Desai, Park - 2005 - Recent Developments in Microencapsulation of Food Ingredients PDF

This article was downloaded by: [b-on: Biblioteca do conhecimento online
UP]
On: 24 April 2012, At: 09:04
Publisher: Taylor & Francis
Informa Ltd Registered in England and Wales Registered Number: 1072954
Registered office: Mortimer House, 37-41 Mortimer Street, London W1T 3JH,
UK
Drying Technology: An
International Journal
Publication details, including instructions for
authors and subscription information:
http://www.tandfonline.com/loi/ldrt20
Recent Developments in
Microencapsulation of Food
Ingredients
Kashappa Goud H. Desai
a
& Hyun Jin Park
a
a
Graduate School of Biotechnology, Korea
University, Sungbuk-ku, Seoul, South Korea
Available online: 06 Feb 2007
To cite this article: Kashappa Goud H. Desai & Hyun Jin Park (2005): Recent
Developments in Microencapsulation of Food Ingredients, Drying Technology: An
International Journal, 23:7, 1361-1394
To link to this article: http://dx.doi.org/10.1081/DRT-200063478
PLEASE SCROLL DOWN FOR ARTICLE
Full terms and conditions of use: http://www.tandfonline.com/page/terms-
and-conditions
This article may be used for research, teaching, and private study purposes.
Any substantial or systematic reproduction, redistribution, reselling, loan,
sub-licensing, systematic supply, or distribution in any form to anyone is
expressly forbidden.
The publisher does not give any warranty express or implied or make any
representation that the contents will be complete or accurate or up to
date. The accuracy of any instructions, formulae, and drug doses should be
independently verified with primary sources. The publisher shall not be liable
for any loss, actions, claims, proceedings, demand, or costs or damages
whatsoever or howsoever caused arising directly or indirectly in connection
with or arising out of the use of this material.
D
o
w
n
l
o
a
d
e
d

b
y

[
b
-
o
n
:

B
i
b
l
i
o
t
e
c
a

d
o

c
o
n
h
e
c
i
m
e
n
t
o

o
n
l
i
n
e

U
P
]

a
t

0
9
:
0
4

2
4

A
p
r
i
l

2
0
1
2

Recent Developments in Microencapsulation of
Food Ingredients
Kashappa Goud H. Desai and Hyun Jin Park*
Graduate School of Biotechnology, Korea University, Sungbuk-ku,
Seoul, South Korea
Abstract: Microencapsulation involves the incorporation of food ingredients,
enzymes, cells, or other materials in small capsules. Microcapsules offer food pro-
cessors a means with which to protect sensitive food components, ensure against
nutritional loss, utilize otherwise sensitive ingredients, incorporate unusual or
time-release mechanisms into the formulation, mask or preserve flavors and aro-
mas, and transform liquids into easily handled solid ingredients. Various techni-
ques are employed to form microcapsules, including spray drying, spray chilling
or spray cooling, extrusion coating, fluidized-bed coating, liposome entrapment,
coacervation, inclusion complexation, centrifugal extrusion, and rotational
suspension separation. Recent developments in each of these techniques are
discussed in this review. Controlled release of food ingredients at the right place
and the right time is a key functionality that can be provided by microencapsulation.
A timely and targeted release improves the effectiveness of food additives, broadens
the application range of food ingredients, and ensures optimal dosage, thereby
improving the cost effectiveness for the food manufacturer. Reactive, sensitive, or
volatile additives (vitamins, cultures, flavors, etc.) can be turned into stable ingre-
dients through microencapsulation. With carefully fine-tuned controlled-release
properties, microencapsulation is no longer just an added-value technique, but the
source of totally new ingredients with matchless properties.
Keywords: Microencapsulation; Food ingredients; Controlled release; Spray
drying; Microcapsules
INTRODUCTION
Microencapsulation is defined as a technology of packaging solids,
liquids, or gaseous materials in miniature, sealed capsules that can release
Correspondence: Hyun Jin Park, Graduate School of Biotechnology, Korea

University, 1, 5-Ka, Anam-Dong, Sungbuk-ku, Seoul 136701, South Korea;
Tel.: 82-2-3290-3450; Fax: 82-2-953-5892; E-mail: hjpark@korea.ac.kr
Drying Technology, 23: 13611394, 2005
Copyright Q 2005 Taylor & Francis, Inc.
ISSN: 0737-3937 print/1532-2300 online
DOI: 10.1081/DRT-200063478
D
o
w
n
l
o
a
d
e
d

b
y

[
b
-
o
n
:

B
i
b
l
i
o
t
e
c
a

d
o

c
o
n
h
e
c
i
m
e
n
t
o

o
n
l
i
n
e

U
P
]

a
t

0
9
:
0
4

2
4

A
p
r
i
l

2
0
1
2

their contents at controlled rates under specific conditions.
[16]
The
microencapsulation technology has been used by the food industry for
more than 60 years. In a broad sense, encapsulation technology in food
processing includes the coating of minute particles of ingredients (e.g.,
acidulants, fats, and flavors) as well as whole ingredients (e.g., raisins,
nuts, and confectionary products), which may be accomplished by micro-
encapsulation and macro-coating techniques, respectively.
[7]
More
specifically, the microcapsule has the ability to preserve a substance in
the finely divided state and to release it as occasion demands.
[8]
These
microcapsules may range from submicrometer to several millimeters in
size and have a multitude of different shapes, depending on the materials
and methods used to prepare them. The food industry applies micro-
encapsulation process for a variety of reasons: (1) encapsulation=
entrapment can protect the core material from degradation by reducing
its reactivity to its outside environment (e.g., heat, moisture, air, and
light), (2) evaporation or transfer rate of the core material to the outside
environment is decreased=retarded, (3) the physical characteristics of the
original material can be modified and made easier to handle, (4) the pro-
duct can be tailor to either release slowly over time or at a certain point
(i.e., to control the release of the core material to achieve the property
delay until the right stimulus), (5) the flavor of the core material can
be masked, (6) the core material can be diluted when only very small
amounts are required, yet still achieve a uniform dispersion in the host
material, and (7) it can be employed to separate components within a
mixture that would otherwise react with one another.
[914]
Various properties of microcapsules that may be changed to suit spe-
cific ingredient applications include composition, mechanism of release,
particle size, final physical form, and cost. The architecture of microcap-
sules is generally divided into several arbitrary and overlapping classifica-
tions (Fig. 1). One such classification is known matrix encapsulation.
This is the simplest structure, in which a sphere is surrounded by a wall
or membrane of uniform thickness resembling that of a hens egg. In this
design, the core material is buried to varying depths inside the shell. This
microcapsule has been termed a single-particle structure (Fig. 1A). It is
also possible to design microcapsules that have several distinct cores
within the same microcapsule or, more commonly, number numerous
core particles embedded in a continuous matrix of wall material. This
type of design is termed the aggregate structure (Fig. 1B).
In order to improve the properties of food ingredients, immobiliza-
tion of food ingredients onto a suitable polymer or addition of antimicro-
bial agents are common practices in the food industres.
[1517]
For
example, an important bacteria used in the food industry, lactic acid bac-
teria, was first immobilized in 1975 on Berl saddles and Lactobacillus
lactis was encapsulated in alginate gel beads years later.
[18]
Seiss and
Davis suggested that immobilized lactic acid bacteria could be used to
1362 Desai and Park
D
o
w
n
l
o
a
d
e
d

b
y

[
b
-
o
n
:

B
i
b
l
i
o
t
e
c
a

d
o

c
o
n
h
e
c
i
m
e
n
t
o

o
n
l
i
n
e

U
P
]

a
t

0
9
:
0
4

2
4

A
p
r
i
l

2
0
1
2

continuously produce yogurt.
[19]
However, the alginate gel beads leaked
large quantities of cells.
The use of microencapsulated food ingredients allows food ingredi-
ents to be carefully tailored to the specific release site through the choice
and microencapsulation variables, specifically, the method and food
ingredients-polymer ratio.
[7]
The total amount of ingestion and the
kinetics of release are variables that can be manipulated to achieve the
desired result.
[7,9,14]
Using innovative microencapsulation technologies,
and varying the copolymer ratio, molecular weight of the polymer, etc.,
microcapsules can be developed into an optimal food ingredient device.
[7]
Microcapsule-based systems increases the life span of food ingredients
and control the release of food ingredients.
Various properties of microcapsules that may be changed to suit
specific ingredient applications include composition, mechanism of
release, particle size, final physical form, and cost. Before considering
the properties desired in encapsulated products, the purpose of encapsu-
lation must be clear. In designing the encapsulation process, the following
questions are taken into consideration:
1. What functionality should the encapsulated ingredients provide the
final product?
2. What kind of coating material should be selected?
3. What processing conditions must the encapsulated ingredient survive
before releasing its content?
4. What is optimal concentration of the active ingredient in the
microcapsule?
5. By what mechanism the ingredient be released from the
microcapsules?
6. What are the particle size, density, and stability requirements for the
encapsulated ingredient?
7. What are the cost constraints of the encapsulated ingredient?
Figure 1. Schematic diagram of two representative types of microcapsules.
Microencapsulation of Food Ingredients 1363
D
o
w
n
l
o
a
d
e
d

b
y

[
b
-
o
n
:

B
i
b
l
i
o
t
e
c
a

d
o

c
o
n
h
e
c
i
m
e
n
t
o

o
n
l
i
n
e

U
P
]

a
t

0
9
:
0
4

2
4

A
p
r
i
l

2
0
1
2

Controlled release may be defined as a method by which one or more
active agents or ingredients are made available at a desired site and time
at a specific rate. With the emergence of controlled-release technology, some
heat-, temperature-, or pH-sensitive additives can be used very conveniently
in food systems. Such additives are introduced into the food system mostly
in the form of microcapsules. The additive present in the microcapsule is
released under the influence of a specific stimulus at a specified stage. For
example, flavors and nutrients may be released upon consumption, whereas
sweeteners that are susceptible to heat may be released toward the end of
baking, thus preventing undesirable caramelization in the baked pro-
duct.
[2030]
Although quite a number of reviews are published on the micro-
encapsulation of food ingredients, we have made an attempt here to update
the recent developments in the microencapsulation of food ingredients.
MICROENCAPSULATION TECHNIQUES
Encapsulation of food ingredients into coating materials can be achieved
by several methods. The selection of the microencapsulation process is
governed by the properties (physical and chemical) of core and coating
materials and the intended application of food ingredients. However,
the microencapsulation processes that are used to encapsulate food ingre-
dients are given in Table 1, which outlines various methods used for the
preparation of microencapsulated food systems. Sophisticated shell mate-
rials and technologies have been developed and an extremely wide variety
of functionalities can now be achieved through microencapsulation. Any
kind of trigger can be used to prompt the release of the encapsulated
ingredient, such as pH change (enteric and anti-enteric coating), mechan-
ical stress, temperature, enzymatic activity, time, osmotic force, etc. How-
ever, cost considerations in the food industry are much more stringent
than in, for instance, the pharmaceutical or cosmetic industries. The
selection of microencapsulation method and coating materials are inter-
dependent. Based on the coating material or method applied, the appro-
priate method or coating material is selected. Coating materials, which
are basically film-forming materials, can be selected from a wide variety
of natural or synthetic polymers, depending on the material to be coated
and characteristics desired in the final microcapsules.
The composition of the coating material is the main determinant of
the functional properties of the microcapsule and of how it may be used
to improve the performance of a particular ingredient. An ideal coating
material should exhibit the following characteristics:
1. Good rheological properties at high concentration and easy work-
ability during encapsulation.
2. The ability to disperse or emulsify the active material and stabilize the
emulsion produced.
1364 Desai and Park
D
o
w
n
l
o
a
d
e
d

b
y

[
b
-
o
n
:

