POLITEKNIK TUANKU SULTANAH BAHIYAH

KEMENTERIAN PENGAJIAN TINGGI MALAYSIA

KULIM HI-TECH PARK
09000 KULIM KEDAH DARUL AMAN

GEOTECHNIC LABORATORY
DEPARTMENT OF CIVIL
ENGINEERING
EXPERIMENT TITLE:

CONSOLIDATION (OEDOMETER TEST)

GROUP NO:

LECTURERS NAME:

PN. NADHIRAH BT. NOR ZELAN

NAMA
AHMAD FAHMI BIN GHAZALI
MOHAMAD FAKHRI BIN MOHD RODZI
MUHAMMAD FAIZUAN BIN RAMLI
ALEX RAO A/L FRANCIS
MUHAMMAD AZRI BIN NOOR SHAH HIZAL
ABDULLAH BIN ABDUL RAHMAN
MOHAMMAD SHAHRUL HAZRIN BIN MAHAD HAMDI
NURUL SYAHIDA BINTI SAIFUL AZHAR
WANN SHARFRINA BINTI ABDUL HALIM
TABLE OF CONTENTS

NO. MATRIX
16DKA13F1049
16DKA13F1051
16DKA13F1075
16DKA13F1043
16DKA13F1039
16DKA13F1061
16DKA13F1119
16DKA13F1070
16DKA13F1055

1.0 OBJECTIVES
2.0 THEORY BACKGROUND
3.0 EQUIPMENTS
4.0 PROCEDURES
5.0 RESULTS AND SAMPLE CALCULATIONS
6.0 DISCUSSION
7.0 CONCLUSION
8.0 REFERENCES

1.0 OBJECTIVES

1. To determine the compressibility .

2. To determine the rate of consolidation of a remoulded sample of soil.

2.0 THEORY BACKGROUND

Consolidation is the gradual reduction in volume of a fully saturated soil of low

permeability due to the drainage of some of the pore water under the application
of a constant vertical load, or the removal of ground water which causes the
water table to lower. This often occurs in clayey layer as the pore water will
gradually be squeezed out as time goes on, leading to an increase in the

effective stress. The process of consolidation continues until the excess pore
water pressure set up by an increase in total stress has completely dissipated.
The simplest case is that of one-dimensional consolidation, in which zero lateral
strain is assumed.

Consolidation

settlement

is

the

vertical

displacement

of

the

surface

corresponding to the volume change at any stage of the consolidation process.

Consolidation settlement may be resulted, for example, if a structure is built over
a layer of saturated clay or if the water table is lowered permanently in a stratum
overlying a clay layer. In cases in which significant lateral strain takes place, there
will be an immediate settlement due to deformation of the soil under undrained
conditions, in addition to consolidation settlement. The prediction of both the
magnitude and rate of consolidation settlement are of great interest and
importance to geotechnical engineers so as to ensure that serviceability limit
states of any structures being built are satisfied.

Usually, the consolidation process for a soil layer can be divided into 3 main
stages:

Time
Initial
Settlement
Primary
Settlement
Secondary
Settlement
Settlement

The typical Variation of Settlement with Time

1. Initial Settlement
This corresponds to the change in the thickness of the soil layer as some of
the gas pockets entrapped in the soil are squeezed out immediately upon the
addition of load until the soil becomes saturated. At this stage the pore water
is not squeezed out. Hence, all the additional load is taken up by the pore
water pressure.
2. Primary Settlement
At this stage, the pore water pressure is gradually dissipated as water is
squeezed out, resulting in the reduction in the thickness as well as void ratio
of the soil specimen. The additional load will then be gradually borne by the
soil particles.

3. Secondary Settlement
This is the consequence of creep obeys a linear law in the logarithm of time.

Void ratio, e
Increasing applied pressure

Log10 (Load)
A graph of void ratio e against log10 (load).

The virgin compression curve for the soil sample is practically a straight line
which corresponds to the loading curve for a clayey soil layer. If the load is
allowed to released, the curve wont trace back to the original curve but will trace
another curve with a gentler slope. This curve is known as the unloading curve
and the soil sample is said to be over-consolidated. The effective stress at the
intersection between the virgin and unloading curve is known as the precompression stress.

