1

CHAPTER-1
INTRODUCTION

1.1 Introduction

Energy is main criteria for human development in any country. Any country
that can produce energy in large scale can become a developed country in a short
time. Mainly energy sources can be divided into two categories. Renewable energy
sources and Non-renewable energy sources. Alternatively energy sources are the
energy sources different from those in wide spread use at the moments (which are
referred to as conventional). Alternative energy sources include solar, wind, wave,
and tidal, hydroelectric and geothermal energy. Although they each have their own
drawbacks, none of these energy sources produces significant air pollution, unlike
conventional sources.

With increasing attention on renewable energy resources, wind energy
conversion Systems (WECS) are todays one of the most popular subject that the
researches are intensively carried on. Generally wind energy is available in abundance
in our environment. When compared with the conventional sources of energy, wind
energy is clean, efficient, and sustainable form of energy. For conversion of this wind
energy into electrical energy and induction generator is coupled with a wind mill
offers an ideal solution. Today, it is one of the rapidly growing technologies and
markets. During last ten years, the high penetration of wind turbines in the power
system has been closely related to the advancement of the wind turbine technology.

In my work a wind farm equipped with squirrel cage induction type (SCIG)
wind turbines are used. These generators allow small variations in rotor speed thus
reducing torque shocks caused by wind gusts [1]. However they absorb large amounts
of reactive power and cause severe voltage stability problems on the grid. FACTS
devices such as SVC, STATCOM and UPFC have been suggested as sources for
voltage sag improvement and reactive power support due to the ability of these to
provide continuously variable susceptance and also the ability to react fast.

2

In this scheme the voltage sag and reactive power compensation in a
transmission line can be compensated using Unified Power Flow controller [2] with
two different controllers such as PI and Fuzzy Logic Controller. On doing simulation
by using these controllers we can say that the Fuzzy Logic Controller is the best
controller as it compensates the voltage sag and reactive power compensation fully.

1.2 Organization of Thesis
This thesis consists of 8 chapters and each chapter consists the following:
Chapter 1: This chapter gives the introduction of the project.
Chapter 2: This chapter gives a brief introduction about Introduction to Wind
Turbines & Generators.
Chapter 3: This chapter gives a brief introduction about FACTS devices.
Chapter 4: This chapter gives a brief introduction of Unified Power Flow
Controller.
Chapter 5: This chapter gives a brief introduction about Fuzzy Controller Design
in Matlab.
Chapter 6: This chapter gives a brief introduction about MATLAB.
Chapter 7: This chapter gives the case study of Simulink models used and the
brief explanation about the results obtained.
Chapter 8: This chapter gives the conclusion and future work for this project.













3

CHAPTER-2
INTRODUCTION TO WIND TURBINES & GENERATORS

2.1 Introduction

Wind is abundant almost in any part of the world. Wind is caused due to the
heating of earths surface by sun and due to the earths rotation. The conventional
ways of generating electricity using non-renewable resources such as coal, natural
gas, oil and so on, have great impacts on the environment as it contributes vast
quantities of carbon dioxide to the earths atmosphere which in turn will cause the
temperature of the earths surface to increase, known as the greenhouse effect [3].
Hence, with the advances in science and technology, ways of generating electricity
using renewable energy resources such as the wind, solar, biomass are developed.
Nowadays, the cost of wind power that is connected to the grid is as cheap as the cost
of generating electricity using coal and oil. Thus, the increasing popularity of green
electricity means the demand of electricity produced by using non-renewable energy
is also increased accordingly.

2.2 Wind power generation: Working principle


Fig 2.1 Components of wind turbine
4

2.3 Power Contained in Wind

The power contained by wind is given by:
P = 0.5 (air mass flow rate) (wind velocity)
2

= 0.5 (AV) (
2
)
P = 0.5A
3

Where,
P = power contained in the wind (W)
= air density (kg/
3
)
A = rotor area (
2
)
V=wind velocity before rotor interference (m/s)

The power coefficient (Cp) describes the efficiency of a turbine that converts the
energy in the wind to rotational power. Therefore power output of the turbine is given
by
P = 0.5A
3
Cp ------------ (2.1)

The tip speed ratio of the wind turbine is defined as
=R/V -------------------- (2.2)
Where,
R = radius of the swept area in metres
= angular speed in radians per second.

2.4 Types of Wind Turbines

Depending on their axis alignment Wind turbines can be categorized as:
1) Horizontal-axis wind turbines
a) Dutch-type grain-grinding windmills
b) Multiblade water-pumping windmills
c) High-speed propeller type windmills
2) Vertical-axis wind turbines
a) The Savonius rotor
b) The Darrieus rotor
5

2.5 Components of Wind Turbine
The main important components of a wind turbine are shown in fig 2.2 below

Fig 2.2 Components of wind turbine
2.5.1 Blades
Most wind turbines have three blades, though there are some with two blades.
Blades are generally 30 to 50 meters (100 to165 feet) long, with the most common
sizes around 40 meters (130 feet). Longer blades are being designed and tested. Blade
weights vary, depending on the design and materialsa 40 meter LM Glass fibre
blade for a 1.5 MW turbine weighs 5,780 kg (6.4 tons) and one for a 2.0 MW turbine
weighs 6,290 kg (6.9 tons).
2.5.2 Controller

There is a controller in the nacelle and one at the base of the turbine. The
controller monitors the condition of the turbine and controls the turbine movement.
Different types of controllers used are:

a) Pitch Angle Control
This system changes the pitch angle of the blades according to the
variation of wind speed. On a pitch controlled machine, as the wind speed
exceeds its rated speed, the blades are gradually turned about the longitudinal
axis and out of the wind to increase the pitch angle which reduces the
aerodynamic efficiency of the rotor, and the rotor output power decreases.
During the operation below the rated speed the control system endeavours to
pitch the blade at an angle that maximizes the rotor efficiency.
6


b) Yaw Control
It turns the nacelle according to the actuator engaging on a gear ring at
the top of the tower. Yaw control is the arrangement in which the entire rotor
is rotated horizontally or yawed out of the wind. During normal operation of
the system, the wind direction should be perpendicular to the swept area of
the rotor. The yaw drive is controlled by a slow closed- loop control system.
The yaw drive is operated by a wind vane, which is usually mounted on the
top of the nacelle sensing the relative wind direction, and the wind turbine
controller. In some designs, the nacelle is yawed to attain reduction in power
during high winds. In extremity, the turbine can be stopped with nacelle
turned such that the rotor axis is at right angles to the wind direction. One of
the more difficult parts of a wind turbine designs is the yaw system, though it
is apparently simple. Especially in turbulent wind conditions, the prediction
of yaw loads is uncertain.

2.5.3 Gearbox
Many wind turbines have a gearbox that increases the rotational speed of the
shaft. A low-speed shaft feeds into the gearbox and a high-speed shaft feeds from the
gearbox into the generator. Some turbines use direct drive generators that are capable
of producing electricity at a lower rotational speed. These turbines do not require a
gearbox.

2.5.4 Generators
Wind turbines typically have a single AC generator that converts the
mechanical energy from the wind turbines rotation into electrical energy. Clipper
Wind power uses a different design that features four DC generators.

2.5.5 Nacelles
The nacelle houses the main components of the wind turbine, such as the
controller, gearbox, generator and shafts.


7

2.5.6 Rotor
The rotor includes both the blades and the hub (the component to which the blades
are attached).

2.5.7 Towers
Towers are usually tubular steel towers 60 to 80 meters (about 195 to 260 feet)
high that consist of three sections of varying heights. (There are some towers with
heights around 100 meters (330 feet)).

2.6 Classification of Wind Turbines based on speed
Based on speeds the wind turbines can be classified as:

2.6.1 Fixed-Speed Wind Turbine
For the fixed-speed wind turbine the induction generator is directly connected
to the electrical grid according to Fig. 2.3.

Fig 2.3 Fixed speed wind turbine with a an Induction Generator

The rotor speed of the fixed-speed wind turbine is in principle determined by a
gearbox and the pole-pair number of the generator. The fixed-speed wind turbine
system has often two fixed speeds. This is accomplished by using two generators with
different ratings and pole pairs, or it can be a generator with two windings having
different ratings and pole pairs. This leads to increased aerodynamic capture as well
as reduced magnetizing losses at low wind speeds. This system (one or two-speed)
was the conventional concept used by many Danish manufacturers in the 1980s and
1990s.
8

2.6.2 Variable-Speed Wind Turbine
The system presented in Fig. 2.4 consists of a wind turbine equipped with a
converter connected to the stator of the generator.
Fig 2.4 Variable speed driven (gear less) wind turbine with a Synchronous
Generator
The generator could either be a cage-bar induction generator or a synchronous
generator. The gearbox is designed so that maximum rotor speed corresponds to rated
speed of the generator. Synchronous generators or permanent-magnet synchronous
generators can be designed with multiple poles which imply that there is no need for a
gearbox, see Fig. 2.6. Since this full-power converter/generator system is
commonly used for other applications, one advantage with this system is its well-
developed and robust control.

