
W = normal load
l = frlcuonal force
lrlcuon coemclenL ls dlsplayed as a funcuon of Lhe vlscoslLy muluplled by Lhe
Langenual veloclLy, and dlvlded by Lhe normal load (qu/W)
8ecap: Lhe SLrlbeck curve
ln lubrlcaLed sysLems, Lhe frlcuon coemclenL
changes as a funcuon of speed
A bearlng wanLs Lo be operaLed here!
Close Lo Lhe mlnlmum buL on Lhe rlghL
slde, so LhaL wlLh sllghL changes of Lhe
parameLers, Lhe sysLem ls drawn
Lowards Lhe mlnlmum
Film thickness decreases
Asperity-asperity
contact occurs
Cccurs aL hlgh loads or low speeds
Pydrodynamlc forces can no longer malnLaln a lubrlcanL lm beLween Lhe slldlng
surfaces
ulrecL conLacL beLween Lhe asperlues sLarLs Lo become domlnanL
8oundary lubrlcanL ls essenual under Lhese condluons, ln order Lo avold excesslve frlcuon
and wear
8oundary lubrlcanLs form adsorbed molecular lms on Lhe surfaces (overslmpllcauon)
8epulslve forces beLween Lhe
lms carry a slgnlcanL parL
of Lhe load
8ecap: boundary lubrlcauon
Lxample of boundary lubrlcanL: long-chaln carboxyllc aclds (polar end-groups make a
sLrong bond wlLh Lhe oxlde layer of meLal surfaces)
varlauon of frlcuon coemclenL as a funcuon
of Lhe lubrlcanL chaln lengLh for sLeel
surfaces
lrlcuon coemclenL as a funcuon of chaln
lengLh for hydrocarbons on LungsLen
surfaces
8ecap: boundary lubrlcauon
LxLreme-pressure addluves: molecules LhaL reacL ln exLreme condluons
(e.g. pressure, LemperaLure)
1hey reacL wlLh Lhe surface, produclng a proLecuve layer wlLh low shear sLrengLh
ln exacLly Lhe rlghL place
Some examples: zlnc
dlalkyldlLhlophosphaLe (Znu1), Lrlcresyl
phosphaLe (1C) and dlbenzyl dlsulde
SLrucLure of proLecuve lm
formed by Znu1 on sLeel
8ecap: boundary lubrlcauon
Wear
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Low frlcuon,
hlgh wear!
Plgh frlcuon,
low wear!
Whenever surfaces rub agalnsL each oLher, wear almosL always occurs
A slmple analysls ylelds a wear coemclenL k
Assumpuons
- Lhe conLacL beLween Lhe surfaces occurs aL asperlues
- Lhe Lrue conLacL area ls Lhe sum of Lhe lndlvldual asperlLy conLacLs
- Lhe Lrue conLacL area ls proporuonal Lo Lhe normal load
- Lhe local deformauon ls plasuc
Wear: Lhe Archard equauon
Schemauc dlagram of Lhe formauon of a conLacL area durlng Lhe relauve mouon of
Lwo asperlues
Wear: Lhe Archard equauon
a) b) c) d) e)
c) - Lhe conLacL area becomes maxlmal
- Lhe normal load, supporLed by conLacL area, ls glven by:
d), e) - asperlLy conLacLs supporL Lhe normal load
- conunuous slldlng lnvolves conunuous creauon and desLrucuon of slngle-
asperlLy conLacL areas
p: ow pressure (lndenLauon hardness)
a: radlus of Lhe conLacL area
2
=:8>0
Maxlmal conLacL
area
Slngle asperlLy
real area = apparenL area
AsperlLy conLacLs supporL Lhe
normal load
/!. *## *0-(&1.$ 2!".*2.0 #(*3 .! 4(*& -*&52#(066666
Wear: Lhe Archard equauon
Cause of wear: removal of fragmenLs of maLerlal from Lhe asperlues
volume of removed maLerlal: proporuonal Lo Lhe cube of Lhe conLacL dlmenslon, a
a: radlus of hemlsphere
Assumpuon: noL aLs buL hemlspheres (a hemlsphere geLs rubbed o)
Assumpuon: a proporuon k forms parucles
v: mean wear volume produced by Lhe slldlng of an
asperlLy palr over each oLher
C: LoLal wear raLe, due Lo all asperlLy conLacLs (sum of
all conLrlbuuons over Lhe LoLal conLacL area)
Wear: Lhe Archard equauon
W: LoLal normal load
C: wear raLe (worn volume per unlL slldlng dlsLance)
k = k/3 (wear coemclenL)
P = p (lndenLauon hardness)
%7( ,&27*&3 (8'*5!"
- k ls dlmenslonless and < 1
- k/P ls used when hardness ls noL easlly denable
- k/P = quanuLy of worn maLerlal/unlL slldlng dlsLance/unlL normal load (e.g. mm
3
m
-1
n
-1
)
Wear raLe ls lndependenL of
Slldlng speed
ApparenL conLacL area
Wear: Lhe Archard equauon
ln wear volume over Lhe enure slldlng dlsLance ln an unlubrlcaLed pln-on-rlng
LesL, slldlng on Lool sLeel
CharacLerlsucs of Lhe maLerlals
under sLeady-sLaLe condluons
Surfaces musL oen be run-ln"
before Lhls behavlor can be
observed
Wear: Lhe Archard equauon
values of Lhe dlmenslonless wear coemclenL k for varlous maLerlals slldlng on Lool
sLeel, obLalned ln an unlubrlcaLed pln-on-rlng LesL ln alr
9*.(&1*# :#131"; -*&."(& <(*& 2!(=21(".0> ?
mlld sLeel Mlld sLeel 7!10
-3