If the same sample is loaded again, the curve will follow the unloading curve and
go back to the virgin curve as the applied stress increases. The degree of
consolidation for an over-consolidated soil is much less than that of an
undisturbed soil; hence it is safer for us to build structures over the overconsolidated soil.

To quantify the compressibility of a soil, two coefficients are introduced, namely

the coefficient of volume change mv and the compression index Cc. The
coefficient of volume change is defined as the rate of change of void ratio with
respect to the change in effective stress while the compression index refers to the
rate of change of void ratio with respect to the change in logarithmic value of the
effective stress. Very often, the compression index is adopted as it has a constant

value for all values of effective stress.

The progress of consolidation in-situ can be monitored by installing piezometers

to record the change in pore water pressure with time while the magnitude of
settlement can be measured by recording the levels of suitable reference points
on a structure. The compressibility characteristics of a soil relating both to the
amount and the rate of settlement during one-dimensional consolidation can also
be determined in the laboratory by the oedometer test.

A soil specimen in the form of a disc, enclosed in a metal confining ring which has
a smooth polished surface to reduce side friction, is sandwiched between 2
porous stone discs. The lower porous stone has a diameter slightly larger than
that of the metal ring, with the upper one slightly smaller and hence can move
inside the ring with a small clearance. A metal loading cap is fixed on top of the
upper porous stone. The whole assembly is placed in an open cell of water to
which the pore water in the specimen has free access. A vertical static load is
then applied through a lever system in the loading frame. Under the condition of
zero lateral strain (imposed by the metal confining ring), the compression of the
soil specimen under pressure is measured by means of a displacement dial
gauge operating on the loading cap.

The test procedure is standardized in BS 1377 (Part 5) [4]. The initial pressure
applied will depend on the type of the soil. Then a sequence of pressures is
applied to the specimen, each being double the previous value. It is noted that for
testing soil samples obtained from sites, the number and value of the load
increments will depend on the type of soil as well as on the range of stress

anticipated on site. The pressure applied for the first stage should normally be
equal to the in-situ vertical stress at the depth from which the sample was
obtained. Usually, each pressure is maintained for a period of 24 hours, and in
some exceptional cases a period of 48 hours may be required, so that the
specimen is fully consolidated. Compression readings are observed at suitable
intervals during the period.

At the end of the increment period, when the excess pore water pressure has
completely dissipated, the applied pressure will equal to the effective vertical
stress in the specimen. After full consolidation is reached under the final load,
the load is removed, either in one or in several stages, and the sample is allowed
to swell. The expansion of the specimen due to the removal of the final pressure
is measured. The single-stage swelling period simply enables the specimen to
stabilize before the final water content is determined. Otherwise, swelling might
occur as the specimen is being removed from the oedometer and thus lead to
error.

The results from the test can either be presented by plotting the thickness (or the
ho

h1

percentage change in thickness) of the specimen or the void ratio at the end of
each increment period against the corresponding effective stress in either a
natural or logarithmic scale. The void ratio at the end of each increment period
can be calculated from the dial gauge readings and either the water content or
dry weight of the specimen at the end of the test as follows:

Water

Soilds

hs

Phase Diagram

(1) Water content measured at end of test

= wf

Void ratio at end of test (assuming Sr = 100%)

= ef = wfGs

Thickness of specimen at start of test

= h0

Change in thickness during test

= h

Void ratio at start of test

= ei = ef + e

where
ei

ho hs
hs

ef

h1 hs
hs

e ei e f

ho hs h1 hs ho h1 h

hs
hs
hs
hs

e 1 ei

h
ho

In the same way, e can be calculated up to the end of any increment period.

(2) Dry weight measured at end of test

=W

(i.e. weight of solid)

Thickness at end of any increment period
Area of specimen

=A

Equivalent thickness of solids

= hs

= h1

W
A w

Initial void ratio

= ei

ho hs
hs

Final void ratio

=ef

h1 hs h1
1
hs
hs

Graphs of void ratio e after consolidation against effective stress for

saturated clay can be plotted. The graphs show an initial compression followed
by expansion and recompression. The shapes of the curves are related to the
stress history of the clay. The e - log relationship for a normally consolidated
clay is linear and is called the virgin compression line. The recompression curve
ultimately joins the virgin compression line: further compression then occurs
along the virgin line. During compression, changes in soil structure continuously
take place and the clay does not revert to the original structure during expansion.