2.7. Classification of Generators:
A generator is a device which converts mechanical energy into electrical
energy. Wind generators have traditionally been wind turbines, i.e. a propeller
attached to an electric generator attached to appropriate electronics to attach it to the
electrical grid.
Generators can be classified broadly into two categories:
a) Synchronous Generators
b) Asynchronous Generators
The basis of this categorization is the speed at which the generators are run.
Synchronous generators are run at synchronous speed (1500 rpm for a 4 pole machine
at 50Hz frequency) while asynchronous generators run at a speed more than the
synchronous speed.
9

2.7.1. Synchronous Generator:
Synchronous generators are doubly fed machines which generate electricity by
the principle when the magnetic field around a conductor changes, a current is
induced in the conductor. Typically, a rotating magnet called the rotor turns within a
stationary set of conductors wound in coils on an iron core, called the stator. The field
cuts across the conductors, generating an electrical current, as the mechanical input
causes the rotor to turn.

Fig.2.5.Synchronous Generator

The rotating magnetic field induces an AC voltage in the stator windings.
Often there are three sets of stator windings, physically offset so that the rotating
magnetic field produces three phase currents, displaced by one-third of a period with
respect to each other. The rotor magnetic field may be produced by induction by
permanent magnets (in very small machines), or by a rotor winding energized with
direct current through slip rings and brushes. The rotor magnetic field may even be
provided by stationary field winding, with moving poles in the rotor. Automotive
alternators invariably use a rotor winding, which allows control of the alternator
generated voltage by varying the current in the rotor field winding. Permanent magnet
machines avoid the loss due to magnetizing current in the rotor, but are restricted in
size, owing to the cost of the magnet material. Since the permanent magnet field is
constant, the terminal voltage varies directly with the speed of the generator.
2.7.2. Asynchronous Generator:
Asynchronous generators or Induction generators are singly excited a.c. machine.
Its stator winding is directly connected to the ac source whereas its rotor winding receives
its energy from stator by means of induction. Balanced currents produce constant
amplitude rotating m.m.f wave. The stator produced m.m.f and rotor produced m.m.f
wave, both rotate in the air gap in the same direction at synchronous speed. These two
10

m.m.f s combine to give the resultant air-gap flux density wave of constant amplitude and
rotating at synchronous speed. This flux induces currents in the rotor and an
electromagnetic torque is produced which rotates the rotor.
Asynchronous generators are mostly used as wind turbines as they can be
operated at variable Speed unlike synchronous generator. Two kinds of asynchronous
generators are used namely
a) Squirrel cage induction generator (SCIG)
b) Doubly fed induction generator (DFIG)
2.7.2.1. Squirrel Cage Induction Generator:
Squirrel cage rotor is the rotating part. In overall shape it is a cylinder
mounted on a shaft. Internally it contains longitudinal conductive bars (usually made
of aluminum or copper) set into grooves and connected together at both ends by
shorting rings forming a cage-like shape. The core of the rotor is built of a stack of
iron laminations.

Fig.2.6.Rotor of Squirrel Cage Induction Generator.
The field windings in the stator of an induction motor set up a rotating magnetic field
around the rotor. The relative motion between this field and the rotation of the rotor
induces electric current in the conductive bars. In turn these currents lengthwise in the
conductors react with the magnetic field of the motor to produce force acting at a
tangent to the rotor, resulting in torque to turn the shaft. In effect the rotor is carried
around with the magnetic field but at a slightly slower rate of rotation. The difference
in speed is called slip and increases with load.

2.7.2.2. Doubly Fed Induction Generator:
DFIG is Double Fed Induction Generator, a generating principle widely used
in wind turbines. It is based on an induction generator with a multiphase wound rotor
and a multiphase slip-ring assembly with brushes for access to the rotor windings.

11

CHAPTER-3
INTRODUCTION TO FACTS DEVICES
3.1 Introduction
Flexible AC Transmission Systems, called FACTS, got in the recent
years a well known term for higher controllability in power systems by means of
power electronic devices. Several FACTS-devices have been introduced for various
applications worldwide. A number of new types of devices are in the stage of being
introduced in practice.
In most of the applications the controllability is used to avoid cost intensive or
landscape requiring extensions of power systems, for instance like upgrades or
additions of substations and power lines. FACTS-devices provide a better adaptation
to varying operational conditions and improve the usage of existing installations.

The basic applications of FACTS-devices are [4]:
Power flow control,
Increase of transmission capability,
Voltage control,
Reactive power compensation,
Stability improvement,
Power quality improvement,
Power conditioning,
Flicker mitigation,
Interconnection of renewable and distributed generation and storages.

Figure 3.1 shows the basic idea of FACTS for transmission systems. The
usage of lines for active power transmission should be ideally up to the thermal limits.
Voltage and stability limits shall be shifted with the means of the several different
FACTS devices. It can be seen that with growing line length, the opportunity for
FACTS devices gets more and more important.

The influence of FACTS-devices is achieved through switched or controlled
shunt compensation, series compensation or phase shift control. The devices work
12

electrically as fast current, voltage or impedance controllers. The power electronic
allows very short reaction times down to far below one second.


Fig. 3.1. Operational limits of transmission line for different voltage levels

The development of FACTS-devices has started with the growing capabilities
of power electronic components. Devices for high power levels have been made
available in converters for high and even highest voltage levels. The overall starting
points are network elements influencing the reactive power or the impedance of a part
of the power system. Figure 1.2 shows a number of basic devices separated into the
conventional ones and the FACTS-devices.
For the FACTS side the taxonomy in terms of 'dynamic' and 'static' needs
some explanation. The term 'dynamic' is used to express the fast controllability of
FACTS-devices provided by the power electronics. This is one of the main
differentiation factors from the conventional devices. The term 'static' means that the
devices have no moving parts like mechanical switches to perform the dynamic
controllability. Therefore most of the FACTS-devices can equally be static and
dynamic.


13


Fig. 3.2. Overview of major FACTS device
The left column in Figure 1.2 contains the conventional devices build out of
fixed or mechanically switch able components like resistance, inductance or
capacitance together with transformers. The FACTS-devices contain these elements
as well but use additional power electronic valves or converters to switch the elements
in smaller steps or with switching patterns within a cycle of the alternating current.
The left column of FACTS-devices uses Thyristor valves or converters. These valves
or converters are well known since several years. They have low losses because of
their low switching frequency of once a cycle in the converters or the usage of the
Thyristors to simply bridge impedances in the valves.
The right column of FACTS-devices contains more advanced technology of
voltage source converters based today mainly on Insulated Gate Bipolar Transistors
(IGBT) or Insulated Gate Commutated Thyristors (IGCT). Voltage Source Converters
provide a free controllable voltage in magnitude and phase due to a pulse width
modulation of the IGBTs or IGCTs. High modulation frequencies allow to get low
harmonics in the output signal and even to compensate disturbances coming from the
network. The disadvantage is that with an increasing switching frequency, the losses
are increasing as well. Therefore special designs of the converters are required to
compensate this.
14

3.2 Configurations of FACTS-Devices:
3.2.1 Shunt Devices:
The most used FACTS-device is the SVC or the version with Voltage Source
Converter called STATCOM. These shunt devices are operating as reactive power
compensators.
The main applications in transmission, distribution and industrial networks
are:
Reduction of unwanted reactive power flows and therefore reduced network losses.
Keeping of contractual power exchanges with balanced reactive power.
Compensation of consumers and improvement of power quality especially with huge
demand fluctuations like industrial machines, metal melting plants, railway or
underground train systems.
Compensation of Thyristor converters e.g. in conventional HVDC lines.
Improvement of static or transient stability.

Almost half of the SVC and more than half of the STATCOMs are used for
industrial applications. Industry as well as commercial and domestic groups of users
require power quality. Flickering lamps are no longer accepted, nor are interruptions
of industrial processes due to insufficient power quality. Railway or underground
systems with huge load variations require SVCs or STATCOMs.

3.2.1.1 SVC:
Electrical loads both generate and absorb reactive power. Since the transmitted
load varies considerably from one hour to another, the reactive power balance in a
grid varies as well. The result can be unacceptable voltage amplitude variations or
even a voltage depression, at the extreme a voltage collapse.
A rapidly operating Static Var Compensator (SVC) can continuously provide
the reactive power required to control dynamic voltage oscillations under various
system conditions and thereby improve the power system transmission and
distribution stability.
Applications of the SVC systems in transmission systems:
a. To increase active power transfer capacity and transient stability margin
b. To damp power oscillations
15

c. To achieve effective voltage control
In addition, SVCs are also used
1. in transmission systems
a. To reduce temporary over voltages
b. To damp sub synchronous resonances
c. To damp power oscillations in interconnected power systems
2. in traction systems
a. To balance loads
b. To improve power factor
c. To improve voltage regulation
3. in HVDC systems
a. To provide reactive power to acdc converters
4. in arc furnaces
a. To reduce voltage variations and associated light flicker

Installing an SVC at one or more suitable points in the network can increase
transfer capability and reduce losses while maintaining a smooth voltage profile under
different network conditions. In addition an SVC can mitigate active power
oscillations through voltage amplitude modulation.
SVC installations consist of a number of building blocks. The most important
is the Thyristor valve, i.e. stack assemblies of series connected anti-parallel Thyristors
to provide controllability. Air core reactors and high voltage AC capacitors are the
reactive power elements used together with the Thyristor valves. The step up
connection of this equipment to the transmission voltage is achieved through a power
transformer.