a/b 8rass 1ool sLeel 6!10
-4

1lL 1ool sLeel 2.3!10
-3
a 8rass 1ool sLeel 1.7!10
-4

MMA 1ool sLeel 7!10
-6
copper-berylllum 1ool sLeel 3.7!10
-3
hardened Lool sLeel 1ool sLeel 1.3!10
-4
SLelllLe 1 1ool sLeel 3.3!10
-3
sLalnless sLeel (ferrluc) 1ool sLeel 1.7!10
-3
L 1ool sLeel 1.3!10
-7
1he values are hlghly dependenL on LesL condluons and Lhus provlde llule lnslghL
lnLo Lhe wear mechanlsms lnvolved
Mlld and severe wear
Wear and elecLrlcal
conLacL reslsLance for a
pln made from "/#
brass slldlng on
hardened sLelllLe (Co
alloy) as a funcuon of
Lhe normal load
oxlde-oxlde
Pexadecane used as a
lubrlcanL, buL noL under
hydrodynamlc condluons
meLal-meLal
blgger parucles
ne slze parucles
wearlng Lhrough Lhe oxlde layer
,&27*&3
(8'*5!"
7!#30
<(*& &*.(
1"2&(*0(0
,&27*&3
(8'*5!"
7!#30
Mlld and severe wear
oxlde-oxlde
meLal-meLal
blgger parucles
ne slze parucles
ConLacL reslsLance decreases unul
meLal-meLal conLacL ls reached
@&!- 1" (#(2.&12*#
&(010.*"2(
A7*";( 1" 2!#!& *"3
01B( !C 4(*& -*&52#(0
9DE@
<F,G
:FHFGF <F,G
%
G
,
/
:
D
%
D
I
/
ulerenL color because
now meLal parucles and no
longer oxlde
Mlld wear: 0.01-1 m
parucles, mosLly oxldes
Severe wear: 20-200 m
parucles, mosLly meLalllc
Mlld and severe wear
The mechanism of the transition is confirmed by the following results
Variation of wear coefficient with sliding speed for "/# brass sliding on steel at
various temperatures and environments
1ypes of wear
Adheslve
Abraslve
Surface laugue
Lroslve
Corroslve
1ypes of wear: adheslve
Adhesion result of the direct contact of bearing metals
Applied load is sufficient to rupture any protective surface film (oxides, etc.)
Contacting asperities deform elastically
Contacting asperities deform plastically
Shearing of adhesive junctions produces wear particles
Metal is transferred from one bearing surface to the other in sliding or rolling motion
Scuffing severe adhesive-wear damage
1ypes of wear: adheslve
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Process of adhesive wear
The factors decreasing adhesive wear:
Lower load
Harder rubbing materials
Contaminated rubbing surfaces
Presence of solid lubricants
Presence of a lubricating oil
Anti-wear additives in oil
1ypes of wear: abraslve
A harder maLerlal ls rubblng agalnsL a soer maLerlal
1he wear of Lhe
soer maLerlal ls
caused by Lhe
asperlues on Lhe
harder surface
1wo rubblng parLs lnvolved ln Lhe
frlcuon process
1wo-body wear
A hard parucle ls Lrapped
beLween Lhe rubblng surfaces
1hree-body wear
1he parucle ls free
or parually
embedded lnLo
one of Lhe
maLerlals
1ypes of wear: abraslve
,J&*01K( 4(*& !" .7( L12&!M#(K(#
- lasuc deformauon