The compressibility of the clay can be represented by the compression index Cc,
which is the slope of the linear portion of the e - log plot and is
dimensionless. For any two points on the linear portion of the plot,
CC

ei e f
log( 1' / 0' )

The expansion part of the e - log plot can be approximated to a straight line,
the slope of which is referred to as the expansion index Ce.

The value of coefficient of consolidation, CV, for a particular pressure increment in

the oedometer test can be determined by comparing the characteristics of the
experimental and theoretical consolidation curves, the procedure being referred

to as curve fitting. One method to determine the coefficient of consolidation is root

time method due to Taylor. The dial gauge readings are plotted against the
square root of time in minutes and the average degree of consolidation against
the square root of time factor.

The theoretical curve is linear up to about 60% consolidation and at 90%

consolidation the abscissa is 1.15 times the abscissa of the production of the
linear part of the curve. This characteristic is used to determine the point on the
experimental curve corresponding to U = 90%.

The experimental curve usually consists of a short curve representing initial

compression, a linear part and a second curve. The point corresponding to U = 0
is obtained by producing back the linear part of the curve to the ordinate at zero
time. A straight line is then drawn having abscissae 1.15 times the corresponding
abscissae on the linear part of the experimental curve. The intersection of the line
DE with the experimental curve locates the point corresponding to U = 90% and
the corresponding value

t 90

can be obtained. The value T90 corresponding to U

= 90% is 0.848 and the coefficient of consolidation is given by

Cv

0.848d 2
t90

where d = Length of drainage path

t90 = Time for 90% consolidation for each load increment

3.0 APPARATUS

1. Consolidation Cell
It is also known as the oedometer. It consists of a metal ring in which a soil
specimen in the form of a disc is enclosed. The specimen is placed between 2
porous stone discs, with the upper one having a diameter slightly smaller than
that of the metal ring and the lower one slightly larger. A loading cap is placed
on the top. The whole assembly is placed in an open cell of water to which the
pore water in the specimen has free access during the test.

2. 0.002mm/div. Dial Gauge

It is used to measure the change in thickness (or compression) of the soil
sample. It is connected to a computer and readings are taken in regular time
intervals.

3. Loading Frame
It is the location where the sample is under loading.

4. Weights

It is put on the loading frame to provide the necessary constant load.

5. Spatulas
It is used to assist the placement of the soil into the metal ring of the
oedometer. It is also used to level off the soil specimen.

6. Electronic Balance
It is used to weigh the soil samples.

4.0 PROCEDURE

1. Measure the inner diameter and height of the ring and determine its weight.
2. Fill the ring with remoulded soil and re-weigh.
3. Place the ring and soil in the porous plates and bearing plate in position and
fill the cell with water.
4. Place the cell in the loading frame, adjust the lever arm and set the dial
gauge.
5. Apply the first load and note the dial gauge reading at the following times after
applying the load:
1

0, 4 , 1, 2 4 , 4, 6 4 , 9, 12 4 , 16, 20 4 , 25, 36, 49, 64, 81 and

100mins.
Note: Plot the gauge readings were against square root of time as test
proceeds.
6. After the load has been on for at least 8 hours, take the final gauge reading,
apply the second load increment and take readings as before.
7. Repeat steps 5 and 6 until the following loads have been applied to the
sample:
25, 50, 100 and 200kPa.
Note: 10lbs. on the hanger are equivalent to 100kPa on the sample.
8. Release the load and take the sample and ring from the cell. Dry the surfaces
of the sample with filter papers and re-weigh.
9. Place the sample in the oven for at least 24 hours, remove from and re-weigh.

5.0 RESULT AND SAMPLE CALCULATION

Inner Diameter of Ring (m)

0.0763

Height of Ring (m)

0.0188

Cross Sectional Area A (m ) 0.0045723

2

Table 1 The dimensions of the metal ring of the consolidation cell.