Fig.3.3. SVC building blocks and voltage / current characteristic
16

In principle the SVC consists of Thyristor Switched Capacitors (TSC) and
Thyristor Switched or Controlled Reactors (TSR / TCR). The coordinated control of a
combination of these branches varies the reactive power as shown in Figure. The first
commercial SVC was installed in 1972 for an electric arc furnace. On transmission
level the first SVC was used in 1979. Since then it is widely used and the most
accepted FACTS-device.

SVC USING A FC-TCR:
In this arrangement, two or more FC (fixed capacitor) banks are connected to a
TCR (thyristor controlled reactor) through a step-down transformer. The rating of the
reactor is chosen larger than the rating of the capacitor by an amount to provide the
maximum lagging vars that have to be absorbed from the system. By changing the
firing angle of the thyristor controlling the reactor from 90 to 180, the reactive
power can be varied over the entire range from maximum lagging vars to leading vars
that can be absorbed from the system by this compensator.



Fig.3.4. SVC of the FC-TCR type
17

The main disadvantage of this configuration is the significant harmonics that
will be generated because of the partial conduction of the large reactor under normal
sinusoidal steady-state operating condition when the SVC is absorbing zero MVAr.
These harmonics are filtered in the following manner. Triplex harmonics are canceled
by arranging the TCR and the secondary windings of the step-down transformer in
delta connection. The capacitor banks with the help of series reactors are tuned to
filter fifth, seventh, and other higher-order harmonics as a high-pass filter. Further
losses are high due to the circulating current between the reactor and capacitor banks.


Fig.3.5. Characteristics of SVC of the FC-TCR type

Comparison of the loss characteristics of TSCTCR, TCRFC compensators
and synchronous condenser
These SVCs do not have a short-time overload capability because the reactors
are usually of the air-core type. In applications requiring overload capability, TCR
must be designed for short-time overloading, or separate thyristor-switched overload
reactors must be employed.

SVC USING A TCR AND TSC:
This compensator overcomes two major shortcomings of the earlier
compensators by reducing losses under operating conditions and better performance
18

under large system disturbances. In view of the smaller rating of each capacitor bank,
the rating of the reactor bank will be 1/n times the maximum output of the SVC, thus
reducing the harmonics generated by the reactor. In those situations where harmonics
have to be reduced further, a small amount of FCs tuned as filters may be connected
in parallel with the TCR.

Fig.3.6. SVC of combined TSC and TCR type

When large disturbances occur in a power system due to load rejection, there
is a possibility for large voltage transients because of oscillatory interaction between
system and the SVC capacitor bank or the parallel. The LC circuit of the SVC in the
FC compensator. In the TSCTCR scheme, due to the flexibility of rapid switching of
capacitor banks without appreciable disturbance to the power system, oscillations can
be avoided, and hence the transients in the system can also be avoided. The capital
cost of this SVC is higher than that of the earlier one due to the increased number of
capacitor switches and increased control complexity.

3.2.1.2 STATCOM:
In 1999 the first SVC with Voltage Source Converter called STATCOM
(STATic COMpensator) went into operation. The STATCOM has a characteristic
similar to the synchronous condenser, but as an electronic device it has no inertia and
19

is superior to the synchronous condenser in several ways, such as better dynamics, a
lower investment cost and lower operating and maintenance costs. A STATCOM is
build with Thyristors with turn-off capability like GTO or today IGCT or with more
and more IGBTs. The static line between the current limitations has a certain
steepness determining the control characteristic for the voltage.
The advantage of a STATCOM is that the reactive power provision is
independent from the actual voltage on the connection point. This can be seen in the
diagram for the maximum currents being independent of the voltage in comparison to
the SVC. This means, that even during most severe contingencies, the STATCOM
keeps its full capability.
In the distributed energy sector the usage of Voltage Source Converters for
grid interconnection is common practice today. The next step in STATCOM
development is the combination with energy storages on the DC-side. The
performance for power quality and balanced network operation can be improved
much more with the combination of active and reactive power.

Fig.3.7. STATCOM structure and voltage / current characteristic

STATCOMs are based on Voltage Sourced Converter (VSC) topology and
utilize either Gate-Turn-off Thyristors (GTO) or Isolated Gate Bipolar Transistors
(IGBT) devices. The STATCOM is a very fast acting, electronic equivalent of a
synchronous condenser. If the STATCOM voltage, Vs, (which is proportional to the
20

dc bus voltage Vc) is larger than bus voltage, Es, then leading or capacitive VARS are
produced. If Vs is smaller than Es then lagging or inductive VARS are produced.

Fig.3.8. 6 Pulses STATCOM

The three phases STATCOM makes use of the fact that on a three phase,
fundamental frequency, steady state basis, and the instantaneous power entering a
purely reactive device must be zero. The reactive power in each phase is supplied by
circulating the instantaneous real power between the phases. This is achieved by
firing the GTO/diode switches in a manner that maintains the phase difference
between the ac bus voltage ES and the STATCOM generated voltage VS. Ideally it is
possible to construct a device based on circulating instantaneous power which has no
energy storage device (i.e. no dc capacitor).
A practical STATCOM requires some amount of energy storage to
accommodate harmonic power and ac system unbalances, when the instantaneous real
power is non-zero. The maximum energy storage required for the STATCOM is much
less than for a TCR/TSC type of SVC compensator of comparable rating.


Fig.3.9. STATCOM Equivalent Circuit

21

Several different control techniques can be used for the firing control of the
STATCOM. Fundamental switching of the GTO/diode once per cycle can be used.
This approach will minimize switching losses, but will generally utilize more complex
transformer topologies. As an alternative, Pulse Width Modulated (PWM) techniques,
which turn on and off the GTO or IGBT switch more than once per cycle, can be
used. This approach allows for simpler transformer topologies at the expense of
higher switching losses.

The 6 Pulse STATCOM using fundamental switching will of course produce
the 6 N
C
1
harmonics. There are a variety of methods to decrease the harmonics. These
methods include the basic 12 pulse configuration with parallel star / delta transformer
connections, a complete elimination of 5th and 7th harmonic current using series
connection of star/star and star/delta transformers and a quasi 12 pulse method with a
single star-star transformer, and two secondary windings, using control of firing angle
to produce a 30phase shift between the two 6 pulse bridges. This method can be
extended to produce a 24 pulse and a 48 pulse STATCOM, thus eliminating
harmonics even further. Another possible approach for harmonic cancellation is a
multi-level configuration which allows for more than one switching element per level
and therefore more than one switching in each bridge arm. The ac voltage derived has
a staircase effect, dependent on the number of levels. This staircase voltage can be
controlled to eliminate harmonics.

3.2.2 Series Devices:
Series devices have been further developed from fixed or mechanically
switched compensations to the Thyristor Controlled Series Compensation (TCSC) or
even Voltage Source Converter based devices.
The main applications are:
Reduction of series voltage decline in magnitude and angle over a power line,
Reduction of voltage fluctuations within defined limits during changing power
transmissions,
Improvement of system damping resp. damping of oscillations,
Limitation of short circuit currents in networks or substations,
Avoidance of loop flows resp. power flow adjustments.
22

3.2.2.1 TCSC:
Thyristor Controlled Series Capacitors (TCSC) addresses specific dynamical
problems in transmission systems. Firstly it increases damping when large electrical
systems are interconnected. Secondly it can overcome the problem of Sub
Synchronous Resonance (SSR), a phenomenon that involves an interaction between
large thermal generating units and series compensated transmission systems.
The TCSC's high speed switching capability provides a mechanism for
controlling line power flow, which permits increased loading of existing transmission
lines, and allows for rapid readjustment of line power flow in response to various
contingencies. The TCSC also can regulate steady-state power flow within its rating
limits.
From a principal technology point of view, the TCSC resembles the
conventional series capacitor. All the power equipment is located on an isolated steel
platform, including the Thyristor valve that is used to control the behavior of the main
capacitor bank. Likewise the control and protection is located on ground potential
together with other auxiliary systems. Figure shows the principle setup of a TCSC and
its operational diagram. The firing angle and the thermal limits of the Thyristors
determine the boundaries of the operational diagram.