B
i
b
l
i
o
t
e
c
a

d
o

c
o
n
h
e
c
i
m
e
n
t
o

o
n
l
i
n
e

U
P
]

a
t

0
9
:
0
4

2
4

A
p
r
i
l

2
0
1
2

Table 1. Various microencapsulation techniques and the processes involved in
each technique
No Microencapsulation technique Major steps in encapsulation
1 Spray-drying a. Preparation of the dispersion
b. Homogenization of the dispersion
c. Atomization of the infeed dispersion
d. Dehydration of the atomized particles
2 Spray-cooling a. Preparation of the dispersion
3 Spray-chilling a. Preparation of the dispersion
4 Fluidized-bed coating a. Preparation of coating solution
b. Fluidization of core particles.
c. Coating of core particles
5 Extrusion a. Preparation of molten coating solution
b. Dispersion of core into molten
polymer
c. Cooling or passing of core-coat
mixture through dehydrating liquid
6 Centrifugal extrusion a. Preparation of core solution
b. Preparation of coating material
solution
c. Co-extrusion of core and coat
solution through nozzles
7 Lyophilization a. Mixing of core in a coating solution
b. Freeze-drying of the mixture
8 Coacervation a. Formation of a three-immiscible
chemical phases
b. Deposition of the coating
c. Solidification of the coating
9 Centrifugal suspension
separation
a. Mixing of core in a coating material
b. Pour the mixture over a rotating disc
to obtain encapsulated tiny particles
c. Drying
10 Cocrystallization a. Preparation of supersaturated
sucrose solution
b. Adding of core into supersaturated
solution
c. Emission of substantial heat after
solution reaches the sucrose
crystallization temperature
(Continued)
D
o
w
n
l
o
a
d
e
d

b
y

[
b
-
o
n
:

B
i
b
l
i
o
t
e
c
a

d
o

c
o
n
h
e
c
i
m
e
n
t
o

o
n
l
i
n
e

U
P
]

a
t

0
9
:
0
4

2
4

A
p
r
i
l

2
0
1
2

3. Nonreactivity with the material to be encapsulated both during pro-
cessing and on prolonged storage.
4. The ability to seal and hold the active material within its structure
during processing or storage.
5. The ability to completely release the solvent or other materials used
during the process of encapsulation under drying or other desolventi-
zation conditions.
6. The ability to provide maximum protection to the active material
against environmental conditions (e.g., oxygen, heat, light, humidity).
7. Solubility in solvents acceptable in the food industry (e.g., water,
ethanol).
8. Chemical nonreactivity with the active core materials.
9. Inexpensive, food-grade status.
Because no single coating material can meet all of the criteria listed
above, in practice either coating materials are employed in combinations
or modifiers such as oxygen scavengers, antioxidants, chelating agents,
and surfactants are added. Some commonly used biocompatible and
food-grade coating materials are listed in Table 2. However, chemical
modifications of the existing coating materials to manipulate their
properties are also being considered. Those modified coating materials
exhibit better physical and mechanical properties when compared to indi-
vidual coating materials.
Spray-Drying
Spray-drying encapsulation has been used in the food industry since the
late 1950s to provide flavor oils with some protection against degrada-
tion=oxidation and to convert liquids to powders. Spray-drying is the
most widely used microencapsulation technique in the food industry
and is typically used for the preparation of dry, stable food additives
and flavors. The process is economical; flexible, in that it offers substan-
tial variation in microencapsulation matrix; adaptable to commonly used
processing equipment; and produces particles of good quality. In fact,
Table 1. (Continued)
No Microencapsulation technique Major steps in encapsulation
11 Liposome entrapment a. Microfluidization
b. Ultrasonication
c. Reverse-phase evaporation
12 Inclusion complexation Preparation of complexes by mixing or
grinding or spray-drying
1366 Desai and Park
D
o
w
n
l
o
a
d
e
d

b
y

[
b
-
o
n
:

B
i
b
l
i
o
t
e
c
a

d
o

c
o
n
h
e
c
i
m
e
n
t
o

o
n
l
i
n
e

U
P
]

a
t

0
9
:
0
4

2
4

A
p
r
i
l

2
0
1
2

spray-drying production costs are lower than those associated with most
other methods of encapsulation. One limitation of the spray-drying tech-
nology is the limited number of shell materials available. Since almost all
spray-drying processes in the food industry are carried out from aqueous
feed formulations, the shell material must be soluble in water at an
acceptable level. Typical shell materials include gum acacia, maltodex-
trins, hydrophobically modified starch, and mixtures thereof. Other poly-
saccharides (alginate, carboxymethylcellulose, guar gum) and proteins
(whey proteins, soy proteins, sodium caseinate) can be used as the wall
material in spray-drying, but their usage becomes very tedious and
expensive because of their low solubility in water: the amount of water
in the feed to be evaporated is much larger due to the lower dry matter
content and the amount of active ingredient in the feed must be reduced
accordingly. In this method, the material for encapsulation is homo-
genized with the carrier material at a different ratio. The mixture is then
fed into a spray dryer and atomized with a nozzle or spinning wheel.
Water is evaporated by the hot air contacting the atomized material.
The microcapsules are then collected after they fall to the bottom of
the drier.
[31]
Rosenberg and Sheu demonstrated the use of whey protein isolate as
a wall material for encapsulation of volatiles.
[32]
They encapsulated ethyl
butyrate and ethyl caprylate in whey protein isolate and 1:1 mixture of
Table 2. Coating materials for microencapsulation of functional food additives
Category Coating materials
Widely used
methods References
Carbohydrate Starch,maltodextrins,
chitosan,
corn syrup solids,
dextran, modified
starch, cyclodextrins
Spray- and
freeze-drying,
extrusion,
coacervation,
inclusion
complexation
2024
Cellulose Carboxymethylcellulose,
methyl cellulose,
ethylcellulose,
celluloseacetate-phthalate,
celluloseacetate-
butylate-phthalate
Coacervation,
spray-drying,
and edible films
2526
Gum Gum acacia, agar, sodium
alginate, carrageenan
Spray-drying, syringe
method (gel beads)
27
Lipids Wax, paraffin, beeswax,
diacylglyerols, oils, fats
Emulsion, liposomes,
film formation
2829
Protein Gluten, casein, gelatin,
albumin, peptides
Emulsion, spray-drying 30
D
o
w
n
l
o
a
d
e
d

b
y

[
b
-
o
n
:

B
i
b
l
i
o
t
e
c
a

d
o

c
o
n
h
e
c
i
m
e
n
t
o

o
n
l
i
n
e

U
P
]

a
t

0
9
:
0
4

2
4

A
p
r
i
l

2
0
1
2

whey protein isolate and lactose. Retention of volatiles was significantly
affected by wall solids concentration (1030%, w=w), initial ester load
(1075%, w=w, of wall solids), and by ester and wall type. Ester retention
in whey protein isolate=lactose was higher than in whey protein isolate.
Spray-drying is a food manufacturerfriendly technique because it allows
the food processor to manipulate the preparation process to improve the
quality of the final product. Recently, Shiga et al. prepared flavor-
inclusion powder by a spray-drying technique using the combined encap-
sulation method of inclusion by b-cyclodextrin and emulsified by gum
arabic where d-limonene and ethyl n-hexanoate were used as model
flavors.
[33]
The effective film-forming property and inclusion complex
were achieved by applying high pressure to the mixture of flavors and
b-cyclodextrin slurry using a microfluidizer. It is reported that flavor
retention during spray-drying increased due to blending of gum arabic
and b-cyclodextrin in the feed liquid. The release rate of flavors was
manipulated by the blending of maltodextrin in the feed liquid. In order
to evaluate the release kinetics of flavors, the release data were fitted to
Avramis equation (Eq. 1).
R expkt
n
1
where R is the retention of flavors during release, t is time, n is a para-
meter representing the release mechanism, and k is the release rate con-
stant. Eq. (1) was originally developed the crystal growth of polymers,
and has been recently used to represent the time-dependent protein
inactivation in amorphous sugar matrices.
[34]
In Eq. (1), n 1 represents
the first-order reaction, and n 0.54 represents the diffusion-limiting
reaction kinetics.
[35]
Taking a logarithm of both sides of Eq. (1) twice
yields Eq. (2):
lnln R n ln k n ln t 2
From Eq. (2) one can find the parameter n as a slope by plotting ln(ln
R) vs. ln t, and the release rate constant k from the interception at ln t 0.
It is important to protect the flavor loss during drying, because
high-temperature air is commonly used in spray-drying. Generally, the
retention of flavor in microcapsules is manipulated by varying the
spray-drying conditions and compositions of wall material. Recently,
Liu et al. adopted new technique where they used emulsified liquid flavor
for spray-drying.
[36]
Nearly 100% of d-limonene was retained during
spray-drying, independent of the composition of the feed liquid. How-
ever, the stability of emulsion droplets markedly affected the retention
of flavors. d-Limonene emulsion was quite stable independent of the
emulsifier, while the emulsion of ethyl butyrate was unstable with gum
arabic as the emulsifier. The use of a mixture of gum arabic and soluble
soybean polysaccharide as the emulsifier improved oiliness, and adjusting
1368 Desai and Park
D
o
w
n
l
o
a
d
e
d

b
y

[
b
-
o
n
:

B
i
b
l
i
o
t
e
c
a

d
o

c
o
n
h
e
c
i
m
e
n
t
o

o
n
l
i
n
e

U
P
]

a
t

0
9
:
0
4

2
4

A
p
r
i
l

2
0
1
2

density of ethyl butyrate and adding gelatin increased the retention of
ethyl butyrate during spray-drying.
In recent years, new wall materials for use in spray-drying microen-
capsulation have not really emerged. A few exceptions are noteworthy,
though. The investigations of other natural gums and their emulsification
and shell properties have been reported. Mesquite gum, for instance, has
been shown to give a better stability of the o=w emulsions and higher
encapsulation efficiency compared to gum acacia.
[37,38]
Augustin et al.
proposed the use of Maillard reaction products (MRPs) obtained by
the reaction at high temperature between protein and carbohydrate to
encapsulate oxidation-sensitive nutrients such as fish oils.
[39]
The MRPs
are known to exhibit antioxidant properties and form a stable and robust
shell around the oil phase. The stability of the oil against oxidation was
greatly improved compared to nonencapsulated spray-dried samples in
ordinary shell material. More interesting is the recent development of
complex shell formulations for spray-drying encapsulation. For instance,
aqueous two-phase systems (ATPSs), which result from the phase separ-
ation of a mixture of soluble polymers in a common solvent due to the
low entropy of mixing (DS
mix
) of polymer mixtures, can be used to design
double-encapsulated ingredients in a single spray-drying step. Millqvist-
Fureby et al. encapsulated Enterococcus fcium in a mixture of polyvinyl-
pyrrolidone (PVP) and dextran.
[40]
While proteins exhibit partitioning
between the two phases, whole cells tend to concentrate in one of the
polymer phases, which make them ideal candidates for ATPS spray-drying.
The structure of the microcapsule, whether PVP is the outer layer and
dextran the inner core or vice versa, can be controlled by adjusting the ratio
and concentration of the two polymers. Encapsulated E. fcium in spray-
dried ATPS showed a survival rate of up to 45% after 4 weeks at room
temperature. Another example is the preparation and spray-drying of mul-
tiple emulsions, which results a in a double-layered microcapsule, providing
better protection to sensitive materials such as oxidation-probe flavor oils.
Edris and Bergmtahl have encapsulated orange oil by first preparing a triple
emulsion o=w=o=w and then evaporating the outer continuous aqueous
phase, which contains sodium caseinate and lactose as shell material, by
spray-drying.
[41]
The process leads to a dry free-flowing powder constituting
of a double o=w=o, in which the inner orange oil phase is dispersed in an
aqueous phase, which is itself dispersed in an oil phase encapsulated in
sodium caseinate and lactose. This double emulsion process is not practi-
cally more complex than a typical spray-drying process that requires an
emulsion step anyway. However, preparing a second emulsion implies a
dilution of the flavor oil, and the much lower payload in the microcapsule
(510%) is a drawback compared to typical spray-dried flavor oils, which
have payloads of around 2025%. The unique protection and delayed-
release properties obtained with two layers might compensate for the lower
payload, but this has still to be demonstrated.
D
o
w
n
l
o
a
d
e
d

b
y

[
b
-
o
n
:

B
i
b
l
i
o
t
e
c
a

d
o

c
o
n
h
e
c
i
m
e
n
t
o

o
n
l
i
n
e

U
P
]

a
t

0
9
:
0
4

2
4

A
p
r
i
l

2
0
1
2

Chitosan is a hydrophilic, biocompatible, and biodegradable, poly-
saccharide of low toxicity. In recent years, it has been used for develop-
ment of oral controlled drug delivery systems. It is also a well-known
dietary food additive. Therefore, our research team demonstrated the
cross-linked chitosan as a wall material for the encapsulation of vitamin
C by a spray-drying technique. Vitamin C, a representative water-soluble
vitamin, has a variety of biological, pharmaceutical, and dermatological
functions. Vitamin C is widely used in various types of foods as a vitamin
supplement and as an antioxidant. Hence, in previous studies, sustained-
release carriers of vitamin C have been prepared by using cross-linked
chitosan as a wall material by spray-drying technique.
[4244]
The process
of the preparation of vitamin Cencapsulated chitosan microcapsules is
shown in Fig. 2. Chitosan was cross-linked with nontoxic cross-linking
agent, i.e., tripolyphosphate. Vitamin Cencapsulated chitosan micro-
spheres of different size, surface morphology, loading efficiency, and zeta
potential with controlled-release property could be obtained by varying
the manufacturing parameters (inlet temperature, flow rate) and using
the different molecular weight and concentration of chitosan. Vitamin
Cencapsulated chitosan microcapsules were spherical in shape with a
smooth surface as observed by scanning electron microscopy (Fig. 3).
Microencapsulation of vitamin C improves and broadens its applications
in the food industry.
Figure 2. Procedure of preparation of vitamin Cencapsulated chitosan
microspheres by spray-drying.
1370 Desai and Park
D
o
w
n
l
o
a
d
e
d

b
y

[
b
-
o
n
:

B
i
b
l
i
o
t
e
c
a

d
o

c
o
n
h
e
c
i
m
e
n
t
o

o
n
l
i
n
e

U
P
]

a
t

0
9
:
0
4

2
4

A
p
r
i
l

2
0
1
2

Numerous materials have been used as flavor-encapsulating agents
using a spray-drying technique. These include proteins, gums, and modi-
fied starches.
[45]
An area of research of increasing interest is the develop-
ment of alternative and inexpensive polymers that may be considered
natural, like gum arabic, and that could encapsulate flavors with the
same efficiency as gum arabic.
[46]
Mesquite gum has been reported as a
very good encapsulating agent.
[47,48]
Beristain and Vernon-Carter noted
that a blend of 60% gum arabic and 40% mesquite gum encapsulated
93.5% of orange peel oil.
[49]
More recently, Beristain et al. reported that
a mixture consisting of 40% mesquite gum and 60% maltodextrins was
able to encapsulate 84.6% of the starting oil.
[50]
Cardamom-based oil
microcapsules were successfully produced by spray-drying using mesquite
gum.
[38]
The stability against drop coalescence of the emulsions was elev-
ated for all the gum:oil ratios studied. High flavor retention (83.6%) was
attained during microencapsulation by spray-drying when a proportion
of 4:1 gum:oil was used. This confirmed the interesting emulsifying
properties and good flavor-encapsulation ability that qualify mesquite
gum as an important alternative encapsulating medium. The microcap-
sules can be readily used as a food ingredient.
Recent developments have been in the use of new carrier materials
and a newly designed spray dryer. Colloides Naturels and TIC Gums
Figure 3. Scanning electronic microscopic picture of the vitamin C-encapsulated
microcapsule.
D
o
w
n
l
o
a
d
e
d

b
y

[
b
-
o
n
:

B
i
b
l
i
o
t
e
c
a

d
o

c
o
n
h
e
c
i
m
e
n
t
o

o
n
l
i
n
e

U
P
]

a
t

0
9
:
0
4

2
4

A
p
r
i
l

2
0
1
2

have developed new combinations of gum arabic starches to increase
the retention of volatiles and shelf life of microcapsules.
[51,52]
Risch and
Reineccius enhanced the retention of orange oil and decreased oxidation
by using gum arabic.
[53]
Bhandari et al. showed that a new type of dryer
called the Leaflish spray dryer, which uses a high air velocity with a tem-
perature of 300 to 400
C, was effective for encapsulating citral and linalyl

acetate without degradation.
[54]
A disadvantage is that a separate
agglomeration step is required to prevent separation or to render the
obtained powder soluble. A chief advantage is that this technique can
be used for heat-labile materials. Recently, studies on the modification
of spray-drying chamber configurations and atomization along applica-
tions of computational fluid dynamic model have been reported to
broaden the applications range of spray-drying methods.
[5560]
Spray-Chilling or Spray-Cooling
In spray-chilling and spray-cooling, the core and wall mixtures are
atomized into the cooled or chilled air, which causes the wall to solidify
around the core. Unlike spray-drying, spray-chilling or spray-cooling
does not involve evaporation of water. In spray-cooling, the coating
material is typically some form of vegetable oil or its derivatives. How-
ever, a wide range of other encapsulating materials may be employed.
These include fat and stearin with melting points of 45122
C, as well
as hard mono- and diacylglycerols with melting points of 4565
C.
[31]
In spray-chilling, the coating material is typically a fractionated or hydro-
genated vegetable oil with a melting point in the range of 3242
C.
[61]
In
spray-chilling, there is no mass transfer (i.e., evaporation from the ato-
mized droplets); therefore these solidify into almost perfect spheres to
give free-flowing powders. Atomization gives an enormous surface area
and an immediate as well as intimate mixing of these droplets with the
cooling medium. Microcapsules prepared by spray-chilling and spray-
cooling are insoluble in water due to the lipid coating. Consequently,
these techniques tend to be utilized for encapsulating water-soluble core
materials such as minerals, water-soluble vitamins, enzymes, acidulants,
and some flavors.
[62]
Fluidized-Bed Coating
Originally developed as a pharmaceutical technique, fluidized-bed coat-
ing is now increasingly being applied in the food industry to fine-tune
the effect of functional ingredients and additives. The main benefits of
such miniature packages, called microcapsules, include increased shelf
life, taste masking, ease of handling, controlled release, and improved
aesthetics, taste, and color. Fluidized-bed coating increasingly supplies
1372 Desai and Park
D
o
w
n
l
o
a
d
e
d

b
y

[
b
-
o
n
:

B
i
b
l
i
o
t
e
c
a

d
o

c
o
n
h
e
c
i
m
e
n
t
o

o
n
l
i
n
e

U
P
]

a
t

0
9
:
0
4

2
4

A
p
r
i
l

2
0
1
2

the food industry with a wide variety of encapsulated versions of food
ingredients and additives.
[63]
Compared to pharmaceutical fluidized-bed
coating, food industry fluidized-bed coating is more obliged to cut
production costs and, therefore, should adopt a somewhat different
approach to this rather expensive technology. Solid particles are sus-
pended in a temperature and humidity-controlled chamber of high-
velocity air where the coating material is atomized.
[64,65]
Typical food
processing applications of fluidization include freezing and cooling, dry-
ing, puffing, freeze-drying, spray-drying, agglomeration and granulation,
classification, and blanching and cooking.
[66]
Great variations in avail-
able wall materials exist. Cellulose derivatives, dextrins, emulsifiers,
lipids, protein derivatives, and starch derivatives are examples of typical
coating systems, and they may be used in a molten state or dissolved in an
evaporable solvent. This technique is applicable for hot-melt coatings
such as hydrogenated vegetable oil, stearines, fatty acids, emulsifiers,
and waxes, or solvent-based coatings such as starches, gums, maltodex-
trins. For hot melts, cool air is used to harden the carrier, whereas for
solvent-based coatings, hot air is used to evaporate the solvent. Hot-melt
ingredients release their contents by increasing the temperature or physi-
cal breakage, whereas water-soluble coatings release their contents when
water is added. Fluidized-bed encapsulation can be used to isolate iron
from ascorbic acid in multivitamins and in small tablets such as childrens
vitamins. Many fortified foods, nutritional mixes, and dry mixes, contain
fluidized-bedencapsulated ingredients. Citric acid, lactic acid, sorbic
acid, vitamin C, sodium bicarbonate in baked goods, and salt added to
pretzels and meats are all encapsulated. Nowadays, the applicability
and the utility of fluidized-bed coating and other microencapsulation
techniques in the food industry is well recognized, as presented in several
reviews.
[6670]
There are, however, important factors to be considered in
fluidized-bed coating of food ingredients and additives.
Fluidized-bed coating was first developed by D.E. Wurster in the
1950s; hence, the term Wurster process.
[70]
Today, the fluidized-bed
coating method is being modified by changing the position of the nozzle
to be used for coating the solid particles. The different fluidized-bed coat-
ing methods are: (1) top-spray, (2) bottom-spray, and (3) tangential-
spray. The conventional top-spray method is shown in Fig. 4. The air
is passed through a bed of core particles to suspend them in air and coat-
ing solution is sprayed countercurrently onto the randomly fluidized
particles. The coated particles travel through the coating zone into the
expansion chamber, and then they fall back into the product container
and continue cycling throughout the process.
[71]
The top-spray system
has successfully been used to coat materials as small as 100 mm.
[71]
How-
ever, Thiel and Nguyen demonstrated the possibility of encapsulating
very fine particles (25 mm) by adsorbing them on a coarser carrier, which
is encapsulated by means of conventional fluidized-bed equipment.
[72]
In
D
o
w
n
l
o
a
d
e
d

b
y

[
b
-
o
n
:

B
i
b
l
i
o
t
e
c
a

d
o

c
o
n
h
e
c
i
m
e
n
t
o

o
n
l
i
n
e

U
P
]

a
t

0
9
:
0
4

2
4

A
p
r
i
l

2
0
1
2

the top-spray configuration, controlling the distance the droplets travel
before contacting the substrate is impossible, and coating imperfections
can occur due to premature droplet evaporation.
The bottom-spray method known as the Wurster system (Fig. 5) is
widely used for coating particles as small as 100 mm. In this method,
the particles are recycled through the coating zone at a faster rate and
the fluidization pattern is much more controlled than the top-spray
method.
[73]
The typical advantage of this method is that, the path of
the droplets concurrently toward the core particles is extremely short,
Figure 4. Top-spray fluidized-bed coating.
Figure 5. Bottom-spray fluidized-bed coating.
1374 Desai and Park
D
o
w
n
l
o
a
d
e
d

b
y

[
b
-
o
n
:

B
i
b
l
i
o
t
e
c
a

d
o

c
o
n
h
e
c
i
m
e
n
t
o

o
n
l
i
n
e

U
P
]

a
t

0
9
:
0
4

2
4

A
p
r
i
l

2
0
1
2

so that premature droplet evaporation is almost absent. In addition,
coating solution can spread out at the lowest viscosity, producing a very
dense film with a superior physical strength. In contrary, Wesdyk et al.
reported that particles coated in the bottom spray mode did not display
a uniform film thickness with respect to particle size; larger beads dis-
played thicker films compared with smaller beads. The film thickness
variation could be explained by differences in fluidization patterns. This
phenomenon did not occur in other configurations.
[74]
Recently, a fascinating advancement in fluidized-bed coating tech-
nique was reported by Matsuda et al. for the fluidization and coating
of very fine particles.
[75]
In conventional fluidized-bed coating, whether
it is top-spray, Wurster, or rotational, the basic concept of fluidization
relies on the compensation of the gravitational force experienced by the
particles by an upward moving air flow, which ensures complete fluidi-
zation of the particles. Typical fluidized-bed apparatus can efficiently
process particles from 100 mm to a few millimeters. However, for very
small particles, other forces, such as electrostatic forces, start to play
a major role in the movement of the particles in the fluidization cham-
ber and prevent adequate fluidization. Colloidal particles have been
used with some success to reduce electrostatic force, but are not much
help in the fluidization of very small (submicron) particles in a conven-
tional fluidized-bed apparatus. In this innovative process (Fig. 6), how-
ever, the gravitational force is multiplied through the use of a rotating
perforated drum that contains the particle. The air flow is then applied
tangentially to the rotation of the drum as compensation for the gravi-
tational force, now a multiple (up to 37 g) of the normal gravitational
force.
The conventional top-spray method remains unique and widely used
technique in food industry. This is due to its high versatility, relatively high
batch size, and relative simplicity.
[75]
Recently, continuous fluidized-bed
Figure 6. Tangential-spray fluidized-bed coating.
D
o
w
n
l
o
a
d
e
d

b
y

[
b
-
o
n
:

B
i
b
l
i
o
t
e
c
a

d
o

c
o
n
h
e
c
i
m
e
n
t
o

o
n
l
i
n
e

U
P
]

a
t

0
9
:
0
4

2
4

A
p
r
i
l

2
0
1
2

coaters have been developed.
[76]
With such a continuous fluidized-bed
coating process, manufacturers can adapt the system to their own specific
requirements while maintaining the flexibility needed for a large material
throughput and wide product ranges, and while providing the coating
quality demanded in the food industry. The efficiency of fluidized-bed
techniques is governed by process variables, ambient variables, and ther-
modynamic factors (Table 3). Appropriate modification or combinations
of these variables will yield the desired results.
The use of melted fats, waxes, or emulsifiers as shell materials is a
relatively new but very promising and interesting concept. From an
industrial point of view, the inherent advantage of hot-melt fluidized-
bed coating lies in the fact that the coating formulation is concentrated
(no solvent, as in aqueous-based coating formulation), which means
dramatically shorter processing times. The energy input is also much
lower than with aqueous-based formulation since no evaporation needs
to be done. Very few reports have been published on hot-melt coating
by fluidized beds since Jozwiakowsksi et al. described the coating of
sucrose particles with partially hydrogenated cottonseed oil and analyzed
the optimal processing parameters by modified central composite
design.
[77]
A number of patent applications, very similar in processing
designs, have been published using fats and emulsifiers of various melting
points and have developed an innovative fluidized-bed process for coat-
ing particles with fats and waxes using supercritical carbon dioxide as the
solvent for the coating formulation.
[7880]
Here, again, minimal energy
input is needed to evaporate the solvent and the process might lead to
lower cost-in-use encapsulated ingredients.
Table 3. Different variables influencing fluidized-bed operation
No Variables
1 Process variables
1. Inlet air temperature
2. Inlet air velocity
3. Spray rate
4. Solution temperature
5. Solution dry matter content
6. Atomization pressure
2 Ambient variables
1. Ambient air temperature
2. Ambient air relative humidity
3 Thermodynamic
1. Outlet air temperature
2. Outlet air relative humidity
1376 Desai and Park
D
o
w
n
l
o
a
d
e
d

b
y

[
b
-
o
n
:

B
i
b
l
i
o
t
e
c
a

d
o

c
o
n
h
e
c
i
m
e
n
t
o

o
n
l
i
n
e

U
P
]

a
t

0
9
:
0
4

2
4

A
p
r
i
l

2
0
1
2

APPLICATION OF FLUIDIZED-BED TECHNIQUE
IN FOOD INDUSTRY
This technique is used to encapsulate nutritional substances such as
vitamin C, B vitamins, ferrous sulfate, ferrous fumarate, sodium ascor-
bate, potassium chloride, and a variety of vitamin=mineral premixes.
These encapsulated products are used as nutritional supplements.
[81]
In
the case of bakery products, it is also used to encapsulate the leavening
system ingredients, as well as vitamin C, acetic acid, lactic acid, potass-
ium sorbate, sorbic acid, calcium propionate, and salt.
[81,82]
In the meat
industry, several food acids have been fluid-bed encapsulated to develop
color and flavor systems. They are also used to achieve a reproducible pH
in cured meat products and to shorten their processing time. Fluid-bed
encapsulated salt is used in meats to prevent development of rancidity,
as well as premature set due to myofibrilar binding.
[81]
Extrusion
Encapsulation of food ingredients by extrusion is a relatively new process
compared to spray-drying. Extrusion used in this context is not same as
extrusion used for cooking and texturizing of cereal-based products. Actu-
ally, extrusion, as applied to flavor encapsulation, is a relatively low-
temperature entrapping method, which involves forcing a core material in
a moltencarbohydrate mass through a series of dies into a bathof dehydrat-
ing liquid. The pressure and temperature employed are typically <100 psi
and seldom 115
C.
[23]
The coating material hardens on contacting the
liquids, forming an encapsulating matrix to entrap the core material. Then
the extruded filaments are separated from the liquid bath, dried, and
sized.
[12]
The carrier used may be composed of more than one ingredient,
such as sucrose, maltodextrin, glucose syrup, glycerine, and glucose.
[70]
Schultz et al. were pioneers in the extrusion=encapsulation pro-
cesses.
[83]
They emulsified orange peel oil in a molten dextrose mass, poured
it on stainless steel sheets, and let it cool. The pulverized product exhibited
good stability and flavor retention over a 6-month period. Combining the
basic formulation of Schultz et al. with extrusion, Swisher created a novel
encapsulating processes that is similar to the one currently used today in
the flavor industry.
[84]
The primary benefit claimed was the maintenance
of fresh flavor in encapsulated citrus oils, which otherwise would readily
oxidize and yield objectionable off-flavors during storage. He conducted
an accelerated shelf life test on encapsulated orange peel oil that contained
an antioxidant and found that its shelf life was about one year. Figure 7
shows the key steps for the flavor encapsulation by extrusion.
The advantage of this method is that the material is completely sur-
rounded by the wall material (true encapsulation), and any residual oil or
D
o
w
n
l
o
a
d
e
d

b
y

[
b
-
o
n
:

B
i
b
l
i
o
t
e
c
a

d
o

c
o
n
h
e
c
i
m
e
n
t
o

o
n
l
i
n
e

U
P
]

a
t

0
9
:
0
4

2
4

A
p
r
i
l

2
0
1
2

core material is removed from the surface in an alcohol bath.
[14,51,71,81]
This provides an excellent stability against oxidation and therefore pro-
longs the shelf life. The product can be kept for 12 years without any
substantial quality degradation.
[71,81]
This technique can be classified as
a glass encapsulation system or a controlled-release system, depending
on the polymeric materials used. The polymer matrices and the plastici-
zers used can be modified to produce the capsules for controlled release
in food application.
[85]
However, microcapsules produced from this
method are commonly designed to be soluble in water by the use of
high-molecular-weight hydrophilic polymer. Thus, this encapsulation
technique is considered unsuitable for subsequent extrusion processing
because the water in the extruder melt can dissolve the capsules.
[86]
Centrifugal Extrusion
Centrifugal extrusion is another encapsulation technique that has been
investigated and used by some manufacturers. A number of food-approved
Figure 7. Flow diagram of encapsulation of food flavors by extrusion method.
1378 Desai and Park
D
o
w
n
l
o
a
d
e
d

b
y

[
b
-
o
n
:

B
i
b
l
i
o
t
e
c
a

d
o

c
o
n
h
e
c
i
m
e
n
t
o

o
n
l
i
n
e

U
P
]

a
t

0
9
:
0
4

2
4

A
p
r
i
l

2
0
1
2

coating systems have been formulated to encapsulate products such as
flavorings, seasonings, and vitamins. These wall materials include gela-
tin, sodium alginate, carrageenan, starches, cellulose derivatives, gum
acacia, fats=fatty acids, waxes, and polyethylene glycol. Centrifugal
extrusion is a liquid coextrusion process utilizing nozzles consisting of
concentric orifice located on the outer circumference of a rotating cyl-
inder (i.e., head). The encapsulating cylinder or head consists of a con-
centric feed tube through which coating and core materials are pumped
separately to the many nozzles mounted on the outer surface of the
device. While the core material passes through the center tube, coating
material flows through the outer tube. The entire device is attached to a
rotating shaft such that the head rotates around its vertical axis. As the
head rotates, the core and coating materials are co-extruded through
the concentric orifices of the nozzles as a fluid rod of the core sheathed
in coating material. Centrifugal force impels the rod outward, causing it
to break into tiny particles. By the action of surface tension, the coating
material envelops the core material, thus accomplishing encapsulation.
The microcapsules are collected on a moving bed of fine-grained starch,
which cushions their impact and absorbs unwanted coating moisture.
Particles produced by this method have diameter ranging from 150 to
2000 mm.
[87]
Lyophilization
Lyophilization, or freeze-drying, is a process used for the dehydration of
almost all heat-sensitive materials and aromas. It has been used to encap-
sulate water-soluble essences and natural aromas as well as drugs. Except
for the long dehydration period required (commonly 20 h), freeze-drying
is a simple technique, which is particularly suitable for the encapsulation
of aromatic materials. The retention of volatile compounds during the
lyophilization is dependent upon the chemical nature of the system.
[88]
Coacervation
Coacervation involves the separation of a liquid phase of coating
material from a polymeric solution followed by the coating of that phase
as a uniform layer around suspended core particles. The coating is then
solidified. In general, the batch-type coacervation processes consist of
three steps and are carried out under continuous agitation.
1. Formation of a three-immiscible chemical phase
2. Deposition of the coating
3. Solidification of the coating
D
o
w
n
l
o
a
d
e
d

b
y

[
b
-
o
n
:

B
i
b
l
i
o
t
e
c
a

d
o

c
o
n
h
e
c
i
m
e
n
t
o

o
n
l
i
n
e

U
P
]

a
t

0
9
:
0
4

2
4

A
p
r
i
l

2
0
1
2

In the first step, a three-phase system consisting of a liquid manufac-
turing vehicle phase, a core material phase, and a coating material phase
is formed by either a direct addition or in situ separation technique. In
the direct addition approach, the coating-insoluble waxes, immiscible
solutions, and insoluble liquid polymers are added directly to the
liquid-manufacturing vehicle, provided that it is immiscible with the
other two phases and is capable of being liquefied. In the in situ separ-
ation technique, a monomer is dissolved in the liquid vehicle and is then
subsequently polymerized at the interface. Deposition of the liquid poly-
mer coating around the core material is accomplished by controlled
physical mixing of the coating material (while liquid) and the core
material in the manufacturing vehicle in the liquid phase; this sorption
phenomenon is a prerequisite to effective coating. Continued deposition
of the coating is prompted by a reduction in the total free interfacial
energy of the system brought about by a decrease of the coating material
surface area during coalescence of the liquid polymer droplets. Finally,
solidification of the coating is achieved by thermal, cross-linking, or des-
olventization techniques and forms a self-sustaining microcapsule. The
microcapsules are usually collected by filtration or centrifugation,
washed with an appropriate solvent, and subsequently dried by standard
techniques such as spray- or fluidized-bed drying to yield free-flowing,
discrete particles.
[7]
A large numbers of coating materials have been evaluated for coacer-
vation microencapsulation but the most studied and well understood
coating system is probably the gelatin=gum acacia system. However,
other coating systems such as gliadin, heparin=gelatin, carrageenan,
chitosan, soy protein, polyvinyl alcohol, gelatin=carboxymethylcellulose,
B-lactoglobulin=gum acacia, and guar gum=dextran are also studied.
[89]
In recent years, modified coacervation processes have also been developed
that can overcome some of the problems encountered during a typical
gelatin=gum acacia complex coacervation process, especially when dealing
with food ingredients; for example, a room-temperature process for the
encapsulation of heat-sensitive ingredients such as volatile flavor oils.
[90]
In this process, the coating materials are mixed and then phase separation
(coacervation) is achieved by adjusting the pH. The newly formed coacer-
vate phase is allowed to separate and sediment, most of the supernatant
water is removed, and the flavor oil is then added to the mixture kept at
50
C and emulsified rapidly. The initial volume of water is restored with

room temperature water, causing a quick drop in the temperature, which
means that the flavor oils experience a high temperature for only a few
minutes, compared to several hours for a typical coacervation process.
Another process involves the formation of a multilayered coacervated
microcapsule.
[91]
This process consists of multiple coacervation stages in
which an additional layer of wall material is applied to the microcapsule
at each passage and the final shell layer can reach a thickness up to 100 mm.
1380 Desai and Park
D
o
w
n
l
o
a
d
e
d

b
y

[
b
-
o
n
:

B
i
b
l
i
o
t
e
c
a

d
o

c
o
n
h
e
c
i
m
e
n
t
o

o
n
l
i
n
e

U
P
]

a
t

0
9
:
0
4

2
4

A
p
r
i
l

2
0
1
2

The coacervation method has some drawbacks. This process is very
expensive and rather complex, and cross-linking of the wall material
usually involves glutaraldehyde, which must be carefully used according
to the countrys legislation. The problems related to harmful chemical
cross-linkers could eventually be solved by using enzymatic cross-linkers
instead. Soper and Thomas, for instance, described a process in which a
transglutaminase is used to cross-link the proteins in the shell material.
The enzyme is added to the microencapsulation tank at 10
C and pH 7
and the reaction is carried out over 16 h, after which a hardened shell
of coacervate is formed around the flavor oil droplets.
[92]
Centrifugal Suspension Separation
Centrifugal suspension is more recent microencapsulation process. The
process in principle involves mixing the core and wall materials and then
adding to a rotating disk. The core materials then leave the disk with a
coating of residual liquid. The microcapsules are then dried or chilled
after removal from the disk. The whole process can take between a few
seconds to minutes. Solids, liquids, or suspensions of 30 mm to 2 mm
can be encapsulated in this manner. Coatings can be 1200 mm in thick-
ness and include fats, polyethylene glycol (PEG), diglycerides, and other
meltable substances. Since this is a continuous, high-speed method that
can coat particles, it is highly suitable for foods. One application is to
protect foods that are sensitive to or readily absorb moisture, such as
aspartame, vitamins, or methionine.
[93]
The preparation process of encap-
sulated particles by centrifugal suspension separation is illustrated in
Fig. 8.
Cocrystallization
Cocrystallization is a new encapsulation process utilizing sucrose as a
matrix for the incorporation of core materials. The sucrose syrup is con-
centrated to the supersaturated state and maintained at a temperature
high enough to prevent crystallization. A predetermined amount of core
material is then added to the concentrated syrup with vigorous mechanical
agitation, thus providing nucleation for the sucrose=ingredient mixture
to crystallize. As the syrup reaches the temperature at which transform-
ation and crystallization begin, a substantial amount of heat is emitted.
Agitation is continued in order to promote and extend transformation=
crystallization until the agglomerates are discharged from the vessel.
The encapsulated products are then dried to the desired moisture (if
necessary) and screened to a uniform size. It is very important to properly
control the rates of nucleation and crystallization as well as the thermal
balance during the various phases.
[94]
D
o
w
n
l
o
a
d
e
d

b
y

[
b
-
o
n
:

B
i
b
l
i
o
t
e
c
a

d
o

c
o
n
h
e
c
i
m
e
n
t
o

o
n
l
i
n
e

U
P
]

a
t

0
9
:
0
4

2
4

A
p
r
i
l

2
0
1
2

The advantages of this technique include: (1) It can be employed to
achieve particle drying. By means of this process, core materials in a
liquid form can be converted to a dry powdered form without additional
drying. (2) Products offer direct tableting characteristics because of their
agglomerated structure and thus offer significant advantages to the candy
and pharmaceutical industries. Recently, Beristain et al. encapsulated
orange peel oil by a cocrystallization technique.
[95]
In their study, encap-
sulation capacity of sucrose syrups was found to be greater than 90%for
a range of 100 to 250 g oil=kg of sugar. Surface oil, a measurement of
encapsulation efficiency, varied from 3350 to 8880 mg oil=kg solids.
Moisture content of the crystals was lower than 10 g=kg, and bulk density
was greater than 670 kg=m
3
for all the cocrystallizates prepared. Sensory
evaluation showed that all of the panelists were able to detect oxidized
flavors in oils without antioxidant added after storage at 35
C for one
day. When butylated hydroxyanisole was added to the oil prior to cocrys-
tallization, no signs of oxidized flavors were detected after 2 months of
storage at ambient temperature.
Liposome Entrapment
Liposomes consist of an aqueous phase that is completely surrounded by
a phospholipid-based membrane. When phospholipids, such as lecithin,
Figure 8. Representation of rotational suspension separation (A: establishing
particle size for pure coating, and B: encapsulation by suspension separation).
1382 Desai and Park
D
o
w
n
l
o
a
d
e
d

b
y

[
b
-
o
n
:

B
i
b
l
i
o
t
e
c
a

d
o

c
o
n
h
e
c
i
m
e
n
t
o

o
n
l
i
n
e

U
P
]

a
t

0
9
:
0
4

2
4

A
p
r
i
l

2
0
1
2

are dispersed in an aqueous phase, the liposomes form spontaneously.
One can have either aqueous or lipid-soluble material enclosed in the
liposome. They have been used for delivery of vaccines, hormones,
enzymes, and vitamins.
[96]
They consist of one or more layers of lipids
and thus are nontoxic and acceptable for foods. Permeability, stability,
surface activity, and affinity can be varied through size and lipid compo-
sition variations. They can range from 25 nm to several microns in diam-
eter, are easy to make, and can be stored by freeze-drying. Kirby and
Gregoriadis have devised a method to encapsulate at high efficiency,
which is easy to scale-up and uses mild conditions appropriate for
enzymes.
[97]
It is important to reiterate that large unilamellar vesicles
(LUV) are the most appropriate liposomes for the food industry because
of their high encapsulation efficiency, their simple production methods,
and their good stability over time. The great advantage of liposomes over
other microencapsulation technologies is the stability liposomes impart
to water-soluble material in high water activity application: spray-dryers,
extruders, and fluidized beds impart great stability to food ingredients in
the dry state but release their content readily in high water activity appli-
cation, giving up all protection properties. Another unique property of
liposomes is the targeted delivery of their content in specific parts of the
foodstuff. For example, it has been shown that liposome-encapsulated
enzymes concentrate preferably in the curd during cheese formation,
whereas nonencapsulated enzymes are usually distributed evenly in the
whole milk mixture, which leads to very low (24%) retention of the
flavor-producing enzymes in the curd. They have prepared bromelain-
loaded liposomes for use as meat-tenderizer to improve stability of
the enzyme during the processing of the food and subsequently improve
the availability of the enzyme.
[98]
Benech Kheadr et al. showed that
liposome-entrapped nisin retained higher activity against Listeria inno-
cua and had improved stability in cheese production, proving a power-
ful tool to inhibit the growth of Listeria I in cheese while not preventing
the detrimental effect of nisin on the actual cheese-ripening process.
[99]
Kirby et al. have developed a process to stabilize vitamin C in the aque-
ous inner core of liposomes.
[100]
Encapsulation of vitamin C gave sig-
nificant improvements in shelf life (from a few days to up to 2 months),
especially in the presence of common food components that would nor-
mally speed up decomposition, such as copper ions, ascorbate oxidase,
and lysine. Liposomes can also be used to deliver the encapsulated
ingredient at a specific and well-defined temperature: the liposome
bilayer is instantly broken down at the transition temperature of the
phospholipids, typically around 50
C, at which temperature the content

is immediately released.
The most common phospholipid in lectin, phosphatidyl choline, is
insoluble in water and is inexpensively isolated from soy or egg yolk.
The composition of the phospholipids and the process used determine
D
o
w
n
l
o
a
d
e
d

b
y

[
b
-
o
n
:

B
i
b
l
i
o
t
e
c
a

d
o

c
o
n
h
e
c
i
m
e
n
t
o

o
n
l
i
n
e

U
P
]

a
t

0
9
:
0
4

2
4

A
p
r
i
l

2
0
1
2

if a single layer or multiple layers are formed. Fatty acids also make up
liposomes and their degree of saturation is dependent on the source. Ani-
mal sources provide more saturated fatty acids. They influence the tran-
sition temperature, which is the conversion from a gel to the more leaky
liquid form. The main issues in liposome encapsulation for the food
industry are (1) the scaling up of the microencapsulation process at
acceptable cost-in-use levels and (2) the delivery form of the liposome-
encapsulated ingredients. The development of a cost-effective drying
method for liposome microcapsules and development of a dry liposome
formulation that readily reconstitutes upon rehydration would ensure
a promising future to liposome encapsulation of food ingredients. The
recent advances in liposome technology have most probably solved
the first issue: microfluidization has been shown to be an effective,
cost-effective, and solvent-free continuous method for the production
of liposomes with high encapsulation efficiency. The method can process
a few hundred liters per hour of aqueous liposomes on a continuous
basis.
[101,102]
The other issue concerns the aqueous form in which the lipo-
somes are usually delivered. Most of the time, if not always, liposome for-
mulations are kept in relatively dilute aqueous suspensions and this might
be a very serious drawback for the large-scale production, storage, and
shipping of encapsulated food ingredients.
Inclusion Complexation
Molecular inclusion is another means of achieving encapsulation. Unlike
other processes discussed to this point, this technique takes place at a
molecular level; b-cyclodextrin is typically used as the encapsulating
medium. b-Cyclodextrin is a cyclic derivative of starch made up of seven
glucopyranose units. They are prepared from partially hydrolyzed starch
(maltodextrin) by an enzymatic process. The external part of the cyclo-
dextrin molecule is hydrophilic, whereas the internal part is hydrophobic.
The guest molecules, which are apolar, can be entrapped into the apolar
internal cavity through a hydrophobic interaction.
[103]
This internal
cavity of about 0.65 nm diameter permits the inclusion of essential oil
compounds and can take up one or more flavor volatile molecules.
[13]
In this method, the flavor compounds are entrapped inside the hollow
center of a b-cyclodextrin molecule. The chemical structure and geometry
of b-cyclodextrin are shown in Fig. 9.
b-Cyclodextrin molecules form inclusion complexes with compounds
that can fit dimensionally into their central cavity. These complexes are
formed in a reaction that takes place only in the presence of water. Mole-
cules that are less polar than water (i.e., most flavor substances) and have
suitable molecular dimensions to fit inside the cyclodextrin interior can
be incorporated into the molecule. There are three methods to produce
1384 Desai and Park
D
o
w
n
l
o
a
d
e
d

b
y

[
b
-
o
n
:

B
i
b
l
i
o
t
e
c
a

d
o

c
o
n
h
e
c
i
m
e
n
t
o

o
n
l
i
n
e

U
P
]

a
t

0
9
:
0
4

2
4

A
p
r
i
l

2
0
1
2

the flavor-b-cyclodextrin complex. In the first method, b-cyclodextrin is
dissolved in water to form an aqueous solution, and the flavors are added
to form an inclusion complex in crystalline form. The crystal obtained
is then separated and dried. In the second method, b-cyclodextrin is
dissolved in a lesser amount of water than in the first method to form
a concentrated suspension, and the flavors are mixed to form an inclusion
complex in crystalline form. The complex then must be separated and
dried. In the third method, b-cyclodextrin is dissolved in a much
lower water content to form a paste, and the flavors are mixed during
kneading to form an inclusion complex. This method is superior to the
former two because it does not require further separation and drying.
[103]
A cyclodextrin-complexation method has been patented using a ball mill
with a charge of cyclodextrin and a guest molecule. This process needs
little water, preferably 2560% moisture by weight. The inclusion
capacity of 1 g of b-cyclodextrin is not more than 97 mg of lemon oil.
Among all existing microencapsulation methods, molecular inclusion
of flavor volatiles in b-cyclodextrin molecules is the most effective for
protecting the aromas. Encapsulating flavors in this way can provide
better protection from volatilization during extrusion. However, the use
of b-cyclodextrin for food application is very limited, possibly due to
regulatory requirements in a number of countries.
[86]
Figure 9. Molecular structure and microstructure of b-cyclodextrin.
[79]
D
o
w
n
l
o
a
d
e
d

b
y

[
b
-
o
n
:

B
i
b
l
i
o
t
e
c
a

d
o

c
o
n
h
e
c
i
m
e
n
t
o

o
n
l
i
n
e

U
P
]

a
t

0
9
:
0
4

2
4

A
p
r
i
l

2
0
1
2

T
a
b
l
e
4
.
E
n
c
a
p
s
u
l
a
t
e
d
f
o
o
d
i
n
g
r
e
d
i
e
n
t
s
a
n
d
t
h
e
i
r
a
p
p
l
i
c
a
t
i
o
n
i
n
f
o
o
d
i
n
d
u
s
t
r
y
N
o
.
C
a
t
e
g
o
r
y
o
f
f
o
o
d
i
n
g
r
e
d
i
e
n
t
s
E
x
a
m
p
l
e
s
P
r
e
f
e
r
r
e
d
m
o
d
e
o
f
e
n
c
a
p
s
u
l
a
t
i
o
n
A
p
p
l
i
c
a
t
i
o
n
s
1
A
c
i
d
u
l
a
n
t
s
L
a
c
t
i
c
a
c
i
d
,
g
l
u
c
o
n
o
-
d
-
l
a
c
t
o
n
e
,
v
i
t
a
m
i
n
C
,
a
c
e
t
i
c
a
c
i
d
,
p
o
t
a
s
s
i
u
m
s
o
r
b
a
t
e
,
s
o
r
b
i
c
a
c
i
d
,
c
a
l
c
i
u
m
p
r
o
p
i
o
n
a
t
e
,
a
n
d
s
o
d
i
u
m
c
h
l
o
r
i
d
e
F
l
u
i
d
i
z
e
d
-
b
e
d
c
o
a
t
i
n
g
,
e
x
t
r
u
s
i
o
n
1
.
U
s
e
d
t
o
a
s
s
i
s
t
i
n
t
h
e
d
e
v
e
l
o
p
m
e
n
t
o
f
c
o
l
o
r
a
n
d
f
l
a
v
o
r
i
n
m
e
a
t
e
m
u
l
s
i
o
n
s
,
d
r
y
s
a
u
s
a
g
e
p
r
o
d
u
c
t
s
,
u
n
c
o
o
k
e
d
p
r
o
c
e
s
s
e
d
m
e
a
t
s
,
a
n
d
m
e
a
t
c
o
n
t
a
i
n
i
n
g
p
r
o
d
u
c
t
s
.
2
.
B
a
k
i
n
g
i
n
d
u
s
t
r
y
u
s
e
s
t
a
b
l
e
a
c
i
d
s
a
n
d
b
a
k
i
n
g
s
o
d
a
i
n
w
e
t
a
n
d
d
r
y
m
i
x
e
s
t
o
c
o
n
t
r
o
l
t
h
e
r
e
l
e
a
s
e
o
f
c
a
r
b
o
n
d
i
o
x
i
d
e
d
u
r
i
n
g
p
r
o
c
e
s
s
i
n
g
a
n
d
s
u
b
s
e
q
u
e
n
t
b
a
k
i
n
g
.
2
F
l
a
v
o
r
i
n
g
a
g
e
n
t
s
C
i
t
r
u
s
o
i
l
,
m
i
n
t
o
i
l
s
,
o
n
i
o
n
o
i
l
s
,
g
a
r
l
i
c
o
i
l
s
,
s
p
i
c
e
o
l
e
o
r
e
s
i
n
s
I
n
c
l
u
s
i
o
n
c
o
m
p
l
e
x
a
t
i
o
n
,
e
x
t
r
u
s
i
o
n
,
c
e
n
t
r
i
f
u
g
a
l
e
x
t
r
u
s
i
o
n
,
s
p
r
a
y
-
d
r
y
i
n
g
1
.
T
o
t
r
a
n
s
f
o
r
m
l
i
q
u
i
d
f
l
a
v
o
r
i
n
g
s
i
n
t
o
s
t
a
b
l
e
a
n
d
f
r
e
e
f
l
o
w
i
n
g
p
o
w
d
e
r
s
,
w
h
i
c
h
a
r
e
e
a
s
i
e
r
t
o
h
a
n
d
l
e
a
n
d
i
n
c
o
r
p
o
r
a
t
e
i
n
t
o
a
d
r
y
f
o
o
d
s
y
s
t
e
m
.
1386
D
o
w
n
l
o
a
d
e
d

b
y

[
b
-
o
n
:

B
i
b
l
i
o
t
e
c
a

d
o

c
o
n
h
e
c
i
m
e
n
t
o

o
n
l
i
n
e

U
P
]

a
t

0
9
:
0
4

2
4

A
p
r
i
l

2
0
1
2

3
S
w
e
e
t
e
n
e
r
s
S
u
g
a
r
s
,
n
u
t
r
i
t
i
v
e
o
r
a
r
t
i
f
i
c
i
a
l
s
u
g
a
r
s
:
a
s
p
a
r
t
a
m
e
C
o
c
r
y
s
t
a
l
l
i
z
a
t
i
o
n
,
f
l
u
i
d
i
z
e
d
-
b
e
d
c
o
a
t
i
n
g
1
.
T
o
r
e
d
u
c
e
t
h
e
h
y
g
r
o
s
c
o
p
i
c
i
t
y
,
i
m
p
r
o
v
e
f
l
o
w
a
b
i
l
i
t
y
,
a
n
d
p
r
o
l
o
n
g
s
w
e
e
t
n
e
s
s
p
e
r
c
e
p
t
i
o
n
.
4
C
o
l
o
r
a
n
t
s
A
n
n
a
t
t
o
,
b
-
c
a
r
o
t
e
n
e
,
t
u
r
m
e
r
i
c
E
x
t
r
u
s
i
o
n
,
e
m
u
l
s
i
o
n
1
.
E
n
c
a
p
s
u
l
a
t
e
d
c
o
l
o
r
s
a
r
e
e
a
s
i
e
r
t
o
h
a
n
d
l
e
a
n
d
o
f
f
e
r
i
m
p
r
o
v
e
d
s
o
l
u
b
i
l
i
t
y
,
s
t
a
b
i
l
i
t
y
t
o
o
x
i
d
a
t
i
o
n
,
a
n
d
c
o
n
t
r
o
l
o
v
e
r
s
t
r
a
t
i
f
i
c
a
t
i
o
n
f
r
o
m
d
r
y
b
l
e
n
d
s
.
5
L
i
p
i
d
s
F
i
s
h
o
i
l
,
l
i
n
o
l
e
n
i
c
a
c
i
d
,
r
i
c
e
b
r
a
i
n
o
i
l
,
e
g
g
w
h
i
t
e
p
o
w
d
e
r
,
s
a
r
d
i
n
e
o
i
l
,
p
a
l
m
i
t
i
c
a
c
i
d
,
s
e
a
l
b
l
u
b
b
e
r
o
i
l
S
p
r
a
y
-
d
r
y
i
n
g
,
f
r
e
e
z
e
-
d
r
y
i
n
g
,
v
a
c
u
u
m
-
d
r
y
i
n
g
1
.
T
o
p
r
e
v
e
n
t
o
x
i
d
a
t
i
v
e
d
e
g
r
a
d
a
t
i
o
n
d
u
r
i
n
g
p
r
o
c
e
s
s
i
n
g
a
n
d
s
t
o
r
a
g
e
.
6
V
i
t
a
m
i
n
s
a
n
d
m
i
n
e
r
a
l
s
F
a
t
-
s
o
l
u
b
l
e
:
v
i
t
a
m
i
n
A
,
D
,
E
,
a
n
d
K
.
W
a
t
e
r
-
s
o
l
u
b
l
e
:
v
i
t
a
m
i
n
C
,
v
i
t
a
m
i
n
B
1
,
v
i
t
a
m
i
n
B
2
,
v
i
t
a
m
i
n
B
6
,
v
i
t
a
m
i
n
B
1
2
,
n
i
a
c
i
n
,
f
o
l
i
c
a
c
i
d
C
o
a
c
e
r
v
a
t
i
o
n
,
i
n
c
l
u
s
i
o
n
c
o
m
p
l
e
x
a
t
i
o
n
,
s
p
r
a
y
-
d
r
y
i
n
g
,
l
i
p
o
s
o
m
e
e
n
t
r
a
p
m
e
n
t
1
.
T
o
r
e
d
u
c
e
o
f
f
-
f
l
a
v
o
r
s
.
2
.
T
o
p
e
r
m
i
t
t
i
m
e
-
r
e
l
e
a
s
e
o
f
n
u
t
r
i
e
n
t
s
.
3
.
T
o
e
n
h
a
n
c
e
t
h
e
s
t
a
b
i
l
i
t
y
t
o
e
x
t
r
e
m
e
s
i
n
t
e
m
p
e
r
a
t
u
r
e
a
n
d
m
o
i
s
t
u
r
e
.
4
.
T
o
r
e
d
u
c
e
e
a
c
h
n
u
t
r
i
e
n
t
i
n
t
e
r
a
c
t
i
o
n
o
t
h
e
r
i
n
g
r
e
d
i
e
n
t
s
.
7
E
n
z
y
m
e
s
a
n
d
m
i
c
r
o
o
r
g
a
n
i
s
m
s
L
i
p
a
s
e
,
i
n
v
e
r
t
a
s
e
,
B
r
e
v
i
b
a
c
t
e
r
i
u
m
l
i
n
e
n
s
,
P
e
n
i
c
i
l
l
i
u
m
r
o
q
u
e
f
o
r
t
i
C
o
a
c
e
r
v
a
t
i
o
n
,
s
p
r
a
y
m
e
t
h
o
d
,
l
i
p
o
s
o
m
e
e
n
t
r
a
p
m
e
n
t
1
.
T
o
i
m
p
r
o
v
e
t
h
e
s
t
a
b
i
l
i
t
y
.
2
.
T
o
r
e
d
u
c
e
t
h
e
r
i
p
e
n
i
n
g
t
i
m
e
.
1387
D
o
w
n
l
o
a
d
e
d

b
y

[
b
-
o
n
:

B
i
b
l
i
o
t
e
c
a

d
o

c
o
n
h
e
c
i
m
e
n
t
o

o
n
l
i
n
e

U
P
]

a
t

0
9
:
0
4

2
4

A
p
r
i
l

2
0
1
2

ENCAPSULATED INGREDIENTS AND APPLICATIONS
Microencapsulation can potentially offer numerous benefits to the mate-
rials being encapsulated. Various properties of active agents may be
changed by encapsulation. For example, handling and flow properties
can be improved by converting liquid to a solid encapsulated from.
Hygroscopic materials can be protected from moisture. Some of the
encapsulated food ingredients and their applications are summarized in
Table 4.
CONCLUSIONS
The use of microencapsulated food ingredients for controlled-release
applications is a promising alternative to solve the major problem of food
ingredients faced by food industries. The challenges are to select the
appropriate microencapsulation technique and encapsulating material.
Despite the wide range of encapsulated products that have been
developed, manufactured, and successfully marketed in the pharmaceuti-
cal and cosmetic industries, microencapsulation has found a compara-
tively much smaller market in the food industry. The technology is still
far from being fully developed and has yet to become a conventional tool
in the food technologists repertoire for several reasons. First of all,
the development time is rather long and requires multidisciplinary
cooperation. Secondly, the low margins typically achieved in food ingre-
dients and the relative inertia of well-established corporations are an
effective deterrent to the development and implementation of novel tech-
nologies that could result in truly unique food products, whether for
more effective production, food fortification, neutraceuticals, improved
organoleptic properties, or development of novelty food products. How-
ever, the most important aspect of R&D, from the very first lab-bench
tests, is an understanding of the industrial constraints and requirements
to make a microencapsulation process viable, from the transition to
full-scale production to the marketing of the final product.
ACKNOWLEDGEMENT
This study was supported by a grant of the Korea Health 21 R and D
Project, Ministry of Health and Welfare, Republic of Korea (A050376).
REFERENCES
1. Chen, X.G.; Lee, C.M.; Park, H.J. O=w emulsification for the self-aggre-
gation and nanoparticle formation of linolenic acid modified chitosan in
the aqueous system. Journal of Agricultural and Food Chemistry 2003,
51, 31353139.
1388 Desai and Park
D
o
w
n
l
o
a
d
e
d

b
y

[
b
-
o
n
:

B
i
b
l
i
o
t
e
c
a

d
o

c
o
n
h
e
c
i
m
e
n
t
o

o
n
l
i
n
e

U
P
]

a
t

0
9
:
0
4

2
4

A
p
r
i
l

2
0
1
2

2. Kim, B.K.; Hwang, S.J.; Park, J.B.; Park, H.J. Preparation and character-
ization of drug-loaded microspheres by an emulsion solvent evaporation
method. Journal of Microencapsulation 2002, 19, 811822.
3. Lee, D.W.; Hwang, S.J.; Park, J.B.; Park, H.J. Preparation and release char-
acteristics of polymer-coated and blended alginate microspheres. Journal of
Microencapsulation 2003, 20, 179192.
4. Ko, J.A.; Park, H.J.; Hwang, S.J.; Park, J.B.; Lee, J.S. Preparation and
characterization of chitosan microparticles intended for controlled drug
delivery. International Journal of Pharmaceutics 2002, 249, 165174.
5. Lee, J.Y.; Park, H.J.; Lee, C.Y.; Choi, W.Y. Extending shelf life of mini-
mally processed apples with edible coatings and antibrowning agents.
Lebensm.-Wiss. U.-Technology 2003, 36, 323329.
6. Cho, Y.H.; Shin, D.S.; Park, J. Optimization of emulsification and spray
drying processes for the microencapsulation of flavor compounds. Korean
Journal of Food Science and Technology 2000, 32, 132139.
7. Kirby, C.J. Microencapsulation and controlled delivery of food ingredients.
Food Science and Technology Today 1991, 5 (2), 7480.
8. Andres, C. Encapsulation ingredients: I. Food Processing 1977, 38 (12),
4456.
9. Bakan, J.A. Microencapsulation of food and related products. Food
Technology 1973, 27 (11), 3438.
10. Todd, R.D. Microencapsulation and food industry. Flavor Industry 1970, 1,
7881.
11. Balsa, L.L.; Fanger, G.O. Microencapsulation in food industry. Critical
Reviews in Food Technology 1971, 2, 245249.
12. Shahidi, F.; Han, X.Q. Encapsulation of food ingredients. Critical Reviews
in Food Technology 1993, 33 (6), 501504.
13. Dziezak, J.D. Microencapsulation and encapsulated food ingredients. Food
Technology 1998, 42, 136151.
14. Gibbs, B.F.; Kermasha, S.; Alli, I.; Mulligan, C.N. Encapsulation in food
industry: A review. International Journal of Food Science and Food Nutrition
1999, 50, 213234.
15. Cha, D.S.; Cooksey, K.; Chinnan, M.S.; Park, H.J. Release of nisin from
various heat-pressed and cast films. Lebensm.-Wiss. U.-Technol 2003, 36,
209213.
16. Cha, D.S.; Choi, J.H.; Chinnan, M.S.; Park, H.J. Antimicrobial films based
on Na-alginate and j-carrageenan. Lebensm.-Wiss. U.-Technology 2002,
35, 715719.
17. Choi, W.Y.; Park, H.J.; Ahn, D.J.; Lee, J.; Lee, C.Y. Wettability of chitosan
coating solution on Fuji apple skin. Journal of Food Science 2002, 67,
26682672.
18. Linko, P. Immobilized lactic acid bacteria. In Enzymes and Immobilized
Cells in Biotechnology; Larson, A., Ed.; Benjamin Cummings: Meno Park,
CA, 1985; 2536.
19. Seiss, W.; Divies, C. Microencapsulation. Angewandte Chemie International
Edition 1975, 14, 539550.
20. Godshall, M.A. The role of carbohydrates in flavor development. Food
Technology 1988, 42 (11), 7174.
D
o
w
n
l
o
a
d
e
d

b
y

[
b
-
o
n
:

B
i
b
l
i
o
t
e
c
a

d
o

c
o
n
h
e
c
i
m
e
n
t
o

o
n
l
i
n
e

U
P
]

a
t

0
9
:
0
4

2
4

A
p
r
i
l

2
0
1
2

21. Flink, J.; Karel, M. Effects of process variables on retention of volatiles in
freeze-drying. Journal of Food Science 1970, 35, 444446.
22. Reineccius, G.A.; Coulter, S.T. Flavor retention during drying. Journal of
Dairy Science 1989, 52, 12191224.
23. Reineccius, G.A. Flavor encapsulation. Food Reviews International 1989,
5, 147150.
24. Reineccius, G.A. Carbohydrates for flavor encapsulation. Food Technology
1991, 46 (3), 144147.
25. Greener, I.K.; Fennema, O. Barrier properties and surface characteristics of
edible, bilayer films. Journal of Food Science 1989, 54, 13931395.
26. Greener, I.K.; Fennema, O. Evaluation of edible, bilayer films for use as
moisture barriers for food. Journal of Food Science 1989, 54, 14001403.
27. Dziezak, J.D. Focus on gums. Food Technology 1991, 45 (3), 116118.
28. Kamper, S.L.; Fennema, O. Water vapor permeability of an edible, fatty
acid, bilayer film. Journal of Food Science 1984, 49, 14821485.
29. Kim, H.-H.Y.; Baianu, I.C. Novel liposome microencapsulation techniques
for food applications. Trends in Food Science and Technology 1991, 2, 55
60.
30. Ono, F. New encapsulation technique with protein-carbohydrate matrix.
Journal of Japanese Food Science Technology 1980, 27, 529535.
31. Taylor, A.H. Encapsulation systems and their applications in the flavor
industry. Food Flavor Ingredients Packaging and Processing 1983, 5 (9),
4851.
32. Rosenberg, M.; Sheu, T.Y. Microencapsulation of volatiles by spray drying
in whey protein based wall systems. International Dairy Journal 1996,
6, 273284.
33. Shiga, H.; Yoshii, H.; Nishiyama, T.; Furuta, T.; Forssele, P.; Poutanen, K.;
Linko, P. Flavor encapsulation and release characteristics of spray-dried
powder by the blended encapsulant of cyclodextrin and gum arabic. Drying
Technology 2001, 19 (7), 13851395.
34. Sun, W.D.; Davidson, P. Protein inactivation in amorphous sucrose and tre-
halose matrices: Effect of phase separation and crystallization. Biochimica
Biophysica Acta 1998, 1425, 235244.
35. Hancock, J.D.; Sharp, J.H. Method of comparing solid-state kinetic data
and its application to the decomposition of kaolinite, brucite and barium
carbonate. Journal of American Ceramic Society 1972, 55 (2), 7477.
36. Liu, X.D.; Atarashi, T.; Furuta, T.; Yoshii, H.; Aishima, S.; Ohkawara, M.;
Linko, P. Microencapsulation of emulsified hydrophobic flavors by spray
drying. Drying Technology 2001, 19 (7), 13611374.
37. Beristain, C.I.; Garcia, H.S.; Vernon-Carter, E.J. Mesquite gum (Prosopis
juliflora) and maltodextrin blends as wall materials for spray-dried encapsu-
lated orange peel oil. Food Science and Technology International 1999, 5,
353356.
38. Beristain, C.I.; Garcia, H.S.; Vernon-Carter, E.J. Spray-dried encapsulation
of cardamom (Elettaria cardamomum) essential oil with mesquite (Prosopis
juliflora) gum. Lebensm.-Wiss. U.-Technol 2001, 34, 398401.
39. Augustin, M.A.; Sanguansri, L.; Margetts, C.; Young, B. Microencap-
sulation of food ingredients. Food Australia 2001, 53, 220223.
1390 Desai and Park
D
o
w
n
l
o
a
d
e
d

b
y

[
b
-
o
n
:

B
i
b
l
i
o
t
e
c
a

d
o

c
o
n
h
e
c
i
m
e
n
t
o

o
n
l
i
n
e

U
P
]

a
t

0
9
:
0
4

2
4

A
p
r
i
l

2
0
1
2

40. Millqvist-Fureby, A.; Malmsten, M.; Bergenstahl, B. An aqueous polymer
two-phase system as carrier in the spray-drying of biological material.
Journal of Colloid and Interface Science 2000, 225, 5461.
41. Edris, A.; Benrgnstahl, B. Encapsulation of orange oil in a spray dried
double emulsion. Nahrung=Food 2001, 45,133137.
42. Desai, K.G.H.; Park, H.J. Encapsulation of vitamin C in tripolyphosphate
crosslinked chitosan microspheres by spray drying. Journal of Microencap-
sulation 2005, 22, 179192.
43. Desai, K.G.H.; Park, H.J. Effect of manufacturing parameters on the char-
acteristics of vitamin C encapsulated tripolyphosphate-chitosan micro-
spheres prepared by spray drying. Journal of Microencapsulation 2005, In
press.
44. Desai, K.G.H.; Liu, C.; Park, H.J. Characteristics of vitamin C encapsu-
lated tripolyphosphate-chitosan microspheres as affected by chitosan
molecular weight. Journal of Microencapsulation 2005, In press.
45. Chin-Cheng, L.; Shan-Yang, L.; Sun-Hwang, L. Microencapsulation of
squid oil with hydrophilic macromolecules of oxidative and thermal stabili-
zation. Journal of Food Science 1995, 60, 3639.
46. Re, M.I. Microencapsulation by spray drying. Drying Technology 1998, 16,
11951196.
47. Beristain, C.I.; Vernon-Carter, E.J. Utilization of mesquite (Prosopis juliora)
gum as emulsion stabilizing agent for spray dried encapsulated orange peel
oil. Drying Technology 1994, 12, 17271733.
48. Goycoolea, F.M.; Calderon, De La Barca, A.M.; Balderrama, J.R. Immu-
nological and functional properties of the exudate gum from northwestern
Mexican mesquite (Prosopis spp.) in comparison with gum arabic. Inter-
national Journal of Biological Macromolecules 1997, 21, 2936.
49. Beristain, C.I.; Vernon-Carter, E.J. Studies on the interaction of arabic
(Acacia Senegal) and mesquite (Prosopis juliora) gum as emulsion stabilizing
agents for spray dried encapsulated orange peel oil. Drying Technology
1995, 29, 645667.
50. Beristain, C.I.; Garcia, H.S.; Vernon-Carter, E.J. Mesquite gum (Prosopis
juliora) and maltodextrin blends as wall materials for spray-dried encapsu-
lated orange peel oil. Food Science and Technology International 1999, 5,
353356.
51. Thevenet, F. Acacia gums: Natural encapsulation agent for food ingredi-
ents. In Encapsulation and Controlled Release of Food Ingredients; Risch,
S.J., Reineccius, G.A., Eds.; American Chemical Society: Washington,
DC, 1995.
52. Reineccius, G.A.; Ward, F.M.; Whorton, C.; Andon, S.A. Developments
in gum acacias for the encapsulation of flavors. In Encapsulation and
Controlled Release of Food Ingredients; American Chemical Society:
Washington, DC, 1995.
53. Risch, S.J.; Reineccius, G.A. Spray-dried orange oil: Effect of emulsion size
on flavor retention and shelf stability. In Flavor Encapsulation; Risch, S.J.,
Reineccius, G.A., Eds.; American Chemical Society: Washington, DC, 1988.
54. Bhandari, B.R.; Dumoulin, H.M.J.; Richard, H.M.J. Flavor encapsulation
of spray drying: Application to citral and linalyl acetate. Journal of Food
Science 1992, 51, 13011306.
D
o
w
n
l
o
a
d
e
d

b
y

[
b
-
o
n
:

B
i
b
l
i
o
t
e
c
a

d
o

c
o
n
h
e
c
i
m
e
n
t
o

o
n
l
i
n
e

U
P
]

a
t

0
9
:
0
4

2
4

A
p
r
i
l

2
0
1
2

55. Huang, L.; Kumar, K.; Mujumdar, A.S. Simulation of a spray dryer fitted
with a rotary disk atomizer using a three-dimensional computational fluid
dynamic model. Drying Technology 2004, 22 (6), 14891515.
56. Mujumdar, A.S. Research and developments in drying: Recent trends and
future prospectus. Drying Technology 2004, 22 (1&2), 126.
57. Silva, M.A.; Souza, F.V. Drying behavior of binary mixture of solids. Dry-
ing Technology 2004, 22 (1&2), 165177.
58. Chen, X.D. Heat-mass transfer and structure formation during drying of
single food droplets. Drying Technology 2004, 22 (1&2), 179190.
59. Huang, L.; Kumar, K.; Mujumdar, A.S. A parametric study of the gas flow
patterns and drying performance of co-current spray dryer: Results of a
computational fluid dynamics study. Drying Technology 2003, 22 (6),
957978.
60. Huang, L.; Kumar, K.; Mujumdar, A.S. Use of computational fluid dynam-
ics to evaluate alternative spray dryer chamber configurations. Drying
Technology 2003, 22 (3), 385412.
61. Blenford, D. Fully protected. Food Flavor Ingredients Packaging and
Processing 1986, 8 (7), 4345.
62. Lamb, R. Spray chilling. Food Flavor Ingredients Packaging and Processing
1987, 9 (12), 3942.
63. Shilton, N.C.; Niranjan, K. Fluidization and its applications to food
processing. Food Structure 1993, 12, 199215.
64. Balassa, L.L.; Fanger, G.O. Microencapsulation in the food industry. CRC
Reviews in Food Technology 1971, 2, 245263.
65. Zhao, L.; Pan, Y.; Li, J.; Chen, G.; Mujumdar, A.S. Drying of a dilute
suspension in a revolving flow fluidized bed of inert particles. Drying
Technology 2004, 22 (1&2), 363376.
66. Jackson, L.S.; Lee, K. Microencapsulation and the food industry. Lebensm.-
Wiss. U.-Technol 1991, 24, 289297.
67. Duxbury, D.D.; Swientek, R.J. Encapsulated ingredients face healthy
future. Food Processing 1992, 53, 3846.
68. Kanawjia, S.K.; Pathania, V.; Singh, S. Microencapsulation of enzymes,
micro-organisms and flavours and their applications in foods. Indian Dairy-
man 1992, 44, 280287.
69. Hegenbart, S. Encapsulated ingredients keep problems covered. Food Pro-
duct Design 1993, 4, 2950.
70. Arshady, R. Microcapsules for food. Journal of Microencapsulation 1993,
10 (4), 413435.
71. Jones, D.M. Controlling particle size and release properties. In Flavor
Encapsulation; Risch, S.J., Reineccius, G.A., Eds.; American Chemical
Society: Washington, DC, 1988.
72. Thiel, W.J.; Nguyen, L.T. Fluidized bed film coating of an ordered powder
mixture to produce microencapsulated ordered units. Journal of Pharmacy
and Pharmacology 1984, 36, 145152.
73. Mehta, A.M.; Jones, D.M. Coated pellets under the microscope. Pharma-
ceutical Technology 1985, 9, 5260.
74. Wesdyk, R.; Joshi, Y.M.; De Vincentis, J.; Newman, A.W.; Jain, N.N.
Factors affecting differences in film thickness of beads coated in fluidized
bed units. International Journal of Pharmaceutics 1993, 93, 101109.
1392 Desai and Park
D
o
w
n
l
o
a
d
e
d

b
y

[
b
-
o
n
:

B
i
b
l
i
o
t
e
c
a

d
o

c
o
n
h
e
c
i
m
e
n
t
o

o
n
l
i
n
e

U
P
]

a
t

0
9
:
0
4

2
4

A
p
r
i
l

2
0
1
2

75. Matsuda, S.; Hatano, H.; Kuramoto, K.; Tsutsumi, A. Fluidization of
ultrafine particles with high G. Journal of Chemical Engineering Japan
2001, 34, 121125.
76. Rumpler, K.; Jacob, M. Continuous coating in fluidized bed. Food Market
Technology 1998, 12, 4143.
77. Jozwiaskowski, M.J.; Jones, D.; Franz, R.M. Characterization of a hot melt
fluid bed coating process from fine granules. Pharmaceutical Research 1990,
7, 310.
78. Klose, R.E. Encapsulated bioactive substances. 1992, PCT WO 92=21249.
79. Pacifico, C.J.; Wu, W.H.; Fraley, M. Sensitive substance encapsulation.
U.S. Patent 6 2001, 251,478 B1.
80. Wu, W.H.; Roe, W.S.; Gimino, V.G.; Seriburi, V.; Martin, D.E.; Knapp,
S.E. Low melt encapsulation. 2002, PCT QO 00=74499.
81. Dezarn, T.J. Food ingredient encapsulation. In Encapsulation and
Controlled Release of Food Ingredients; Risch, S.J., Reineccius, G.A., Eds.;
American Chemical Society: Washington, DC, 1995.
82. De Pauw, P.; Dewettinck, K.; Arnaut, F.; Huyghebaert, A. Microencapsula-
tion improves the action of bakery ingredients. Voedingsmiddelentechnolo-
gie 1996, 29, 3840.
83. Schultz, T.H.; Dimick, K.P.; Makower, B. Incorporation of natural fruit
flavors into fruit juice powders. I. Locking of citrus oils in sucrose and
dextrose. Food Technology 1956, 10 (1), 5760.
84. Swisher, H.E. Solid essential oil-flavoring components. U.S. Patent.
2,809,895, 1957.
85. Ubbink, J.; Schoonman, A. Flavour delivery systems. Kirk-Othmer encyclo-
pedia of chemical technology; John Wiley and Sons: New York, 2003.
86. Yuliani, S.; Bhandari, B.; Rutgers, R.; DArcy, B. Application of microen-
capsulated flavor to extrusion product. Food Reviews International 2004,
20 (2), 163185.
87. Schlameus, W. Centrifugal extrusion encapsulation. In Encapsulation and
Controlled Release of Food Ingredients. Risch, S.J.; Reineccius, G.A. Eds.;
American Chemical Society: Washington, DC, 1995.
88. Kopelman, I.J.; Meydav, S.; Wwilmersdorf, P. Storage studies of freeze-
dried lemon crystals. Journal of Food Technology 1977, 12, 6569.
89. Gouin, S. Microencapsulation: Industrial appraisal of existing technologies
and trends. Trends in Food Science Technology 2004, 15, 330347.
90. Arneodo, C.J.F. Microencapsulation by complex coacervation at ambient
temperature. FR 2732240 A1, 1996.
91. Ijichi, K.; Yoshizawa, H.; Uemura, Y.; Hatate, Y.; Kawano, Y. Multi-
layered gelatin=acacia microcapsules by complex coacervation method.
Journal of Chemical Engineering Japan 1997, 30, 793798.
92. Soper, J.C.; Thomas, M.T. Enzymatically protein encapsulating oil particles
by complex coacervation. U.S. Patent. 6-039-901, 1997.
93. Sparks, R.E. Microencapsulation. In Encyclopedia of Chemical Process
Technology; McKetta, J., Ed.; Marcel Dekker: New York, 1989.
94. Rizzuto, A.B.; Chen, A.C.; Veiga, M.F. Modification of the sucrose crystal
structure to enhance pharmaceutical properties of excipient and drug
substances. Pharmaceutical Technology 1984, 8 (9), 3235.
D
o
w
n
l
o
a
d
e
d

b
y

[
b
-
o
n
:

B
i
b
l
i
o
t
e
c
a

d
o

c
o
n
h
e
c
i
m
e
n
t
o

o
n
l
i
n
e

U
P
]

a
t

0
9
:
0
4

2
4

A
p
r
i
l

2
0
1
2

95. Beristain, C.; Vazquez, A.V.; Garcia, H.S.; Vernon-Carter, E.J. Encapsula-
tion of orange peel oil by co-crystallization. Lebensm.-Wiss. U.-Technol
1996, 29, 645647.
96. Gregoriadis, G. In Liposome Technology, Vol. 13; CRC Press: Boca Raton,
FL, 1984.
97. Kirby, C.J.; Gregoriadis, G. A simple procedure for preparing liposomes
capable of high encapsulation efficiency under mild conditions. In Liposome
Technology, Vol 1; Gregoriadis, G., Ed.; CRC Press: Boca Raton, FL, 1984.
98. Kheadr, E.E.; Vuillemard, J.C.; El Deeb, S.A. Accelerated cheddar cheese
ripening with encapsulated proteinases. International Journal of Food
Science and Technology 2000, 35, 483495.
99. Benech, R.O.; Kheadr, E.E.; Laridi, R.; Lacroix, C.; Fliss, I. Inhibition of
Listeria innocua in cheddar cheese by addition of nisin Z in liposomes or
by in situ production in mixed culture. Applied Environmental Micro-
biology 2002, 68, 36833690.
100. Kirby, C.J.; Whittle, C.J.; Rigby, N.; Coxon, D.T.; Law, B.A. Stabilization
of ascorbic acid by microencapsulation. International Journal of Food
Science and Technology 1991, 26, 437449.
101. Zheng, S.; Alkan-Onyuksel, H.; Beissinger, R.L.; Wasan, D.T. Liposome
microencapsulation without using any organic solvent. Journal of Disper-
sion Science and Technology 1999, 20, 11891203.
102. Maa, Y.F.; Hsu, C. Performance of sonication and microfluidization for
liquid-liquid emulsification. Pharmaceutical Development and Technology
1999, 4, 233240.
103. Pagington, J.S. b-Cyclodextrin and its uses in the flavour industry. In Devel-
opments in Food Flavours; Birch, G.G., Lindley, M.G., Eds.; Elsevier
Applied Science: London, 1986.
1394 Desai and Park
D
o
w
n
l
o
a
d
e
d

b
y

[
b
-
o
n
:

B
i
b
l
i
o
t
e
c
a

d
o

c
o
n
h
e
c
i
m
e
n
t
o

o
n
l
i
n
e

U
P
]

a
t

0
9
:
0
4

2
4

A
p
r
i
l

2
0
1
2

Desai, Park - 2005 - Recent Developments in Microencapsulation of Food Ingredients PDF

Uploaded by

Copyright:

Available Formats

Desai, Park - 2005 - Recent Developments in Microencapsulation of Food Ingredients PDF

Uploaded by

Document Information

Original Title

Copyright

Available Formats

Share this document

Share or Embed Document

Sharing Options

Did you find this document useful?

Is this content inappropriate?

Copyright:

Available Formats

Desai, Park - 2005 - Recent Developments in Microencapsulation of Food Ingredients PDF

Uploaded by

Copyright:

Available Formats

This article was downloaded by: [b-on: Biblioteca do conhecimento online

Correspondence: Hyun Jin Park, Graduate School of Biotechnology, Korea

C, was effective for encapsulating citral and linalyl

C and emulsified rapidly. The initial volume of water is restored with

C, at which temperature the content

You might also like