1. Calculations of the Final Void Ratio ef of the Soil Samples.

Water Content w

Ww
100%
Ws

mw
100%
ms

where

= water content

Ww = weight of water
Ws = weight of solid
mw = mass of water
ms = mass of solid

Void Ratio e
Assume the samples are fully saturated at the beginning of the test.
Therefore, the degree of saturation, Sr is equal to 1. The volume of void is
equal to the volume of water.
Sr

wGs
e

e = wGs
where

when Sr = 1

= void ratio

Sr = degree of saturation
Gs = Specific gravity = 2.65

Sample

Loading (kPa)

25

50

100

200

Mass of disc (g)

70.4

74

75.7

75.3

Mass of disc + wet soil + ring (g)

317.4

316.5

314.6

315.9

Mass of disc + dry soil + ring (g)

268.4

267.2

263.4

269.7

Mass of ring (g)

91.9

92.3

92.9

94.3

Mass of water in the soil (g)

49.0

49.3

51.2

46.2

Mass of dry soil (g)

106.1

100.9

94.8

100.1

Water content w1 (%)

46.183

48.860

54.008

46.154

Final void ratio ef

1.2238

1.2948

1.4312

1.2231

Table 2 The data obtained from the test, the calculated final water content w and
the calculated final void ratio of the soil sample.

2. Calculation of the Equivalent height hs of the Soil Solids

Sample

Loading (kPa)

25

50

100

200

Mass of Dry Soil (kg)

0.1061

0.1009

0.0948

0.1001

Dry Weight of Sample W (N)

1.0408

0.98983 0.92999

0.98198

Cross Sectional Area A (m2)

Equivalent Height hs (mm)

0.0045723
8.7562

8.3274

7.8240

8.2614

Table 3 The calculated equivalent height hs of the soil solids.

Time t (min)

Sample

Load (kPa)

25

50

100

200

Square root of time

Actual displacement (mm)

(min1/2)
0

0.006

0.002

0.000

0.000

0.25

0.5

-0.250

-0.371

-1.084

-1.130

1.0

-0.270

-0.436

-1.250

-1.360

2.25

1.5

-0.284

-0.481

-1.406

-1.564

2.0

-0.296

-0.523

-1.554

-1.742

6.25

2.5

-0.304

-0.555

-1.682

-1.872

3.0

-0.312

-0.577

-1.778

-1.952

12.25

3.5

-0.316

-0.597

-1.844

-1.998

16

4.0

-0.320

-0.611

-1.880

-2.018

20.25

4.5

-0.324

-0.621

-1.904

-2.032

25

5.0

-0.328

-0.630

-1.916

-2.040

36

6.0

-0.330

-0.639

-1.926

-2.048

49

7.0

-0.332

-0.647

-1.932

-2.054

64

8.0

-0.334

-0.653

-1.936

-2.060

81

9.0

-0.342

-0.655

-1.938

-1.928

100

10.0

-0.342

-0.657

-1.940

-1.932

Final settlement at a day later

-0.346

-0.669

-1.952

-1.938

After rebound

0.026

-0.272

-1.496

-1.292

Table 4 The actual displacement at the corresponding time during the test.

Graph 1 The graph of compression against square root of time for sample A

Graph 2 The graph of compression against square root of time for sample B.

Graph 3 The graph of compression against square root of time for sample C.

Graph 4 The graph of compression against square root of time for sample D.
3. Calculation of the Corrected Compression h0 for the Soil Samples.
From the graphs of compression against square root of time, we can
determine the corrected compression ho for each load increment, i.e. the
difference between the intercept of the initial straight line portion of the curve
with the y-axis and the final compression.
Sample

Loading (kPa)

25

50

100

200

y-Intercept of Initial Straight Line Portion

-0.2486

-0.3591

-1.0012

-0.9823

Final Compression after Rebound (mm)

0.026

-0.272

-1.496

-1.292

Corrected Compression after Rebound h0

0.2746

0.0871

-0.4948

-0.3097

(mm)

(mm)
Table 5 The calculated corrected compression after rebound h0 for the soil

sample.

4. Calculation of the Change in Void Ratio e for Each Increment.

The change in void ratioe can be obtained by the following expression:

ho
hs

where

ho = Change in thickness of the specimen

hs = Height of the solid in the specimen
Sample

Loading (kPa)

25

50

100

200

Corrected Compression after Rebound h0

0.2746

0.0871

-0.4948

-0.3097

8.7562

8.3274

7.8240

8.2614

(mm)
Equivalent Height hs (mm)
Change in Void Ratio e

0.031361 0.010459 -0.63254 -0.037488

Table 6 The calculated change in void ratio e for the soil sample.
5. Calculation of the Initial Void Ratio ei for Each Pressure and
Determination of the Compression Index.
Sample

Loading (kPa)

25

50

100

200

Change in Void Ratio e

0.031361 0.010459 -0.063254 -0.037488

Final void ratio ef

1.2238

1.2948

1.4312

1.2231

Initial void ratio ei = Final void ratio + |e|

1.2552

1.3053

1.4945

1.2606

Log (Pressure)

1.3979

1.6990

2.3010

Table 7 The calculated initial void ratio ei for the soil sample.