Fig.3.10. TCSC structure and voltage / current characteristic
Advantages:
Continuous control of desired compensation level
Direct smooth control of power flow within the network
23

Improved capacitor bank protection
Local mitigation of sub synchronous resonance (SSR). This permits higher
levels of compensation in networks where interactions with turbine-generator
torsional vibrations or with other control or measuring systems are of concern.
Damping of electromechanical (0.5-2 Hz) power oscillations which often arise
between areas in a large interconnected power network. These oscillations are
due to the dynamics of inter area power transfer and often exhibit poor
damping when the aggregate power transfer over a corridor is high relative to
the transmission strength.
3.2.3 Shunt and Series Devices
3.3.3.1 Dynamic Power Flow Controller
A new device in the area of power flow control is the Dynamic Power Flow
Controller (DFC). The DFC is a hybrid device between a Phase Shifting Transformer
(PST) and switched series compensation.
A functional single line diagram of the Dynamic Flow Controller is shown in
Figure 1.19.
The Dynamic Flow Controller consists of the following components:
A standard phase shifting transformer with tap-changer (PST)
Series-connected Thyristor Switched Capacitors and Reactors
(TSC / TSR)
A mechanically switched shunt capacitor (MSC). (This is
optional depending on the system reactive power requirements)


Fig.3.11. Principle configuration of DFC
24

Based on the system requirements, a DFC might consist of a number of series
TSC or TSR. The mechanically switched shunt capacitor (MSC) will provide voltage
support in case of overload and other conditions. Normally the reactance of reactors
and the capacitors are selected based on a binary basis to result in a desired stepped
reactance variation. If a higher power flow resolution is needed, a reactance
equivalent to the half of the smallest one can be added.
The switching of series reactors occurs at zero current to avoid any harmonics.
However, in general, the principle of phase-angle control used in TCSC can be
applied for a continuous control as well.

The operation of a DFC is based on the following rules:
TSC / TSR are switched when a fast response is required.
The relieve of overload and work in stressed situations is handled by the TSC / TSR.
The switching of the PST tap-changer should be minimized particularly for the
currents higher than normal loading.
The total reactive power consumption of the device can be optimized by the
operation of the MSC, tap changer and the switched capacities and reactors.

In order to visualize the steady state operating range of the DFC, we assume
an inductance in parallel representing parallel transmission paths. The overall control
objective in steady state would be to control the distribution of power flow between
the branch with the DFC and the parallel path. This control is accomplished by
control of the injected series voltage.
The PST (assuming a quadrature booster) will inject a voltage in quadrature
with the node voltage. The controllable reactance will inject a voltage in quadrature
with the throughput current. Assuming that the power flow has a load factor close to
one, the two parts of the series voltage will be close to collinear. However, in terms of
speed of control, influence on reactive power balance and effectiveness at high/low
loading the two parts of the series voltage has quite different characteristics. The
steady state control range for loadings up to rated current is illustrated in Figure 1.20,
where the x-axis corresponds to the throughput current and the y-axis corresponds to
the injected series voltage.

25


Fig.3.12. Operational diagram of a DFC

Operation in the first and third quadrants corresponds to reduction of power
through the DFC, whereas operation in the second and fourth quadrants corresponds
to increasing the power flow through the DFC. The slope of the line passing through
the origin (at which the tap is at zero and TSC / TSR are bypassed) depends on the
short circuit reactance of the PST.
Starting at rated current (2 kA) the short circuit reactance by itself provides an
injected voltage (approximately 20 kV in this case). If more inductance is switched in
and/or the tap is increased, the series voltage increases and the current through the
DFC decreases (and the flow on parallel branches increases). The operating point
moves along lines parallel to the arrows in the figure. The slope of these arrows
depends on the size of the parallel reactance. The maximum series voltage in the first
quadrant is obtained when all inductive steps are switched in and the tap is at its
maximum.
Now, assuming maximum tap and inductance, if the throughput current
decreases (due e.g. to changing loading of the system) the series voltage will decrease.
At zero current, it will not matter whether the TSC / TSR steps are in or out, they will
not contribute to the series voltage. Consequently, the series voltage at zero current
corresponds to rated PST series voltage. Next, moving into the second quadrant, the
26

operating range will be limited by the line corresponding to maximum tap and the
capacitive step being switched in (and the inductive steps by-passed). In this case, the
capacitive step is approximately as large as the short circuit reactance of the PST,
giving an almost constant maximum voltage in the second quadrant.





























27

CHAPTER-4

UNIFIED POWER FLOW CONTROLLER

4.1 INRODUCTION
The UPFC is a combination of a static compensator and static series
compensation. It acts as a shunt compensating and a phase shifting device
simultaneously.

Fig.4.1. Principle configuration of an UPFC

The UPFC consists of a shunt and a series transformer, which are connected
via two voltage source converters with a common DC-capacitor. The DC-circuit
allows the active power exchange between shunt and series transformer to control the
phase shift of the series voltage [5]. This setup, as shown in Figure 1.21, provides the
full controllability for voltage and power flow. The series converter needs to be
protected with a Thyristor bridge. Due to the high efforts for the Voltage Source
Converters and the protection, an UPFC is getting quite expensive, which limits the
practical applications where the voltage and power flow control is required
simultaneously.

4.2 OPERATING PRINCIPLE OF UPFC
The basic components of the UPFC are two voltage source inverters (VSIs)
sharing a common dc storage capacitor, and connected to the power system through
coupling transformers. One VSI is connected to in shunt to the transmission system
via a shunt transformer, while the other one is connected in series through a series
transformer.
28


A basic UPFC functional scheme is shown in fig.1


Fig.4.2. Operation of an UPFC

The series inverter is controlled to inject a symmetrical three phase voltage
system (Vse), of controllable magnitude and phase angle in series with the line to
control active and reactive power flows on the transmission line. So, this inverter will
exchange active and reactive power with the line [6]. The reactive power is
electronically provided by the series inverter, and the active power is transmitted to
the dc terminals. The shunt inverter is operated in such a way as to demand this dc
terminal power (positive or negative) from the line keeping the voltage across the
storage capacitor V
dc
constant. So, the net real power absorbed from the line by the
UPFC is equal only to the losses of the inverters and their transformers. The
remaining capacity of the shunt inverter can be used to exchange reactive power with
the line so to provide a voltage regulation at the connection point.
The two VSIs can work independently of each other by separating the dc side.
So in that case, the shunt inverter is operating as a STATCOM that generates or
absorbs reactive power to regulate the voltage magnitude at the connection point.
Instead, the series inverter is operating as SSSC that generates or absorbs reactive
power to regulate the current flow, and hence the power low on the transmission line.
The UPFC has many possible operating modes. In particular, the shunt
inverter is operating in such a way to inject a controllable current, ish into the
transmission line.
The shunt inverter can be controlled in two different modes:
29

VAR Control Mode: The reference input is an inductive or capacitive VAR request.
The shunt inverter control translates the var reference into a corresponding shunt
current request and adjusts gating of the inverter to establish the desired current. For
this mode of control a feedback signal representing the dc bus voltage, Vdc, is also
required.
Automatic Voltage Control Mode: The shunt inverter reactive current is
automatically regulated to maintain the transmission line voltage at the point of
connection to a reference value. For this mode of control, voltage feedback signals are
obtained from the sending end bus feeding the shunt coupling transformer.
The series inverter controls the magnitude and angle of the voltage injected in
series with the line to influence the power flow on the line. The actual value of the
injected voltage can be obtained in several ways.
Direct Voltage Injection Mode: The reference inputs are directly the magnitude and
phase angle of the series voltage.
Phase Angle Shifter Emulation mode: The reference input is phase displacement
between the sending end voltage and the receiving end voltage. Line Impedance
Emulation mode: The reference input is an impedance value to insert in series with
the line impedance
Automatic Power Flow Control Mode: The reference inputs are values of P and Q
to maintain on the transmission line despite system changes.

4.3 Control Mechanism of Shunt Converter
The shunt converter is operated to draw a controlled current from the line. One
component of this current is automatically determined as a requirement real power to
meet the losses in the converters and to balance the real power of the series converter
[15]. However, the net real power is used to maintain the dc voltage and to provide
the reactive compensation without an external-electric-energy source to the system
independently [16]. This component of current is calculated by finding the differences
between reference value (Vdc*) and instant value (Vdc) of DC bus voltage in this
study. The result is used as an angle in the sinus block of control mechanism. The
other component is reactive part of current and it can be set to any desired reference
level (inductive or capacitive) within the capability of the converter. This component
is calculated in the same way with the other component by finding the differences
between reference voltage (Vsendpu*) and instant value of bus voltage (Vsendpu).
30

The result is used as a magnitude (IVIpu) to multiply with sinus block. The
calculation of these two current components is shown in Fig. 2 and Fig. 3. Hence, the
reference signals are calculated to use in the SPWM techniques. PI controller based
and fuzzy controller based control mechanisms of shunt converter are given as
separately in the following graphics.