N#!';71";
- no maLerlal removal from Lhe wearlng
surface
- Wear mechanlsm ls parLly governed by plasuc deformauon
A'O";
- 1he abraslve parucle acLs as a cumng Lool
- Cccurs when hlghly concenLraLed sLresses are lmposed by
abraslve parucles
A&*2P1"; QJ&1R#( C&*2.'&(S
- Large wear fragmenLs are deLached from Lhe wearlng surface
- 1he volume of Lhe losL maLerlal ls hlgher Lhan Lhe volume of
Lhe wear Lrack
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Surface faugue
Caused by cycllng loadlng durlng frlcuon
laugue occurs lf Lhe applled load ls
hlgher Lhan Lhe faugue sLrengLh of
Lhe maLerlal
laugue cracks sLarL aL Lhe maLerlal surface and
spread Lo Lhe subsurface reglons
1he cracks may connecL Lo each oLher
resulung ln separauon and
delamlnauon of Lhe maLerlal pleces
T&(O"; 4(*&
caused by cycllc slldlng of Lwo
surfaces across each oLher wlLh a
small ampllLude. 1he frlcuon force
produces alLernaung compresslon-
Lenslon sLresses, whlch resulL ln
surface faugue
F&!01K(: caused by lmplngemenL of parucles (solld, llquld or gaseous)
1hey remove fragmenLs of maLerlals from Lhe surface due Lo a momenLum eecL
1ypes of wear: eroslve and corroslve
A!&&!01K(: corroslon can acceleraLe wear
Cxldauon process promoLed by lncreased LemperaLure and removal of Lhe
proLecung oxlde lms from Lhe surface durlng Lhe frlcuon
Slldlng conunuous removal of Lhe oxlde lm followed by conunuous
formauon of new oxlde lm
Pard oxlde parucles removed from Lhe surface and Lrapped beLween Lhe slldlng/
rolllng surfaces Lhree-body abraslve wear mechanlsm
SLages of wear
U("(&*#1B(3 -*R(&" !C 4(*& -&!2(00
1he lnlual
wear raLe
(run-ln) ls
relauvely
hlgh
Wear occurs aL a
negllglble raLe
SumclenL debrls
has
acccumulaLed,
leadlng Lo fallure
Wear takes place even in properly
lubricated mechanisms
SLages of wear
/!&L*# 4(*&V beglns when Lhe Lrue area of bearlng conLacL (LoLal asperlLy-conLacL
area) has been subsLanually lncreased by plasuc deformauon and wear Lhe
lubrlcanL ls fully able Lo supporL Lhe load
- Cnly occaslonal meLal-Lo-meLal conLacLs
- Wear occurs aL a negllglble raLe (excepL for evenLs such as lubrlcanL
breakdown, sudden rlses ln LemperaLure shock loads, slgnlcanL reducuon ln
speed)
- normal wear may proceed lndenlLely, unul sumclenL debrls has accumulaLed Lo
cause one of Lhe followlng fallure modes
D"15*# 4(*& &*.(: mlcroscoplc surface asperlues peneLraLe Lhe lubrlcanL lm,
parucularly durlng Lhe low speeds of sLarL-up and shuL-down
T*1#'&(:
- SLress rlsers ln Lhe paLh of mouon, ulumaLely lnluaung faugue

- Abraslve wear changes surface roughness or dlmenslons appreclably

- hyslcal blockage