Graph 5 The Graph of void ratio against Log (Pressure).

Compression index
= - (slope of the graph)
= - (-0.0612)
= 0.0612

6. Determination of the Time t90 for Each Load Increment.

Sample

Load (kPa)

25

50

100

200

Square root of t90 (min1/2)

3.4

3.3

3.3

2.8

t90 (min)

11.56

10.89

10.89

7.84

Compression at t90 (mm)

-0.31592

-0.58812

-1.8185

-1.9119

Table 8 The time t90 determined from Graphs 1 to 4.

7. Calculation of the Coefficient of Consolidation Cv for Each Load

Increment.
The coefficient of consolidation Cv can be calculated from the following
expression:
Cv

where

0.848d 2
t 90

t90

= Time for 90% consolidation for each load increment

d = Length of drainage path Length of drainage path (assuming

double drained stratum)
1

= 2 (Original soil thickness - Deformation at U = 90%)

Sample

25

50

100

200

Square root of t90 (min )

3.4

3.3

3.3

2.8

t90 (min)

11.56

10.89

10.89

7.84

t90 (s)

693.6

653.4

653.4

470.4

Load (kPa)
1/2

Original Soil Thickness (mm)

18.8

Compression at t90 (mm)

-0.31592

-0.58812

-1.8185

-1.9119

Drainage path d (mm)

9.5580

9.6941

10.309

10.356

Coefficient of consolidation Cv

0.0011169 0.0012196 0.0013793 0.0019334

(cm2/s)
Table 9 The calculated coefficient of consolidation Cv for the soil sample.

6.0 DISCUSSION

1. Interpretation of the Graphs of Compression against Square root of

Time.
Comparing the graphs of compression against square root of time with the
typical experimental curve and the theoretical curve as shown below, it can be
seen that the shapes of the graphs obtained from this experiment were very
similar to the two curves.

Fig. 6 A typical experimental curve (on the left) and the theoretical curve (on the
right).
The graphs can be divided into 2 regions: the initial settlement and the
primary settlement. The sudden changes in thickness of the 4 samples at the
beginning of the experiment correspond to the stage of initial settlement. As
the loading was just applied, the air pockets entrapped in the soil sample were
squeezed out, causing a sudden compaction of the soil and resulting in
sudden settlements. Hence, the rapid and substantial compression at this
stage was not truly consolidation. That is why when calculating the initial void
ratio ei and the final void ratio, the final compression had to be corrected by
subtracting from it the y-intercept of the initial straight line portion of the curve
in order to obtain the actual amount of compression for calculation.

After the stage of initial settlement, the curve became more or less a straight
line.

This linear portion of the curve right after the initial settlement

corresponds to the stage of primary settlement. In this stage, pore water was
gradually squeezed out of the soil specimen, leading to a reduction in the
thickness as well as the void ratio e of the sample. As time progressed, the
rate of change in the thickness of the soil specimen decreased and the
settlement would finally become almost constant. The soil specimen was said
to be fully consolidated at this stage and the excess pore pressure had all
been dissipated. The applied pressure was equal to the effective vertical
stress in the specimen, and there would be no further reduction in thickness
for soil samples.

Theoretically, there should be a third stage of secondary settlement as

discussed in the theory session. However, as the time for the test was not
long enough, the creep effect was not significant in the experiment. Thus,
secondary settlement could not be observed in the four graphs.

2. Interpretation of the Values of the Calculated Void Ratios.

It can be observed that the calculated values of final void ratios after rebound
of the four soil specimens were different from their corresponding initial void
ratios ei. This means that the volume of the soil specimens did not return to
their original values upon unloading. This phenomenon can be explained by
the fact that some voids in the specimens were driven off by stress as the
specimens were compressed. Although unloading took place at the end of
the experiment, those voids might not fully reform. Hence, the values of the
final void ratios after rebound of the four samples were smaller than their
corresponding initial void ratios ei.