Fig.4.3. PI Controller based control mechanism


Fig.4.4. Fuzzy Controller based control mechanism

31

4.4 Control Mechanism of Series Converter

The main function of UPFC is actualized by the series converter. It controls
the magnitude and the angle of the voltage injected in series with the line. This
voltage injection is always intended to influence the power flow the line [15]. The
magnitude and the phase angle of series-injected voltage Vinj is calculated by control
mechanism to provide the desired real and reactive power flow in the transmission
line. In the process of doing this, the series inverter will exchange real and reactive
power with the line. The reactive power is electronically provided by the series
inverter and the real power is transmitted to the dc terminals. The control mechanism
of series converter is shown in Fig. 4. In the control mechanism, the receiving-end-
generator voltage transforms into dq0 (Park) transform [17]. The dq0 components of
receiving-end-voltage are multiplied with determined reference value of
active/reactive powers (Pref/Qref). Hence, the signals desired by user RVrecD, Q, 0
are calculated. Then, the phase angle ( ) of transmission line is obtained by using
PLL (phase looked loop). It is used to calculate the reference signals Vreca, b, c_ref.
These signals are transformed into dq0 form. The desired signals are subtracted from
the reference signals and the results are transformed into three phase balanced system
to use in the sinusoidal-pulse-width modulation (SPWM). Thus, the firing angles of
IGBTs (insulated gate bipolar transistors) are produce from the process of SPWM
technique.


Fig.4.5. Control mechanism of Series Converter
32

CHAPTER-5

FUZZY CONTROLLER DESIGN

5.1 Introduction
Uncertainty in the form of ambiguity makes the real world a complex place.
Humans have been able to address this problem of ambiguity with their ability to
think and adapt to an ever changing environment. Because of their inability to think
and adapt, computers and other electronic devices, though designed by human, are not
capable of addressing complex and ambiguous situations [7].
In this section, a brief introduction to Fuzzy Logic Control (FLC) is presented
to show that this powerful and flexible method can be used at different levels of the
hierarchical controller to accomplish the desired control. At this stage, however,
perhaps only the system level coordination is of most interest.

5.2 Fuzzy Logic
The dictionary meaning of the word fuzzy is not clear, indistinct, non
coherent, vague. By contrast, in the technical sense, fuzzy systems are precisely
defined systems, and fuzzy control is a precisely defined method of non-linear
control. The main goal of fuzzy logic is to mimic (and improve on) human-like
reasoning. Fuzzy systems are knowledge-based or rule-based systems [8].
Specifically, the key components of fuzzy systems knowledge base are a set of IF-
THEN rules obtained from human knowledge and expertise. The fuzzy systems are
multi-input-single-output mappings from a real-valued vector to a real-valued scalar.

5.3 Why Fuzzy?
Natural language is one of the most powerful forms of conveying information.
The conventional mathematical methods have not fully tapped this potential of
language. According to Timothy J. Ross [8], scientists have said, the human thinking
process is based primarily on conceptual patterns and mental images rather than on
numerical quantities. So if the problem of making computers with the ability to solve
complex issues has to be solved, the human thought process has to be modeled. The
best way to do this is to use models that attempt to emulate the natural language; the
advent of fuzzy logic has put this power to proper use.
33

Most if not all of the physical processes are non-linear and to model them, a
reasonable amount of approximation is necessary. For simple systems, mathematical
expressions give precise descriptions of the system behavior. For more complicated
systems with significant amounts of data available, model-free methods provide
robust methods to reduce ambiguity and uncertainty in the system. But for complex
systems where not much numerical data exists, fuzzy reasoning furnishes a way to
understand the system behavior by relying on approximate input-output approaches.
The underlying strength of fuzzy logic is that it makes use of linguistic variables
rather than numerical variables to represent imprecise data.

5.4 Fuzzy Systems
The starting point in the construction of a fuzzy system is the forming of a
knowledge-base consisting of IF-THEN rules. These rules are obtained from human
experts based on their respective domain of knowledge and from observations that
they made. Combining these rules into a single system is a natural step forward that
allows us to obtain an output that achieves the assigned goals. Theoretically, based on
rule combination, three types of fuzzy systems exist, which are
a) Pure fuzzy systems;
b) Takagi-Sugeno-Kang fuzzy systems;
c) Fuzzy systems with fuzzifier and defuzzifier.
The basic configurations of each of these systems are shown in Figures 5.1-
5.3. The knowledge base consists of fuzzy IF-THEN rules. The fuzzifier transforms
the realvalued input variables into a fuzzy set and the defuzzifier transforms back
these fuzzy sets into real-valued variable outputs. The system shown in Fig 5.1
incorporates all the essential features of fuzzy systems given by the definition.

Fig. 5.1. Configuration of a pure Fuzzy system.
34

5.5 Fuzzy Sets
The key difference between classical sets and fuzzy sets is that in the former,
the transition for an element in the universe between membership and non-
membership in a given set is abrupt and well defined, that is the element either
belongs or does not belong to the set. By contrast, for elements in fuzzy sets, the
membership can be a gradual one, allowing for the boundaries for fuzzy sets to be
vague and ambiguous.

Fig. 5.2. Configuration of a Takagi-Sugeno-Kang fuzzy system

5.5.1 Membership Function
A fuzzy set is characterized by a membership function whose value ranges
from 0 to 1. It consists of members with varying degrees of membership based on the
values of the membership function. In mathematical terms, the fuzzy set A in the
universe U can be represented as a set of ordered pairs of an element x and its
membership function
A
(x).

Formally we have
A= {(x,
A
(x)) x U} (4.1)

where U is continuous. The reader is referred to [4] and [5] for a detailed description
of the fuzzy sets and the set operations that can be performed on them.
A membership function is a continuous function in the range [0-1]. It is
usually decided from human expertise and observations made and it can be either
linear or nonlinear. Its choice is critical for the performance of the fuzzy logic system
since it determines all the information contained in a fuzzy set.
35


Fig. 5.3. Configuration of a fuzzy system with fuzzifier and defuzzifier.

5.6 Fuzzifier
The fuzzifier is a mapping from the real valued point, x*U, to a
corresponding fuzzy set A U, which is the input to the fuzzy inference engine. The
fuzzifier needs to account for certain criteria while performing this mapping. The first
of these criteria states that the input is a crisp point x*, so that its mapping in U is a
fuzzy set A that has a large membership value. The second criterion states that the
fuzzifier must be able to suppress the noise inherent in real valued inputs. The third
criterion is that the fuzzifier must be able to simplify the computations in the fuzzy
inference engine.

Three types of fuzzifiers have been proposed by [4], which are singleton,
Gaussian, and triangular fuzzifiers. They are defined as follows:

Singleton fuzzifier: This maps a real valued point x*U, with a membership
function
A
(x) into a fuzzy singleton AinU. Specifically we have

Gaussian fuzzifier: This maps a real valued point x*U into a fuzzy set A U with
a membership function given by

Where {ai, i = 1 n} are positive parameters.
36

Triangular fuzzifier: This maps a real valued point x*U into a fuzzy set A U
with a membership function given by

Where {bi, i = 1 n} are positive parameters. Note that all these fuzzifiers satisfy the
first criterion as mentioned above, that is to say they have a large membership value at
the input point.
It can be observed that the singleton fuzzifier simplifies the computations
involved in the fuzzy inference engine for any type of membership functions, while
the other two fuzzifiers simplify the computations if the membership is either
Gaussian or triangular, respectively. On the other hand, the Gaussian and triangular
fuzzifiers can suppress noise while the singleton fuzzifier cannot.

5.7 Defuzzifier
As the name suggests, the defuzzifiers task is the reverse operation to the
fuzzifier. It maps the fuzzy output set, B V, from the fuzzy inference engine to a
realvalued point (crisp point), y*V. In other words, it can be said that the defuzzifier
gives the real point that best describes the fuzzy set B. Naturally, there exist many
choices for choosing this point, but the most suitable point can be determined by
considering certain criteria. The point y* should represent B from an intuitive point of
view; for example it should exhibit a high membership in B. Furthermore, the
defuzzifier has to have computational simplicity; this is particularly important because
most of the fuzzy controllers are usually used in real time. Lastly, the defuzzifier must
have continuity.

5.7.1 Centroid Defuzzifier
The centroid defuzzifier specifies the crisp point y* as the center of the area
covered by the membership function of B. If the membership function is viewed as a
probability density function of a random variable, the centroid defuzzifier gives its
mean value. One inherent disadvantage of this method is that it is computational
intensive.
37

5.7.2 Center Average Defuzzifier
The center average defuzzifier takes the weighted averages of all the fuzzy sets that
are output from the inference engine, where the weight of each set is based on the
height of that particular set to determine the point y*. This is a good approximation
since the fuzzy set B is either a union or an intersection of the inference engines
output. This is the most commonly used defuzzifier in fuzzy systems because of it
computational simplicity and intuitive plausibility.

5.7.3 Maximum Defuzzifier
The maximum defuzzifier chooses y* as the point at which the associated
membership function achieves its maximum value. If more than one point satisfies
this condition, then the maximum, or minimum, or mean of all such points is taken.
While this type of defuzzifier is computationally simple and intuitively plausible, it
lacks continuity wherein a small change in the value of B results in a large change in
y*.

5.8 Fuzzy Rule Base IF-THEN rules.
Fuzzy logic has been centered on the point that it makes use of linguistic
variables as its rule base. Li-Xin Wang [4] said that If a variable can take words in
natural language as its values, it is called linguistic variable, where the words are
characterized by fuzzy sets defined in the universe of discourse in which the variable
is defined.
Examples of these linguistic variables are slow, medium, high, young and thin.
There could be a combination of these variables too, i.e. slow-young horse, a thin
young female. These characteristics are termed atomic terms while their
combinations are called compounded terms. In real world, words are often used to
describe characteristics rather than numerical values. For example, one would say
the car was going very fast rather than say the car was going at 100 miles per
hour.
Terms such as slightly, very, more or less, etc. are called linguistic hedges
since they add extra description to the variables, i.e. very-slow, more or less red,
slightly high, etc.

38

5.9 Description of the Fuzzy Inference Engine
The fuzzy inference engine makes use of the fuzzy logic principles that allow
us to combine the fuzzy IF THEN rules in the rule base. The aim here is to form a
mapping from the fuzzy input set, A , to the fuzzy output set, B . We have seen that a
fuzzy IF-THEN rule is interpreted as a fuzzy relation between the input and output
spaces, U and V, respectively.
When there is only one IF THEN rule, then the mapping is quite easy. The
main difficulty arises when a set of rules have to be interpreted since any practical
fuzzy rule base has more than one rule. There are two ways to draw an inference in
such a scenario with multiple rules, which are the composition-based inference and
the individual rulebased inference. They are described next.

5.9.1 Composition based Inference
In this method, all the rules are combined to form a single fuzzy relation in
UxV, which is then interpreted as a case with a single IF THEN rule. So, the
performance of this method is centered on how this combination is done. A good way
to approach this problem is to first understand what the set of rules mean intuitively
and then, combine them via appropriate logical operators.
There are two opposite arguments to the operators that could be used to
combine the rules. These are the union and the intersection operators. The union
operator is used when the rules are considered to be independent conditional
statements. On the other hand, the intersection operator is used when the rules are
viewed to be strongly coupled.

5.9.2 Individual Rule-Based Inference
In this type of inference, each rule provides a fuzzy set in the output space.
These individual sets are combined to give a single output from the fuzzy inference
engine. As in the case of the composition-based inference, they can be combined via
the union or intersection operators.

5.10 Sugeno-Type Fuzzy Inference
The fuzzy inference process discussed so far is Mamdani's fuzzy inference
method, the most common methodology. This section discusses the so-called Sugeno,
39

or Takagi-Sugeno-Kang, method of fuzzy inference. Introduced in 1985, it is similar
to the Mamdani method in many respects. The first two parts of the fuzzy inference
process, fuzzifying the inputs and applying the fuzzy operator, are exactly the same.
The main difference between Mamdani and Sugeno is that the Sugeno output
membership functions are either linear or constant.

A typical rule in a Sugeno fuzzy model has the form
If Input 1 = x and Input 2 = y, then Output is z = ax + by + c
For a zero-order Sugeno model, the output level z is a constant (a=b =0).
The output level z
i
of each rule is weighted by the firing strength w
i
of the
rule. For example, for an AND rule with Input 1 = x and Input 2 = y, the firing
strength is
W
i
= AndMethod(F
1
x, F
2
y) (4.5)

Where F1, 2 (.) are the membership functions for Inputs 1 and 2.
The final output of the system is the weighted average of all rule outputs, computed as

Final Output =
W
i
Z
i
N
i =1
W
i
N
i =1
(4.6)

Where N is the number of rules.

5.10.1 Comparison of Sugeno and Mamdani Methods
Because it is a more compact and computationally efficient representation than
a Mamdani system, the Sugeno system lends itself to the use of adaptive techniques
for constructing fuzzy models. These adaptive techniques can be used to customize
the membership functions so that the fuzzy system best models the data.

The following are some final considerations about the two different methods
Advantages of the Sugeno Method
It is computationally efficient.
It works well with linear techniques (e.g., PID control).
It works well with optimization and adaptive techniques.
It has guaranteed continuity of the output surface.
It is well suited to mathematical analysis.
40

Advantages of the Mamdani Method
It is intuitive.
It has widespread acceptance.
It is well suited to human input.
5.10.2 Sugeno Controller Design
The inputs to the controller are error and the change in error. The output of the
controller is the control signals. They are used in the generation of switching signals
for converter by comparing with carrier signal.
The Controller design can be takes place in five main steps they are:
1) The input membership functions are given as shown in the figure below.

Fig. 5.4. Input Membership Functions.
41

2) The firing weights of the rules can be taken as shown in the figure below
Fig. 5.5. Initialization of Firing Weights for Rules

3) The Rules can be written as shown in the figure below and this is the
numerator part of the equation 4.6.



Fig. 5.6. Initialization of Rules
42

4) The sum of the all the weights can be taken as follows and this is the
denominator part of the equation 4.6.



Fig. 5.7. Sum of the Weights

5) The output control signal can be given by the equation 4.6 as follows


Fig. 5.8. Output Control Signal

43

CHAPTER-6

MATLAB APPLICATION TO WIND FARM PROJECT
6.1 INTRODUCTION:

Matlab is a high-performance language for technical computing. It integrates
computation, visualization, and programming in an easy-to-use environment where
problems and solutions are expressed in familiar mathematical notation. Typical uses
include Math and computation Algorithm development Data acquisition Modeling,
simulation, and prototyping Data analysis, exploration, and visualization Scientific
and engineering graphics Application development, including graphical user interface
building.
Matlab is an interactive system whose basic data element is an array that does
not require dimensioning. This allows you to solve many technical computing
problems, especially those with matrix and vector formulations, in a fraction of the
time it would take to write a program in a scalar no interactive language such as C or
FORTRAN.
The name matlab stands for matrix laboratory. Matlab was originally written
to provide easy access to matrix software developed by the linpack and eispack
projects. Today, matlab engines incorporate the lapack and blas libraries, embedding
the state of the art in software for matrix computation.
Matlab has evolved over a period of years with input from many users. In
university environments, it is the standard instructional tool for introductory and
advanced courses in mathematics, engineering, and science. In industry, matlab is the
tool of choice for high-productivity research, development, and analysis.
Matlab features a family of add-on application-specific solutions called
toolboxes. Very important to most users of matlab, toolboxes allow you to learn and
apply specialized technology. Toolboxes are comprehensive collections of matlab
functions (M-files) that extend the matlab environment to solve particular classes of
problems. Areas in which toolboxes are available include signal processing, control
systems, neural networks, fuzzy logic, wavelets, simulation, and many others.
The matlab system consists of five main parts:
Development Environment: This is the set of tools and facilities that help
you use matlab functions and files. Many of these tools are graphical user interfaces.
44

It includes the matlab desktop and Command Window, a command history, an editor
and debugger, and browsers for viewing help, the workspace, files, and the search
path.
The matlab Mathematical Function Library. This is a vast collection of
computational algorithms ranging from elementary functions, like sum, sine, cosine,
and complex arithmetic, to more sophisticated functions like matrix inverse, matrix
eigenvalues, Bessel functions, and fast Fourier transforms.
The matlab Language: This is a high-level matrix/array language with
control flow statements, functions, data structures, input/output, and object-oriented
programming features. It allows both "programming in the small" to rapidly create
quick and dirty throw-away programs, and "programming in the large" to create large
and complex application programs.
Matlab has extensive facilities for displaying vectors and matrices as graphs,
as well as annotating and printing these graphs. It includes high-level functions for
two-dimensional and three-dimensional data visualization, image processing,
animation, and presentation graphics. It also includes low-level functions that allow
you to fully customize the appearance of graphics as well as to build complete
graphical user interfaces on your matlab applications.
The matlab Application Program Interface (API): This is a library that
allows you to write C and FORTRAN programs that interact with matlab. It includes
facilities for calling routines from matlab (dynamic linking), calling matlab as a
computational engine, and for reading and writing MAT-files.

6.2 SIMULINK:
6.2.1 Introduction:
Simulink is a software add-on to matlab which is a mathematical tool
developed by The Math works,(http://www.mathworks.com) a company based in
Natick. Matlab is powered by extensive numerical analysis capability. Simulink is a
tool used to visually program a dynamic system (those governed by Differential
equations) and look at results. Any logic circuit, or control system for a dynamic
system can be built by using standard building blocks available in Simulink Libraries.
Various toolboxes for different techniques, such as Fuzzy Logic, Neural Networks,
DSP, Statistics etc. are available with Simulink, which enhance the processing power
45

of the tool. The main advantage is the availability of templates / building blocks,
which avoid the necessity of typing code for small mathematical processes.
Concept of signal and logic flow:
In Simulink, data/information from various blocks is sent to another block by
lines connecting the relevant blocks. Signals can be generated and fed into blocks
dynamic / static).Data can be fed into functions. Data can then be dumped into sinks,
which could be scopes, displays or could be saved to a file. Data can be connected
from one block to another, can be branched, multiplexed etc. In simulation, data is
processed and transferred only at Discrete times, since all computers are discrete
systems. Thus, a simulation time step (otherwise called an integration time step) is
essential, and the selection of that step is determined by the fastest dynamics in the
simulated system.