3. Interpretation of the Graph of Void Ratio against Log (Pressure).

With reference to Graph 5, the graph is of negative slope. This means the
larger the applied pressure, the larger the reduction in void ratio. The
compressive index of unloading is smaller than that of loading. The void ratio
follows one curve when compression increases but follows another straight
line during unloading. This phenomenon is acceptable since when the soil is
compressed, some voids may be driven off by stress, meaning the
disappearance of voids. Although there is an unloading after compression,
those voids will not fully reform after the unloading. This may explain why
voids ratio cannot reach original value during unloading.

The void ratio for sample C (100kPa) is rejected, since it deviates from the
trend line a lot, this may due to some experimental errors.

4. Interpretation of the Values of t90 and the Coefficient of Consolidation Cv.

It can be observed that the values of t90 for the four samples were in the range
from 6 to 12 minutes. This shows that the consolidation processes did happen
in a fairly fast rate, and the soil sample was indeed very permeable. In
addition, it can be seen that the values of t90 generally decreases with
increasing applied load. This means that the rate of consolidation increases
with the magnitude of the applied load. Finally, it was found that the values of
the coefficient of consolidation Cv generally increases with increasing applied
load. Such trend satisfies with the theoretical result.

5. Remarks
According to BS 1377, the oedometer test should be carried out with only one
soil sample which is to be loaded, unloaded and reloaded repeatedly.
However, this procedure would require a long time to complete and quick
results are not possible. Hence, for our experiment, 4 samples were used
instead, each with a different applied load. As a result, even though the
phenomenon of consolidation was studied in this experiment, the findings
might not be accurate enough as the properties of the 4 samples might not be
the same and thus leading to inconsistency errors.

6. Assumptions
In this experiment, calculations and analysis were done based on the onedimensional consolidation theory (put forward by Terzaghi). However, several

assumptions were made in the theory:

1.

The soil is homogeneous.

2.

The soil is fully saturated.

3.

The solid particles and water are incompressible.

4.

Any compression and flow that takes place is one-dimensional.

5.

Strains are small.

6.

Darcys law is valid at all hydraulic gradients.

7.

The coefficient of permeability and the coefficient of volume

compressibility remain constant throughout the process.

8.

There is a unique relationship, independent of time, between void

ratio and effective stress.

7. Sources of Errors
1. The soil specimens might not be fully saturated. This would affect the
calculated values of the final void ratios after rebound and the subsequent
calculations of the initial void ratio.
2. The soil specimens were not homogeneous.
3. The assumption that water is incompressible might not be true, especially
under a high loading of 200kPa.
4. The initial void ratios ei of the four samples were not the same. This affects
the resulted value of the compression index Cc.
5. There might be an imperfect fit of the disc of soil in the metal confining ring so
that lateral strains occurred until full contact was developed. This would lead
to excessive compressibility of the soil samples at lower stress levels.
6. Large air bubbles might be entrapped in the soil samples due to insufficient
compaction. The consolidation process might then be affected as extra voids
were introduced to the specimens.
7. The first few readings for the change in soil thickness were subjected to
errors, as the pore water inside the soil samples would not take up the applied

load instantaneously, but might require several minutes to complete the

process.

7.0 CONCLUSION

In the experiment, the consolidation of the remoulded soil sample under four
different applied loadings was studied. It was found that the void ratios e of the
soil samples decreased with time due to the drainage of pore water.
The compressibility index was determined from the graph of void ratio e against
logarithm of applied pressure and was found to be 0.0612. In addition, it was
discovered that the rate of consolidation decreased with time but increased with
the applied loading. The time for 90% consolidation t90 and coefficient of
consolidation Cv were found using the root time method (Taylors method). The
rates of consolidation under four different applied loadings are summarized in the
table below:
Sample

Load (kPa)

25

50

100

200

Coefficient of consolidation Cv

0.0011169 0.0012196 0.0013793 0.0019334

(cm2/s)
Table 10

Summary of the coefficients of consolidation Cv for the remoulded

soil sample under 25, 50, 100 and 200kPa applied loadings.

8.0 REFERENCE
1. R. F. Craig, Soil Mechanics, E & FN Spon Press, 6th Edition, 1997.
2. R. Whitlow, Basic Soil Mechanics, Addison Wesley Longman Limited, 3 rd
Edition, 1995.