Fig 6.1 Simulink library browser

Connecting blocks:

Fig 6.2 Connecting blocks
46

To connect blocks, left-click and drag the mouse from the output of one block to the
input of another block.
Sources and sinks:
The sources library contains the sources of data/signals that one would use in a
dynamic system simulation. One may want to use a constant input, a sinusoidal wave,
a step, a repeating sequence such as a pulse train, a ramp etc. One may want to test
disturbance effects, and can use the random signal generator to simulate noise. The
clock may be used to create a time index for plotting purposes. The ground could be
used to connect to any unused port, to avoid warning messages indicating
unconnected ports.
The sinks are blocks where signals are terminated or ultimately used. In most
cases, we would want to store the resulting data in a file, or a matrix of variables. The
data could be displayed or even stored to a file. the stop block could be used to stop
the simulation if the input to that block (the signal being sunk) is non-zero. Figure 3
shows the available blocks in the sources and sinks libraries. Unused signals must be
terminated, to prevent warnings about unconnected signals.

Fig 6.3 Sources and sinks
Continuous and discrete systems:
All dynamic systems can be analyzed as continuous or discrete time systems.
Simulink allows you to represent these systems using transfer functions, integration
blocks, delay blocks etc.
47


Fig 6.4 continous and descrete systems
Non-linear operators:
A main advantage of using tools such as Simulink is the ability to simulate
non-linear systems and arrive at results without having to solve analytically. It is very
difficult to arrive at an analytical solution for a system having non-linearities such as
saturation, signup function, limited slew rates etc. In Simulation, since systems are
analyzed using iterations, non-linearities are not a hindrance. One such could be a
saturation block, to indicate a physical limitation on a parameter, such as a voltage
signal to a motor etc. Manual switches are useful when trying simulations with
different cases. Switches are the logical equivalent of if-then statements in
programming.

Fig 6.5 simulink blocks
Mathematical operations:
Mathematical operators such as products, sum, logical operations such as and,
or, etc.can be programmed along with the signal flow. Matrix multiplication becomes
easy with the matrix gain block. Trigonometric functions such as sin or tan inverse (at
48

an) are also available. Relational operators such as equal to, greater than etc. can
also be used in logic circuits

Fig 6.6 Simulink math blocks
6.2.2 SIGNALS & DATA TRANSFER:
In complicated block diagrams, there may arise the need to transfer data from
one portion to another portion of the block. They may be in different subsystems. That
signal could be dumped into a goto block, which is used to send signals from one
subsystem to another.
Multiplexing helps us remove clutter due to excessive connectors, and makes
matrix (column/row) visualization easier.

Fig 6.7 signals and systems
49

6.2.3 Making subsystems
Drag a subsystem from the Simulink Library Browser and place it in the
parent block where you would like to hide the code. The type of subsystem depends
on the purpose of the block. In general one will use the standard subsystem but other
subsystems can be chosen. For instance, the subsystem can be a triggered block,
which is enabled only when a trigger signal is received.
Open (double click) the subsystem and create input / output PORTS, which
transfer signals into and out of the subsystem. The input and output ports are created
by dragging them from the Sources and Sinks directories respectively. When ports are
created in the subsystem, they automatically create ports on the external (parent)
block. This allows for connecting the appropriate signals from the parent block to the
subsystem.
6.2.4 Setting simulation parameters:
Running a simulation in the computer always requires a numerical technique
to solve a differential equation. The system can be simulated as a continuous system
or a discrete system based on the blocks inside. The simulation start and stop time can
be specified. In case of variable step size, the smallest and largest step size can be
specified. A Fixed step size is recommended and it allows for indexing time to a
precise number of points, thus controlling the size of the data vector. Simulation step
size must be decided based on the dynamics of the system. A thermal process may
warrant a step size of a few seconds, but a DC motor in the system may be quite fast
and may require a step size of a few milliseconds.

50

6.3 Simulink Blocks
6.3.1 Three-Phase Transformer (Two Windings)
Implements three-phase transformer with configurable winding connections.
The Three-Phase Transformer (Two Windings) block implements a three-phase
transformer using three single-phase transformers. You can simulate the saturable
core or not simply by setting the appropriate check box in the parameter menu of the
block



Fig.6.8: Simulink block of Three-Phase Transformer
Specifications:
Table 6.1: Specifications of Three-Phase Transformer
Transformer 1 Transformer 2
Nominal Power
& Frequency
156 MVA, 50Hz Nominal Power
& Frequency
300MVA, 50Hz
Winding 1 parameter
V(ph-ph),R1(pu),L1(pu)
33e3, 0.025/30,
0.025
Winding 1 parameter
V(ph-ph),R1(pu),L1(pu)
150e3,
0.025/30, 0.025
Winding 2 parameter
V(ph-ph),R1(pu),L1(pu)
400, 0.025/30,
0.025
Winding 1 parameter
V(ph-ph),R1(pu),L1(pu)
33e3, 0.025/30,
0.025
Magnetization
Resistance(Rm)
500 Magnetization
Resistance(Rm)
500
Magnetization
Inductance(Lm)
inf Magnetization
Inductance(Lm)
500

6.3.2 Three-Phase Source
Implement three-phase source with internal R-L impedance. The Three-Phase
Source block implements a balanced three-phase voltage source with internal R-L
impedance. The three voltage sources are connected in Y with a neutral connection
that can be internally grounded or made accessible.



Fig.6.9: Simulink block of Three-Phase Source
51

6.3.3 Asynchronous Machine
Model the dynamics of three-phase asynchronous machine, also knownas
induction machine. The Asynchronous Machine block operates in either generator or
motor mode. The mode of operation is dictated by the sign of the mechanical torque:
If Tm is positive, the machine acts as a motor. If Tm is negative, the machine acts as a
generator.



Fig.6.10: Simulink block of Asynchronous Machine
Specifications:
Table 6.2: Specifications of Asynchronous Machine
Nominal power 250 KW
Voltage (line-line) 400 V
Rotor type Squirrel cage
Stator Resistance 0.01379
Stator inductance 0.152 mH
Rotor resistance 0.007728
Rotor inductance 0.152 mH
Mutual inductance 7.69 mH
Inertia 2.9 kg.
2

Friction Factor 0.05658 N-m.s
Pairs of poles 2
Mechanical input Torque

6.3.4 Universal Bridge
Implements universal power converter with selectable topologies and power
electronic devices. The Universal Bridge block implements a universal three-phase
power converter that consists of up to six power switches connected in a bridge
configuration. The type of power switch and converter configuration is selectable
from the dialog box.


Fig.6.11: Simulink block of Universal Bridge
52

Specifications:
Table 6.3: Specifications of Universal Bridge
Rectifier Inverter
Snubber Resistance 100 Snubber Resistance 5000
Snubber Capacitance 0.1e-6 F Snubber Capacitance Inf
Power Electronic Device Diodes Power Electronic Device IGBT/Diodes
Ron 1e-3 Ron 1e-3
Lon 0 H Forward Voltage 0.0 0.0
Forward Voltage 0.8 V Tf(s), Tt(s) 1e-6, 2e-6
Measurements Device Currents Measurements Device
Currents

6.3.5 Wind Turbine
Implements model of variable pitch wind turbine. The model is based on the
steady-state power characteristics of the turbine. The stiffness of the drive train is
infinite and the friction factor and the inertia of the turbine must be combined with
those of the generator coupled to the turbine.



Fig.6.12: Simulink block of Wind Turbine
Specifications:
Table 6.4: Specifications of Wind Turbine
Rotor radius 14.25 m
Rotor swept area 638 m2
Speed (Rated) 39.8 rpm
Cut in wind speed 3.5 m/s
Rated wind speed 14 m/s
Cut off wind speed 23m/s
Gear ratio 40

53

CHAPTER-7

CASE STUDY & RESULTS
7.1 Case Study
In this chapter firstly we have shown the Grid connected Wind Farm with
Static Var Compensator and the respected Simulink diagrams and Waveforms and
then we have shown the Wind connected UPFC Simulink diagrams and Waveforms
and the comparison of the both systems.

7.2 Wind Farm with SVC:
Simulation studies are carried out to verify the improvement in the voltage of
a grid connected wind farm using Fuzzy Logic Controller, when compared to without
Fuzzy Logic Controller. The reactive power compensation is also done by adding the
controller.
For compensating the reactive power and for improving the voltage profile
three types of connections are assumed:
1) Wind farm without grid connection and without controller.
2) Wind farm with grid connection and without controller.
3) Wind farm with grid connection and with controller.
Simulations have been done for the above mentioned three connections. The
simulation diagrams are shown below.
7.3 Simulation Diagrams
Simulation of Wind Farm Connected to Grid:

Fig 7.1. Complete Simulink Diagram of a Wind Farm Connected to grid
54

Simulink representation of Wind Turbine & Asynchronous
Generator


Fig 7.2. Simulink Diagram of a Wind Turbine Connected to Generator

Wind Turbine Simulink Model

Fig 7.3. Simulink Diagram of a Wind Turbine

55

Rectifier and Inverter Model

Fig 7.4. Simulink Diagram of a Rectifier and Inverter block

Grid Connection of Wind Farm

Fig 7.5. Simulink Diagram of Grid Connection
56


Static Var Compensator with Fuzzy Logic Controller

Fig 7.6. Simulink Diagram of Static Var Compensator with Fuzzy Logic
Controller
Static Var Compensator

Fig 7.7. Simulink Diagram of FC-TCR type Static Var Compensator

57

Fuzzy Logic Control
The fuzzy logic controller consists of Fuzzy Inference System Editor. The output of
the controller is crisp value. This Graphical User Interface consists of FIS Editor,
Membership function Editor, Rule Editor, Rule Viewer and Surface Viewer.

FIS editor

Fig.7.8: Fuzzy Inference System Editor

Membership function Editor

Fig.7.9: Membership Function characterizing the Grid Voltage input



Fig.7.10: Membership Function characterizing the Firing angle output
58

Fuzzy Rule Decision Table

Table 7.1.: Fuzzy rule base decision table

Grid Voltage
Change in firing
angle of
TCR(Degrees)
0.968 +20
0.979 +7
0.989 +3.5
1 0
1.009 -3
1.022 -7
Rules

Fig.7.11: Rule Viewer

If (Grid Voltage is 0.968) then (firing angle is +20)
If (Grid Voltage is 0.979) then (firing angle is +7)
If (Grid Voltage is 0.989) then (firing angle is +3.5)
If (Grid Voltage is 1) then (firing angle is 0)
If (Grid Voltage is 1.009) then (firing angle is -3)
If (Grid Voltage is 1.022) then (firing angle is -3)
59

7.4 Simulation Results
Without Grid and without Controller

Fig.7.12: Active and Reactive Power of a wind farm without Grid

The above graph gives the active power and reactive power values when the
wind farm is not connected to the grid. At that time the Reactive power becomes zero
and the active power value is 0.053.
With Grid and without Controller

Fig.7.13: Active and Reactive Power of a wind farm with Grid and without
Controller
60

The above graph gives the active power and reactive power values when the wind
farm is connected to the grid and without controller. At that time the Reactive power
increases to a value of 1.114 and the active power value is 3.586.
With Grid and with Controller

Fig.7.14: Active and Reactive Power of a wind farm with Grid and with
Controller
The above graph gives the active power and reactive power values when the wind farm is
connected to the grid and with controller. With Controller the Reactive power compensates to
zero and the active power value is 4.567.
Grid Voltage Graph


Fig.7.15: Grid Voltage result
61

7.5 Results Observation

In the present work, the design is done using fuzzy logic controller to reduce the
reactive power compensation and to improve the grid voltage. The tabular form below
shows the Active power, Reactive power and Grid voltage conditions for different
connections.
Table 7.2: Comparison of different values
Active Power(p.u) Reactive Power(p.u) Grid Voltage(p.u)
Without Grid 0.053 0 1.03
With Grid without
Controller
3.586 1.114 0.963
With Grid With
Controller
4.567 0 0.9827

By observing the table we can say that the Reactive power is compensated and at
the same time the grid voltage is also improved.

7.6 Wind Connected UPFC:
Simulation studies are carried out to verify the improvement in the voltage sag
of a Wind Connected UPFC based transmission system using Fuzzy Logic Controller,
when compared to with PI controller and without Controller. The reactive power
compensation is also done by adding the controller.
For compensating the reactive power and for improving the voltage sag in a
transmission system three types of connections are assumed:

6) Wind farm without controller.
7) Wind farm with PI controller.
8) Wind farm with Fuzzy Logic controller.
Simulations have been done for the above mentioned three connections. The
simulation diagrams are shown below.



62

7.7 Simulation Diagrams
Simulation of Wind Connected UPFC:

Fig.7.16. Wind Connected UPFC without Controller

Simulation of Wind Connected UPFC with PI Controller:

Fig.7.17. Wind Connected UPFC with PI Controller
63


Simulation of Wind Connected UPFC with PI Controller:

Fig.7.18. Wind Connected UPFC with Fuzzy Controller

Series Controller for Wind Connected UPFC:

Fig.7.19. Series Controller of a Wind Connected UPFC
64

Shunt Controller for Wind Connected UPFC with PI:

Fig.7.20. Shunt Controller of a Wind Connected UPFC with PI

Shunt Controller for Wind Connected UPFC with Fuzzy:

Fig.7.21. Series Controller of a Wind Connected UPFC with Fuzzy

65

Fuzzy Logic Control
The fuzzy logic controller consists of Fuzzy Inference System Editor. The output of
the controller is crisp value. This Graphical User Interface consists of FIS Editor,
Membership function Editor, Rule Editor, Rule Viewer and Surface Viewer.

FIS editor


Fig.7.22: Fuzzy Inference System Editor

Membership function Editor


Fig.7.23: Error and error rate of fuzzy membership functions

66

Fuzzy Rule Decision Table

Table 7.3: Fuzzy rule base decision table


Rules

Fig.7.24: Rule Viewer


67

7.8 Simulation Results
7.8.1 Voltage Sag
Without Controller
The first condition we have taken here is the transmission system
with fault and without controller then the voltage sag at the receiving end is
0.486v. The graph for this is shown below:

Fig.7.25: Voltage Sag of the system without controller
With PI Controller
The Second condition we have taken here is the transmission system
with fault and with PI controller then the voltage sag at the receiving end is
0.9363v. The graph is shown below:

68


Fig.7.26: Voltage Sag of the system with PI controller
With Fuzzy Logic Controller
The Third condition we have taken here is the transmission system
with fault and with Fuzzy controller then the voltage sag at the receiving end
is 0.9943v. The graph is shown below:

Fig.7.27: Voltage Sag of the system with Fuzzy Logic controller
69

7.8.2 Reactive Power
Without Controller

Fig.7.28: Reactive Power of the system without controller

With PI Controller


Fig.7.29: Reactive Power of the system with PI controller
70

With Fuzzy Logic Controller

Fig.7.30: Reactive Power of the system with Fuzzy Logic controller

7.8.3 Comparison

Comparison of voltage magnitude in per unit with UPFC using conventional PI
controller and Fuzzy logic controller is shown in the below table.

Table.7.4: Comparison of PI and FL Controller for UPFC

S.No Conditions Vrms(pu)
drop
Reactive
Power(VAR)

1

Transmission
system with fault

0.486

-315

2

Transmission
system with UPFC
using PI controller


0.9363

-38

3

Transmission
system with UPFC
using Fuzzy Logic
controller


0.9943

-6





71

CHAPTER-8

CONCLUSION

8.1 Conclusion

In this paper, the modeling and simulation of Wind connected UPFC system
has been verified using MATLAB9.0. Under this scheme, it has been observed that
voltage sag and the reactive power will be compensated. The Voltage sag and reactive
power is compensated via the Unified Power Flow Controller. Firing angle of UPFC
thyristors is modified using PI & Fuzzy Logic controllers. From the simulation results
it has been shown that the Fuzzy Logic based UPFC is an effective FACTS device
which can be utilized to improve voltage profile of the system. Accurate control can
be obtained by appropriately selecting the inputs to Fuzzy Logic Controller.

8.2 Future scope
As future work a Neural Networks is applied to different FACTS devices such
as UPFC, DPFC and IPFC for improving the grid voltage and for better results.















72

REFERENCES


1. Jonathan D.Rose and Ian A.Hiskens, Challenges of Integrating Large Amounts
of Wind Power, 1st Annual IEEE systems conference, USA, April 9-12, 2007.
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Sons, 1982.
3. AWEA Electrical guide to utility scale wind turbines, March 2005.
4. N.G.Hingorani and Laszlo gyugyi, Understanding FACTS Concepts and
Technology of FACTS, Standard Publishers Distributors, 2000.
5. Lutfu Saribulut, Mehmet Tumay, and lyas Eker, Performance Analysis of
Fuzzy Logic Based Unified Power Flow Controller, World Academy of Science,
Engineering and Technology 45 2008.
6. E.Uzunovic, C.A.Canizares.J.Reeve, EMTP studies of UPFC Power Oscillation
Damping, North American Symposium(NAPS), San Luis Obispo, California,
October 1999.
7. Chen Chien Lee, Fuzzy Logic in Control Systems: Fuzzy Logic Controller.
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